CHAPTER

NUMBER SYSTEMS
19.1 The Decimal System
19.2 The Binary System
19.3 Converting between Binary and Decimal
Integers
Fractions
19.4 Hexadecimal Notation
19.5 Key Terms and Problems

19-1
19-2 CHAPTER 19 / NUMBER SYSTEMS

19.1 THE DECIMAL SYSTEM

In everyday life we use a system based on decimal digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) to

represent numbers and refer to the system as the decimal system. Consider what the
number 83 means. It means eight tens plus three:

83 = (8 * 10) + 3

The number 4728 means four thousands, seven hundreds, two tens, plus eight:

4728 = (4 * 1000) + (7 * 100) + (2 * 10) + 8

The decimal system is said to have a base, or radix, of 10. This means that each
digit in the number is multiplied by 10 raised to a power corresponding to that
digit’s position:

83 = (8 * 101) + (3 * 100)
4728 = (4 * 103) + (7 * 102) + (2 * 101) + (8 * 100)

The same principle holds for decimal fractions but negative powers of 10 are
used. Thus, the decimal fraction 0.256 stands for 2 tenths plus 5 hundredths plus
6 thousandths:

0.256 = (2 * 10-1) + (5 * 10-2) + (6 * 10-3)

A number with both an integer and fractional part has digits raised to both
positive and negative powers of 10:

472.256 = (4 * 102) + (7 * 101) + (2 * 100) + (2 * 10-1) + (5 * 10 - 2) + (6 * 10-3)

In general, for the decimal representation of X = E Á d2d1d0.d-1d-2d-3 Á F, the

value of X is

X = a (di * 10 i) (19.1)
i

19.2 THE BINARY SYSTEM

In the decimal system, 10 different digits are used to represent numbers with a base
of 10. In the binary system, we have only two digits, 1 and 0. Thus, numbers in the bi-
nary system are represented to the base 2.
To avoid confusion, we will sometimes put a subscript on a number to indicate
its base. For example, 8310 and 472810 are numbers represented in decimal notation
or, more briefly, decimal numbers. The digits 1 and 0 in binary notation have the
same meaning as in decimal notation:

02 = 010
12 = 110
 19.3 / CONVERTING BETWEEN BINARY AND DECIMAL 19-3
To represent larger numbers, as with decimal notation, each digit in a binary number
has a value depending on its position:
102 = (1 * 21) + (0 * 20) = 210
112 = (1 * 21) + (1 * 20) = 310
1002 = (1 * 22) + (0 * 21) + (0 * 20) = 410
and so on. Again, fractional values are represented with negative powers of the radix:
1001.101 = 23 + 20 + 2-1 + 2-3 = 9.62510
In general, for the binary representation of Y = E Á b2b1b0.b-1b-2b-3 Á F, the value
of Y is

Y = a (bi * 2i) (19.2)

i

19.3 CONVERTING BETWEEN BINARY AND DECIMAL

It is a simple matter to convert a number from binary notation to decimal notation.

In fact, we showed several examples in the previous subsection. All that is required
is to multiply each binary digit by the appropriate power of 2 and add the results.
To convert from decimal to binary, the integer and fractional parts are handled
separately.

Integers
For the integer part, recall that in binary notation, an integer represented by
bm - 1bm - 2 Á b2b1b0 bi = 0 or 1
has the value
(bm - 1 * 2m - 1) + (bm - 2 * 2m - 2) + Á + (b1 * 21) + b0
Suppose it is required to convert a decimal integer N into binary form. If we
divide N by 2, in the decimal system, and obtain a quotient N1 and a remainder R0,
we may write
N = 2 * N1 + R0 R0 = 0 or 1
Next, we divide the quotient N1 by 2. Assume that the new quotient is N2 and the
new remainder R1. Then
N1 = 2 * N2 + R1 R1 = 0 or 1
so that
N = 2(2N2 + R1) + R0 = (N2 * 22) + (R1 * 21) + R0
If next
N2 = 2N3 + R2
19-4 CHAPTER 19 / NUMBER SYSTEMS

we have

N = (N3 * 23) + (R2 * 22) + (R1 * 21) + R0

Because N 7 N1 7 N2 Á , continuing this sequence will eventually produce a quo-

tient Nm - 1 = 1 (except for the decimal integers 0 and 1, whose binary equivalents
are 0 and 1, respectively) and a remainder Rm - 2, which is 0 or 1. Then

N = (1 * 2m - 1) + (Rm - 2 * 2m - 2) + Á + (R2 * 22) + (R1 * 21) + R0

which is the binary form of N. Hence, we convert from base 10 to base 2 by repeated
divisions by 2. The remainders and the final quotient, 1, give us, in order of increas-
ing significance, the binary digits of N. Figure 19.1 shows two examples.

Quotient Remainder
11 = 5 1
2

5 = 2 1
2

2 = 1 0
2

1 = 0 1
2
10112 = 1110

(a) 1110

Quotient Remainder
21 = 10 1
2

10 = 5 0
2

5 = 2 1
2

2 = 1 0
2

1 = 0 1
2
101012 = 2110

(b) 2110
Figure 19.1 Examples of Converting from
Decimal Notation to Binary Notation for
Integers
 19.4 / HEXADECIMAL NOTATION 19-5

Fractions
For the fractional part, recall that in binary notation, a number with a value between
0 and 1 is represented by
0.b-1b-2b-3 Á bi = 0 or 1
and has the value
(b-1 * 2-1) + (b-2 * 2-2) + (b-3 * 2-3) Á
This can be rewritten as
2-1 * (b-1 + 2-1 * (b-2 + 2-1 * (b-3 + Á
This expression suggests a technique for conversion. Suppose we want to con-
vert the number F (0 6 F 6 1) from decimal to binary notation. We know that F
can be expressed in the form
F = 2-1 * (b-1 + 2-1 * (b-2 + 2-1 * (b-3 + Á
If we multiply F by 2, we obtain,
2 * F = b-1 + 2-1 * (b-2 + 2-1 * (b-3 + Á
From this equation, we see that the integer part of (2 * F), which must be ei-
ther 0 or 1 because 0 6 F 6 1, is simply b-1. So we can say (2 * F) = b-1 + F1,
where 0 6 F1 6 1 and where
F1 = 2-1 * (b-2 + 2-1 * (b-3 + 2-1 * (b-4 + Á
To find b-2, we repeat the process. Therefore, the conversion algorithm involves re-
peated multiplication by 2. At each step, the fractional part of the number from the
previous step is multiplied by 2. The digit to the left of the decimal point in the prod-
uct will be 0 or 1 and contributes to the binary representation, starting with the most
significant digit. The fractional part of the product is used as the multiplicand in the
next step. Figure 19.2 shows two examples.
This process is not necessarily exact; that is, a decimal fraction with a finite
number of digits may require a binary fraction with an infinite number of digits. In
such cases, the conversion algorithm is usually halted after a prespecified number of
steps, depending on the desired accuracy.

19.4 HEXADECIMAL NOTATION

Because of the inherent binary nature of digital computer components, all forms of
data within computers are represented by various binary codes. However, no matter
how convenient the binary system is for computers, it is exceedingly cumbersome
for human beings. Consequently, most computer professionals who must spend time
working with the actual raw data in the computer prefer a more compact notation.
What notation to use? One possibility is the decimal notation. This is certainly
more compact than binary notation, but it is awkward because of the tediousness of
converting between base 2 and base 10.
19-6 CHAPTER 19 / NUMBER SYSTEMS

Product Integer Part 0.1100112

0.81 ! 2 = 1.62 1

0.62 ! 2 = 1.24 1

0.24 ! 2 = 0.48 0

0.48 ! 2 = 0.96 0

0.96 ! 2 = 1.92 1

0.92 ! 2 = 1.84 1

(a) 0.8110 = 0.1100112 (approximately)

Product Integer Part 0.012

0.25 ! 2 = 0.5 0

0.5 ! 2 = 1.0 1

(b) 0.2510 = 0.012 (exactly)

Figure 19.2 Examples of Converting from Decimal

Notation to Binary Notation for Fractions

Instead, a notation known as hexadecimal has been adopted. Binary digits are
grouped into sets of four. Each possible combination of four binary digits is given a
symbol, as follows:

0000 = 0 0100 = 4 1000 = 8 1100 = C

0001 = 1 0101 = 5 1001 = 9 1101 = D
0010 = 2 0110 = 6 1010 = A 1110 = E
0011 = 3 0111 = 7 1011 = B 1111 = F

Because 16 symbols are used, the notation is called hexadecimal, and the 16 symbols
are the hexadecimal digits.
A sequence of hexadecimal digits can be thought of as representing an integer
in base 16 (Table 19.1). Thus,
2C16 = (216 * 161) + (C16 * 160)
= (210 * 161) + (1210 * 160) = 44
Hexadecimal notation is used not only for representing integers. It is also used
as a concise notation for representing any sequence of binary digits, whether they
 19.4 / HEXADECIMAL NOTATION 19-7
Table 19.1 Decimal, Binary, and Hexadecimal

Decimal Binary Hexadecimal

(base 10) (base 2) (base 16)

0 0000 0
1 0001 1
2 0010 2
3 0011 3
4 0100 4
5 0101 5
6 0110 6
7 0111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
10 1010 A
11 1011 B
12 1100 C
13 1101 D
14 1110 E
15 1111 F
16 0001 0000 10
17 0001 0001 11
18 0001 0010 12
31 0001 0000 1F
100 0110 0100 64
255 1111 0000 FF
256 0001 0000 0000 100

represent text, numbers, or some other type of data. The reasons for using hexadeci-
mal notation are
1. It is more compact than binary notation.
2. In most computers, binary data occupy some multiple of 4 bits, and hence some
multiple of a single hexadecimal digit.
3. It is extremely easy to convert between binary and hexadecimal.
As an example of the last point, consider the binary string 110111100001. This
is equivalent to
1101 1110 0001 = DE116
D E 1
This process is performed so naturally that an experienced programmer can
mentally convert visual representations of binary data to their hexadecimal equiva-
lent without written effort
19-8 CHAPTER 19 / NUMBER SYSTEMS

19.5 KEY TERMS AND PROBLEMS

Key Terms

base fraction integer

binary hexadecimal radix
decimal

Problems
19.1 Convert the following binary numbers to their decimal equivalents:
a. 001100 b. 000011 c. 011100 d. 111100 e. 101010
19.2 Convert the following binary numbers to their decimal equivalents:
a. 11100.011 b. 110011.10011 c. 1010101010.1
19.3 Convert the following decimal numbers to their binary equivalents:
a. 64 b. 100 c. 111 d. 145 e. 255
19.4 Convert the following decimal numbers to their binary equivalents:
a. 34.75 b. 25.25 c. 27.1875
19.5 Express the following octal numbers in hexadecimal notation:
a. 12 b. 5655 c. 2550276 d. 76545336 e. 3726755
19.6 Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to their decimal equivalents:
a. C b. 9F c. D52 d. 67E e. ABCD
19.7 Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to their decimal equivalents:
a. F.4 b. D3.E c. 1111.1 d. 888.8 e. EBA.C
19.8 Convert the following decimal numbers to their hexadecimal equivalents:
a. 16 b. 80 c. 2560 d. 3000 e. 62,500
19.9 Convert the following decimal numbers to their hexadecimal equivalents:
a. 204.125 b. 255.875 c. 631.25 d. 10000.00390625
19.10 Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to their binary equivalents:
a. E b. 1C c. A64 d. 1F.C e. 239.4
19.11 Convert the following binary numbers to their hexadecimal equivalents:
a. 1001.1111 b. 110101.011001 c. 10100111.111011
19.12 Prove that every real number with a terminating binary representation (finite num-
ber of digits to the right of the binary point) also has a terminating decimal represen-
tation (finite number of digits to the right of the decimal point).
19.13 Equations (19.1) and (19.2) define the representation of numbers in base 10 and base 2, re-
spectively. In general, for the representation in base g of X = E Á x2x1x0 # x-1x-2x-3 Á F,
the value of X is
X = a (xi * gi)
i

Thus, 65 in base 7 is (6 * 7 ) + (5 * 70) = 47.

1

Count from one to 2010 in the following bases:

a. 8 b. 6 c. 5 d. 3
19.14 Perform the indicated base conversions:
a. 548 to base 5
b. 3124 to base 7
c. 5206 to base 7
d. 122123 to base 9
19.15 What generalizations can you draw about converting a number from one base to a power
of that base, e.g., from base 3 to base 9 (32) or from base 2 to base 4 (22) or base 8 (23)?