MECH 207

Advanced Mechatronics I Advanced Mechatronics I

Basic Circuit Elements
Dr. Christopher Kitts
Associate Professor, Santa Clara University
Electric Force
Electrons and protons have charge
e = 1.60 x 10
-19
Coulombs
Electron charge = -e
Proton charge = e
A Coulomb is the SI unit of charge (1 Coulomb = 6.28 x 10
18
x e)
Due to the charge, these particles exert forces on each other
Advanced Mechatronics I Basic Circuit Elements: C. Kitts, Santa Clara University
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Due to the charge, these particles exert forces on each other
Coulombs Law
Where F = electrostatic force
Q
1
= charge of first body
Q
2
= charge of second body
d = distance between bodies
k = 9 x 10
9
Nm
2
/C
2
(vacuum)
Charges with the same sign repel, charges with opposite signs attract
2
2 1
d
Q Q
k F =
Q
1
Q
2
Electric Field
Alternate framework for describing electric forces
Describes electric force on a charged particle independent of the forces source
Other charged particles generally create this field, but use of the field concept
decouples these ideas this often very convenient in practice
Definition of an Electric Field:
The strength of the electric field at a point in space is the amount of
Advanced Mechatronics I Basic Circuit Elements: C. Kitts, Santa Clara University
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The strength of the electric field at a point in space is the amount of
electrostatic force per unit charge that is felt by a charged particle placed at
that point.
Where E=electric field strength (N/C)
F=exerted force
q=strength of particle charge
If q is positive, F and E are in same direction
So, a charged particle in an electric field will feel a force
q
F
E
r
r
=
q E F
r r
=
q
E
r
F
r
The Basics of Current and Voltage
Current Electric fields can cause electrons to flow, creating an electric current.
Current is the time rate of flow of electric charge:
Where i=current (A, amperes)
q=charge (C)
Voltage (Potential Difference) Energy (amount of Work) per unit charge (C);
energy to move a positive unit charge from one point in an Electric field to another
point. Often described as providing an electromotive force (emf).
Circuit A path of electron flow that consists of:
) ( ) ( t q t i
&
=
W Fd
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Circuit A path of electron flow that consists of:
1. a voltage source (to drive a current)
2. a load (assembly of circuit elements)
3. a ground reference (voltage is relative)
Closed, open, short circuits
Conductors vs. insulators
Conventional current vs electron flow
Ideal voltage/current sources
DC (direct current) vs AC (alternating current)
Load
+ +
- -
Current flow
Electron flow
V
q
W
q
Fd
Ed = = =
Conduction (or not)
Conductor: Valence electrons plentiful and free to
move s.t. current flows freely
External influence repels electrons which repels
the next electron, and so on
Generally, good conductors are metals
Insulators: Most materials, electrons so tightly
bound s.t. no current for ordinary voltages
Resistivities are ~20-30 orders of magnitude more
than metals like copper
Courtesy hyperphysics.com
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than metals like copper
Semiconductors: heat frees outer electrons
thereby reducing resistivity
Very interesting properties when doped with
impurities and combined in different ways
Superconductors: Some metals loose all
resistance below a critical temperature
Current decay constant on order of a billion years
Type 1 metals, T
crit
< 10K, Type 2 alloys T
crit
~
10s of K, a few have T
crit
~ 120K Semiconductor and
dopant materials
Superconductor
materials
Kirchhoffs 2 laws provide framework for a significant amount of
circuit analysis and design
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL) the sum of voltage drops across
circuit elements around a closed current path in a circuit is zero
Kirchhoffs Laws
v
v
2
v
+ +
+ -
v
1
v
2
v
3
v
4
= 0
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Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) the sum of all currents flowing into
a circuit node is zero (sum of currents in = sum of currents out)
i
2
i
1
i
3
i
4
i
1
+ i
4
= i
2
+ i
3
v
1
v
4
v
3
_ _
- +
v
1
v
2
v
3
v
4
= 0
Spectrum of Circuit Components
Passive Components Semiconductors
Operational Amplifiers
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Digital Components
Microcontrollers
Resistor Capacitor Inductor
Charge flows through device Charge builds up on both plates Current creates magnetic field
Dissipates energy as heat Stores energy electric field Stores energy magnetic field
V-I (Ohms Law): V-I: V-I:
R = device resistance (ohm, ) C = device capacitance (Farad) I = device inductance (Henry)
Passive Circuit Components
iR v =
Cv q =
dt
dv
C i =
dt
di
L v =
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R = device resistance (ohm, ) C = device capacitance (Farad) I = device inductance (Henry)
= material resistivity = material dielectric =material magnetic permeability
Power: Power: stored in E field Power: stored in M field
A
L
R

=
L=length
A=area
R
v
iv P
2
= =
d
A
C
o
plate

=
d=separation
A=area
l
A N
L
coil
2

=
E
M
N turns
A=area
l =
length
~ k typical
~ F typical
~ H typical
Resistors - Practicalities
A 5
th
band is sometimes used to represent
a) Temp coef, b) 3 sig digit precision value
or c) failure rate #/1000 hrs at max pwr
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Example: Brown-Black-Yellow-Gold
10 x 10
4
= 100K +/- 5%
For surface mount parts, numbers are
often printed on the part, usually 2
sign digits and the x10 exponent
Examples:
0 = 0
220 = 22 x 10
0
= 22
A B
C
A Fundamental View - Resistance
E Field
Electron motion slow
drift in response to E
V
f
V
d
Electrons move at Fermi speed (~10
6
m/s), v
f
, in purely random
directions in between collisions that occur on average at the mean free
path distance, d (~nm)
Given an E field, a small drift velocity, v
d
, is superimposed
The ripple effect of the E Field moves at the speed of light (~10
8
m/s)
as the electrons interact with each other
Considering collisions, the Substituting gives: Material conductivity (inverse of resistivity) is
Advanced Mechatronics I Basic Circuit Elements: C. Kitts, Santa Clara University
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E E
v ne
L V
A I
I
V
A
L
R
d
speed drift * density charge ) (
Field Electric
flux current
) / (
) / ( 1
= =
= = =
= =

f
f d
d
mv
d ne
ed
v mv
nev
2
=
|
|

\
|
=

ed
v mv
E
v
d
eE
v
d
F mv
t F p
f d
f f
d
=
= =
=
Considering collisions, the
change in momentum is mv
d
and occurs over in time
between impacts, t=d/v
f
Substituting gives:
n, v
f
are material
properties
Material conductivity (inverse of resistivity) is
the current flux for a given E Field, and the
current flux can be thought of as charge density
(free electron density * e) moving at v
d
Out of curiosity
How fast do electrons move when current flows?
The impact of electron motion moves on the order of the speed of light, but this
is the wave motion of electrons interacting with each other
How fast does an individual electron actually move (drift) down a wire when
there is a current?
I = Current = charge flowing per unit time
Advanced Mechatronics I Basic Circuit Elements: C. Kitts, Santa Clara University
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sec / 00234 . 0
/
cm v
AQe I v
Qe Av I
d
d
d
=
=
=
I = Current = charge flowing per unit time
I = charge moving across a threshold per unit time
I = amount of charge * speed * area of wire
I = electron charge * density of electrons * speed * area of wire
Copper Wire Example:
I=1A, e=1.6x10
-19
C
Q=8.5x10
22
e/cc
For a 0.1cm radius wire,
A=0.03141 cm
2
A
v
d
A Fundamental View - Capacitance
Q
E
A Q
k
o
= = =
field E
density charge ) / (
+ -
-
+
+
-
-
+
+++++++++++++++++
----------------------------
-
+
-
+
-
+
By definition, permittivity is the charge density for a
given E field. It is typical to rephrase permittivity
as the relative permittivity of the dielectric material
times the permittivity of free space (~9x10
-12
F/m)
Advanced Mechatronics I Basic Circuit Elements: C. Kitts, Santa Clara University
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d
A k
V
Q
C
d V
Q
A k
o
o

= =
=
) / (
With no E field, polar
molecules in dielectric
are distributed in
random orientations
With an E field, polar
molecules orient
themselves, effectively
lowering the E field
This INCREASES the
capacitance, which is
the charge holding
capability at a given
voltage.
Definition of capacitance
(charge per voltage) for a
flat plate.
k~1 for air
k ranges 1-10 for many
common materials
A Fundamental View - Inductance
YOU figure it out
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HINT start from Faradays Law
Series and Parallel Circuits
Series and parallel networks are common
Kirchhoffs Laws allow computation of equivalent properties based on the
consititutive V-I equations for each component
Example of analysis for series resistors
IR IR IR V
V V V V
= + + =
=
IR) (V
(KVL) 0
3 2 1
3 2 1
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Summary of equivalent series / parallel topologies
Resistors
Capacitors
Inductors
series
IR R R R I V
IR IR IR V
= + + =
= + + =
) (
IR) (V
3 2 1
3 2 1

+ + = = K
2 1
R R R R
i series

+ = = K
2 1
1 1 1 1
R R R R
i parallel

+ + = = K
2 1
L L L L
i series

+ + = = K
2 1
C C C C
i parallel

+ = = K
2 1
1 1 1 1
L L L L
i parallel

+ = = K
2 1
1 1 1 1
C C C C
i series
Resistor-based Circuits and Devices
Variable Resistor (Potentiometer)
Mechanically provides a range of resistances
Simple position sensor; Often used as trimpot
Digital potentiometers exist (switching networks)
Voltage divider Bridge Circuit
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Voltage divider Bridge Circuit
Linearly divides (attenuates) input voltage Change in resistance leads to change in voltage
Voltage references, simple sensor processing Used for precision sensing
in out
V
R R
R
V
2 1
2
+
=
in
b a
b a
V
R R R R
R R R R
V
) )( (
2 1
1 2
12
+ +

=
Inductor-based Circuits and Devices
Relays
Electronically controlled switch
Voltage across coil creates magnetic field
Field attracts magnetic switch to open/close circuit
Solenoid Transformer
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Solenoid Transformer
Actuates linear motion Increases / decreases AC voltage level (N
out
/N
in
)
Exciting coil creates magnetic field AC current induces moving B field in one coil
Field exerts force on ferrous plunger This field then induces voltage in the other coil
Passive Component Circuits and Devices
R C L combinations create dynamic circuits (rates of change)
RC example - Basic step response:
Voltage applied, an initial current throttled by resistor is induced across
capacitor, current tapers off as capacitor charge builds up.
KCL gives a basic first order EOM exponential solution
Advanced Mechatronics I Basic Circuit Elements: C. Kitts, Santa Clara University
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c
c in
V C
R
V V
&
=

1
1
+
=
RCs V
V
in
C
(

=
t
RC
in C
e V V
1
1
t=RC sec
for 63% response
Passive Component Circuits and Devices
R C L combinations create dynamic circuits (rates of change)
RC example sinusoidal response:
Recall from previous example that the output voltage tracks the input voltage,
but it takes a little bit of time (t=RC sec to get ~63% there, t=5RC for ~99%)
If the input it slow enough the output tracks
If the input is too fast, the output doesnt settle before the input changes
Advanced Mechatronics I Basic Circuit Elements: C. Kitts, Santa Clara University
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If the input is too fast, the output doesnt settle before the input changes
Low-pass filter: Low frequency signals get through, high frequency signals
are heavily attenuated
w
c
= 1/RC rad/sec
Input
Wave
Output
wave
A*sin(wt)
B*sin(wt+)
Passive Component Circuits and Devices
Complex Impedances, Z
i
: Laplace forms of constitutive
relationships for the passive circuit elements their use allows
passive RLC networks to be solved algebraically
Series Impedance:
Parallel Impedance:
Resistance:
... Z
2 1 Series
+ + = Z Z
...
1 1 1
2 1
+ + =
Z Z Z
Parallel
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Resistance:
Capacitance:
Inductance:
Example: RC voltage divider from previous slide
impedance the is R Z where
R
= = R I V
R R
impedance the is
sC
1
Z where I
sC
1
V ; CV
C C C C
= = = = s
dt
dV
C I
C
C
impedance the is sL Z where
L L
= = = sLI
dt
dI
L V
L
L
|

\
|
+
=
|
|
|
|

\
|
+
=
+
=
1
1
1
1
) (
RCs
V
sC
R
sC
V
Z Z
Z
V V
in in
C R
C
in out
Passive Component Circuits and Devices
R C L applications (also versions with RL and RLC circuits)
Timers: RC rise (or decay) time tunable by choice of RC values
Use with a threshold detector
Filters: low-pass, high-pass, bandpass, notch, bypass capacitors
Allow only the frequencies you want through the filter; varying degrees of filters
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Allow only the frequencies you want through the filter; varying degrees of filters
Differentiators and Integrators
Example: an RC circuits initial rise is approx linear can serve as an integrator
Transducer elements
Resistive transducers - potentiometer, thermistor, strain gauge, photoresistor
Capacitive transducers - position of dielectric, distance of plates
Inductive transducers resolvers, LVDTs (linear variable differential transformer)
RLC Circuit Examples
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Spectrum of Circuit Components
Passive Components Semiconductors
Operational Amplifiers
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Digital Components
Microcontrollers
Solar Cell Theory: Semiconductors
Semiconductor lattice (Silicon example):
Each atom shares 4 electrons within lattice to fill valance band with 8 electrons
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
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Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si
Si Si
Si Si
Si Si
Si Si
Si Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Kitts
Solar Cell Theory: Semiconductors
N-type doped semiconductor creates extra electrons:
Pentavalent atoms (atoms w/5 electrons in valance band, like Antimony) added as impurities
Si Si Si Si Si Sb Si
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Sb
Sb Si Si Si Si Si
Si
Si Si
Si Si
Si
Si Si
Si Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Kitts
Solar Cell Theory: Semiconductors
P-type doped semiconductor creates extra holes:
Trivalent atoms (atoms w/3 electrons in valance band, like Boron) added as impurities
Si Si Si Si Si B Si
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B
B Si Si Si Si Si
Si
Si Si
Si Si
Si
Si Si
Si Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Kitts
Solar Cell Theory: Semiconductors
Create a P-N Junction
Electron diffusion across
junction fills holes
Creates a depletion
region where charge
carriers dont exist
Field in the depletion
P-type doping N-type doping
p-type positive carriers n-type negative carriers
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Extra electron Extra hole
Negative ion Positive ion
Field in the depletion
region inhibits additional
flow of charge
Coulomb forces limit size
of region
Unidirectional flow
Positive bias
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
P-N Junction
Depletion region
- +
Kitts
+ fwd bias
The p-n junction:
Interface of p and n doped semiconductor materials
Depletion region formed, favoring unidirectional current
flow when biased
Diode Transistor MOSFET
Current flows 1-way (V
diode
~0.6V) Base current controls large E-C current Gate voltage controls S-D current
Semiconductor Components
+ fwd bias
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diode
High reverse breakdown (Zener exception) Amplifier (h~100) or saturated switch Amplifier or saturated switch
Single p-n junction Enables power driving w/a control signal No gate current, so great for procs
~0.6V
Ideal
Approx
Real
Zener
Semiconductor Components
Operating regimes of a standard transistor
Cutoff: As V
in
increases from 0 to diode bias of ~0.6V, V
base
= V
in
but no base current or collector current flows
Linear: As V
in
exceeds ~0.6V, V
base
stays at 0.6V (it actually
increases slightly), but increasing I
be
starts to flow from base to
emitter. This causes I
ce
to start flowing from collector to emitter
where I
ce
=I
be
with typically around 100. V
ce
starts to drop given
load current.
Saturation: At some point, transistor becomes saturated s.t. it cant
Advanced Mechatronics I Basic Circuit Elements: C. Kitts, Santa Clara University
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Saturation: At some point, transistor becomes saturated s.t. it cant
maintain linear collector current, I
ce
< I
be
. V
ce
has a characteristic
value at this point, often around 0.2V. The transistor is fully on.
V
in
V
be
V
ce
I
ce
I
be
Cutoff Linear Saturation
0.6
0.2
V
I
What V
in
causes saturation?
@sat, I
c
=(10-0.2)/1kohm=9.8mA
Therefore, I
b
=9.8/100=.098mA
So, (V
in
-.6)/10kohm=.098mA
V
in
= 1.58V
N P N
+ - - +
+ - - +
+ - - +
C E
B
+ - - +
+ - - +
+ - - +
+++ -
+
Diode clipper
Limits output voltage to a specific value
Series or shunt (parallel)
Semiconductor Devices and Circuits
LEDs
Diodes that emit light when biased properly
Photodiodes
Photovoltaic effect: light generates current
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Diode clamp
Shifts waveform without altering shape
Photovoltaic effect: light generates current
Flyback (Inductive) Protection
Inductor shut off, voltage rises: V=Ldi/dt
A bypass diode cures the problem
Courtesy eleinmec.com
Semiconductor Devices and Circuits
Full Wave Rectifier Transistor/FET Switches Phototransistors
Converts AC input to DC output Saturated transistor fully powers load Current flow ~ light level
Positive parts of AC waveform Isolates control from power amplification
Useful power supplies Basic switch:
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Load control:
Sensing: emitter-detector pair
Common-emitter: Communication: optoisolator
Courtesy eleinmec.com