Fertilization

In human reproduction, it is the process by which the male's sperm unites with the female's oocyte, creating a new life. The sex and other biological traits of the new individual are determined by the combined genes and chromosomes that exist in the sperm and oocyte. After injection into the vagina, millions of sperm cells (spermatozoa) make use of their whip like tails to swim through the cervix toward the uterus. Most are destroyed along the way by secretions in the vagina, but some reach the uterus and a few may enter the fallopian tubes. A very small number may survive as long as 48 hours. If during this period only one sperm succeeds in entering a fallopian tube and meeting there an oocyte ready to be fertilized, conception can occur. This event is possible only during a period of about 4 days of the month. After the sperm lodges in the oocyte, the tail disappears, but the head unites with the oocyte to form the zygote.

TODDLERS
When children learn to walk, they are called toddlers. Usually this term is applied to one and two year old children. The toddler stage is very important in a child's life. It is the time between infancy and childhood when a child learns and grows in many ways. Everything that happens to the toddler is meaningful. With each stage or skill the child masters, a new stage begins. This growth is different for each child. Children have their own timetable. During the toddler stage, most children learn to walk, talk, solve problems, relate to others, and more. One major task for the toddler is to learn to be independent. That is why toddlers want to do things for themselves, have their own ideas about how things should happen, and use "NO" many times each day. The toddler stage is characterized by much growth and change, mood swings and some negativity. Toddlers are long on will and short on skill. This is why they are often frustrated and "misbehave." Some adults call the toddler stage "the terrible twos. Usually between 21/2 and three years of age, children begin to take an interest in being toilet trained and by age three they are ready to be known as pre-schoolers. By this age, most children are toilet trained, have developed verbal skills, are continuing to be more independent, and are taking an active interest in the world around them.

One Year Olds

Physical Development - Toddlers may eat less, but they tend to eat frequently throughout the day. They get better at feeding themselves, although spills should still be expected. They may grow less quickly than during infancy. Most walk without support by 14 months. Most walk backward and up steps by 22 months. They can drink from a cup with help. They can scribble. They can stack blocks. Social and Emotional Development - Temper tantrums are common. They have difficulty sharing toys. They may be possessive. They want to do things independently. They cannot remember rules. They show increasing fears. They have rapid mood shifts. Their emotions are usually very intense but short-lived. Routines are very important. They enjoy playing by themselves or beside (not with) other children. They view themselves as the centre of the world. They may continuously ask for their parents. They become increasingly more selfaware. They begin to express new emotions such as jealousy, affection, pride and shame. Intellectual Development - Toddlers name familiar people and objects. Their attention span is short. They are curious. They use "NO" frequently. They point to objects that they want. They name body parts and familiar pictures. They imitate animal sounds. They use pronouns me and mine. They can hold a pencil and scribble. They combine two words to form a basic sentence. They point to objects that they want. They use objects for their intended purpose. They begin to include a second person in pretend play.

Two Year Olds Physical Development - They stand on tip toes. They throw balls and kick them forward. They walk, run, climb, walk up and down stairs alone and dig. They jump with two feet together. They feel discomfort with wet or soiled diapers. They start to show an interest in toilet training. They take things apart and put them back together. They like to screw and unscrew lids. Children are generally more active than at any other point in their lives. Social and Emotional Development - They try to assert themselves by saying "No." They like to imitate the behaviour of adults and others. They want to help with household tasks. They begin to play simple pretend games. Their fantasy play is very short and simple. It does not involve others. They sometimes do the opposite of what is asked. They are generally very selfcentred and sharing is still difficult. They enjoy playing near other children. They refuse to help. They are surer of themselves than one-year-old children. They become frustrated easily and they still need security. Intellectual Development - They express their feelings and wishes. They follow simple directions. They still have a very limited attention span. They use three or more words in combination. They can memorize short rhymes. They use objects to represent other objects. They can join in simple songs. They have trouble making choices, but they want to make choices. They begin to think about doing something before doing it.

Adolescence
Puberty is the time in which a child's sexual and physical characteristics mature. It occurs due to hormone changes. Adolescence is the time between the beginning of sexual maturation (puberty) and adulthood. It is a time of psychological maturation, which a person becomes "adult-like" in behavior. Adolescence is considered to be the period between ages 13 and 19. The adolescent experiences not only physical growth and change, but also emotional, psychological, social, and mental change and growth.

The exact age a child enters puberty depends on a number of different things, such as genes, nutrition, and gender. During puberty, endocrine glands produce hormones that cause body changes and the development of secondary sex characteristics.

In girls, the ovaries begin to increase production of estrogen and other female hormones. In boys, the testicles increase production of testosterone.

The adrenal glands produce hormones that cause increased armpit sweating, body odor, acne, and armpit and pubic hair. This process is called adrenarche. The child will often need an underarm deodorant or antiperspirant during this time.

PUBERTY IN GIRLS

Breast development is the main sign that a girl is entering puberty. The first menstrual period (menarche) usually follows within about 2 years. Before the first menstrual period, a girl will normally have:

An increase in height An increase in hip size Clear or whitish vaginal secretions Pubic, armpit, and leg hair growth

Menstrual cycles occur over about 1 month (28 to 32 days). At first, the menstrual periods may be irregular. A girl may go 2 months between periods, or may have two periods in 1 month. Over time, periods become more regular. Keeping track of when the period occurs and how long it lasts can help predict when the next menstrual period will occur. After menstruation starts, the ovaries begin to produce and release eggs, which have been stored in the ovaries since birth. About every month after menstruation starts, an ovary releases an egg, called an ovum. The egg travels down a Fallopian tube, which connects the ovary to the womb. When the egg reaches the womb, the lining of the womb becomes thick with blood and fluid. This happens so that if the egg is fertilized, it can grow and develop in the lining to produce a baby. (It is important to remember that fertility comes before emotional maturity, and pregnancy can occur before an adolescent is prepared for parenthood.) If the egg does not meet with sperm from a male and is not fertilized, it dissolves. The thickened lining falls off and forms menstrual blood flow, which passes out of the body through the vagina. In between the menstrual periods, there may be a clear or whitish vaginal discharge. This is normal. During or just before each period, the girl may feel moody or emotional, and her body may feel puffy or swollen (bloated). Premenstrual syndrome ( PMS) may begin to develop, especially as the girl gets older. In girls, puberty is usually finished by age 17. Any increases in height after this age is uncommon. Although a girl has reached full physical maturity at this time, her educational and emotional maturity continues to grow.

PUBERTY IN BOYS

The first sign of puberty in boys is enlargement of both testicles. Afterward, boys will normally experience:

Faster growth, especially height Hair growth under the arms, on the face, and in the pubic area Increased shoulder width Growth of the penis, scrotum (with reddening and folding of the skin), and testes Nighttime ejaculations (nocturnal emissions or "wet dreams") Voice changes

The testes constantly produce sperm. Some sperm can be stored in a structure called the epididymis. Sometimes the stored sperm are released as part of the normal process to make room for new sperm. This can occur automatically during sleep (nocturnal emissions) or following masturbation or sexual intercourse. Nocturnal emissions are a normal part of puberty.

Adulthood
It is the period in the human lifespan in which full physical and intellectual maturities have been attained. Adulthood is commonly thought of as beginning at age 20 or 21 years. Middle age, commencing at about 40 years, is followed by old age at about 60 years. Physically, early and middle adulthood are marked by slow, gradual declines in body functioning, which accelerate as old age is reached. The muscle mass continues to increase through the mid-20s, thereafter gradually decreasing. The skeletal mass increases until age 30 or so, and then begins to decrease, first in the central skeleton (pelvis and spine) and last in the peripheral skeleton (fingers and toes). Throughout adulthood there is a progressive deposition of cholesterol in the arteries, and the heart muscle eventually grows weaker even in the absence of detectable disease. The production of both male and female hormones also diminishes with age, though this cannot be directly related to the gradual diminution in sexual activity that occurs in both males and females between 20 and 60. There is clear evidence that with increasing age adults display a slow, very gradual tendency toward decreasing speed of response in the execution of intellectual (and physical) tasks. Slowing rates of electrical activity in the older adult brain have been linked to the slowing of behaviour itself. This decline in the rate of central nervous system processing does not necessarily imply similar changes in learning, memory, or other intellectual functions. The learning capacity of young adults is superior to that of older adults, as is their ability to organize new information in terms of its content or meaning. Older adults, on the other hand, are equal or superior to young adults in their capacity to retain general information and in their accumulated cultural knowledge.