Knitting

Knitting is a method by which thread or yarn may be turned into cloth or other fine crafts. Knitted fabric consists of consecutive loops, called stitches. As each row progresses, a new loop is pulled through an existing loop. The active stitches are held on a needle until another loop can be passed through them. This process eventually results in a final product, often a garment. Knitting may be done by hand or by machine. There exist numerous styles and methods of hand knitting. Different yarns and knitting needles may be used to achieve different end products by giving the final piece a different colour, texture, weight, or integrity. Using needles of varying sharpness and thickness as well as different varieties of yarn can also change the effect.

Structure
Like weaving, knitting is a technique for producing a two-dimensional fabric made from a onedimensional yarn or thread. In weaving, threads are always straight, running parallel either lengthwise (warp threads) or crosswise (weft threads). By contrast, the yarn in knitted fabrics follows a meandering path (a course), forming symmetric loops (also called bights) symmetrically above and below the mean path of the yarn. These meandering loops can be stretched easily in different directions, which gives knitting much more elasticity than woven fabrics; depending on the yarn and knitting pattern, knitted garments can stretch as much as 500%. For this reason, knitting was initially developed for garments that must be elastic or stretch in response to the wearer's motions, such as socks and hosiery. For comparison, woven garments stretch mainly along one direction (the bias) and are not very elastic, unless they are woven from stretchable material such as spandex. Knitted garments are often more form-fitting than woven garments, since their elasticity allows them to follow the body's curvature closely; by contrast, curvature is introduced into most woven garments only with sewn darts, flares, gussets and gores, the seams of which lower the elasticity of the woven fabric still further. Extra curvature can be introduced into knitted garments without seams, as in the heel of a sock; the effect of darts, flares, etc. can be obtained with short rows or by increasing or decreasing the number of stitches. Thread used in weaving is usually much finer than the yarn used in knitting, which can give the knitted fabric more bulk and less drape than a woven fabric. If they are not secured, the loops of a knitted course will come undone when their yarn is pulled; this is known as ripping out, unravellingknitting, or humorously, frogging (because you 'rip it', this sounds like a frog croaking: 'rib-bit'). To secure a stitch, at least one new loop is passed through

it. Although the new stitch is itself unsecured ("active" or "live"), it secures the stitch(es) suspended from it. A sequence of stitches in which each stitch is suspended from the next is called a wale. To secure the initial stitches of a knitted fabric, a method forcasting on is used; to secure the final stitches in a wale, one uses a method of binding off. During knitting, the active stitches are secured mechanically, either from individual hooks (in knitting machines) or from a knitting needle or frame in hand-knitting.

Structure of stockinette, a common knitted fabric. The meandering red path defines one course, the path of the yarn through the fabric. The uppermost white loops are unsecured and "active", but they secure the red loops suspended from them. In turn, the red loops secure the white loops just below them, which in turn secure the loops below them, and so on.

Weft and warp knitting

There are two major varieties of knitting: weft knitting and warp knitting.[3] In the more common weft knitting, the wales are perpendicular to the course of the yarn. In warp knitting, the wales and courses run roughly parallel. In weft knitting, the entire fabric may be produced from a single yarn, by adding stitches to each wale in turn, moving across the fabric as in a raster scan. By contrast, in warp knitting, one yarn is required for every wale. Since a typical piece of knitted fabric may have hundreds of wales, warp knitting is typically done by machine, whereas weft knitting is done by both hand and machine. [4] Warp-knitted fabrics such as tricot and milanese are resistant to runs, and are commonly used in lingerie. Weft-knit fabrics may also be knit with multiple yarns, usually to produce interesting color patterns. The two most common approaches are intarsia and stranded colorwork. In intarsia, the yarns are used in well-segregated regions, e.g., a red apple on a field of green; in that case, the yarns are kept on separate spools and only one is knitted at any time. In the more complex stranded approach, two or more yarns alternate repeatedly within one row and all the yarns must be carried along the row, as seen in Fair Isle sweaters. Double knitting can produce two separate

knitted fabrics simultaneously, e.g., two socks; however, the two fabrics are usually integrated into one, giving it great warmth and excellent drape.

Basic pattern of warp knitting. Parallel white, red and green yarns zigzag lengthwise along the fabric, each loop securing a loop of an adjacent strand from the previous row. Thus, the two central wales in this picture are alternating white-red-white and red-green-red stitches.

Knit and purl stitches

In securing the previous stitch in a wale, the next stitch can pass through the previous loop either from below or above. If the former, the stitch is denoted as a knit stitch or a plain stitch; if the latter, as apurl stitch. The two stitches are related in that a knit stitch seen from one side of the fabric appears as a purl stitch on the other side. The two types of stitches have a different visual effect; the knit stitches look like "V"'s stacked vertically, whereas the purl stitches look like a wavy horizontal line across the fabric. Patterns and pictures can be created in knitted fabrics by using knit and purl stitches as "pixels"; however, such pixels are usually rectangular, rather than square, depending on the gauge of the knitting. Individual stitches, or rows of stitches, may be made taller by drawing more yarn into the new loop (anelongated stitch), which is the basis for uneven knitting: a row of tall stitches may alternate with one or more rows of short stitches for an interesting visual effect. Short and tall stitches may also alternate within a row, forming a fish-like oval pattern. In the simplest knitted fabrics, all of the stitches are knit or purl; these fabrics are denoted as stockinette and reverse stockinette, respectively. Vertical stripes (ribbing) are possible by having alternating wales of knit and purl stitches; for example, a common choice is 2x2 ribbing, in which two wales of knit stitches are followed by two wales of purl stitches, etc. Horizontal striping (welting) is also possible, by alternating rows of knit and purl stitches; the simplest of these is garter stitch, so-called because its great elasticity made it well-suited for garters. Checkerboard patterns (basketweave) are also possible, the smallest of which is known as seed stitch: the stitches alternate between knit and purl in every wale and along every row. Fabrics in which the number of knit and purl stitches are not the same, such as stockinette, have a tendency to curl; by contrast, those in which knit and purl stitches are arranged symmetrically (such as ribbing, garter stitch or seed stitch) tend to lie flat and drape well. Wales of purl stitches

have a tendency to recede, whereas those of knit stitches tend to come forward. Thus, the purl wales in ribbing tend to be invisible, since the neighboring knit wales come forward. Conversely, rows of purl stitches tend to form an embossed ridge relative to a row of knit stitches. This is the basis of shadow knitting, in which the appearance of a knitted fabric changes when viewed from different directions.[5] Typically, a new stitch is passed through a single unsecured ("active") loop, thus lengthening that wale by one stitch. However, this need not be so; the new loop may be passed through an already secured stitch lower down on the fabric, or even between secured stitches (a dip stitch). Depending on the distance between where the loop is drawn through the fabric and where it is knitted, dip stitches can produce a subtle stippling or long lines across the surface of the fabric, e.g., the lower leaves of a flower. The new loop may also be passed between two stitches in the present row, thus clustering the intervening stitches; this approach is often used to produce a smocking effect in the fabric. The new loop may also be passed through two or more previous stitches, producing a decrease and merging wales together. The merged stitches need not be from the same row; for example, a tuck can be formed by knitting stitches together from two different rows, producing a raised horizontal welt on the fabric. Not every stitch in a row need be knitted; some may be left as is and knitted on a subsequent row. This is known as slip-stitch knitting.[6]The slipped stitches are naturally longer than the knitted ones. For example, a stitch slipped for one row before knitting would be roughly twice as tall as its knitted counterparts. This can produce interesting visual effects, although the resulting fabric is more rigid, because the slipped stitch "pulls" on its neighbours and is less deformable. Slip-stitch knitting plays an important role in mosaic knitting, an important technique in hand-knitting patterned fabrics; mosaic-knit fabrics tend to be stiffer than patterned fabrics produced by other methods such asFair-Isle knitting. In some cases, a stitch may be deliberately left unsecured by a new stitch and its wale allowed to disassemble. This is known as drop-stitch knitting, and produces a vertical ladder of see-through holes in the fabric, corresponding to where the wale had been.

In the knit stitch on the left, the next (red) loop passes through the previous (white) loop from below, whereas in the purl stitch (right), the next stitch enters from above. Thus, a knit stitch on one side of the fabric appears as a purl stitch on the other, and vice versa.

Fabrics in which the number of knit and purl stitches are not the same, such as stockinette, have a tendency to curl; by contrast, those in which knit and purl stitches are arranged symmetrically (such as ribbing, garter stitch or seed stitch) tend to lie flat and drape well. Wales of purl stitches have a tendency to recede, whereas those of knit stitches tend to come forward. Thus, the purl wales in ribbing tend to be invisible, since the neighboring knit wales come forward. Conversely, rows of purl stitches tend to form an embossed ridge relative to a row of knit stitches. This is the basis of shadow knitting, in which the appearance of a knitted fabric changes when viewed from different directions. Typically, a new stitch is passed through a single unsecured ("active") loop, thus lengthening that wale by one stitch. However, this need not be so; the new loop may be passed through an already secured stitch lower down on the fabric, or even between secured stitches (a dip stitch). Depending on the distance between where the loop is drawn through the fabric and where it is knitted, dip stitches can produce a subtle stippling or long lines across the surface of the fabric, e.g., the lower leaves of a flower. The new loop may also be passed between two stitches in the present row, thus clustering the intervening stitches; this approach is often used to produce a smocking effect in the fabric. The new loop may also be passed through two or more previous stitches, producing a decrease and merging wales together. The merged stitches need not be from the same row; for example, a tuck can be formed by knitting stitches together from two different rows, producing a raised horizontal welt on the fabric. Not every stitch in a row need be knitted; some may be left as is and knitted on a subsequent row. This is known as slip-stitch knitting. The slipped stitches are naturally longer than the knitted ones. For example, a stitch slipped for one row before knitting would be roughly twice as tall as its knitted counterparts. This can produce interesting visual effects, although the resulting fabric is more rigid, because the slipped stitch "pulls" on its neighbors and is less deformable. Slip-stitch knitting plays an important role in mosaic knitting, an important technique in hand-knitting patterned fabrics; mosaic-knit fabrics tend to be stiffer than patterned fabrics produced by other methods such asFair-Isle knitting. In some cases, a stitch may be deliberately left unsecured by a new stitch and its wale allowed disassembling. This is known as drop-stitch knitting, and produces a vertical ladder of seethrough holes in the fabric, corresponding to where the wale had been.

Two courses of red yarn illustrating two basic fabric types. The lower red course is knit into the white row below it and is itself knit on the next row; this produces stockinettestitch. The upper red course is purled into the row below and then is knit, consistent with garter stitch.

Right- and left-plaited stitches

Both knit and purl stitches may be twisted: usually once if at all, but sometimes twice and (very rarely) thrice. When seen from above, the twist can be clockwise (right yarn over left) or counterclockwise (left yarn over right); these are denoted as right- and left-plaited stitches, respectively. Hand-knitters generally produce right-plaited stitches by knitting or purling through the back loops, i.e., passing the needle through the initial stitch in an unusual way, but wrapping the yarn as usual. By contrast, the left-plaited stitch is generally formed by hand-knitters by wrapping the yarn in the opposite way, rather than by any change in the needle. Although they are mirror images in form, right- and left-plaited stitches are functionally equivalent. Both types of plaited stitches give a subtle but interesting visual texture, and tend to draw the fabric inwards, making it stiffer. Plaited stitches are a common method for knitting jewelry from fine metal wire.

Within limits, an arbitrary number of twists may be added to new stitches, whether they be knit or purl. Here, a single twist is illustrated, with left-plaited and right-plaited stitches on the left and right, respectively.

The stitches on the right are right-plaited, whereas the stitches on the left are left-plaited.

Edges and joins between fabrics

The initial and final edges of a knitted fabric are known as the cast-on and bound-off edges. The side edges are known as the selvages; the word derives from "self-edges", meaning that the stitches do not need to be secured by anything else. Many types of selvages have been developed, with different elastic and ornamental properties. Vertical and horizontal edges can be introduced within a knitted fabric, e.g., for button holes, by binding off and re-casting on again (horizontal) or by knitting the fabrics on either side of a vertical edge separately. Two knitted fabrics can be joined by embroidery-based grafting methods, most commonly the Kitchener stitch. New wales can be begun from any of the edges of a knitted fabric; this is known as picking up stitches and is the basis for entrelac, in which the wales run perpendicular to one another in a checkerboard pattern.

llustration of entrelac. The blue and white wales are parallel to each other, but both are perpendicular to the brown and gold wales, resembling basket weaving

Cables, increases, and lace

Ordinarily, stitches are knitted in the same order in every row, and the wales of the fabric run parallel and vertically along the fabric. However, this need not be so. The order in which stitches are knitted may be permuted so that wales cross over one another, forming a cable pattern. Cables patterns tend to draw the fabric together, making it denser and less elastic; Aran sweaters are a common form of knitted cabling. [9] Arbitrarily complex braid patterns can be done in cable knitting, with the proviso that the wales must move ever upwards; it is generally impossible for a wale to move up and then down the fabric. Knitters have developed methods for giving the illusion of a circular wale, such as appear inCeltic knots, but these are inexact approximations. However, such circular wales are possible using Swiss darning, a form of embroidery, or by knitting a tube separately and attaching it to the knitted fabric. A wale can split into two or more wales using increases, most commonly involving a yarn over. Depending on how the increase is done, there is often a hole in the fabric at the point of the increase. This is used to great effect in lace knitting, which consists of making patterns and pictures using such holes, rather than with the stitches themselves. The large and many holes in lacy knitting makes it extremely elastic; for example, some Shetland "wedding-ring" shawls are so fine that they may be drawn through a wedding ring. By combining increases and decreases, it is possible to make the direction of a wale slant away from vertical, even in weft knitting. This is the basis for bias knitting, and can be used for visual effect, similar to the direction of a brush-stroke in oil painting.

Ornamentations and additions

Various point-like ornaments may be added to knitting for their look or to improve the wear of the fabric. Examples include various types of bobbles, sequins and beads. Long loops can also be drawn out and secured, forming a "shaggy" texture to the fabric; this is known as loop knitting. Additional patterns can be made on the surface of the knitted fabric using embroidery; if the embroidery resembles knitting, it is often called Swiss darning. Various closures for the garments, such as frogs and buttons can be added; usually buttonholes are knitted into the garment, rather than cut. Ornamental pieces may also be knitted separately and then attached using applique. For example, differently colored leaves and petals of a flower could be knit separately and applied to form the final picture. Separately knitted tubes can be applied to a knitted fabric to form complex Celtic knots and other patterns that would be difficult to knit.

Unknitted yarns may be worked into knitted fabrics for warmth, as is done in tufting and "weaving" (also known as "couching").

Types
Flat knitting versus circular knitting
Circular knitting (also called "knitting in the round") is a form of knitting that can be used to create a seamless tube. Knitting is worked in rounds (the equivalent of rows in flat knitting) in a helix. Originally, circular knitting was done using a set of four or five double-pointed knitting needles. Later, circular needles were invented. A circular needle resembles two short knitting needles connected by a cable between them. Flat knitting, on the other hand, is used, in its most basic form, to make flat, rectangular pieces of cloth. [11] It is done with two straight knitting needles and is worked in rows, horizontal lines of stitches. A circular knitting needle can also be used to create flat-knitted pieces that are too large for ordinary straight knitting needles, such as afghans and blankets. Circular knitting is employed to create pieces that are circular or tube-shaped, such as hats, socks, mittens, and sleeves. Flat knitting is usually used to knit flat pieces like scarves, blankets, afghans, and the backs and fronts of sweaters. There is also such a thing as finger knitting. Instead of needles, fingers are used to produce a tube of knitted fabric.

Felting
Felting is the hand-knitters' term for fulling, a technique for joining knitted or woven wool fibres. The finished product is put in a hot wash and is agitated until it shrinks. While the knitted project is in the washing machine, it is important to check the progress. Depending on the size of the project, some may felt faster than others. The end result typically has reduced dimensions. Bags, mittens, socks and hats are just a few ideas of items that could be felted.

Needle felting
Needle felting is a technique used to add decoration to a knitted or felted piece, where raw roving is applied using a very sharp barbed felting needle by repeatedly piercing the roving and background together.[12] Once washed in hot water, the appliqued decoration is fused with the background. Felted knitting can be cut with scissors without being concerned about fraying.

Circular knitting on a circular needle

Flat knitting. The loops on the metal needle are the active stitches, and the yarn coming out of the knitting on the right is the working yarn.

Properties of fabrics
The topology of a knitted fabric is relatively complex. Unlike woven fabrics, where strands usually run straight horizontally and vertically, yarn that has been knitted follows a loopy path along its row, as with the red strand in the diagram at left, in which the loops of one row have all been pulled through the loops of the row below it. Because there is no single straight line of yarn anywhere in the pattern, a knitted piece can stretch in all directions. This elasticity is unavailable from woven fabrics, which only stretch along the bias. Many modern stretchy garments, even as they rely on elastic synthetic materials for some stretch, also achieve at least some of their stretch through knitted patterns. The basic knitted fabric (as in the diagram, and usually called a stocking or stockinette pattern) has a definite"right side" and "wrong side". On the right side, the visible portions of the loops are the verticals connecting two rows, arranged in a grid of V shapes. On the wrong side, the ends of the loops are visible, both the tops and bottoms, creating a much more bumpy texture sometimes called reverse stockinette. (Despite being the "wrong side," reverse stockinette is frequently used

as a pattern in its own right.) Because the yarn holding rows together is all on the front, and the yarn holding side-by-side stitches together is all on the back, stockinette fabric has a strong tendency to curl toward the front on the top and bottom, and toward the back on the left and right side. Stitches can be worked from either side, and various patterns are created by mixing regular knit stitches with the "wrong side" stitches, known as purl stitches, either in columns (ribbing), rows (garter, welting), or more complex patterns. Each such fabric has different properties: a garter stitch has much more vertical stretch, while ribbing stretches much more horizontally. Because of their front-back symmetry, these two fabrics have little curl, making them popular as edging, even when their stretch properties are not desired. Different combinations of knit and purl stitches, along with more advanced techniques, generate fabrics of considerably variable consistency, from gauzy to very dense, from highly

Texture
The most common texture for a knitted garment is that generated by the flat stockinette stitchas seen, though very small, in machine-made stockings and T-shirtswhich is worked in the round as nothing but knit stitches, and worked flat as alternating rows of knit and purl. Other simple textures can be made with nothing but knit and purl stitches, including garter stitch, ribbing, and moss and seed stitches. Adding a "slip stitch" (where a loop is passed from one needle to the other) allows for a wide range of textures, including heel and linen stitches, and a number of more complicated patterns. Some more advanced knitting techniques create a surprising variety of complex textures. Combining certain increases, which can create small eyelet holes in the resulting fabric, with assorted decreases is key to creating knitted lace, a very open fabric resembling lace. Changing the order of stitches from one row to the next, usually with the help of a cable needle or stitch holder, is key to cable knitting, producing an endless variety of cables, honeycombs, ropes, and Aran sweater patterning. Entrelac forms a rich checkerboard texture by knitting small squares, picking up their side edges, and knitting more squares to continue the piece. The appearance of a garment is also affected by the weight of the yarn, which describes the thickness of the spun fibre. The thicker the yarn, the more visible and apparent stitches will be; the thinner the yarn, the finer the texture.

Color

Plenty of finished knitting projects never use more than a single color of yarn, but there are many ways to work in multiple colors. Some yarns are dyed to be either variegated (changing color every few stitches in a random fashion) or self-striping (changing every few rows). More complicated techniques permit large fields of color (intarsia, for example), busy small-scale patterns of color (such as Fair Isle), or both (double knitting and slip-stitch color, for example). Yarn with multiple shades of the same hue are called ombre, while a yarn with multiple hues may be known as a given colorway a green, red and yellow yarn might be dubbed the "Parrot Colorway" by its manufacturer, for example. Heathered yarns contain small amounts of fibre of different colours, while tweed yarns may have greater amounts of different colored fibres.

Process
There are many hundreds of different knitting stitches used by knitters. A piece of knitting begins with the process of casting on (also known as "binding on"), which involves the initial creation of the stitches on the needle. Different methods of casting on are used for different effects: one may be stretchy enough for lace, while another provides a decorative edging Provisional cast-ons are used when the knitting will continue in both directions from the cast-on. There are various method employed to "cast on," such as the "thumb method" (also known as "slingshot" or "longtail" cast-ons), where the stitches are created by a series of loops that will, when knitted, give a very loose edge ideal for "picking up stitches" and knitting a border; the "double needle method" (also known as "knit-on" or "cable cast-on"), whereby each loop placed on the needle is then "knitted on," which produces a firmer edge ideal on its own as a border; and many more. The number of active stitches remains the same as when cast on unless stitches are added (an increase) or removed (adecrease). Most Western-style knitters follow either the English style (in which the yarn is held in the right hand) or the Continental style (in which the yarn is held in the left hand). There are also different ways to insert the needle into the stitch. Knitting through the front of a stitch is called Western knitting. Going through the back of a stitch is called Eastern knitting. A third method, called combination knitting, goes through the front of a knit stitch and the back of a purl stitch. Once the knitted piece is finished, the remaining live stitches are "cast off". Casting (or "binding") off loops the stitches across each other so they can be removed from the needle without unravelling the item. Although the mechanics are different from casting on, there is a similar variety of methods.

In knitting certain articles of clothing, especially larger ones like sweaters, the final knitted garment will be made of several knitted pieces, with individual sections of the garment knit separately and then sewn together. Seamless knitting, where a whole garment is knit as a single piece, is also possible. Elizabeth Zimmermann is probably the best-known proponent of seamless or circular knitting techniques. Smaller items, such as socks and hats, are usually knit in one piece on double-pointed needles or circular needles.

Materials
Yarn
Yarn for hand-knitting is usually sold as balls or skeins (hanks), although it may also be wound on spools or cones. Skeins and balls are generally sold with a yarn-band, a label that describes the yarn's weight, length, dye lot, fiber content, washing instructions, suggested needle size, likelygauge, etc. It is common practice to save the yarn band for future reference, especially if additional skeins must be purchased. Knitters generally ensure that the yarn for a project comes from a single dye lot. The dye lot specifies a group of skeins that were dyed together and thus have precisely the same color; skeins from different dye-lots, even if very similar in color, are usually slightly different and may produce a visible stripe when knitted together. If a knitter buys insufficient yarn of a single dye lot to complete a project, additional skeins of the same dye lot can sometimes be obtained from other yarn stores or online. Otherwise, knitters can alternate skeins every few rows to help the dye lots blend together easier. The thickness or weight of the yarn is a significant factor in determining the gauge, i.e., how many stitches and rows are required to cover a given area for a given stitch pattern. Thicker yarns generally require thicker knitting needles, whereas thinner yarns may be knit with thick or thin needles. Hence, thicker yarns generally require fewer stitches, and therefore less time, to knit up a given garment. Patterns and motifs are coarser with thicker yarns; thicker yarns produce bold visual effects, whereas thinner yarns are best for refined patterns. Yarns are grouped by thickness into six categories: superfine, fine, light, medium, bulky and superbulky; quantitatively, thickness is measured by the number of wraps per inch (WPI). The related weight per unit length is usually measured in tex or dernier

A hank of wool yarn (center) is uncoiled into its basic loop. A tie is visible at the left; after untying, the hank may be wound into a ball or balls suitable for knitting. Knitting from a normal hank directly is likely to tangle the yarn, producing snarls.

Before knitting, the knitter will typically transform a hank into a ball where the yarn emerges from the center of the ball; this making the knitting easier by preventing the yarn from becoming easily tangled. This transformation may be done by hand, or with a device known as a ballwinder. When knitting, some knitters enclose their balls in jars to keep them clean and untangled with other yarns; the free yarn passes through a small hole in the jar-lid. A yarn's usefulness for a knitting project is judged by several factors, such as its loft (its ability to trap air), itsresilience (elasticity under tension), its washability and colorfastness, its hand (its feel, particularly softness vs. scratchiness), its durability against abrasion, its resistance to pilling, its hairiness (fuzziness), its tendency to twist or untwist, its overall weight and drape, its blocking and felting qualities, its comfort (breathability, moisture absorption, wicking properties) and of course its look, which includes its color, sheen, smoothness and ornamental features. Other factors include allergenicity; speed of drying; resistance to chemicals, moths, and mildew; melting point and flammability; retention of static electricity; and the propensity to become stained and to accept dyes. Different factors may be more significant than others for different knitting projects, so there is no one "best" yarn. The resilience and propensity to (un)twist are general properties that affect the ease of hand-knitting. More resilient yarns are more forgiving of irregularities in tension; highly twisted yarns are sometimes difficult to knit, whereas untwisting yarns can lead to split stitches, in which not all of the yarn is knitted into a stitch. A key factor in knitting is stitch definition, corresponding to how well complicated stitch patterns can be seen when made from a given yarn. Smooth, highly spun yarns are best for showing off stitch patterns; at the other extreme, very fuzzy yarns or eyelash yarns have poor stitch definition, and any complicated stitch pattern would be invisible

The two possible twists of yarn

Although knitting may be done with ribbons, metal wire or more exotic filaments, most yarns are made byspinning fibers. In spinning, the fibers are twisted so that the yarn resists breaking under tension; the twisting may be done in either direction, resulting in an Z-twist or S-twist yarn. If the fibers are first aligned by combing them, the yarn is smoother and called a worsted; by contrast, if the fibers are carded but not combed, the yarn is fuzzier and called woolen-spun. The fibers making up a yarn may be continuousfilament fibers such as silk and many synthetics, or they may be staples (fibers of an average length, typically a few inches); naturally filament fibers are sometimes cut up into staples before spinning. The strength of the spun yarn against breaking is determined by the amount of twist, the length of the fibers and the thickness of the yarn. In general, yarns become stronger with more twist (also called worst), longer fibers and thicker yarns (more fibers); for example, thinner yarns require more twist than do thicker yarns to resist breaking under tension. The thickness of the yarn may vary along its length; a slub is a much thicker section in which a mass of fibers is incorporated into the yarn. The spun fibers are generally divided into animal fibers, plant and synthetic fibers. These fiber types are chemically different, corresponding to proteins, carbohydrates and synthetic polymers, respectively. Animal fibers include silk, but generally are long hairs of animals such as sheep (wool), goat (angora,or cashmere goat), rabbit (angora), llama, alpaca, dog, cat, camel, yak, and muskox (qiviut). Plants used for fibers include cotton, flax (for linen), bamboo,ramie, hemp, jute, nettle, raffia, yucca, coconut husk, bana na trees, soy and corn. Rayon and acetate fibers are also produced from cellulosemainly derived from trees. Common synthetic fibers include acrylics,[22] polyesters such as dacron and ingeo, nylon and other polyamides, and olefins such as polypropylene. Of these types, wool is generally favored for knitting, chiefly owing to its superior elasticity, warmth and (sometimes) felting; however, wool is generally less convenient to clean and some people are allergic to it. It is also common to blend different fibers in the yarn, e.g., 85% alpaca and 15% silk. Even within a type of fiber, there can be great variety in the length and thickness of the fibers; for example, Merino wool and Egyptian cotton are favored because they produce exceptionally long, thin (fine) fibers for their type. A single spun yarn may be knitted as is, or braided or plied with another. In plying, two or more yarns are spun together, almost always in the opposite sense from which they were spun individually; for example, two Z-twist yarns are usually plied with an S-twist. The opposing twist relieves some of the yarns' tendency to curl up and produces a thicker, balanced yarn. Plied yarns may themselves be plied together, producing cabled yarns or multi-stranded yarns.

Sometimes, the yarns being plied are fed at different rates, so that one yarn loops around the other, as in boucl. The single yarns may be dyed separately before plying, or afterwards to give the yarn a uniform look. The dyeing of yarns is a complex art. Yarns need not be dyed; or they may be dyed one color, or a great variety of colors. Dyeing may be done industrially, by hand or even hand-painted onto the yarn. A great variety of synthetic dyes have been developed since the synthesis of indigo dye in the mid-19th century; however, natural dyes are also possible, although they are generally less brilliant. The color-scheme of a yarn is sometimes called its colorway. Variegated yarns can produce interesting visual effects, such as diagonal stripes; conversely, a variegated yarn may frustrate an otherwise good knitting pattern by producing distasteful color combination.

In lace knitting, the pattern is formed by making small, stable holes in the fabric, generally with yarn overs.

Finger knitting
Finger knitting is a simple form of knitting in which yarn is knitted into a shorter but thicker twine. As its name suggests, the knitting only uses the hands during the entire process .

Uses
Finger knitting has been used to prepare to teach the children how to knit traditionally, with needles. It shows the child that knitting involves a series of loops strung together, which helps in their future understanding of knitting. Because of its simple execution, it is ideal for this purpose, as its concept can be grasped even by small children, and continued without aid. Finger knitting has also been practiced on airplanes that prohibit knitting needles. Finger knitting improves handeye coordination.

YARN STYLES 1. Boucl

Boucl is a kind of novelty yarn. It is a yarn with a length of loops of similar size which can range from tiny circlets to large curls. [1] To make boucl, at least two strands are combined, with the tension on one strand being much looser than the other as it is being plied, with the loose strand forming the loops and the other strand as the anchor. Boucl can also refer to the fabric made from this type of yarn, especially fabric that maintains the loopy appearance.

Machine spinning
In machine spinning boucl can be created in a single step, using a hollow spindle. It is made by differing the feed rate of the effect yarn with respect to the core yarns. The core yarns are wrapped around the effect yarn either loosely or tightly, depending on the difference in feed rates and amount of twist used. The regularity of the loops is controlled by varying the distance between the point where the core yarns come together and the guide. By increasing the distance, the boucl becomes more irregular.

Eyelash yarn
Eyelash yarn is a type of novelty yarn. It appears as a thread base, with several long strands spaced at even intervals that jut out at an angle from the main strand. The long strands, or hair, can be metallic, opalescent, matte, or a combination of types. The hair can be curly or straight and can sometimes be two different lengths. Prominent types are composed of 100% polyester with a straight and relatively short hair. Because of its thinness, eyelash is normally carried along with another, plainer yarn to add visual interest to the primary yarn. The texture and composition of such yarns have been explored by many companies, and there are innumerable variations of eyelash yarns, such as pigtail or ponytail, which have a thicker base and what appear to be flags tied onto the base strand at even intervals, or fur, in which the base has a more frequently-occurring or thicker grouping of hairlike strands which, in the finished fabric, will be hairy and have the general aspect of faux fur.

Some of the drawbacks of these yarns are that they tend to have poor stitch definition because the hairs obscure the appearance of the base, and they are not flattering to curvy figures as they add bulk to a garment, so they are mostly used for accessories such as scarves or as garment trim. Some companies have even created eyelash yarn that can be used for decorative purposes for events, such as holidays or other celebrations, by combining metal-look lurex with a polyester core which mimics a tinsel effect. The obvious advantage is that metal-look eyelash yarn is far more durable than typical tinsel and can be put away and used again for annual celebrations.

Novelty yarns
Novelty yarns are yarns with an interesting texture or other notably unusual features that distinguish them from ordinary yarn like cotton and wool. Typically these involve at least one or two strands of regular yarn twisted together with something else to make an interesting texture, and are frequently made from synthetics such as nylon, but can also be composed of natural fibers. Very often, novelty yarns will involve frequent color change. Most often these will be obtained through the print process, in which a fiber will have different colors through a dyeing process. Sometimes the color will come through the sequence in which different colors are spun together. In some yarns the same process is used, but at the same time the color repeats are long enough to enable a self-striping feature. If the proper number of stitches is cast, then stripes will appear as the yarn is knitted into a garment. Sock yarn companies have evidently taken a great interest in self striping yarn. Such yarns have a wide array of different effects that can be obtained by knitting the yarn in the round over the number of stitches normally cast for a sock.

Variegated yarn
Variegated yarn is yarn dyed with more than one colour. It can produce effects that vary depending on the technique of the crafter, the pattern used, and the frequency of colour change. These effects include "flashing" (lightning-bolt effects) and "pooling" (patchy or marbleized effects). Some yarns (known as "self-striping yarns") are designed to produce stripes when used to knit small items such as socks or mittens. KNITTING STYLES

Warp knitting

Warp knitting is a family of knitting methods in which the yarn zigzags along the length of the fabric, i.e., following adjacent columns ("wales") of knitting, rather than a single row ("course"). For comparison, knitting across the width of the fabric is called weft knitting. Since warp knitting requires that the number of separate strands of yarn ("ends") equals the number of stitches in a row, warp knitting is almost always done by machine, not by hand.

Types
Warp knitting comprises several types of knitted fabrics, including tricot,raschel knits,

and milanese knits. All warp-knit fabrics are resistant to runs and relatively easy to sew. Tricot is very common in lingerie. Milanese is stronger, more stable, smoother and more expensive than tricot and, hence, is used in better lingerie. Milanese is now virtually obsolete. Raschel knits do not stretch significantly and are often bulky; consequently, they are often used as an unlined material for coats, jackets, straight skirts and dresses. The largest outlet for the Raschel Warp Knitting Machine is for lace fabric and trimmings.

Circular knitting

Knitting using a circular needle

Circular knitting or knitting in the round is a form of knitting that creates a seamless tube. When knitting circularly, the knitting is cast on and the circle of stitches is joined. Knitting is worked in rounds (the equivalent of rows in flat knitting) in a spiral.[1] Originally, circular knitting was done using a set of four or five double-pointed needles. Later, circular needles were invented, which can also be used to knit in the round: the circular needle looks like two short knitting needles connected by a cable between them. Longer circular needles can be used to produce narrow tubes of knitting for socks, mittens, and other items using the Magic Loop technique. Machines also produce circular knitting; double bed machines can be set up to knit on

the front bed in one direction then the back bed on the return, creating a knitted tube.
[2]

Specialized knitting machines for sock-knitting use individual latch-hook needles to make each

stitch in a round frame.[3] Many types of sweaters are traditionally knit in the round. Planned openings (arm holes, necks, cardigan fronts) are temporarily knitted with extra stitches, reinforced if necessary. Then the extra stitches are cut to create the opening, and are stitched with a sewing machine to prevent unraveling.[4] This technique is called steeking.

Combined knitting
Combined knitting or combination knitting is a style that combines elements of Easternstyle knitting with the Western techniques. By wrapping the yarn the opposite way while purling, the knitter changes the orientation of the resulting loops; then the next row's knit stitches can be formed by inserting the needle from the right (as in Eastern knitting), rather than from the left. The needle is always inserted from the right, whether knitting or purling. This technique is suitable for all knitted fabrics from the basic Stockinette stitch, to any other style, such asFair Isle, circular knitting, or lace knitting. The basic adaptation necessary is to substitute "ssk" when directed to "k 2 tog", and vice versa, to orient the slant of the decrease correctly. Most American and European knitting patterns are currently not written to accommodate the needs of Combined knitters. The responsibility rests with the individual knitter to have gained sufficient working knowledge of the changes necessary to convert pattern elements before attempting the entire project, in order for the design to be knitted successfully. Knitting instructors unfamiliar with this technique will encounter difficulties teaching classes with students using this technique. Proper terminology is essential in assisting teachers to provide adequate instruction to these students. Teachers should familiarize themselves with the works of Annie Modesitt and Anna Zilboorg, among others. Other basic knitting techniques include English knitting (or "right-hand" knitting) and Continental knitting (or "left-hand" knitting).

Continental knitting
Knitting with the yarn in one's left hand is commonly referred to as Continental knitting, German knitting, European knitting, or left-hand knitting. Unlike English knitting, the yarn is held in the left hand; the motion of bringing the yarn forward with a needle held in the other hand is thus sometimes known as picking. Continental knitting is preferred by professional hand-knitters, as it is the more efficient method, requiring the shortest number of specific hand-motions per stitch.

Continental-style knitting, being associated with Germany, fell out of favour in English-speaking countries during World War II; its reintroduction in the United States is often credited to Elizabeth Zimmerman.

Hand motions
The motion of the right wrist is used to slip the right needle into the loop of the stitch being knitted and 'scoop' or 'hook' the yarn onto the right needle. An alternative method of collecting the yarn involves using the thumb or index finger of the right hand to hold the yarn in place as the new stitch is being pulled out of the loop. This knitting style is often easier to learn for people with crocheting experience, since the way the yarn is held in the left hand is similar to crochet, and the motion of the right hand is similar to the motion seen in crochet, although the knitting needle is held under the palm of the hand. One major difference in the motion of the right wrist is that in crochet the needle may be held more like a pencil; this method of holding the knitting needle like a pencil was briefly made popular around 1900 under the guise of being more ladylike. Nowadays, however, the majority of knitters hold both needles under the palm

Yarn tension
The tension in the yarn is controlled by threading the yarn through the fingers of the left hand. Typically, the yarn is looped around the little finger and over the index finger.

English knitting
English knitting, also known as right-hand knitting or throwing, is a style of

Western knitting where the yarn to be knit into the fabric is carried in the right hand. This style is prevalent throughout the English-speaking world, though it is by no means universal.

Other Western knitting styles include continental knitting (also known as "left-hand knitting") and combined knitting. Despite the names, choice of knitting style has little to do with the handedness of the knitter; plenty of left-handed individuals use the English style, and plenty of right-handed knitters use Continental. Various non-Western styles also exist, many of which are substantially similar to these, but which twist each stitch, making for a subtly different-looking fabric.

Technique
Here, we assume that there are already stitches on the needles, having been cast on previously. The yarn is wrapped around the right hand for tension (in one method, the tail of the yarn is wrapped around the little finger of the right hand for tension, and over the index finger for control -- see illustration). The right hand will hold the needle with the most recently-knit stitches. (If at the beginning of a row, the right hand will hold the empty needle.) The left hand holds the other needle.

The knit stitch

If the yarn is sitting in front of the right needle (closer to the knitter), it should first be moved between the needles to the back. We will make one knit stitch into the first loop on the left needle. The right needle is inserted into the left side of that loop. To see what is happening, we can use the two needles to hold that loop wide open: it is through this loop that we will pull the new stitch. The yarn is wrapped counter-clockwise (as you look down at it; see photo) around the right needle, and this new loop is pulled with the right needle through the old one. The stitch is now complete. To prepare for the next stitch, we now withdraw the left needle from the just-completed stitch.

Flat knitting
Flat knitting is a method for producing knitted fabrics in which the work is turned periodically, i.e., the fabric is knitted from alternating sides. The two sides (or "faces") of the fabric are usually designated as the right side (the side that faces outwards, towards the viewer and away from the wearer's body) and the wrong side(the side that faces inwards, away from the viewer and towards the wearer's body). Flat knitting is usually contrasted with circular knitting, in which the fabric is always knitted from the same side. Flat knitting can complicate knitting somewhat compared to circular knitting, since the same stitch (as seen from the right side) is produced by two different movements when knitted from the right and wrong sides. Thus, a knit stitch (as seen from the right side) may be produced by a knit stitch on the right side, or by a purl stitch on the wrong side. This may cause

the gauge of the knitting to vary in alternating rows of stockinette fabrics; however, this effect is usually not noticeable, and may be eliminated with practice (the usual way) or by using needles of two different sizes (an unusual way). In flat knitting, the fabric is usually turned after every row. However, in some versions of double knitting with two yarns and double-pointed knitting needles, the fabric may turned after every second row. In Industrial Knitting applications, the terms "Flat" and "Circular" have very different meanings to those given above. A "Flat" or Vee Bed knitting machine consists of 2 flat needle beds arranged in an upside-down "V" formation. These needle beds can be up to 2.5 metres wide. A carriage, also known as a Cambox or Head, moves backwards and forwards across these needle beds, working the needles to selectively, knit, tuck or transfer stitches. A flat knitting machine is very flexible, allowing complex stitch designs, shaped knitting and precise width adjustment. It is, however relatively slow when compared to a circular machine. The two largest manufacturers of industrial flat knitting machines are Stoll of Germany, and Shima Seiki of Japan. But the pionear of flat knitting machine is MATSUYA, Japan.

A scarf knitted using flat knitting on single pointed needles

STITCHES
Decrease (knitting)
A decrease in knitting is a reduction in the number of stitches, usually accomplished by suspending the stitch to be decreased from another existing stitch or by knitting it together with another stitch.

Methods of Single Decreasing (knitting)

When more than one stitch is suspended from a stitch, they can hang in different orders. For example, the first stitch could be on top of the second stitch (when seen from the right side) or the reverse, leaning to the left or the right. The order of stitches is important, both for appearance and for the way it pulls the fabric. K2tog ("knit two together") -- Work to the two stitches to be decreased, insert the righthand needle into the first two stitches as if to knit, wrap yarn around needle in normal manner, slip the two stitches off together and drop them. This creates a right-leaning decrease. SSK ("slip, slip, knit") -- Work to the two stitches to be decreased, slip two stitches one at a time to the right-hand needle, as if to knit; insert the left-hand needle into the two stitches from front to back, knit the two stitches together and drop them. This creates a left-leaning decrease. S1, K1, PSSO ("slip one, knit one, pass slipped stitch over") -- This results in a similar look to the SSK but can appear less tidy. Work to the two stitches to be decreased, slip next stitch to the right-hand needle as if to knit, knit next stitch, pass slipped stitch over knit stitch. Also creates a left-leaning decrease. K2tog tbl ("knit two together through the back loops") -- This looks similar to the SSK or S1, K, PSSO, but is faster to work. Work to the two stitches to be decreased, then insert the right hand needle into the backs of the next two stitches (i.e. behind the left-hand needle, such that the two needles are anti-parallel in the stitches). Wrap the yarn normally and slip the two stitches off the left needle. This makes a left-leaning decrease.

Methods of Double Decreasing (knitting)

Sometimes a double decrease is made, in which three stitches are suspended from a single stitch. This allows for six possible stitch orders: 123, 132, 213, 231, 312 and 321. Here, the first number is the topmost stitch, and the last number is the bottommost stitch. Thus, 213 means that the second stitch is uppermost (as seen from the right side), followed by the first, then third stitches. The uppermost stitch is most important; there is not much visual difference between 213 and 231. The simplest double decreases are k3tog and p3tog, which both slant to the right. An attractively symmetric double decrease is 213, which can be done as follows: slip stitches 1 and 2 knitwise simultaneously, knit stitch 3, then pass the slipped stitches over the just-knitted stitch.

Relation to binding off Binding off is effectively a series of adjacent decreases. The simplest binding off method is to pass each knitted loop over the loop next to it. The final loop is secured by passing the knitting yarn through it, so it is best to start at the point furthest from the knitting yarn. This makes a tight edge, in contrast to other binding off methods that have a tendency to flare out. This method also does not require that the knitting yarn be nearby, so it can be done at any time or position, e.g., to form button holes. The next simplest binding off is successive k2tog or p2tog stitches, or their counterparts k2tog tbl and p2tog tbl. In all these cases, the knitted stitch is returned to the left needle, to be combined with the following stitch. Dip stitch (knitting) In knitting, a dip stitch is made by knitting into a stitch (or even the space between stitches) of an earlier row. The most common type of dip stitch is to knit into the row below, which may be used for visual effect or to increase the number of stitches (a lifted increase). Knitting into the row below and dropping the stitch above is a quick alternative to brioche knitting, which is normally done by knitting together a yarn over and a slip stitch. Longer dip stitches can be made for visual effects; they draw a narrow V-shaped pair of yarns from any earlier to any later point in the knitting. Popular motifs made with dip stitches include flowers, flower-stem leaves and fans. Elongated stitch (knitting) In knitting, an elongated stitch is a stitch that is longer than others. It may be created by wrapping the yarn around the right-hand needle two or more times, or by placing yarn overs between stitches and dropping them on the next row. Increase (knitting)
In knitting, an increase is the creation of one or more new stitches, which may be done by various methods with distinctive looks.

Methods of Single Increasing (knitting)

Yarn-over increase or "eyelet increase" -- The simplest increase is to do a yarnover between two existing stitches. On subsequent rows, the yarn-over will be knitted, making

a new stitch. This disadvantage of this method is that a small hole ( eyelet) is produced at the yarn-over. This can be improved by twisting the yarn-over stitch - similar to a "make one" (below). Raised Increase -- Lift the strand connecting two knitted stitches in the row below onto the left needle (effectively producing a yarn-over) and knit it, either normally or twisted. This method (especially if twisted) leaves almost no hole, since forming the yarn-over stitch from the (presumably tight) connecting strand draws the two neighboring stitches together. Bar increase -- Knit the stitch normally but without transferring the knitted stitch to the right needle; the same stitch is then knitted through the back loop. (Knitting through the front loop again is not feasible, since it would undo the first stitch.) This increase makes a bar or a nub on the fabric. Moss increase -- Knit the stitch normally but without transferring the knitted stitch to the right needle; the same stitch is then purled. This increase makes a bar or nub on the fabric. Lifted Increase -- For a right-side increase, knit into the right leg of the stitch of the row below the next stitch to be knit, then knit the next stitch. For a left-side increase, knit one stitch, then knit into the left leg of the stitch of the row below it. This kind of increase can be visually subtle. "Make One" (M1) -- Place a half-hitch loop on the needle between two stitches, either before or after, and twisted either left or right, depending on desired effect. Column of Increases -- A second strand of yarn or roving is passed up the piece. The second strand is used to make an extra stitch in each row by knitting a doubled stitch up from the lower row. The resulting piece has one more stitch in each row and each row is in the shape of an inverted V. The column of increases is used to make square sweater yokes. Finally, a large number of increases in a row is best done by casting on; examples include buttonholes, etc.

Role in fabric shaping The typical use for increases and decreases is to taper a flat piece of knitted fabric, e.g., in widening the sleeve of a sweater from the wrist to the biceps. However, increases and decreases can also be used to produce curvature, i.e., to make the knitted fabric cup

(positive curvature) or frill (negative curvature); in woven fabrics, this curvature is produced with darts, flares and gussets. A great advantage of knitted fabrics is that they can be shaped nearly invisibly without seams or cutting (as woven fabrics must) with increases, decreases, and/or short rows.