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HydrocarbonProcessing.com | MAY 2013

MAINTENANCE
AND RELIABILITY
Advances in monitoring/repair
methods and new equipment
designs increase unit availability
SAFETY
Investigation determines root
cause for flare header failure
PETROCHEMICAL
DEVELOPMENTS
More efficient energy usage
increases profitability
for olefins production
Select 56 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS Select 56 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Better performance, less downtime, better proftability everyone approves of that.
Call 1-866-335-3369 or visit sentron.ca to begin your trial.
Petro-Canada is a Suncor Energy business
TM
Trademark of Suncor Energy Inc. Used under licence.
SENTRON
TM
LD 5000
Field Tested. Field Proven.
Select 76 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Cover Image: Eastern Petrochemical Co. (SHARQ), a joint venture between SABIC and a Japanese consortium headed by Mitsubishi, is a world-scale polyethylene (PE)
complex. The facility produces 800,000 tpy of high-density PE (HDPE) and linear-low-density PE (LLDPE), in addition to the extrusion and automatic bagging and palletizing
lines. Linde Engineering Dresden GmbH fulfilled the construction contract for both PE processing operations (HDPE and LLDPE ), reactors and extrusion lines. Photo courtesy
of Linde Engineering Dresden GmbH, Dresden, Germany.
MAY 2013|Volume 92 Number 5
HydrocarbonProcessing.com
SPECIAL REPORT: MAINTENANCE AND RELIABILITY
39 Avoid hidden costs of suction-specific speed in pumping
J. Bailey and S. Bradshaw
43 Rerating rotating equipment optimizes olefins plant performance
D. Renard
49 Maximize steam unit performance with precise torque monitoring
T. Mayne, M. Ellul and D. Phillips
53 Investigate power limitations in a large steam turbine
N. Ghaisas
57 Seal safety may require going beyond typical standards
S. Shaw
61 Prevent methane hydrate formation in natural gas valves
A. Glaun and J. Shahda
69 Consider both actual and virtual spare parts inventory
H. P. Bloch
75 Improve design for pump suction nozzles
M. G. Choudhury, A. Kulkarni and D. Koranga
BONUS REPORT: PETROCHEMICAL DEVELOPMENTS
79 Consider novel CGC and front-end depropanizer system
for olefins production
J. Fu, C. Zhao and Q. Xu
85 Enhance operation and reliability of dividing-wall columns
J. Shin, J. Lee, S. Lee, B. Lee and M. Lee
TERMINALS AND STORAGESUPPLEMENT
92 Overflow systems are the last line of defense
M. Toghraei
94 Terminals and storage news
REFINING DEVELOPMENTS
99 Optimize vacuum ejector operations
T. Temur, M. Haktanir, F. Uzman, M. Karakaya and A. K. Avci
SAFETY/LOSS PREVENTION
105 Flare header failure: An investigation
J. Tharakan
HP ONLINE EXCLUSIVE
Innovations
DEPARTMENTS
4 Industry Perspectives
8 Brief
11 Impact
17 Associations
110 Marketplace
113 Advertiser index
COLUMNS
21 Reliability
Manage your time
constructively
25 Integration Strategies
Asset information
management improves life
cycle benefits for equipment
29 Boxscore Construction
Analysis
Jurong IslandAsias
preemptive LNG trading hub?
35 Viewpoint
Consider integral-gear
compressors in CO
2
services
114 Engineering Case Histories
Case 72: Interaction between
disciplines when
troubleshooting
78
38
4MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
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Industry Perspectives
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EDITORIAL
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US-based ultra-low-sulfur
gasoline rule released
In late March, the US Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) released the long-awaited ruling for ultra-low-sulfur
gasoline, also known as the Tier 3 rule. This proposed rule
lowers the sulfur content of gasoline by 60% from the present
level of 30 ppm to 10 ppm by 2017. The goal of Tier 3 is to
prevent 2,400 premature deaths per year and 23,000 cases of
respiratory ailments in children, all totaling $8 billion and $23
billion in health-related benefits. It supports efforts by states to
reduce harmful levels of smog and soot sourced from vehicle
emissions. The new gasoline sulfur rule has support from state
governors, public health groups, environmentalists and the
auto industry.
The US Tier 3 rule follows a similar 10-ppm specification
set by the European Unions Euro V enacted in 2009. EPA con-
tends that the refining industry can achieve these quality speci-
fications with available technologies and at reasonable costs.
Counterpoint. The American Petroleum Institute (API) and
the American Fuel and Petrochemical Manufacturers (AFPM)
offer different opinions. EPAs proposed Tier 3 fuel regulations
could raise refiners costs, provide little or no environmental ben-
efit, and actually increase carbon emissions, according to API.
There is a tsunami of federal regulations coming out of the
EPA that could put upward pressure on gasoline prices. EPAs
proposed fuel regulations are the latest example. Consumers
care about the price of fuel, and our government should not be
adding unnecessary regulations that raise manufacturing costs,
especially when there are no proven environmental benefits. We
should not pile on new regulations when existing regulations are
working, said to API Downstream Director, Bob Greco.
According to API, EPAs Tier 3 proposal would increase the
cost of gasoline production by up to 9/gal based on an analysis
by the energy consulting firm, Baker & OBrien. If EPA adds
a vapor-pressure reduction requirement in a separate regula-
tion, it would push the cost increase up to 25/gal, according
to Baker & OBrien.
Tier 3 rulemaking that targets trace amounts of sulfur in
gasoline is not worth the direct threat to our domestic fuel sup-
ply, consumer cost at the pump and American jobs, accord-
ing to AFPM President Charles T. Drevna. US refiners have
already spent billions of dollars to achieve a 90% reduction in
sulfur levels, but Tier 3 will require another $10 billion in new
infrastructure and another $2.4 billion/yr in operating costs.
Balance. Tier 3 specifications will increase greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions to produce the 10-ppm sulfur gasoline. The
goal of Tier 3 is to improve air quality. Yet, the path to Tier 3
will generate more GHGs to process crude oil into ultra-low-
sulfur transportation fuels.
An expanded version of Industry Perspectives can
be found online at HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
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innovate/customize/educate
Select 93 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
NEW DELHI, INDIA | 911 JULY
Program Print Sponsor:
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THE AUTHORI TY ON ENERGY
Petrochemical Track Sponsor:
IRPC 2013: At The Forefront of New
Technology and Operations Advancements
at Reneries and Petrochemical Plants
Join your peers and leaders from the HPI industry in a high-level discussion and look at the
latest advances in technology and operations at reneries and petrochemical plants.
This year, advancements in technology and operations will be explored, including the unique
opportunities found in greater renery and petrochemical integration. During the two days
of technical sessions, well-respected industry speakers will give case studies, examples and
insight into technology and trends that are revolutionizing the HPI.
Agenda Highlights Include:
View the full list of speakers and the complete
conference agenda online at HPIRPC.com
TRACK 1 HIGHLIGHTS:
REFINING
TRACK 2 HIGHLIGHTS:
PETROCHEMICALS
Prot Improvement Program in KNPC Reneries - Abbas Shamash,
Kuwait National Petroleum Company
Optimization of Olen Plants - Vera Varaprasad,
Indian Oil Corporation Limited
Challenges in Design and Engineering of High Pressure
Hydrotreaters and Avenues for Energy Optimization - Mr. K.
Sudhaker, L&T Chiyoda Ltd.
Case Study: Design, Development, and Deployment of Energy
Management System (ISO-50001:2011) at an Integrated
Petrochemicals Complex - Mayur Talati, Reliance Industries Ltd.
Petrobras ULSD Revamps - Silvio Jose Vieira Machado, Petrobras Challenges and Emission Reduction in Integrating Reneries
and Petrochemical Plants, Romel Bhullar, Fluor Corporation;
Anil Rajguru and Les Antafy, Fluor Enterprises
KEYNOTE SPEAKER:
R.K. Ghosh, Director (Reneries), Indian Oil
Corporation Limited (Reneries Division)
KEYNOTE SPEAKER:
Dr. Ajit Sapre, Group President, Research
and Technology, Reliance Technology Group
V
co
HPIRPC.com
8:30-9:15 a.m. CONTINENTAL BREAKFAST
9:15-9:30 a.m. OPENING REMARKS: Stephany Romanow, Editor, Hydrocarbon Processing
KEYNOTE SPEAKERS 9:30-10:45 a.m. Dr. Ajit Sapre, Group President, Research and Technology, Reliance Technology Group; ExxonMobil Singapore (invited)
10:45-11 a.m. COFFEE BREAK
TRACK 1 - REFINING
TRACK 2 - PETROCHEMICALS
11 a.m.-1 p.m. SESSION 7 Session Chair: K.Venkataramanan, CEO and Managing Director, Larsen Toubro SESSION 8 Session Chair: John Baric, Licensing Technology Manager, Shell Global
Solutions International B.V.
Petrobras ULSD Revamps - Silvio Jose Vieira Machado, Petrobras Phyrophoric Hazard of Catalyst Handling in Rening and Petrochemical
Industry - Renato Benintendi, Foster Wheeler
Advanced Techniques for Enhancing Hydrogen Availability - Sanjiv Ratan,
Technip Stone & Webster Process Technology Economic Catalysis Solution for Acetylene and MAPD Selective
Hydrogenation - Shankhaneel Borah, Sud Chemie India Limited,
a Clariant Group Company
Improve Protability by Flexibility Hydrocracking Technologies - Li Hui Ng -
CRI/Criterian Marketing Asia Pacic Pte. LTD Extending the Performance of Maximum Propylene Catalyst and Additives
- Vipan Goel, W.R. Grace
Recovery of Valuables from Renery Of Gases to Increase Prot
Margins - Siddartha Murkerjee, Air Liquide Global E&C Solutions
Indiate Private Limited Comparative Study of Conventional Petrochemicals (Ethylene Glycol) With the
Bio Based (Bio-Ethylene Glycol) Production with the Application of Life Cycle
Methodology and Foot Printing Tools - Sharma Rajeev Kumar, India Glycols Limited
1-2 p.m. LUNCH 2:00 - 2:30 COFFEE & DESSERTS - EXHIBIT HALL TRACK 1 - REFINING
TRACK 2 - PETROCHEMICALS
2:30-4:30 p.m. SESSION 9 Session Chair: B.K. Namdeo, Executive Director-International Trade
& Supplies, Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited
SESSION 10 Session Chair: Chakrapany Manoharan, Director-Renery, Essar Oil, Ltd.
Energy Consumption Update in Amuay Renery of Paraguan Rening
Center (CRP) - Daniel Reyes, PDVSA EDC Pyrolysis Furnace Radiant Section Tube Failure-Case Study
- Mr. K. Ramesh, Reliance Industries
Prot Improvement Program in KNPC Reneries - Abbas Shamash, Kuwait
National Petroleum Company
Temperature Dependent Catalysts: Optimizing Performance and ROI
with Advanced Temperature Measurement Systems - Walter Tijmes,
Daily Thermetrics Corporation
A Study of Mechanical Failure of Spent Acid Regeneration Combustion
Chamber - S. Saha, ENGG DIV. RPTL (JEC). Reliance Refinery, Jamnagar, India
Controlling Corrosion in Process Refrigeration Systems and Gas Compression
Packages - Amey Majgaonkar, Kirloskar Pneumatic Co. Ltd.
Renery Operation: The Same Tool Optimizes Both Mid Term Planning
& Scheduling Aurelio Ferrucci, PROMETHEUS S.r.l. Best Practices for Mitigation of Corrosion in Hydrocarbon Processing Industry
- K. Sudhakar, L&T Chiyoda Limited
4:30-5 p.m. AFTERNOON BREAK TRACK 1 - REFINING
TRACK 2 - PETROCHEMICAL
5-6:30 p.m. SESSION 11 Session Chair: Stephany Romanow, Editor, Hydrocarbon Processing SESSION 12 Session Chair: A.K. Purwaha, Chairman and Managing Director,
Engineers India, Ltd.
Analysis of FCC Reactor Cyclone Flow - Narasimhamurthy Bontu,
Reliance Industries, Ltd.
Virtual Reality as Effective Tool for Training Field Operators and Making
Decisions: Experiment Results - Alessandro Altamura, Technip Italy S.p.A.
Sour Water Stripper Units with High Cyanides Contents - Vikas Kapoor,
Fluor Daniel India Pvt. Ltd.
E-Learning and Universal Simulation for Competency Development -
Mr. Santosh Joshi , GSE EnVision
Coke Drum Unheading - Elango Narendran, DeltaValve
Regaining Operating Excellence Through Enhanced Training
- Michael A. Taube, S&D Consulting LLC
6:30-8 p.m. CLOSING RECEPTION
IRPC 2013 Agenda Day 2 | Thursday, 11 July FAST OPENING REMARKS: Stephany Romano KEYNOTE SPEAKERS 9:30-10:45 a.m. Dr. Ajit Sapre, Group President, Research and Technolog EE BREAK
K 1 - REFINING
N 7
K K.Ven nkatar aramanan, n, CEO and Managing Directo
Revamps - Silvio Jose Vieira Machado, Petro
ues for Enhancing Hydrogen Availability - ebs bsterr Proc ocess Techn hnology
by Flexibility Hydrocracking Technologies g AAsia PPaci ic Pte. LT TD rom Renery Of Gases to Increase Prot kerjee, Air L Liquide GGlobal E&C Solutions
RTS - EXHIBIT HALL G
utiv ive D Directo tor-Intern rnational Trade orp pora ration n Limited ay Renery of Paraguan Rening
Reneries - Abbas Shamash, Kuwai
Regeneration Combustion eliaance e Refinnery, Jammnagar, India s Both Mid Term Planning S.r S.r.l.
T
bon on Pro rocess ssing S
Ses
Eng Bontu, Virtu
Decis Vikas Kapoor, E-Lear
Mr. San
Regainin - Michae
HPIRPC.com
8:30-9:15 a.m. CONTINENTAL BREAKFAST
9:15-9:30 a.m. OPENING REMARKS: John Royall, President and CEO, Gulf Publishing Company
9:30-10:45 a.m. KEYNOTE SPEAKERS
R.K. Ghosh, Director (Reneries), Indian Oil Corporation Limited (Reneries Division)
Future Challenges and Opportunities for Rening in Asia - Suresh Sivanandam, Wood Mackenzie
10:45-11 a.m. COFFEE BREAK
TRACK 1 - REFINING
TRACK 2 - PETROCHEMICALS
11 a.m.-1 p.m. SESSION 1
Session Chair: Syamal Poddar, President, Poddar and Associates
SESSION 2
Session Chair: Eric Benazzi, Marketing Director, Axens
Diesel from Waste Plastics: Use in Vehicles - SK Singal, CSIR-Indian Institute
of Petroleum
Catalytic Olens Technology Enhances Olens Producers Flexibility
and Economics - Sourabh Mukherjee, KBR
Liquid Fuel from Coal New Horizons - Atul Choudhari, Aker Powergas
PvtLtd, Mumbai
Optimization of Olen Plants - Vera Varaprasad,
Indian Oil Corporation Limited
Hydroprocessed Diesel Produced as Byproduct of Bio-Jet Fuel Process:
A Superior Fuel in IC Engines - M.O. Garg, CSIR-Indian Institute
of Petroleum
Maximizing pX Production Through Optimizing the Phenyl-methyl Group
- Joseph C. Gentry, GTC Technologies US LLC
Minimizing Impact on Carbon Footprint while Processing Opportunity
Crudes - Tanmay Taraphdar, Technip KT India Limited
Polymer Process Developments and Second Generation Metallocene
Catalysis - Dr. Howard Paul, P.E., SK E&C USA, Inc.
1-2 p.m. LUNCH
2-2:30 p.m. COFFEE & DESSERTS - EXHIBIT HALL
TRACK 1 - REFINING
TRACK 2 - PETROCHEMICALS
2:30-4:30 p.m. SESSION 3
Session Chair: P.P. Upadhya, Managing Director, MRPL
SESSION 4
Session Chair: Giacomo Fossataro, General Manager, Walter Tosto S.p.A
Axens Solutions for Middle Distillate Hydroprocessing: A Focus on Revamping
and New Catalyst Technology - Stefania Archambeau, Axens
Challenges and Emission Reduction in Integrating Reneries and
Petrochemical Plants, Romel Bhullar, Fluor Corporation; Anil Rajguru and
Les Antafy, Fluor Enterprises
Implementation of an Integrated Refinery Complex Production
Reconciliation: Benefits and Challenges - Srinivas Badithela, HMEL
Economics-Refinery/Petrochemical Integration - Sanjiv Singh, Panipat
Refinery and Petrochemical Complex, Indian Oil Corporation Limited
Effect of Reliability on Return of Invested Capital ROIC
- Logan Anjaneyulu, Valero
Dynamic Simulation: An Efcient Tool for Verifying Plant Integrity and
Control System Design - Sheo Raj Singh, Engineers India Limited
Challenges in Design and Engineering of High Pressure Hydro Treaters and
Avenues for Energy Optimization - Mr. K. Sudhaker, L&T Chiyoda Ltd.
Optimum Isolation Valve Sealing on Black Powder-Generated Gas Processing
- Omar Al Amri, Saudi Aramco
4:30-5 p.m. AFTERNOON BREAK
TRACK 1 - REFINING
TRACK 2 - PETROCHEMICALS
5-6:30 p.m. SESSION 5
Session Chair: A.S. Basu, Managing Director, Chennai Petroleum Corporation Ltd.
SESSION 6
Session Chair: Carlos Cabrera, Executive Chairman, Ivanhoe Energy
New Solutions from Eco-friendly Gasoline Production - Adarsh Tripathi,
RRT Global
Maximizing Operational Efficiency and Safety by the Use of a Digital Plant -
Sloane Whiteley, AVEVA
Overcoming Pressure Drop Limitations in Hydroprocessing Reactors -
Mahendranadh Desu, Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd.
Case Study: Design, Development and Deployment of Energy Management
System (ISO-50001 : 2011) at an Integrated Petrochemicals Complex - Mayur
Talati, Reliance Industries Ltd.
Optimum Renery for Changing Feed and Product Demands - Samir
Saxena, KBR
Computational Fluid Dynamics as an Emerging Tool to Improve the Reliability
of the Plant Operations - S. Sathish Kumaran, Technip KT India Limited
6:30-8 p.m. CLOSING RECEPTION - Exhibit Hall
IRPC 2013 Agenda Day 1 | Wednesday, 10 July
NEW DELHI, INDIA | 911 JULY
EARLY BIRD
SPECIAL
Register by 31 May
to Save!
Supported by:
Register at HPIRPC.com by 31 May
to SAVE UP TO 20%
Take part in this innovative, industry-leading forum. Register today and benet from:
More than 40 technical sessions given by speakers representing companies like Indian Oil Corporation Limited, Valero,
Saudi Aramco, Hindustan Petroleum Company, Reliance Renery, PDVSA, Technip and more
Join international HPI professionals from around the world, representing operators, reneries and petrochemical plants
like BP plc, Chevron Lummus Global LLP, ConocoPhillips Ltd, eni, ExxonMobil Research & Engineering Company, Linde
Gas, Lukoil and Total
Ample networking opportunities between sessions allow you to connect with old and new business contacts
Explore and learn more about the latest developments in operations and technology
Get a local and global perspective on the rening and petrochemicals industries
Conference registration includes:
Pre-conference tour of Indian Oils Panipat Renery & Petrochemicals Complex (9 July 2013)*
Two-day conference program (10-11 July 2013) including keynote addresses, general presentations
and panel discussions
Breakfasts, lunches and refreshment breaks
Access to exhibition oor throughout conference activity
*Renery tour registration is offered on a rst-come, rst-served basis. Space is limited.
2013 Conference Fees:
Early Bird Fee (by 31 May) Regular Fee
Individual $945 $1,045
Team of Two $1,700 $1,875
Group of Five $4,250 $4,700
For more information about IRPC 2013, please contact Melissa Smith,
Events Director, Gulf Publishing Company, at +1 (713) 520-4475
or [email protected].
* IRPC 2013 is currently the
only rening and petrochemical
event that will be held in India
during 2013. Attendees will have
the opportunity to take part in
ane exclusive tour of Indian Oils
Panipat Renery & Petrochemicals
Complex, located 23 kilometers
from Panipat and approximately
100 kilometers from New Delhi.
Since its original construction, the
Panipat renery has undergone
numerous upgrades and unit
additions, to arrive at its current
capacity of 15 MMtpy.

|
Brief
Centrica signs long-term North American
LNG export contract with Cheniere
Centrica has an agreement with Cheniere Energy Partners to purchase 89
billion cubic feet of annual liquefied natural gas (LNG) volumes for export
from Chenieres Sabine Pass liquefaction plant in Louisiana. This amounts to
approximately 1.75 MM metric tpy, and is the equivalent of the annual gas
demand of around 1.8 MM UK homes. The contract is for an initial 20-year
period, with the option for a 10-year extension, and the target date for first
commercial delivery is September 2018. Under the terms of the agreement,
Centrica will purchase LNG on a free on board (FOB) basis, giving it destination
rights for the cargoes, for a purchase price indexed to the Henry Hub natural
gas price plus a fixed component. Centrica will export gas from the fifth LNG
train at Sabine Pass, on which preliminary engineering work has already begun.
Upon receiving news of the agreement, UK Prime Minister David Cameron said,
I warmly welcome this commercial agreement between Centrica and Cheniere.
Future gas supplies from the US will help diversify our energy mix and provide
British consumers with a new long-term, secure and affordable source of fuel.
The natural gas Killingholme Power Station, located in North Lincolnshire, UK,
will start using LNG from the US Gulf Coast sometime in 2019.
Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 20139
BILLY THINNES, TECHNICAL EDITOR / [email protected]
Brief
The Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS) of
the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
has signed an agreement with Indias Oil Industry Safety
Directorate (OISD). The agreement calls for the groups to
cooperate in advancing the practice of process safety in the
petroleum sector in India and around the world. The signing
ceremony took place in March during a CCPS workshop on
recognizing hazardous incident warning signs in Goa, India.
The agreement broadens the sharing of lessons learned from
process safety incidents, and includes information on the latest
developments in the practice of process safety.
At the request of the National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST), representatives from the
Automation Federation participated in the first NIST meeting
for developing a US cyber security program, as requested by
US President Barack Obama. The meeting was held at the
US Department of Commerce in Washington, DC. It is an
important step in establishing the cyber security framework
within President Obamas executive order announced in
his State of the Union address to confront the growing
threat of cyberattacks on the US critical infrastructure. The
framework will include standards, methodologies, procedures
and processes that align policy, business and technological
approaches to address cyber risks, and help owners and
operators of critical infrastructure identify, assess and manage
cyber risk. The next NIST cyber security framework meeting
is scheduled for May 29 at Carnegie Mellon University in
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
US-based oil and gas industry professionals are the
sixth best rewarded in the world, according to a
global salary guide produced annually by Hays Oil and Gas
and Oil and Gas Job Search. The guide reveals that industry
professionals working in the US earn an average of $121,400
per year. This is slightly behind Canada at $123,000 per year.
Australia is now the oil and gas pay leader, with an average
industry salary of $163,600 per year. Expat industry workers are
enjoying the highest levels of pay in Australia, the Philippines
and Trinidad. Employer confidence in increasing staffing levels
during 2013 remains high, with 75% of respondents predicting
continued hiring increases. The guide bases its figures on more
than 25,000 industry professionals across the globe.
ExxonMobil Pipeline Co. reported a leak in its Pegasus
pipeline on March 29, resulting in the release of 3,500
to 5,000 barrels of crude outside of Mayflower, Arkansas. The
pipelinewhich runs from Patoka, Illinois to Nederland,
Texaswas carrying Canadian Wabasca heavy crude at the
time of the leak. The company says progress continues in the
cleanup areas. Approximately 640 people are responding to
the incident in addition to federal, state and local responders.
Cleanup has continued 24 hours a day since the spill was first
detected. ExxonMobil also indicated that nearby Lake Conway
remains oil free and stated that a comprehensive containment
system using a boom has been deployed as a precaution.
Regarding the pipeline, an excavation and removal plan for the
affected portion of the pipeline is being developed for review
by the US Department of Transportation. ExxonMobil has also
received a corrective action order from the US Pipeline and
Hazardous Materials Safety Administration.
PetroChina recently announced 2012 earnings of RMB
115.3 billion, which was a drop of over RMB 17 billion
compared with 2011 earnings. The companys earnings decline
could be attributed to high natural gas import prices, as well as
government caps on domestic fuel prices that eroded refining
margins. PetroChina saw strong upstream growth in 2012, but
the downstream side of its operations operated at an RMB
43.5 billion loss. Still, this was a slight improvement over
2011 downstream losses, which were RMB 61.9 billion. The
continued downstream sector losses were due to PetroChinas
inability to shift the burden of rising oil costs to its consumers,
as Chinese state policy mandates a cap on gasoline and diesel
prices. In 2012, PetroChinas refinery division produced 91
MM tons of gasoline, diesel and kerosine, an increase from the
87.2 MM tons in 2011. The company also produced 6 million
tons of synthetic resin in 2012 (a rise of 7% year over year) and
manufactured 3.7 MM tons of ethylene (up 6.4% from 2011).
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC) sent a letter of condolence to acting Venezuela
President Nicols Maduro Moros following the death of the
countrys President, Hugo Chvez. The president of the OPEC
Conference, Hani Abdulaziz Hussain, who is also Kuwaits
Minister of Oil, referred to President Chvezs long and brave
battle with cancer and, on behalf of the conference, conveyed
his sincerest condolences to President Maduro and, through
him, to the people of Venezuela. He added: There can be no
doubt that President Chvez will be long remembered for his
strong support to OPEC.
Shell plans to sell its refinery in Geelong, Australia.
The proposed sale of the 120,000-bpd refinery is in
line with Shells global strategy to concentrate investment on
large-scale sites, such as the companys Pulau Bukom refinery
in Singapore. The announcement further underpins Shells
Australia strategy to grow its retail and bulk fuels business, along
with terminals and pipelines. The company aims to conclude
the sales process by the end of 2014. This announcement will
be difficult for refinery employees, but Shell will support them,
a Shell executive said.
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Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201311
Impact
BILLY THINNES, TECHNICAL EDITOR / [email protected]
Global oil flows shift
from West to East
By 2020, crude oil trade flows west
of Suez will drop by 4.2 MM bpd, while
crude flows east of Suez will rise by 4.7
MM bpd (FIG. 1), according to a recently
published report from ESAI Energy. The
primary global implication of the growth
in US shale liquids and Canadian oil
sands is significant change in crude oil
trade flows. These changes will funda-
mentally alter the relationship between
OPEC countries and the consuming
countries of North America, Europe and
Asia-Pacific. Relative to the US and Eu-
rope, the countries of Asia-Pacific will
become far more dependent on OPEC
countries for oil supplies. This will force
the countries of Asia, especially China, to
take a more deliberate role in responding
to Middle Eastern conflicts and instabili-
ty in producing countries, which, in turn,
will alter the relationship of these coun-
tries to the US, the current guarantor of
the sea lanes.
The report outlines some of the po-
tentially most significant changes to
crude flows, including the reduction of
North American imports from Latin
America, Africa and the Middle East by
3 MM bpd between 2012 and 2020, and
a drop in European imports from the
same regions of another 2 MM bpd. As
this happens, crude oil producers will in-
creasingly focus on Asia-Pacific custom-
ers. FSU, African and Latin American
exports to the region will rise by 1.7 MM
bpd, theoretically leaving the remaining
market for Middle Eastern supplies of 3
MM bpd or an annual increment of as
much as 375,000 bpd.
There are many implications of these
initial trends in global oil trade, said
Sarah Emerson of ESAI Energy. US
and European interest in committing re-
sources and personnel to the security of
the Persian Gulf may face renewed politi-
cal resistance. Competition for the Asia-
Pacific market is bound to weaken crude
prices, and Chinas disproportionate de-
pendence on imported oil will hasten ef-
forts to improve energy security, includ-
ing the inevitable development of shale.
UK consumers buying
less fuel at the pump
In the last 10 years, average UK fuel
prices have almost doubled, rising from
73.68 p/l to 136.26 p/l for unleaded
gasoline, and 75.57 p/l to 142.39 p/l for
diesel. The latest retail marketing survey,
conducted by the Energy Institute (EI),
shows there are more registered UK vehi-
cles on the road than ever before, yet total
fuel sales have dropped by 6% since 2002.
A cutback in fuel sales suggests im-
provements in engine performance and
fuel economy, combined with changes in
driver behavior. This is supported by die-
sel sales outperforming gasoline for the
second year running. The number of gas
stations in the UK stood at 8,693 at the
close of 2012. This is compared to 1967s
all-time high of 39,958. Key findings of
the survey show:
Gasoline sales fell marginally to
13.42 MM tons by the close of 2012,
down from 13.86 MM at the end of 2011
Diesel sales totaled 13.86 MM tons
by year end, down slightly from 13.91
MM tons in 2011
Total 2012 road fuel sales fell
slightly to 35.35 MM tons
By the close of 2012, unleaded
gasoline prices had averaged 136.26 p/l
(vs. 133.6 p/l in 2011), while diesel pric-
es closed the year at an average price of
142.39 p/l (vs. 138.90 p/l in 2011)
Registered UK vehicles once again
broke records, rising from 34.67 MM in
2011 to reach 36.71 MM by the end of
0.1 to 0.1
0.1 to 0.1
4.2 to 5.0
0.3 to 0.4
1.1 to 1.7
12.2 to 15.2
1.9 to 1.1
2.7 to 1.4
1.0 to 0.1
0.5 to 0.5
2.2 to 1.0
2.7 to 1.8
1.1 to 1.6
2.2 to 2.8
0.5 to 0.4
2012 ows west of Suez: 16.1 MMbpd
2020 ows west of Suez: 11.9 MMbpd
2012 ows east of Suez: 16.6 MMbpd
2020 ows east of Suez: 21.3 MMbpd
Source: ESAI Energy, March 2013
North
America
Latin
America
Africa
Middle East
Asia-Pacic
East Europe
Europe
FSU
FIG. 1. Approximate changes in net crude, 2012 to 2020 (MMbpd).
TABLE 1. US corrosion inhibitor demand (MM dollars)
% Annual growth
Item 2007 2012 2017 20072012 20122017
Corrosion inhibitor demand 2,070 2,030 2,485 0.4 4.1
Petroleum rening 500 540 640 1.6 3.5
Utilities 375 343 390 1.8 2.6
Chemicals 361 310 385 3 4.4
Oil and gas production 182 338 475 13.2 7
Other 652 499 595 5.2 3.6
Impact
12
2012, with each gas station servicing an
average of 3,993 vehicles.
The survey also took care to break
down the differences in gas station sites
by sector for 2012:
Oil company sites decreased by 151
to 5,159
Main retailer sites increased by 423
to 1,233
Supermarket sites increased by sev-
en to 1,317
Smaller retailer sites increased by
two to 62
Other unbranded sites increased by
37 to 922.
The four largest oil company opera-
tions by number of branded gas stations
were (2011 figures in brackets):
BP, 1,220 (1,178) up 42
Shell, 1,028 (845) up 183
Esso, 907 (890) up 17
Texaco, 787 (840) down 53.
US demand for corrosion
inhibitors to reach
$2.5 billion
US demand for corrosion inhibitors
is forecast to rise 4.1% per year to $2.5
billion in 2017, with volume demand
approaching 1.7 billion pounds (TABLE
1). Growth will be driven by higher oil
and natural gas output, particularly from
shale formations, as well as by increasing
chemical production and an expanding
economy. Additionally, robust increases
in construction spending will support
demand for corrosion inhibitors used in
cement and concrete, industrial coatings
and metal applications. Value growth will
also be aided by the introduction of new
hybrid products that have functions in
addition to corrosion protection. These
and other trends are presented in a new
study from The Freedonia Group.
The oil and gas industrys continued
expansion of horizontal drilling and hy-
drofracturing well stimulation in shale
formations will drive increases in cor-
rosion inhibitor demand going forward,
especially organic inhibitors. Increas-
ingly caustic water produced by exist-
ing oil wells will support higher organic
inhibitor usage rates, as will efforts to
reuse and recycle water to avoid addi-
tional freshwater use. The availability
of relatively cheap natural gas will spur
faster growth in chemical production,
leading to advances in corrosion inhibi-
tor demand in both water treatment and
process additive applications.
The fastest growth in corrosion in-
hibitor demand, albeit from a small
base, will occur in concrete and cement
additives due to a rebound in construc-
tion spending. Nitrites will benefit due
to their popularity for protecting metal
rebar in reinforced concrete. Higher
construction spending will also sup-
port demand for corrosion inhibitors in
industrial coatings, particularly as im-
provements in state and local finances
allow for greater spending on infrastruc-
ture maintenance and modernization.
In a number of more mature mar-
kets such as petroleum refining, metals
and utilities, moderate growth will be
supported by an expanding economy.
Water treatment corrosion inhibitors ac-
count for the greatest share of demand
in these markets, though in most cases
process and product corrosion inhibi-
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Impact
15
tor demand will rise at a faster pace. Or-
ganic inhibitors will be the primary ben-
eficiaries as companies look to develop
new products that offer more protection
at lower treat rates, and that are more
cost-effective than existing alternatives.
Replacing molybdates, where possible,
will remain a top priority as molybdate
prices remain comparatively high, and
some concerns about their environmen-
tal impact have arisen.
Poll says US citizens
want more solar,
wind and natural gas
No fewer than two in three US citi-
zens want the country to put more em-
phasis on producing domestic energy
using solar power (76%), wind (71%)
and natural gas (65%). Far fewer want to
emphasize the production of oil (46%)
and the use of nuclear power (37%).
Least favored is coal, with about one in
three respondents wanting to prioritize
its domestic production. These are the
results of an opinion poll administered
by Gallup, based on telephone interviews
conducted March 710, with a random
sample of 1,022 adults, aged 18 and old-
er, living in all 50 US states and the Dis-
trict of Columbia.
Democrats and independents top
choice is solar power, while natural gas
places first among Republicans. Republi-
cans and Democrats disagree most on the
priority that should be given to oil as a fu-
ture energy source, with 71% of Republi-
cans wanting more emphasis placed on it,
compared with 29% among Democrats.
Republicans are also much more sup-
portive than Democrats of coal (51% vs.
21%) and nuclear power (49% vs. 30%).
Where people live in the US makes
a difference in their views about which
sources of domestic energy they want the
country to emphasize more. People in
the South tend to be more supportive of
traditional energy sources such as oil and
coal than are those in other regions.
Still, for respondents in every region,
including the South, solar power is the
top choice, or is tied for the top spot,
among the energy sources tested. The
US has a great opportunity to accelerate
its economic growth over the next sev-
eral years by emphasizing and using its
enormous energy resources to produce
domestic energy. But there has been no
consensus among US citizens about how
to optimize domestic energy production
while preserving the environment.
US citizens overall and across political
and socioeconomic groups generally are
most likely to call for more emphasis on
solar and wind power, but these potential
future sources of energy have a long way to
go in terms of technology and affordability
before they can significantly affect overall
US domestic energy production. Ameri-
cans are also sharply divided politically
over achieving greater domestic energy
production using more traditional energy
sources such as oil, coal and nuclear power.
This leaves natural gas, which 59% of
Democrats, 62% of independents and
79% of Republicans say should have more
emphasis in the US. The technology exists
and is being implemented to allow natural
gas to become a more significant contribu-
tor to US domestic energy production.
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Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201317
Associations
ADRIENNE BLUME, MANAGING EDITOR
[email protected]
EMGC 2013 explores
Eastern Mediterranean
resource potential
Gulf Publishing Company held its in-
augural Eastern Mediterranean Gas Con-
ference (EMGC) at the Hilton Cyprus in
Nicosia, Cyprus, from April 810. The
event surpassed expectations in terms of
both attendance and interest, and gave ex-
ecutives from operating, service and tech-
nology companies the chance to share in-
sight into development opportunities for
this exciting resource area.
The conference featured speakers
from top companies operating in the re-
gion, including Noble Energy Inc., Hy-
perion Systems Engineering Group, Cy-
prus National Hydrocarbons Co., Total
E&P Research and Technology USA LLC
and others.
Monday workshop. The conference
opened with the Doing Business in the
Mediterranean workshop on Monday,
and continued with two days of techni-
cal presentations, networking events and
a gala dinner on Tuesday. The workshop,
hosted by EMGC media sponsor De-
loitte, drew over two dozen attendees
seeking to share knowledge and gain in-
formation about economic conditions
and tax and customs laws in Cyprus and
elsewhere in the region.
Speaker Paul Mallis, Cyprus Oil and
Gas Tax Leader for Deloitte, noted that
Cyprus low corporate tax rate of 10%
(which will move to 12.5% after the re-
cent, 10 billion agreement with the
Troika), is an attractive reason for doing
business in Cyprus.
Day 1: Offshore, LNG and national
opportunities. EMGC continued on
Tuesday with the first day of technical
presentations. Executive speakers focused
on the regional implications and potential
of the Eastern Meds new energy resourc-
es. Delegates from the Israeli and Cypriot
governments, along with industry execu-
tives, examined offshore oil and gas op-
portunities and challenges for Cyprus,
Israel and the EU as a whole.
The LNG question. Several speakers
expressed the need for up to three lique-
fied natural gas (LNG) export trains, with
a total capacity of 15 million tons per year,
to deliver Eastern Med gas to other Euro-
pean nations. Cyprus Deputy Director of
Energy Services for the Ministry of Indus-
try, Commerce and Tourism, Constanti-
nos Xichilos, noted that Noble Energy Inc.
and partner Woodside Petroleum Ltd. are
studying a possible LNG terminal site at
Vasilikos in Cyprus.
Noble Energys take. Noble Energy
Chairman and CEO Charles Davidson
spoke at length on Tuesday morning
about the discoveries his company has
made in the region, and the implica-
tions these resources have for the Eastern
Meds energy future.
The region is evolving into a major
energy player in the world, not only for
countries in the region, but also for the
countries they will be working with, said
Mr. Davidson. The massive gas resources
available in the Eastern Med will provide
enough clean, low-cost energy to displace
all of the fuel used by automobiles in Is-
rael for 14 years, Mr. Davidson noted.
We have to work cooperatively with
all of our partners, especially [the region-
al] governments, to make these projects
work, Mr. Davidson said.
The Israeli perspective. AJM De-
loitte Partner for Energy and Resource
Advisory Services, Robin Mann, noted
that Israel could be self-sufficient in gas
by 2016. Gas from the Tamar and Le-
viathan fields will supply power for the
countrys electricity needs, and excess gas
from these fields could be sent as LNG
to Asia or Europe. Alternatively, the gas
could be piped through an undersea pipe-
line through Cyprus or Turkey and then
onto Europe. Another option would be to
set up a floating LNG (FLNG) facility to
process and transport the gas.
Emerging markets. Tuesday after-
noon featured presentations on the mar-
ket for the new resources, with executives
from DNV, KBR Inc., and GE Oil and Gas
Turbomachinery offering perspectives on
natural gas mega-projects, including pro-
posed LNG and FLNG projects.
Concluding the afternoon session was a
panel discussion on the impact of the new
energy resources, featuring panelists Rony
Halman, founder and Chairman of Israel
Opportunity Oil & Gas Co.; Wafik Bey-
doun, President and CEO of Total E&P
Research and Technology USA LLC; and
Philip Hagyard, Senior Vice President of
Gas Monetization at Technip.
Tuesday evening gala. Day 1 con-
cluded with a heavily-attended gala din-
ner at the Hilton Cyprus sponsored by
Deloitte Ltd. The dinner featured a key-
note speech by Noble Energys Charles
Davidson (FIG. 1), who said that the East-
ern Meds gas resources would soon be
moving to the export stage, which would
inevitably involve energy exchange with
Middle Eastern nations.
Mr. Davidson emphasized that the
work being done in the Eastern Med by
Noble Energy and its partners is a joint
effort. These arent only multi-billion-
dollar projects; theyre multi-decade
projects, Mr. Davidson said. For such
projects to be successful, stable tax en-
vironment and investment climates are
needed, along with a streamlined infra-
structure process.
FIG. 1. Noble Energy Chairman and CEO
Charles Davidson addressed attendees
at Tuesday evenings gala dinner.
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Mr. Davidson concluded his speech
by saying, Our goal is to build on what
weve done already, and we hope we can
look back a few years from now and say
that we created a forum for discussion
[with this conference] for what is happen-
ing in this region.
Day 2: Infrastructure, resource devel-
opment and beyond. The second day of
EMGCs technical program addressed re-
gional infrastructure developments in the
morning, while the afternoon focused on
resource development and the future of
the Eastern Mediterranean.
FLNG outlook. Victor Alessandrini,
FLNG Business Development Manager
for Technips Offshore Business Unit,
spoke about the market and future devel-
opments for FLNG (FIG. 2). The tech-
nology is a cost-optimized, mobile and
environmentally non-invasive way of pro-
cessing gas into LNG and transporting it
to various locations, Mr. Alessandrini said.
Some technical challenges of FLNG
include incorporating a full LNG plant
onto a floating production, storage and
offloading (FPSO) unit; gas processing
facilities must be adapted to a marine
environment. Space, weight and stability
management are other important consid-
erations when planning an FLNG project,
Mr. Alessandrini noted.
Cypriot growth aspirations. Dr.
Symeon Kassianides, Chairman and CEO
of Hyperion Systems Engineering Group,
next examined Cyprus readiness to ad-
dress the challenges and opportunities be-
fore it. Dr. Kassianides noted that both the
public and private sectors are preparing
the country for an upswing in work oppor-
tunities in the oil and gas sectors. He also
confirmed that FEED studies are being
performed for an LNG terminal in Cyprus.
According to Dr. Kassianides, long-
term potential projects in Cyprus include
a methanol plant, an ethylene facility, a
possible gas-to-liquids (GTL) plant and
other facilities. We strongly believe in
Cyprus as an upcoming energy hub for the
future of the Eastern Mediterranean, Dr.
Kassianides said.
Israels energy goals. The Wednesday
afternoon session kicked off with a presen-
tation by Jay Epstein, Business Develop-
ment Manager for Israel Natural Gas Lines,
on the infrastructure needed for the devel-
opment of Israels natural gas sector. Af-
terward, Chairman of Israels Dor Chemi-
cals Ltd., Gil Dankner, spoke to attendees
about the use of natural gas and its deriva-
tives as alternative transportation fuels.
The future of the Eastern Med. During
EMGCs eighth and final session, the CEO
of Cyprus National Hydrocarbons Co., Dr.
Charles Ellinas, noted that the establish-
ment of an LNG terminal is vital, as it will
enable Cyprus to access markets in Europe,
the Far East and other global regions.
Concluding the session was Noble En-
ergys Director of Operations for the East-
ern Mediterranean, Terry Gerhart. Mr. Ger-
hart detailed Noble Energys development
plans for the Tamar, Leviathan and Cyprus
A fields. Additionally, an LNG plant to pro-
cess this gas could begin operations near
the end of the decade and accommodate up
to three trains, Mr. Gerhart said.
Inaugural EMGC a success. During his
closing remarks on Wednesday afternoon,
Gulf Publishing Company President and
CEO John Royall thanked attendees for
helping make the inaugural EMGC a suc-
cess. Mr. Royall said that the conferences
networking, forum-building and aware-
ness-raising objectives had exceeded orig-
inal expectations.
Major companies such as Noble Energy,
Eni, Total, Woodside Petroleum and oth-
ers have made significant investments in
the region, Mr. Royall noted. My advice to
the industry and to all of you in this room
is to look where the experts are investing
their money, he said. And theyre invest-
ing it here, in the Eastern Mediterranean.
Gulf Publishing Company plans to
hold its second annual Eastern Mediter-
ranean Gas Conference in Tel Aviv, Israel,
in 2014.
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the global outlook for FLNG developments on
Wednesday morning.
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Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201321
Reliability
HEINZ P. BLOCH, RELIABILITY/EQUIPMENT EDITOR
[email protected]
Manage your time constructively
We often view ourselves as very effi-
cient reliability implementers. Yet, as pro-
fessional engineers, we take action to save
time, accomplish more and reduce stress
by applying better time-management
skills. Being productive requires effort.
Likewise, resourcefulness is needed to
improve individual performance.
More important, we must do a better
job of balancing our personal and profes-
sional lives; rest and relaxation from the
harried duties from work is a positive.
In all of our professional endeavors, we
should strive to be better contributors in-
stead of mere consumers.
Set realistic goals. Serious contribu-
tors often set daily goals. Why? Goals
are important. Meeting daily goals pro-
vides a sense of accomplishment and an
opportunity to add value to our compa-
nies. Value-adders set and readjust their
priorities every day. Many tasks require
concentration and organization. Are your
tools close at hand? A hammer is a tool,
but so is a micrometer, a checklist or a
good technical text.
Plan your day. If phone calls are neces-
sary, strive to make them when you have
the best chance of reaching your desired
person. E-mailing your contact with a brief
and complete message is a more time-effi-
cient action. Likewise, send e-mails with
written summaries to the appropriate dis-
tribution list for action.
Meetings. In planning meetings, keep
them brief and stay on schedule. To im-
prove everyones productivity, start on time
and finish on time, and stick to the agenda.
When attending a meeting, never miss out
on the opportunity to say nothing. Repeat-
ing what has already been said, or what can
be confirmed in a written summary, takes
away valuable time from others.
Delegate when possible. Delegating
tasks can accomplish more with the pres-
ent staff and provide training opportuni-
ties. Also, it conveys to the team members
that they are valued. Ask for buy-in from
those to whom you delegate a task, and
firmly determine a mutually acceptable
delivery schedule.
Beware of paper shuffling. Productive
professionals strive to handle a piece of pa-
per only once. They resist the temptation
of moving papers among temporary piles.
For example, a freelance writer once spent
eight weeks massaging a four-page article.
The freelancers staccato work pace ad-
versely affected the efficiency of others.
Divide and conquer onerous tasks.
Some days appear to be an endless list
of tasks that add more dread to your job
and attitude. One solution is to compile
a complete list of work and project items
to be handled; put everything on the writ-
ten list. As new tasks materialize or are
assigned, add them to the list. Visually
crossing off completed items or tasks def-
initely improves your mood and attitude
as the things to be done are completed.
Many professionals keep the to do list
visually close by, such as on a computer
screen. It is easier to stay on schedule with
such queues refocusing the individual.
Set realistic priorities. Priorities are of-
ten an issue. Let your boss assist you in set-
ting and resetting priorities. Break down
large tasks into small segments; this will re-
move intimidation from the total endeav-
or, and provide attainable and achievable
goals. Be realistic in timing task durations.
Of course, you can assign priorities
to the tasks and activities according to
importance. It is difficult to clearly dis-
tinguish between urgent and impor-
tant. There may even be some off time
within your day. This is the opportunity
for reliability professionals to broaden
their knowledge base. They can work on
tool making, repair tasks or specification
updates. It is an opportunity to develop
technical articles and reports that will add
value to others, or to scan some technical
articles for later use.
Never procrastinate. Remember to
manage your activities via their priori-
ties on your task list. Stay in control and
keep bosses informed of schedule chang-
es. Task lists should be flexible. The ob-
jective is to maintain control so that the
tasks accomplished each day are done by
choice, and not by chance.
Maintain focus. Seasoned pros do not
rush from job to job or worry about doing
everything that they have listed. Time-
management consultant Alan Lakein
stresses that one rarely reaches the bottom
of a to do list. He remindes his students
that its not completing the list that counts,
but making the best use of ones time. We
should strive to accomplish the bulk of
tasks that are truly important and warrant
our skills. When possible, delegate the
unfinished items to others or transfer the
project to tomorrows list. Ask if finishing
the job produces significant benefits. If not,
it may not be a high-priority task.
What is urgent or important? Some
tasks yield better results than others. When
looking over a list of duties, consider the
results that each one will bring. True, at first
glance, everything on the list seems urgent.
Still, we should ask if urgent matters are al-
ways important, deserving a major time in-
vestment. Michael LeBoeuf, a professor of
time management at the University of New
Orleans, makes this observation: Impor-
tant things are seldom urgent, and urgent
things are seldom important. The urgency
of fixing a flat tire when you are late for
an appointment is much greater than re-
membering to pay your auto insurance
premium, but its importance [the tire] is,
in most cases, relatively small. Then he la-
ments: Unfortunately, many of us spend
our lives fighting fires under the tyranny of
the urgent. The result is that we ignore the
less urgent but more important things in
life. Its a great effectiveness killer.
It is more rewarding to work at some-
thing that yields important results than it
is simply to be busy at whatever activity is
Reliability
22
at hand. Try to direct your efforts to activ-
ities that result in true accomplishments.
80/20 rule. A number of time-manage-
ment experts believe that we can narrow
the top-priority items down to about 20%.
These experts cite, as a guide, the 80/20
rule. This principle was formulated by the
19th-century Italian economist Vilfredo
Pareto; it states that only about 20% of the
causes produce about 80% of the results.
But how can the 80/20 rule be applied
to your time management? Analyze the
items on your to do list. Perhaps, you
can be 80% more effective by accomplish-
ing 2 out of the 10 items listed. If so, those
two items are important on your list. Also,
analyze a project before diving in. How
much of it is truly important to your ob-
jective? What part of the job will produce
the most significant results? This portion
of the task is a priority.
Time-management consultant Dru
Scott, after discussing Paretos principle,
explains how to make it work for you. She
says: Identify the vital ingredients neces-
sary to achieve your objective. Do these
things first. You will get the most results
in the least amount of time.
Example. One refinerys statistics
from the 1970s established that 7% of
its 3,200 process pumps experienced a
disproportionate share of pump outage
events. Slightly over 60% of the money
spent on pump maintenance was allo-
cated on a chronic 7% pump population.
These pumps were quite obviously prob-
lematic machines; they received more at-
tention than the average refinery pumps.
Applying the discussed principles,
what percentage of your days activities
would you expect to categorize as top pri-
ority? Of course, that will depend upon
your specific responsibilities.
Enjoy the benefits. Now, we can appreci-
ate that being the master of your time is not
a matter of being preoccupied with never
wasting a minute or rushing from crisis to
crisis. Rather, effective time management
means selecting the appropriate task for
the present conditions. It means discern-
ing what activities yield the best results and
then spending time on those tasks.
There are no fixed rules for personal
organization. Remember: Be flexible, ex-
periment and adapt. Discover what works
best for you. By gaining better control of
your time, you will find more sense of ac-
complishment each day. Although more
will remain for tomorrow, there will be
satisfaction in directing your efforts to the
most important things. There is enough
time to complete the tasks that matter. Do
not be a victim of hectic circumstances; be
the master of your time.
HEINZ P. BLOCH resides
in Westminster, Colorado.
His professional career
began in 1962 and included
long-term assignments as
Exxon Chemicals regional
machinery specialist for the
US. He has authored over
500 publications, among
them 18 comprehensive
books on practical
machinery management,
failure analysis, failure avoidance, compressors, steam
turbines, pumps, oil-mist lubrication and practical
lubrication for industry. Mr. Bloch holds BS and MS
degrees in mechanical engineering. He is an ASME Life
Fellow and maintains registration as a Professional
Engineer in New Jersey and Texas.
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Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201325
Integration
Strategies
RALPH RIO, CONTRIBUTING EDITOR
[email protected]
Asset information management improves
life cycle benefits for equipment
Traditionally, the various production management and asset
management systems in the hydrocarbon processing industry
(HPI) and other heavy industries resided in silos with separate
management, architecture and technologies. Asset performance
management (APM) involves collaboration among production
and maintenance groups to improve execution with higher pro-
ductivity, reduced risk and improved return on assets (ROA).
The asset and production management systems have large
amounts of data and information that can be used for optimi-
zation across these systems. Result: Improved performance
for both maintenance and operations. Asset information
management (AIM) provides the means for optimization
across the APM spectrum. AIM for APM offers new oppor-
tunities for achieving key performance indicators (KPIs) and
C-suite objectives.
APM and equipment life cycles. APM applies to the long-
term, operate and maintain phase of an assets life cycle, which
defines revenue, margin and profits. An APM strategy involves
integrating production management (making the product)
with maintenance (ensuring the capability to produce). This
enables both production and maintenance management to
align and meet objectives with higher productivity, reduced
risk and improved ROA.
APM includes sharing asset management information with
collaborative production management (CPM) or manufac-
turing execution system (MES) applications. Such collabo-
ration provides visibility for new opportunities to improve
asset availability. It includes an enhanced understanding of
risk, with fact-based risk assessment. Also, APM enables or-
ganizations to uncover opportunities to balance operational
constraints and improve ROA.
A range of applications do come together in the APM do-
main. Some have traditionally been associated with asset man-
agement, including enterprise asset management (EAM),
predictive maintenance (PdM), reliability and condition moni-
toring. Others come from production management, including
MES, CPM, quality management, laboratory-information man-
agement systems, and historians.
AIM for APM. Good information management leverages smart
assets for better operations. Smarter assets include remote di-
agnostics, service contracts for suppliers of complex equip-
ment and higher uptime for the users. Smarter operations aids
improved production scheduling (including maintenance),
yield/quality (via value-added performance) and asset longev-
ity (reducing equipment stresses). Together, smarter assets and
operations provide opportunities for managing the entire plant
including maintenance costs and energy management.
Asset management systems require information about the
plant equipment to function. Managing this information is criti-
cal. This asset (equipment) information includes data about the
asset over its entire life cycle.
Managing asset information involves the business processes
and technology for:
Organizing the structure to classify the information for
consistent, accurate record-keeping and extraction for analysis
and reporting in a robust, consistent manner
Creating information entry and storage
Controlling access to information according to role-spe-
cific user needs and authority
Utilizing change of management to modify information
with proper authorization and timing, which includes recording
additions, changes and deletions; it is an audit trail
Auditing the asset-related data.
AIM information types. AIM information pertains to both
structured and unstructured data:
Documents contain reference materials including drawings
and standard operating procedures. Examples include draw-
19%
22%
29%
43%
46%
51%
54%
57%
67%
44%
40%
28%
37%
43%
34%
34%
35%
25%
63%
62%
57%
80%
89%
86%
88%
93%
92%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Project cost capitalization
Capital project plan and execute
Limited previous software
Safety and risk management
Visibility to management
Improve quality or yield
Maintenance cost control
Extend asset longevity
Improve uptime (MTBF, MTTR)
High
Medium
Total
Source: ARC survey with 134 respondents January 2013.
FIG. 1. Business drivers for EAM.
26MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Integration Strategies
ings from the design-and-build phase of the asset life cycle or
upgrades during the operate-and-maintain phase.
Transactions have a predetermined set of data fields, which
are transferred concurrently to provide an activity record. For
asset management, examples include work orders for mainte-
nance and inspections in the EAM system.
Process data includes real-time process values and time-
stamped recorded values. This data provides the basis for
scheduling PdM. It also provides the input for making reports.
Reports, both online and offline analysis, can include inci-
dent reports, KPIs and analysis for assessments of problems or
improvements.
Usually, each organization manages its own information. This
leads to independent technology, applications and structures.
Inconsistencies in organizing, creating, controlling, change man-
agement and asset hierarchies inhibit collaboration and under-
mine information sharing information. These inconsistencies all
weaken an APM strategy.
Why change for APM? ARCs annual survey of end users re-
garding maintenance management systems consistently yields
high ranks for these key metrics: uptime, asset longevity, cost con-
trol, quality/yield and safety. With the increasing speed of busi-
ness, visibility into current status has grown in importance (FIG.
1). This requires that asset information is managed with role-
based visibility such that only the most current and pertinent
information is visible to each user. Achieving and exceeding
these metrics require optimization across the various systems
for maintenance and operations.
These goals relate directly with C-suite metrics, which are in
the P&L statement and balance sheet (TABLE 1). Executes respond
to their metrics much like you do. When you have a positive effect
on these metrics, you get and retain C-suite attention. This helps
with obtaining the resources needed to be successful.
PanaFlow HT
$lL u|troson|c fow meter
$oeguord|ng the peop|e who work |n
hozordous rennery env|ronments |s
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t|me, you need to ovo|d cost|y p|ont
downt|me wh||e gett|ng the most out o
your process.
Ponof|ow T |s the nrst u|troson|c fow meter w|th $lL
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mo|ntenonce. lt's o soety nrst.
In hazardous environments safety comes frst
www.ge-mcs.com/ponofow
SIL
Cer tified
GE
leosurement S Contro|
$oety f|rst
RALPH RIO, research director for Enterprise Systems,
has been with ARC since 2000. Prior to ARC, he served
in various marketing management roles at GE Fanuc
Automation (GEF), Intellution, Digital Equipment
Corporation, and Codex Corporation, as well as
manufacturing engineering roles at Texas Instruments
and General Electric. He holds a BS degree in
mechanical engineering and an MS degree in
management science from Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute in Troy, New York.
TABLE 1. Comparing key maintenance and executive KPIs
EAM KPIs Financial reported afected C-suite KPIs
Uptime P&L and balance sheet Revenue increase and
less inventory
Asset longevity Balance sheet Cash conservation
Cost control P&L Protability
Safety Annual report Risk management
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Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201329
Boxscore Construction
Analysis
LEE NICHOLS, DIRECTOR, DATA DIVISION
[email protected]
Jurong IslandAsias preemptive LNG trading hub?
In the South Pacific, the artificial is-
land of Jurong Island is the heart of Sin-
gapores energy and chemicals industry. It
houses over 100 leading global petroleum,
petrochemicals and specialty chemicals
companies. With a rich history as an oil
trading hub, Singapore is on course to
become a regional liquefied natural gas
(LNG) trading center with the construc-
tion of its first LNG terminal.
Developed by Singapore LNG, the
Singapore LNG terminal is being con-
structed on a 30-hectare plot at the
Meranti Seafront on Jurong Island. The
$1.7-billion (B) facility will be used for
importing LNG, reloading and regasify-
ing, and storage. It is the first terminal
constructed with bidirectional opera-
tions and storage. The new terminal will
allow companies to unload LNG car-
goes, store them, and then ship them at
a later date. It will also aid in the redistri-
bution of LNG supplies to regional des-
tinations that cannot build large import
facilities or that have ports too small to
handle mega-sized LNG vessels.
The original contract to construct
and operate the terminal was assigned to
PowerGas in 2007. In 2009, Singapores
Energy Market Authority (EMA) took
over control of the project and created
Singapore LNG (SLNG) to continue de-
velopment. In 2010, SLNG awarded the
engineering, procurement and construc-
tion (EPC) contract to Samsung C&T.
TABLE 1 lists additional awards.
The first phase is scheduled to be
completed by mid-2013. This phase in-
volves the construction of one jetty and
two storage tanks, each with a capacity of
188,000 cubic meters (m
3
) and the abil-
ity to process 3.5 million tons per year
(MMtpy) of LNG. The primary jetty
(FIG. 1) is being constructed to handle
the newest and largest Q-max vessels and
LNG carriers. A third, 188,000-m
3
stor-
age tank and two additional jetties will
be commissioned in 2014, raising total
storage capacity to 6 MMtpy. A fourth
tank is scheduled to come online in 2017
at a cost of $500 MM, raising site capac-
ity to 9 MMtpy. The SLNG terminals
master plan provides for seven storage
tanks and a peak capacity of 20 MMtpy.
With LNG demand increasing in
Asia, the government of Singapore is
contemplating the construction of a sec-
ond LNG terminal. In November 2012,
the EMA issued a tender for a consultant
to conduct a six-month feasibility study.
The second terminal could double Sin-
gapores existing storage capacity.
SLNG received the first LNG cargo
from Qatar Operating Co. Ltd. (Qatar-
gas) in the first quarter of 2013. This load
will be used to commission the SLNG ter-
minal before full operations begin in the
second quarter. Singapore has confirmed
BG Singapore Gas Marketing (BGSGM),
a BG Group subsidiary company, as the
LNG aggregator for train one. BGs ex-
clusive license allows it to import LNG
and sell regasified LNG in Singapore up
to 3 MMtpy, or until the year 2023. BG
will supply the terminal from its exten-
TABLE 1. Project awards for the SLNG terminal
GDF Suez and PowerGas Front-end engineering and design (FEED) study.
Samsung C&T
EPC, awarded February 2010. Also awarded contract
for third storage tank and Secondary Berth Project.
Fluor Engineering and related management services.
Foster Wheeler Asia Pacic Project management consultancy services.
WorleyParsons
Basis for design and FEED design. Development of EPC contract
tender documents along with subsequent assessment and
recommendations.
FIG. 1. View of the Singapore LNG terminals primary jetty. Photo courtesy of Singapore LNG Corp.
30
Boxscore
sive LNG portfolio and supply positions
in Trinidad, Egypt, Nigeria, Equatorial
Guinea and the proposed Queensland
Curtis LNG facility in Australia. This
baseload demand will start the LNG
project with additional supplies coming
from a combination of LNG and piped
natural gas, short-term and long-term
contracts, and spot cargoes.
BGSGM has already signed over 1.5
MMtpy of gas sales contracts with a vari-
ety of customers in Singapore. The com-
mitments include six large-scale power-
generation companies including Senoko
Energy, PowerSeraya, Tuas Power Gen-
eration, SembCorp Cogen, Keppel Mer-
limau and Island Power Co.
The additional gas supplies by SLNG
will aide in domestic use. Gas-fired plants
produce 80% of Singapores electricity
needs. This percentage is expected to in-
crease to 90% within the next few years.
Unable to fulfill demand, Singapore has
been purchasing gas supplies from Indo-
nesia and Malaysia. The SLNG terminal
should cover the gap between supply/
demand and lessen natural gas supplies
via pipelines from neighboring countries.
Benefits. The International Energy
Agency (IEA) forecasts Asian LNG con-
sumption to annually increase to 790 Bm
3
by 2015. Within that time, Southeast Asia
is scheduled to construct a dozen import
terminals resulting in over 35 Bm
3
of ad-
ditional capacity. At present, no real LNG
trading hub has been established within
the region. It is difficult for companies to
purchase LNG at larger (cheaper) quan-
tities. Imports are linked to the price of
oil; these prices are five times higher than
those in North America, which are based
on Henry Hub pricing. An Asian LNG
trading hub would allow pricing to better
reflect supply and demand fundamentals.
Singapores strategic location, business-
friendly environment and bidirectional
LNG terminal and storage facilities make
it a prime candidate to become Asias
LNG trading hub.
Location. Singapores greatest benefit is
its central location to the Asian market. It
is nestled between LNG demand centers
in Northeast Asia and LNG supply sourc-
es in Southeast Asia, the Middle East and
Australia. It also sits at the southern tip of
the Strait of Malacca, one of the most im-
portant shipping lanes in the world and a
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Boxscore Construction Analysis
31
gateway to Southeast Asia. This strategic
location allows LNG traders to centrally
store their LNG cargoes and ship them
to heavy consumers such as China, Japan
and South Korea.
Singapores business-friendly environ-
ment is also a major selling point. The
government has enacted various incentive
programs and tax breaks to attract major
oil and gas companies. The Global Trader
Programme (GTP) was instituted in 2001
to encourage companies to establish re-
gional/global operations headquarters in
Singapore. Companies can benefit from
concessionary tax rates of 10% on their
qualifying trade income. In 2007, the
government adopted a 5% concessionary
corporate tax rate for LNG trading in-
come with the intent to spur the develop-
ment of a LNG trading hub.
In response to these benefits, LNG
companies have flocked to Singapore.
Within the last five years, the number of
major LNG players has gone from zero
to 14; they include BG, BP, ConocoPhil-
lips, Gazprom, GAIL, GDF Suez, Shell
and Statoil.
Challenges. Although Singapore bene-
fits from its central location to LNG-hun-
gry Asian markets, a corporate-friendly
atmosphere and a new bidirectional LNG
terminal facility, it still faces regional and
global challenges before it can emerge as
Asias LNG trading hub.
Singapore is in stiff competition with
other Asian LNG players that are actively
trying to establish regional LNG hubs.
The stiffest competition stems from Ma-
laysia; this nation is constructing its own
bidirectional LNG terminal at Pengerang
in Southern Johor. The first construc-
tion phase of the $1.3-B Pengerang In-
dependent Deepwater Petroleum Ter-
minal (PIDPT) is set for completion in
1Q 2014. Located within the Pengerang
Integrated Petroleum Complex (PIPC),
PIDPT is being developed by the Johor
state government, Netherlands Royal
Vopak and Malaysias Dialog Group. It
will have a total storage capacity of 5
MMm
3
and allow for storage, loading
and regasification of LNG for trading
and domestic use. PIDPTs construction
will coincide with Petronas Refinery
and Petrochemical Integrated Develop-
ment Project (RAPID). RAPID is a $20-
B integrated refinery and petrochemical
complex located at the PIPC. The proj-
ect will consist of a 300,000-bpd refinery
capable of producing 9 MMtpy of petro-
leum products, and the state-of-the-art
petrochemical complex will produce 4.5
MMtpy of downstream petrochemicals.
The RAPID project aims to transform
Southern Johor into a new Asian petro-
chemical hub.
Petronas is also constructing a ninth
LNG production train at its Bintulu com-
plex. The new LNG train will add 3.6
MMtpy of capacity. Once completed,
the Petronas LNG Complex will have a
combined capacity of over 27 MMtpy
creating one of the worlds largest LNG
production facilities at a single location.
Malaysia is also set to commission the
worlds first LNG regasification unit lo-
cated on an island jetty. The 3.8-MMtpy
Melaka terminal is located approximate-
ly 3 km offshore Sungai Udang Port. Two
floating storage units (FSUs) will receive
and store LNG; the facility has subsea
and onshore pipelines connected to the
Peninsular Gas Utilization pipeline net-
work. Melaka is expected to receive its
first LNG cargo load in August 2013.
South Korea, Japan and Indonesia are
also possible Asian LNG hubs. Large en-
ergy-consumer countriesSouth Korea
and Japanalready have the necessary
facilities and storage tanks to trade LNG
but lack the centralized location. Indone-
sia is striving to increase LNG export ca-
pacity with BPs Tangguh LNG expansion
project and Mitsubishi Corp., Pertamina,
and Medocs joint venture Donggi-Se-
noro LNG project. Other Asian countries
are embracing the use of floating liquefied
natural gas (FLNG) and floating storage
and regasification (FSRU) units in lieu of
pricey onshore terminals capable of han-
dling large LNG vessels.
Singapores plans are challenged by the
recent development of US LNG exports.
With the Panama Canal expansion to be
completed in 2015, it is unknown if US
LNG exports will be routed through an
LNG hub like Singapore or sent directly
to Asian consumers such as Japan, Thai-
land, the Philippines and South Korea.
The Government of Singapore Invest-
ment Corp. has even made an investment
in Chenieres Sabine Pass LNG export
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Select 157 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
32MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Boxscore Construction Analysis
terminal to take advantage of cheap US
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An Asian LNG hub could reduce nat-
ural gas prices dramatically throughout
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advantages will facilitate its efforts as the
preemptive Asian LNG hub. However,
competition from other Asian countries,
primarily Malaysia, could curtail these
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to attract significant LNG players eager
to make large investments in its emerg-
ing LNG sector.
New Database. Hydrocarbon Process-
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For more information, visit www.
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Todays Application:
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Q
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Q
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Detailed and up-to-date information for active construction projects in the refining,
gas processing, and petrochemical industries across the globe|ConstructionBoxscore.com
LEE NICHOLS is director
of Gulf Publishing
Companys Data
Division. He has five
years of experience in
the downstream industry
and is responsible for
market research and
trends analysis for the
global downstream
construction sector.
At present, he manages
all data content and sales for Hydrocarbon
Processing Construction Boxscore Database,
as well as all corporate and global site licenses
to World Oil and Hydrocarbon Processing.
Select 158 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
The Emerson logo is a trademark and service mark of Emerson Electric Co. 2013 Fisher Controls International LLC. D352200X012 MZ8
Manually inputting
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With a control range comparable to a segmented ball valve, the Control-Disk valve enables
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Select 86 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201335
Viewpoint
ROBERT L. DE MARIA
Maintenance Engineering Technical advisor, Dakota Gasification Co.
ROBERT L. DE MARIA is the maintenance
engi neeri ng techni cal advi sor at Dakota
Gasification Co. in Beulah, North Dakota.
He provi des techni cal support on pl ant
equipment reliability through inspections and
monitoring, troubleshooting of equipment
problems as well as failure analysis, corrective
engineering and ensuring plant compliance
on the mechanical integrity portion of the
OSHA 1910 PSM Std. Mr. De Maria has held
previous positions in plant reliability, project
management, plant engineering, maintenance
and utilities management. He has 43 years of
experience in the energy, petrochemical and
food-processing industries. His expertise is in
rotating equipment reliability, which includes
design, audit, selection, troubleshooting,
modifications and monitoring. His present focus
is on special projects (urea) and total plant
reliability through asset data and information
management. He received a BS degree in
mechanical engineering from Stevens Institute
of Technology and has authored numerous
papers on rotating equipment reliability.
Consider integral-gear compressors in CO
2
services
In 1998, the author began researching
suitable technology for compressing 95
MMSCFD of bone dry (100F dew
point) carbon dioxide (CO
2
) from 16.7
psia to 2,710 psia. The compressed CO
2

is delivered via a 205-mi pipeline to opera-
tions near Weyburn, Saskatchewan, Cana-
da. The oil fields use the gas in enhanced
oil recovery (EOR). As an added benefit to
the environment, virtually all of the inject-
ed CO
2
is expected to remain permanently
sequestered in the depleted oil fields long
after these fields are abandoned.
Options. Three compression options
were closely considered for this project:
Option 1: Motor + gear increaser +
low-pressure (LP) compressor + medi-
um-pressure (MP) compressor + high-
pressure (HP) compressor
Option 2: Motor + gear increaser +
LP compressor + MP compressor and
motor + pump
Option 3: Motor + integral-gear com-
pressor with 4 pinions (8 stages of com-
pression) with a maximum pinion speed
exceeding 26,000 rpm.
Implementing Option 3. In 1999, the
Option 3 system was installed (FIG. 1).
This unit has been operating for over 12
years; thus, significant data are available.
The Dakota Gasification Co. confirmed
that the integral-gear compressors in dry
CO
2
service could achieve several impor-
tant benefits:
Requiring the lowest capital cost
Reducing footprint of compressor
Highest total efficiency
Providing simplest design, with
high unit availability
Using a bull-gear-driven main lube
oil pump simplifies the lube oil system by
eliminating oil-rundown tank
Installing two 50% capacity 20,000
hp machines allows partial continuous
production
Using inlet guide vanes provides
the highest compressor flow turndown.
Selection process. The manufactur-
ers capability, experience and reputation
were considered during the selection of
the compressor train supplier. The op-
erating company took steps to ensure
project success in applying an untested
design. Budgetary and personnel resourc-
ing were allocated to achieve high avail-
ability. A reliability design audit, lifecycle
cost analysis and sub-supplier preference
reviews were conducted. During this
comprehensive audit process, the shaft
seals received considerable attention, and
the long-term reliability upgrades were
the focus of many discussions. An agree-
ment was reached on the final design.
Cost considerations finalized on using
carbon-ring seals for all stages. However,
the seal housing design would be capable
of accepting dry-gas seals in the event
that the carbon-ring seals were proven
unsatisfactory. A factory-performance
test with CO
2
was done to confirm that
aerodynamic performance was achieved.
Of course, mechanical test-run data were
captured and closely analyzed.
Key design elements. Other mechani-
cal features under scrutiny included
state-of-the-art flexure pad bearings,
hydraulically fitted coupling hubs and
diaphragm-spacer couplings at the driver
connection. The motors are synchronous
across-the-line starting design with liquid
cooling. An original equipment manufac-
turer-designed control system manages
FIG. 1. The integral-gear compressor in service
for the Dakota Gasification Co.
Viewpoint
36
speed and continuously monitors ma-
chine condition. The control system is
integrated into the plants digital control
system (DCS), along with shaft vibration,
thrust position and bearing-temperature
monitoringall are arranged for auto-
mated alarm and shutdown.
Within the control system, the design
needed to ensure that no liquid will form
below the 1,100-psig compression sec-
tions during startup and normal opera-
tion. Air-flooded interstage gas coolers are
used. A glycol/water solution is circulated
through the oil cooler and motor for cool-
ing. Heat is rejected from the glycol/water
solution through an air exchanger.
In 2006, an identical third integral-
gear compressor was placed in service to
support additional CO
2
sales. All three
machines were converted to synthetic lu-
bricating oil; mineral-base lubricants had
been used previously. The changeover was
prompted when it was discovered that
mineral oil was being contaminated by
certain sulfur constituents in the impure
CO
2
stream. Further evidences showed
that the carbon-ring seals allowed gas to
leak into the lubricant. However, the own-
ers reliability focus prompted rigorous in-
service testing and comparison of differ-
ent oils under varying load and operating
conditions. With the synthetic oil, a mini-
mum efficiency gain of 2% was realized. In
addition, the new oil demonstrated higher
resistance to degradation. The incremen-
tal cost of the synthetic oil was paid back
within a few months. Moreover, the syn-
thetic oil has now been in service for over
six years with no replacements necessary.
The continued suitability of the synthetic
oil is verified by periodic oil analysis.
Seal service life. The carbon-ring seal
service life on HP stages 7 and 8 has met
the manufacturers warranty. However, a
measure of unscheduled downtime and
recompression of higher-than-anticipated
rates of CO
2
has occurred. The events in-
dicate a leak back to suction due to seal
wear. The original seals did not reach the
intended goal of 20 years between seal re-
pairs. However, the carbon-ring seals for
stages 1 through 6 have proven satisfac-
tory. In 2010, the Dakota Gasification Co.,
in partnership with John Crane and MAN
Turbo and Diesel, began the design and
development of dry-gas seals for this ap-
plication. These seals were designed, built
and tested for the seventh and eighth stag-
es. Installation is planned for June 2013.
Overall, these eight-stage compressors
have met and exceeded expectations. The
cost savings exceeded 10% as compared
to the initial investment from the next-
best option. The machines have achieved
the lowest operating cost, along with
96% availability. With increased interest
in CO
2
sequestration projects, EOR and
urea production, this technology presents
merits for further consideration.
FIG. 2. Impellers for eight-stage compressor.
Problem Solving
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Improve your pump reliability, extend MTBO*, reduce downtime and
energy consumption with Summit Syngear SH-7000 Series and Barrier
Fluid Series. These synthetic lubricants are resistant to rust, oxidation,
corrosion and improve wear protection. They have excellent low
temperature fluidity and high temperature stability. Summit Syngear
SH-7000 Series and Barrier Fluid Series are compatible with most
process fluids being pumped and commonly used seal materials. These
PAO based lubricants come in a wide range of viscosities.
Summit Barrier Fluids are NSF H1 Registered.
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Select 54 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS

|
Special Report
MAINTENANCE AND RELIABILITY
Hydrocarbon processing facilities are multi-billion-dollar industrial complexes designed
with service lives exceeding 30 years. To keep these plants operating as designed,
companies conduct regular maintenance and reliability programs to replace worn
equipment. Maintenance and reliability efforts are insurance policies to maintain
safe operations and yield high-quality products over the service lives of these facilities
and processing units. Such efforts reap numerous benefits.
Retrofit of valves for the tank farm operated by Turkish Petroleum Refineries Corp.s
(Tpra) refinery at Izmit, Turkey. Photo courtesy of Rotork Controls, Bath, UK.
Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201339
Special Report
Maintenance and Reliability
J. BAILEY and S. BRADSHAW, ITT Goulds Pumps,
Seneca Falls, New York
Avoid hidden costs of suction-specific
speed in pumping
More than 30 years ago, a landmark study observed a rela-
tionship between suction-specific speed and the probability of
pump failure that changed the way pumps are selected. This
observation created the common perception that a lower suc-
tion-specific speed value equals higher pump reliability, with
a value below 11,000 established as a common benchmark for
good reliability.
This perception has remained relatively unchanged, even
though pump design and manufacturing methods have ad-
vanced significantly. Pump purchasers continue to rely on a
specification limit that derives from one study conducted by
one company several years ago. If purchasers order the wrong
design or more pump than is needed, then end users, suppliers
and plant designers all experience economic consequences.
Here, suction-specific speed, which is one of the most com-
monly mentioned (yet least understood) terms in oil and gas
pumping, is broken down and analyzed.
The start of the specification limit. Referred to as N
ss

in the US or S in Europe, suction-specific speed originally
helped pump designers predict and compare pump perfor-
mances. Used since centrifugal pump theory was first devel-
oped, N
ss
is not a speed at all, but rather a simple measure of
a pumps suction. It is based on the net positive suction head
required (NPSHR) of a pump, and it should be calculated only
at the pumps maximum diameter and best efficiency point
(BEP) flow:

(1)

N
SS
=
RPM Q
NPSHR
0.75

Where RPM = rotating speed of the pump, and Q = flow. Note:
For double-suction pumps, divide Q by 2.
For a number of years, pump users sought to lower the el-
evation of tanks to reduce piping costs and the expenses asso-
ciated with higher-elevation equipment. This required pump
manufacturers to strive for lower NPSHR values. Based on the
formula in Eq. 1, as NPSHR decreases, N
ss
increases.
The relationship between higher N
ss
and lower reliabil-
ity comes from the way designers traditionally achieved lower
NPSHRby increasing the diameter of the impeller eye. As the
impeller eye grows larger, it results in increased suction recir-
culation. Pump capacity is further reduced and the intensity of
the circulation increases, causing a reversal of flow at the suction
pipe near the pump. If this effect is strong enough, it can cause
cavitation (FIG. 1).
Numerous technical papers and articles reported the prob-
lems caused by suction recirculation, but none quantified the
problems until the aforementioned refineryAmocos Texas
City, Texas refineryreported the results of a five-year study in
1982. The study involved nearly 500 centrifugal pumps, all of
which were designed in the 1960s or earlier. The findings suggest-
ed that, when pump N
ss
values exceeded 11,000, reliability halved.
From this, a commonly understood cap on N
ss
value was
born. The 11,000 value was never promoted as an industry
standard, but it became widely accepted by end users, engi-
neering contractors and others as a specification to help ensure
pump reliability.
Modern design and manufacturing techniques. Much
work has been done in pump design and manufacturing to im-
prove pump performance since the origin of the N
ss
limitation:
More robust construction standards, as set forth in API
610, 8th edition, reduce the vibration effects of off-best effi-
ciency point (BEP) operation
Modern impeller design methods limit the need to in-
crease the impeller eye diameter to achieve lower NPSHR
The increased use of investment casting, ceramic core
techniques and better mold washes have improved component
surface finish, accuracy and repeatability.
d1
Recirculation
Impeller cross-section
FIG. 1. As the diameter of the impeller eye grows, it results
in increased suction recirculation.
Maintenance and Reliability
40
Most importantly, widespread use of computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) allows pump designers to better define hy-
draulic passages and improve vane profiles, instead of simply
enlarging the impeller eye and hoping for the best outcome.
CFD is a sophisticated, computer-based modeling tool that
can be used in the pump design process to simulate various de-
signs, identify flow problems, develop solutions and evaluate
operating strategies. As such, CFD is a cost-effective alterna-
tive to physical modeling. With modern manufacturing tech-
niques and materials, the companies that make pumps are bet-
ter able to produce the designs developed using CFD, enabling
real-world tests on working pumps that are the ultimate test of
any design technique.
A recent study sought to demonstrate the validity of one
companys CFD modeling approach. The results ultimately
showed how a single, hard-and-fast limit on CFD can be coun-
ter-productive. The study investigated how the suction perfor-
mance of a pump was improved simply by changing the lead-
ing-edge profile of the impeller vane while holding all other
parameters constant. Four profiles were createdparabola, el-
lipse, circular and bluntusing rapid prototyping techniques.
As shown in FIG. 2, CFD results matched physical testing fair-
ly well; the experience was almost exactly as predicted by the
CFD models. Variations only occurred at 120% best efficiency
flow, which means that assumptions around the analysis tend
to break down when there is extreme overload on the impeller.
It is important to note that CFD studies are not a magic
bulletthey offer only a rough approximation of reality. The
methodology should always be verified before CFD studies are
used to select a pump. When choosing a vendor, several ques-
tions must be asked about CFD studies:
How many cells and what type of mesh (i.e., hexahedral
or unstructured) were used?
What turbulence model was used, and what conditions
were applied to it?
What were the inlet/outlet condition assumptions?
What was the residual error (root mean square and peak)
in the converged solution?
What distribution of Y+ values was obtained?
To what level of accuracy is the vendor willing to commit?
NPSH 3% head drop performance
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
Q/Q
BEP
C
a
v
i
t
a
t
i
o
n

n
u
m
b
e
r
,

3
Parabola CFD
Parabola test data
Ellipse CFD
Ellipse test data
Circular CFD
Circular test data
Blunt CFD
Blunt test data
FIG. 2. CFD test results vs. physical test results.
8,000
9,000
10,000
11,000
12,000
13,000
14,000
15,000
16,000
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000
Pump N
s
A
t
t
a
i
n
a
b
l
e

p
u
m
p

N
s
s
Attainable and
acceptable
performance
Not attainable
with acceptable
performance
Between
bearing
designs
FIG. 3. Performance attainable using modern design techniques.
TABLE 1. Predicted impeller life based on impeller specications
Impeller
prole
NPSH 3%,
ft (m)
N
ss
/S,
US units
Predicted impeller life
*

for Cast CA6NM
(Bhn 262) hours
Blunt 36.8 (11.2) 10,386 15,208
Circular 33.4 (10.2) 11,170 16,631
Ellipse 30 (9.1) 12,104 22,971
Parabola 28.3 (8.6) 12,644 32,023
*Estimated service life of impeller pumping fresh water at 25C with 23 ppm of dissolved
gas content: BEP ow with = 0.27 and inlet eye velocity = 30.4 m/s (99.7 ft/s).
Select 160 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201341
Maintenance and Reliability
Has the CFD methodology been validated in lab tests?
In general, the use of CFD allows pump manufacturers to
produce smarter solutions with higher reliability. Ultimately,
these improvements benefit customers through lower cost and
reduced risk related to pump station construction and operation.
Industry costs of relying on old specs. Despite these ad-
vancements, persistent application of the N
ss
limit is slowing
innovation. Purchasers continue to exclude more economic
and reliable pumps from consideration because they are not
compliant with the 11,000 N
ss
value.
For instance, the results of the aforementioned study
showed that the parabolic leading-edge profile has the best
cavitation performance. In fact, the expected impeller life is
doubled between the parabola and the circular profile. For this
application, a customer who specifies an N
ss
value of less than
11,000 would get a pump with poorer NPSHR performance
and shorter life, with no improvement in vibration or mean
time between failures (MTBF) compared to the design with a
higher N
ss
number (see TABLE 1).
End users take on increased lifecycle costs from purchasing
larger, slower and less efficient pumps. Plant designers suffer
from reduced optimization because of bigger piping require-
ments and higher tank elevations. The point is not that N
ss
is
irrelevant, but that, with modern designs, manufacturers can
produce reliable pumps with higher N
ss
numbers than were
possible before.
A modern role for N
ss
in pump selection. When select-
ing pumps, customers should work closely with consultants
and pump vendors to understand the design options and the
reliability performance of pumps for each application. If done
properly, CFD simulations can provide good predictions of
pump performance.
FIG. 3 shows the performance attainable and compliant
with HI/API 610 vibration limits, using modern design tech-
niques. While suction-specific speed is still a relevant measure
for pump manufacturers to assess, setting a hard limit for this
specification is no longer appropriate. Doing so places an un-
natural constraint on the industry that limits pump users, sup-
pliers and plant designers alike.
JOHN BAILEY is the oil and gas global product marketing manager
for ITT Goulds Pumps, responsible for marketing its full range of
products that serve customers in the oil and gas industry. Before
joining ITT, Mr. Bailey spent 12 years in marketing and management
roles for global companies serving industrial and technical markets.
He completed GE Corporates Hands-On MBA program, and also
holds an MBA degree from the University of Connecticut and
a degree in mechanical engineering from the University of Illinois at Champaign.
SIMON BRADSHAW is the director of API product development
and technology for ITT Goulds Pumps. He has more than 20 years
of engineering experience in the pump industry. Mr. Bradshaw also
has supported the Hydraulic Institute in the development of pump
standards and best-practice guides. He holds a BS degree in
mechanical engineering from Heriot-Watt University, and is a
registered chartered engineer in the UK and a member of the
Institute of Engineering Designers.
Select 161 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
www.lindeus-engineering.com
Head Ofce: Five Sentry Parkway East, Suite 300, Blue Bell, PA 19422 USA 610-834-0300
Texas: 3700 West Sam Houston Pkwy. South, Suite 425, Houston, TX 77042 USA 281-717-9090
[email protected]
For over 60 years, weve been there for our rening and
petrochemical customers. Linde Engineering North America Inc.
offers single source responsibility for technology, engineering,
procurement and construction.
Selas Fluid renery and petrochemical red heaters
Oxidation/incineration technologies
Engineered revamps and rebuilds
Hydrogen and synthesis gas plants
Air separation plants
A new name, a long history.
Selas Fluid Processing is now
Linde Engineering North America Inc.
Were local. Were global.
And were proud to be both.
Select 73 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201343
Special Report
Maintenance and Reliability
D. RENARD, Elliott Engineered Solutions,
Jeannette, Pennsylvania
Rerating rotating equipment optimizes
olefins plant performance
The operators of mega ethylene plants are under constant
pressure to meet enhanced performance specifications and
more stringent environmental regulations, while, at the same
time, reducing energy costs and improving feedstock flexibil-
ity. As ethylene plants have evolved in response to market de-
mands (FIG. 1), technical advances in rotating equipment have
boosted operating ranges and performance parameters for
the centrifugal compressors and steam turbinesboth are at
the heart of ethylene plant operations. When considering the
effect of changing market conditions on plant performance,
particularly feedstock flexibility, producers must first evaluate
changes to gas composition and process parameters in light of
the plants existing turbomachinery.
Rerating installed compressors and steam turbines can be a
cost-effective, time-saving solution for increasing throughput
without investing in new equipment. Advances in flow path
design, stage performance, aerodynamics, manufacturing
technology and materials science make it possible to achieve
new process parameters within the existing casings, with min-
imal changes to foundations, piping and other connections.
With careful planning, from review of process parameters
through turnaround execution, equipment rerates can be ac-
complished during a normal maintenance shutdown.
The presented case study will discuss typical cracked-gas
(CG) and refrigeration services within an ethylene plant,
highlighting technical advances that make it possible to
achieve new process parameters with rerated equipment. The
case study focuses on a CG equipment train installed in an
ethylene plant in the late 1960s that is still in operation due to
multiple rerates to meet new processing requirements.
Cracked-gas service. CG turbomachinery configurations
vary from installation to installation. CG trains usually consist
of large-volume capacity compressors driven by high-power
steam turbines. Generally, CG trains have two, three or four
compressor casings and sometimes a speed-increasing gear
between the casings, as shown in FIG. 2. The most common ar-
rangement is three casings. Three-compressor trains include
a double-flow compressor for the low-pressure (LP) section.
Three- and four-compressor arrangements provide more flex-
ibility when considering process changes than a two-compres-
sor train. In most cases, interstage pressures can be modified
to accommodate the change in casing flow and head to opti-
mize total performance.
Refrigeration service. Refrigeration compressors are sin-
gle-casing configurations with multiple side streams or side
loads and/or extraction streams, as shown in FIG. 3. Propyl-
ene compressors are generally larger volume than the corre-
sponding ethylene compressor. However, both applications
require unique analysis when evaluating side-stream mixing
performance to ensure that required interstage pressures and
flows can be met. Refrigeration compressors have multiple
nozzle connections that make the ability to reuse the casings
a project objective.
1980
P
l
a
n
t

s
i
z
e
,

t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d

t
p
y
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
1990 2000
Year
2010 2020
FIG. 1. Growth trend in ethylene plant capacity.
3 casings
ST driver MD
4 casings
ST driver LP 1st
section
LP 2nd
section
MD MD
2 casings
ST driver LP Gear MP/HP
Key
STSteam turbine
LPLow-pressure compressor
MPMedium-pressure compressor
HPHigh-pressure compressor
HP LP double
ow
FIG. 2. Typical CG train arrangements.
44MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Maintenance and Reliability
Advances in compressor technology. Centrifugal com-
pressors, by design, cover a wide range of flow capacities. The
development of impeller families has enabled a wider flow
range within a given compressor model. Since the 1960s, im-
peller efficiencies have improved from 65% to nearly 90%,
and the range of flow has doubled. This broadened flow range,
coupled with the development of improved compressor stage
head and efficiency, has dramatically expanded a given com-
pressors operating range, as illustrated in FIG. 4.
Compressor design technology has advanced through the
use of tools such as computational fluid dynamics (CFD),
finite-element analysis (FEA), solids modeling and rotor dy-
namic analysis. These tools enable design engineers to model a
three-dimensional view of the aerodynamic flow path and the
effects that design will have on overall performance.
CFD analysis can be used to create impeller
stage ratings. Higher and lower flow stage ratings
are derived from the tested components to form a
family of stages. Within each family, impeller geom-
etry is fixed. Blade heights are varied for higher and
lower flows. Stage analysis results are continuously
checked and verified against actual aerodynamic
performance and field tests. This allows the design
engineer to match impeller performance and sta-
tionary diaphragm performance to achieve optimum
overall stage performance. By creating and extending impel-
ler families, the application engineer can now select from sev-
eral impeller designs to optimize stage-to-stage performance
throughout the compressor aerodynamic flow path.
Refrigeration compressors usually have multiple side-
streams that require accurate prediction methods. CFD analy-
sis has enhanced the designers ability to accurately optimize
the mixing of two flows while minimizing pressure drops for
more reliable performance prediction. Propylene compres-
sors represent a particular challenge when rerating an existing
unit. In many cases, with multiple side streams, there may only
be a single impeller in a specific section, for which the end
user provides a pressure tolerance. The ability to select from
various impeller families improves the likelihood that a solu-
tion can be achieved.
Improving the performance of the entire flow path also
requires consideration of all of the stationary components
including the diaphragms, seals and casing volutes, as shown
in FIG. 5. For example, diaphragms are milled and bolted to
eliminate rough surface finishes inherent with older cast tech-
nology. Interstage sealing is accomplished with abradable and
deflection-tolerant interstage seals to maintain efficiencies for
longer periods. These advancements in stage performance
make it possible to reuse existing compressor casings with
minimum impact on the equipment train driver. Improve-
Rerating installed compressors and steam
turbines can be a cost-effective, time-
saving solution for increasing throughput
without investing in new equipment.
0.0
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.25
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.05 0.1
Flow coefcient
Impeller efciencies
(approximate)
Mid-1990s > Today
1980s
Mid-1960s and 1970s
1950s and 1960s
P
o
l
y
t
r
o
p
i
c

e
f
c
i
e
n
c
y
,

%
0.15 0.2
FIG. 4. Evolution of impeller performance. FIG. 5. Typical compressor component upgrades.
FIG. 3. Refrigeration compressor with multiple side streams.
Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201345
Maintenance and Reliability
ments in manufacturing technology have also contributed
to improved compressor design performance. For example,
five-axis milling techniques allow high-performance impel-
ler blades to be used for higher flow and/or head to expand a
compressors operating range.
Advances in steam turbines. Significant plant capacity
increases that result in higher compressor flowand, there-
fore, powercannot be achieved without a correspondingly
significant increase in steam flow. Steam turbine drivers must
use the existing steam operating conditions to match the re-
rated compressor train speed. Casing size limitations provide
unique challenges to reconfiguring the existing steam flow
path to achieve the desired power and speed.
CG and propylene drivers are usually high-power units
that may require significant changes when the compressor
power has increased. Even with improvements in stage effi-
ciencies over the years, an increase in power usually requires
an expanded steam flow area inside the turbine, which may or
may not be possible within the physical limits of the existing
casing. Additional modifications to the existing aerodynamic
flow path, such as removing stages, are usually required to in-
crease the steam flow area.
CFD analysis and other analytical tools have advanced
performance and reliability in turbine component design,
specifically rotating blades and stationary diaphragms. CFD
analysis on high-pressure (HP) and LP staging is used to op-
timize both the rotating and stationary turbine components.
Additional improvements include replacement of labyrinth
seals with brush-type seals and tip seals (FIG. 6).
Case study. This case study references an ethylene plant
that was originally built in the late 1960s with a two-body
CG compressor train, as shown in FIG. 7. Over the years, the
LP compressor was rerated three times prior to this project,
and the HP compressor and steam turbine driver were rerated
FIG. 6. Typical steam turbine component upgrades
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46MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Maintenance and Reliability
twice. These earlier rerates increased plant operating flow and
power by 55% over the original installation specifications.
Recently, the end user decided to change the plants feed-
stock and to expand the plant capacity by an additional 58%.
The owner asked the compressors original equipment manu-
facturer (OEM) to conduct a feasibility analysis. The OEM
worked closely with the end user, the engineering contractor
and the ethylene process licensor to evaluate process condi-
tions and develop a solution.
Early in the analysis, it became clear that such a large flow
increase would require installing a booster compressor to re-
duce the volume flow into the existing units. Reducing the vol-
ume flow to the LP and HP compressors allowed these units
to be rerated yet again for a fourth and third time, respectively.
To meet the required increase in flow and to accommodate
the feedstock revision, the LP and HP compressors required
all new rotors and stationary components, but with a reduced
number of stages in each unit.
Advanced high-performance impeller technology was used
to achieve the expanded flow requirements while limiting the
overall train power to an increase of approximately 35%. This
allowed the steam turbine driver to be rerated for the third
time. The steam turbine also required a new rotor and new dia-
phragms, with a reduced number of stages.
The end user was able to achieve its operating objectives for
capacity increase and feedstock flexibility while minimizing site
work and reusing the existing casings, with minimal investment
in new turbomachinery hardware. From the original plant in-
stallation in the late 1960s, the total train power has increased
by more than twice the original design. Application of the latest
in compressor and steam turbine technology has enabled the
existing compressors and steam turbine to remain in operation
for nearly 50 years.
DAN RENARD, commercial operations manager retired, spent 28
years at Elliott Co. in various management positions in the
compressor and turbine application engineering and marketing
departments. He holds a BS degree in mechanical engineering
from the Pennsylvania State University. Until his retirement in
2012, he was the marketing manager for the Engineered
Solutions Group located at Elliotts US headquarters in
Jeannette, Pennsylvania, leading a team responsible for the rerating of
turbomachinery equipment worldwide.
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Test Plan Look Ahead
TODAY S DATE
April 3, 2013 Advance Month >
April 2013 May 2013
S M T W T F S
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27
28 29 30
S M T W T F S
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25
26 27 28 29 30 31
dW^/&/>Z
1. [AE-101-100]-[PT-100, PT-200, PR-300]-[3]
2. [AE-101-117]-[TT-100, TT-200]-[2]
3. [AE-101-096]-[FF-100]-[1]
4. [AE-101052]-[LT-100]
IL RATING

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SELECTED DATE
April 26, 2013
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Execution Status
SIF-LEVEL TEST PLANS DEVICE-LEVEL TEST PLANS
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Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201349
Special Report
Maintenance and Reliability
T. MAYNE and M. ELLUL, Qenos Olefins Australia,
Melbourne, Australia; and D. PHILLIPS, Emerson Industrial
Automation, Hanover, Maryland
Maximize steam unit performance
with precise torque monitoring
All turbomachinery is subject to degradation that, over
time, will affect the systems efficiency and operational perfor-
mance. Precise monitoring of turbomachinery performance
with continuous torque-monitoring systems can be used to
identify gradual efficiency loss, allowing for the development
of a more focused maintenance scope to return the system to
its optimum operation and efficiency.
Torque monitoring based on heat balance, energy balance
and other methods utilizes numerous parameters such as
pressure, temperature, flowrate, gas composition, etc., which
require precise instrumentation to measure with low uncer-
tainty.
1
However, phase displacement technology can be used
to accurately measure torque directly at the coupling to within
1% of full-scale torque, a combination of all electrical and me-
chanical sources of error. This accuracy provides the lowest
amount of uncertainty when computing efficiency, compared
to alternative methods.
A torque-monitoring system was recently installed on a
cracked-gas compressor (CGC) train at Qenos Olefins in
Australia to determine the causes of a power limitation. The
torque-meter coupling utilizes phase displacement technology
for long-term reliability, eliminating the need for recalibration.
Torque meter installation. The meter consists of two rings
with pickup teeth installed on a torsionally soft spacer and inter-
meshed at a central location. Two monopole sensors 180 apart
are mounted on the coupling guard. As the coupling rotates, the
ferromagnetic teeth create an AC voltage waveform in the sen-
sor coil, which is digitally processed using known calibration
parameters. Due to the intermeshed pickup teeth, the system
is referred to as a single-channel phase displacement system,
producing two independent torque measurements (FIG. 1).
The system will output torque, power, speed and temperature,
which can be easily integrated with any DCS system (FIG. 2).
At the olefins plant, the operating cycle of the steam-driven,
CGC train is 78 years. During this cycle, the plant reaches
production limitations because this compressor train encoun-
ters a power limit. To determine the cause of the power limit as
turbine fouling or compressor foulingor a combination
of bothwas not confidently possible with the instrumenta-
tion installed.
One option was investigated to add more power by upgrad-
ing the turbine power rating from 7.5 MW to 9 MW. This re-
quired a capital investment of $2 million. The plant elected to
defer this investment and, instead, a torque meter was installed
during the major eight-year shutdown.
The installation involved replacing the existing coupling
spacer and flexible halves with the drop-in torque meters
integral flexible elements. The torque meter assembly was
dynamically balanced to API standards, so it was not neces-
sary for the user to return any coupling components for the
retrofit. The coupling guard was modified so that the two
variable-reluctance sensors could be installed, completing the
mechanical installation (FIGS. 35).
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Time
Sensor 1
Sensor 2
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
FIG. 1. The torque-meter coupling produces two independent
torque signals.
V
a
l
u
e

(
N
-
m
,

k
W
,

r
p
m
)
Time
Torque
Power
Speed
Temp
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

C
60,000
50,000
40,000
30,000
2,0000
10,000
0
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
16:37:11
16:40:42 16:44:12 16:47:44 16:51:12 16:54:43 16:58:13 17:01:44
FIG. 2. Typical output from the torque-meter coupling.
50MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Maintenance and Reliability
Results. On restarting the plant and having completed a num-
ber of compressor efficiency improvements, the torque meter
clearly showed that the 7.5-MW turbine did not require an
uprate and that the major power losses were coming from the
CGC. The torque meter also allowed online tuning of the seal
gas system of the compressor to establish the lowest power
draw from the recycles that the seal system introduces. An ad-
ditional 200 KW of power was reduced from the turbine load,
with the manual adjustments made on the seal gas system.
The torque meter is now being used to monitor turbine
steam-fouling issues and process-related compressor fouling
so that corrective online washing can be activated as soon as
issues arise.
The historical data collected from the torque meter will
also provide a baseline of mechanical loading through the
drivetrain of the CGC over time. This data will
be used to determine if increases in the maximum
continuous operating speed rating of the compres-
sor and the turbine can be accomplished at minimal
costs. This would achieve increases in the operating
envelope of the compressor.
Furthermore, the value of the torque meter justi-
fied the installation of a second system for the ole-
fins plants second steam-cracking plant turbine/
compressor train in October 2012.
LITERATURE CITED
1
Kurz, R., K. Brun and D. Legrand, Field performance testing of gas turbine-driven
centrifugal compressors, Proceedings of the 28th Turbomachinery Symposium,
Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas,
pp. 216220, 1999.
DANIEL PHILLIPS is the field service engineering manager for
Emerson Industrial Automations Kop-Flex brand of couplings in
Baltimore, Maryland. He assists users with installation,
commissioning and troubleshooting of power transmission
products. Mr. Phillips has extensive experience with applying
torque-monitoring solutions to increase the reliability and
efficiency of equipment in the metals and oil and gas industries. He
has a BS degree in mechanical engineering from the University of Maryland, Baltimore
County, and he has 10 years of experience in the mechanical engineering field.
MARK ELLUL has worked in Qenos Olefins Australias olefins
refinery for 30 years as an instrument and electrical specialist.
He has coordinated field maintenance activities and worked
in the process and control applications group. Mr. Ellul has
also been assigned to major rotating machinery instrument
upgrade projects.
TREVOR MAYNE is the lead machinery engineer for Qenos Olefins
Australias olefins refinery. He has worked with rotating equipment
in the olefins refinery and in the plastics and synthetic rubber
plants over the last 20 years. Mr. Mayne has held positions in
reliability and in field maintenance, both at Qenos Olefins
Australias Altona plant and in Saudi Arabia with ExxonMobil.
FIG. 5. Existing coupling arrangement (top) and retrofitted
torque-meter coupling (bottom).
Precise monitoring of turbomachinery
performance with continuous torque-
monitoring systems can be used
to identify gradual efficiency loss,
allowing for the development of a
more focused maintenance scope.
FIG. 3. Completed mechanical installation at Qenos Olefins.
FIG. 4. Torque-meter coupling retrofit at Qenos Olefins plant.
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AD00523CC
Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201353
Special Report
Maintenance and Reliability
N. GHAISAS, PE, Fluor Canada Ltd., Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Investigate power limitations in a large steam turbine
An investigation was carried out to rectify power limitations
for a steam-turbine driver of a cracked-gas compressor (CGC)
in a world-class ethylene plant.
Description. The turbine is a nine-stage, impulse-type,
multi-valve, straight-condensing turbine. Five years after
the initial start up, the first-stage nozzles of the turbine were
replaced with a new set of nozzles supplied by the original
equipment manufacturer (OEM). The replacement was done
to yield higher power output now required for olefins produc-
tion. The new nameplate-rated power of the turbine is 54,000
hp at 3,927 rpm. The revamp excluded any modifications to
the compressor drive and couplings due to adequate design
margins that could accommodate higher flowrate, pressure
and torque.
Steam is supplied to this turbine from a high-pressure
header at 700 psig at 900F through a 24-in. nozzle. An in-
verted, oil-operated trip and throttle valve is mounted just up-
stream of the turbine. The top half of the steam chest contains
five venturi-type, single-seated governing valves and valve seat
nozzles. Each valve has a nominal diameter of 4 in. The valves
are sequentially lifted by a bar mechanism. The I/P (current
to pressure) converter of the actuator receives a 0 mA20 mA
signal from the turbines electronic governor in response to
speed changes.
For nearly three years after the revamp, the turbine was
in continuous operation and exhibited normal performance.
However, first signs of deviation from steady-state conditions
became apparent when the turbine was no longer able to de-
liver power required by the CGC train. Turbine speed could
not be maintained and had gradually reduced by as much as
5% from the rated speed of 3,927 rpm. Consequently, the set-
point for first-stage suction pressure of the compressor had to
be changed to increase the pressure. The servo-motor piston in
the turbine governing system was at a fully retracted position,
indicating that all five of the bar-operated valves were lifted.
The situation became critical because the CGCs capacity re-
duction directly impacted ethylene production, and, ultimate-
ly, negatively impacted earnings for this facility.
Source of power limits. Two possible reasons for the tur-
bines power limitation were initially investigated and included:
Deposit buildup on the rotor from steam impurities
Detached row(s) of blades.
An analysis of the steam quality had been done on a month-
ly frequency. Test results did not indicate that impurities were
present in live steam. Turbine vibrations were low (15 mi-
crons p-p on both radial bearings, and there was no cognizable
changes in the thrust position of the rotor. Thus, the listed root
causes were ruled out. Instead, as suggested by the author, a
nozzle-bowl pressure survey was conducted to identify any ab-
normalities inside the steam path.
With the governor valve lift indicator showing a fully open
lift bar, steam-inlet pressure, nozzle-bowl pressures and first-
stage pressure (also known as nozzle-ring pressure) were re-
corded. TABLE 1 lists details from the nozzle-bowl survey. Refer-
ence was also taken to the steam-throttle flow vs. first-stage
pressure and steam-throttle flow vs. valve lift charts supplied
by the turbine manufacturer.
Interpretation of the measured data revealed that:
Pressures in nozzle bowls 1, 2 and 4 were nearly equal to
the steam inlet pressure, but pressures in bowls 3 and 5 were
found to be equal to first-stage pressure, i.e., the downstream
pressure. FIG. 1 shows the arrangement of governing valves.
TABLE 1. Measured parameters
Measurement Value
Steam inlet pressure, barg 46.1
First-stage pressure, barg 39.8
Nozzle bowl No. 1 pressure, barg 46
Nozzle bowl No. 2 pressure, barg 45.8
Nozzle bowl No. 3 pressure, barg 39.6
Nozzle bowl No. 4 pressure, barg 46
Nozzle bowl No. 5 pressure, barg 39.6
Venturi nozzle
Steam chest
Governor valve
4
2
1
3
5
Steam chest internal
Inlet steam
Inlet nozzle
Valve seat
Valve
lifter bar
Threaded end
Double nut
FIG. 1. Side view of the governing valves for the turbine.
54MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Maintenance and Reliability
Since the pressure in nozzle bowls 1, 2 and 4 were in the
proximity of steam-inlet pressure, the possibility of restricted
steam flow due to a clogged strainer in the trip and throttle
valve was eliminated. Similarly, since the governor lift rod had
traversed to full lift position, binding or interference in gov-
ernor linkage was not considered as a contributing factor to
the problem.
These results inferred that the power limitation was
attributable to valves 3 and 5, in that these valves had likely
detached from the lifting bar and blocked the venturi nozzles
underneath.
Following the pressure survey, the turbine was shut down
to open the steam chest top cover for internal inspection
(FIG. 2). Upon disassembly, the stems of governing valves 3
and 5 were found to have sheared along the valve stem threads.
The broken valves were sitting on the venturi nozzles, thus
blocking the nozzle passages. This explained the reduced
steam flow to the turbine and the resulting power limitation.
The venturi nozzle for valves 3, 4 and 5 were found to be
loose in the steam chest. The nozzles were originally set in
bored openings in the steam chest with a tap fit and secured
by one set screw.
During the shutdown, a boroscopic inspection of the rotor
was conducted to confirm that there was no deposit
buildup on the blades.
Following inspection, all five governing valves
were replaced with a set of spare valves. Loose noz-
zles were secured into place and locked with three
set screws to prevent them from coming off. Tack
welding of nozzles was not carried out due to the
possibility of thermal distortion of the steam chest.
After repairs and calibration checks of the govern-
ing system, the turbine was warmed up. This was
followed by a over-speed-trip test and then the tur-
bine was coupled to the compressor string. FIG. 3 is
the calibration curve for the actuator.
Further evaluations were carried out to investigate why the
two governing valves had broken. These valves are the closest
to the steam-inlet opening in the steam chest. Thus, they are
first valves to take full steam pressure. At the time of revamp,
only the first-stage nozzle ring was replaced, but, apparently, no
mechanical design check was done by the manufacturer on the
upstream steam path. It was determined from calculations that
the steam velocity at the turbine inlet nozzle, corresponding
to post-revamp conditions, was in the proximity of 150 ft/sec.
Although it is not an absolute value, good engineering
guides recommend flow velocity through nozzles to be less
than 150 ft/sec for reasonable pressure drop and flow dis-
tribution. Continuous, prolonged operation at high-steam
velocity and the associated energy of trapped steam can
create turbulence in the steam chest. Such turbulence must
have loosened the securing nuts on governing valves 3 and 5.
The steam velocity worked its way through the weakest link,
which is the valve threads, and then sheared the threads.
The findings and evaluation were communicated to the
turbine manufacturer. The manufacturer concurred with the
analysis and asked that the broken valves be returned for metal-
lurgical investigation. In the end, the new set of replacement
valves was nitrided at the manufacturers facility to create a case-
hardened surface on ASTM A410 valve material. In the next
available opportunity, these valves were installed in the steam
chest. Since this changeout, the turbine has operated normally
and is able to meet the process conditions demand.
NEETIN GHAISAS is a Fluor Fellow for rotating equipment and a
director, design engineering in Fluors Calgary, Alberta, Canada,
office. He holds an MS degree in mechanical engineering and is a
registered practicing Professional Engineer in the province of
Alberta, Canada. Mr. Ghaisas possesses over 31 years of
professional experience, especially in the specification, selection,
application and troubleshooting of rotating equipment. Mr.
Ghaisas is a subject matter expert for Fluor Corp. on compressors, steam turbines,
reliability-centered maintenance and root-cause-failure analysis. Further, he has a
number of years of experience in machinery vibration diagnosis including transient
and steady-state analysis. In Fluors Calgary office, he serves as a group leader for
rotating equipment engineers. Mr. Ghaisas is a member of the task force member
for several API standards and is also a member of Machinery Function Team for
Process Industry Practices.
Operation of the cracked-gas compressor
is a major factor governing the profitability
of any ethylene facility. Limitations on the
turbine driver for this compressor can be
the difference between profitability
or doom for any olefins site.
FIG. 2. Steam chest under investigation.
Signal, %
L
i
f
t
,

%
0 10 40 60 80 100
20
60
100
FIG. 3. Calibration curve for the actuator.
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Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201357
Special Report
Maintenance and Reliability
S. SHAW, AESSEAL plc, Rotherham, South Yorkshire,
United Kingdom
Seal safety may require going beyond
typical standards
In 1984, a single, large-scale emission of methyl isocyanate
(MIC) led to the loss of thousands of lives at Bhopal, India.
The event became one of the most consequential process safe-
ty failures for the manufacturing industry. Follow-up releases
and articles have documented how machinery failures played a
role in the Bhopal disaster.
1
Incremental changes made to the
original process design involving pumps and seals ultimately
contributed to this catastrophic event.
A comprehensive examination of current seal standards
indicates that possible inconsistencies and weaknesses are
present in these guides. Such deficiencies were confirmed
in leakage testing conducted by a leading seal manufacturer
in mid-2012. There is consensus among respected industry
professionals that users must reach beyond typical standards
in applying safer mechanical seals when hazardous and toxic
chemicals are involved.
Pumps, seals and what happened in Bhopal. In the first
major change from original plant design, engineers and manag-
ers at the Bhopal facility adopted an alternative fluid-transfer
method. The operators pressurized the MIC storage tank and
reversed the flow directly into the derivatives unit, thus avoid-
ing the failure-prone MIC-transfer pumps. According to im-
portant cross-references released to the public record in early
2012, this alternative practice was adopted because it mini-
mized the potential for transfer-pump seal failures and expos-
ing employees to the lethal process.
1
The second major change involved a circulation pump
processing the MIC through a fluorocarbon-based refrigera-
tion system. Refrigeration was used to keep the MIC tempera-
ture near 0C, thus greatly reducing the risk of a thermal run-
away reaction. On January 9, 1982, there was a severe incident
in which a mechanical seal face had shattered. A significant
MIC release occurred, and 25 employees were sent to hospitals
with serious injuries. The refrigeration system was no longer
used after January 12, 1982.
The reasons for making process changes were identical. Both
operational changes were implemented to avoid future pump
and seal failures that could expose employees to lethal chemicals.
In May 1984, an independent audit team arrived at the Bho-
pal MIC facility. The team made several recommendations,
one of which was to install dual seals on the centrifugal pumps.
Dual seals (FIG. 1) and appropriate seal-support systems or
flush-plan arrangements can effectively control fugitive emis-
sions. In this case, the dual seals and support systems were not
installed before the tragic release event on December 2, 1984.
Prevailing industry standards. In all hazardous services, seal-
ing safety and equipment reliability interact. Present practices
for sealing volatile compounds are linked to American Petroleum
Institute (API) 682/ISO21409, which is the international stan-
dard most often used. The standard specifies the requirements
and offers best-practice recommendations for sealing centrifu-
gal and rotary-positive displacement pumps. The hydrocarbon
processing industry considers this standard of critical impor-
tance in hazardous, flammable and/or toxic services.
It is widely understood that shaft sealing systems conform-
ing to API 682/ISO21409 must meet four stated reliability ob-
jectives, which are:
1. All seals should operate continuously for 25,000 hours
without the need for replacement.
2. Containment seals (wet- and dry-mechanical seals)
should operate for at least 25,000 hours without the need for
replacement at any containment seal chamber pressure equal to
or less than the seal leakage pressure switch setting (not to ex-
ceed a gauge pressure of 0.07 MPa/0.7 bar/10 psi), and for at
least 8 hours, at the seal chamber conditions.
3. All seals should operate for 25,000 hours without the
need for replacement while either complying with local emis-
FIG. 1. With a dual mechanical seal, the space between the sleeve and
inside diameter of the two sets of seal faces is filled with a pressurized
barrier fluid.
58MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Maintenance and Reliability
sions regulations, or exhibiting a maximum screening value of
1,000 ml/m
3
(1,000 ppm by volume), as measured by the US
EPA Method 21, whichever is more stringent.
4. The minimum performance requirements and permit-
ted leakage detailed in Section 10.3.1.4.1 of the standard speci-
fies an average liquid leakage rate of less than 5.6 g/hr per set
of seal faces.
The fourth point is very significant. Because 5.6 g/hr is the
maximum acceptable leakage rate given in this standard, and
seal users expect compliance. Many users base their safety risk
analyses on this information. However, mechanical seals can
enter the supply chain and vastly exceed the presumed maxi-
mum leakage rate of 5.6 g/hr.
Essential testing protocol and results. Testing for liquid
leakage by actually using liquids is not always convenient. Test-
ing with clean air is feasible as long as the equivalencies are estab-
lished by calculation, calibrated tests and measurements. With
this goal in mind, API 682/ISO 21409 allows seal manufactur-
ers to follow an air-testing protocol. The protocol is described
in Section 10.3.4.2 of the standard and is summarized in TABLE 1.
However, while meeting the air-test criteria, a mechanical seal
can utterly miss the liquid leakage limit given in objective 4, from
Section 10.3.1.4.1 of the standard. That objective, as stated above,
is to limit allowable liquid leakage from new mechanical seals to
5.6 g/hr. This potentially far-reaching safety issue prompted a
thorough examination by calculations. The accuracy of the cal-
culations was then validated by air-testing in accordance with
the API protocol. Air tests were followed by water tests.
TABLE 2 summarizes the air-test results. Using the criteria
from TABLE 1, air leakage through a 0.008-in. orifice in a pressur-
ized 26.5-l loop would pass the test. But the tests also confirmed
that seals in a pressurized lower-volume loop (1.5 l) fitted with
the same orifice would not meet the stipulations of TABLE 1. In
a 1.5-l loop, the pressure loss was 22 psi in 5 minutes. Result:
The seal failed the test. On the positive side, the test descrip-
tions and results of TABLE 2 indicated that a well-designed and
properly manufactured mechanical seal is virtually airtight. It
will experience no pressure decay in either the small (1.5 l) or
large (26.5 l) test loop.
Testing for liquid leakage. For testing with water in the seal
loops, the loops were fitted with a 0.2-mm (0.008-in.) orifice.
Water was added to the loop and connected to a pressurized
volume of nitrogen. Three different nitrogen pressure settings
were used for the water-test sequence, as listed in TABLE 3. All
water tests showed that the liquid-leakage rates exceeded the
maximum permissible limit of 5.6 g/hr:
Filled with water and pressurized to a gauge pressure of
0.2 MPa (2 bar, or 29 psig), a mechanical seal actually leaked
1,500 g/hr270 times the allowable rate.
When pressurized to 7 barg (102 psi), the leakage rate
jumped to 50 g/min or 3,000 g/hr (6.6 lb/hr)535 times the
allowable rate.
Finally, when pressurized to 40 barg (580 psi), which is
close to the maximum pressure limit for a Type A seal under
API 682/ISO21049, the leakage rate is 125 cc/min (4.2 fl.oz/
min) or 7,500 g/hr (16.5 lb/hr)1,300 times the allowable rate.
None of the leakage rates in TABLE 3 complied with the de-
sign intent of Section 10.3.1.4.1 in API 682. Moreover, such
extreme leakage rates will obviously not meet the reasonable
expectations of reliability and safety-focused users.*
ANSI/API RP 754 and safety guidelines of the Baker
Panel. The safety-critical implications of the air test vs. actual
liquid-leakage discrepancies are staggering. Seals that enter the
market based on passing the present API/ISO air test can, in the
most extreme case, leak 7,500 g/hr of flammable, toxic or haz-
ardous product.
The significance of this issue becomes clearer when we exam-
ine another API standard, ANSI/API RP 754. This document was
created following the 2005 explosion at the BP refinery in Texas
City, Texas. It emphasizes recommendations, which following
the Texas City event, were made by the BP U.S. Refineries Indepen-
dent Safety Review Panel (the Baker Panel) and the US Chemical
Safety Board. The stated aims of ANSI/API RP 754 are to:
Indicate changes in company or industry performance, to
be used to drive continuous improvement in performance
Perform company-to-company or industry segment-to-
segment benchmarking
Serve as a leading indicator of potential process safety is-
sues, which could result in a catastrophic event.
A significant focus of ANSI/API RP 754 is loss of process
containment (LOPC) events. LOPC events are categorized in
TABLE 1. Key items of API/ISO protocol for mechanical seal
air tests
Each sealing section shall be independently pressurized with clean air
to a gauge pressure of 0.17 MPa (1.7 bar or 25 psi). The volume of each
test setup shall be a maximum of 28 l (1 ft
3
).
Isolate the test setup from the pressurizing source and maintain the
pressure for at least 5 minutes.
Maximum pressure drop during the test shall be 0.014 MPa
(0.14 bar or 2 psi).*
TABLE 2. Summary of air-test results
Test description Pressure drop
26.5-l Closed-loop system with virtually
airtight mechanical seal and no orice
(control test)
Zero pressure dropPass
26.5-l Closed-loop no leakage system
with 0.008-in. orice added
2-psi pressure dropPass
26.5-l System with initially airtight
mechanical seal and 0.008-in. orice added
2-psi pressure dropPass
1.5-l System with initially airtight
mechanical seal and 0.008-in.orice added
22-psi pressure dropFail
1.5-l System with virtually airtight
mechanical seal and no orice
Zero pressure dropPass
TABLE 3. Liquid leakage rates at various pressures
with 0.008-in. (0.2-mm) orice
Test pressure Leakage Actual vs. allowable leakage
2 barg (29 psig) 1,500 g/hr 270 * the maximum
7 barg (102 psig) 3,000 g/hr 535 * the maximum
40 barg (580 psig) 7,500 g/hr 1,300 * the maximum
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Maintenance and Reliability
four tiers by severity, with the most extreme LOPC events be-
ing labeled as Tier 1 and defined as LOPC events of greater
consequence. To be categorized as a Tier 1 hazard, one of two
conditions must be met:
1. LOPC results in a lost-time injury, fatality or fire; or
2. Any LOPC above a defined size limit, regardless of the
consequence.
For an incident to be considered most serious, the release
must be classified as an acute release. By definition, an acute
release must meet a threshold value or quantity limit within one
hour. TABLE 4 lists the threshold quantities for a Tier 1 event.
From TABLE 3, a mechanical-seal assembly containing a
0.008-in. (0.2-mm) orifice at a typical pressure (7 barg or 102
psi) was capable of leaking 3,000 g/hr (6.6 lb/hr). Also, it passes
the present API air test. If the duty was a TIH Zone A material,
leakage rates are so severe that, by ANSI/API RP 754 definitions,
the seal would be in a constant state of the most serious report-
able Tier 1 acute leakage. This leakage would be considered
a separate new Tier 1 acute LOPC process safety incident each
and every hour that the seal was used to contain the process.
Use seals that satisfy common-sense safety demands.
When it comes to sealing issues, industry must apply the les-
sons from Bhopal and other disasters. It is obvious that a test
that can allow up to 1,300 times the intended leakage should
be revised. By comparing the test results to APIs own hazard-
ous release thresholds, it appears that safety should be sufficient
grounds to amend the current standard.
The worlds best petrochemical and oil refining plants are not
using API or other industry specifications as stand-alone criteria.
The leading users of, say, centrifugal pumps, recognize that speci-
fication supplements or amendments are needed. The various
cautionary clauses given in the typical introductory statements to
different standards are well-known best-practices companies. For
example, one of these clauses reads: The purchaser may desire to
modify, delete or amplify sections of this standard. Another pref-
ace is worded: Standards are not intended to inhibit purchasers
or producers from purchasing or producing products made to
specifications other than those of API. Appropriately, the API
expressly declines any liability or responsibility for loss or dam-
age resulting from the use of its standards, or for the violation of
any regulation with which the standards publication may conflict.
Reliability and safety professionals have to manage risks ef-
fectively, and standards can indeed be extremely helpful. Test-
ing, however, has shown beyond all doubt that not all standards
are harmonious and noncontradictory. Invoking an inconsis-
tent standard will not sufficiently mitigate risk. When it comes
to sealing hazardous, flammable and/or toxic products, engi-
neers should understand that just because a seal meets the pres-
ent levels that it does not mean this seal will perform safely in
service. The recommended action would be for the test loop
volume in the API/ISO protocol for mechanical seal air tests to
be changed to 1.5 l. This recommended change is reflected in
the first point of TABLE 5.
We are encouraged by reliability professionals on several con-
tinents who are now taking tangible steps to reduce mechanical-
seal failure risks. Also, because of the weakness resulting from
the presently allowed large-volume protocol of TABLE 1, at least
one major mechanical-seal manufacturer is now voluntarily
subjecting its API 682-qualified seals to the far more stringent
low-volume air-testing described earlier. TABLE 5 restates the
low-volume air-testing protocol. Finally, users can reduce the
risk of installing flawed mechanical seals and, thereby, increase
safety and reliability by specifying, buying and installing only
seals with initial liquid leakage rates not exceeding 5.6 g/hr.
NOTES

* Footnote: A demonstration video, which includes footage of each stage of testing
detailed in this article, has been released into the public domain. The author active-
ly encourages interested readers and safety-focused seal users to review the readily
available video: http://www.sealsuccess.com/api-682-mechanical-seals-leaking/.
LITERATURE CITED
1
Bloch, K. and B. Jung, The Bhopal Disaster: Understanding the impact of unreli-
able machinery, Hydrocarbon Processing, June 2012.
STEPHEN SHAW, CEng, FIMechE, CMOSH, is a chartered engineer and a Fellow of
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. In addition, he is a Chartered Safety and
Health Practitioner. Since 2008, he has been the chairman of AESSEAL plc. He was
appointed group engineering director of AES Engineering Ltd., in 2011.
TABLE 4. Threshold quantity limits for a Tier 1 LOPC hazard
Threshold
release category Material hazard classication Threshold quantity
1 TIH Zone A materials 5 kg (11 lb)
2 TIH Zone B materials 25 kg (55 lb)
3 TIH Zone C materials 100 kg (220 lb)
4 TIH Zone D materials 200 kg (400 lb)
5 Flammable gases or liquids
with initial boiling point 35C
(95F) and ash point < 23C
(73F) or other packing group
I materials excluding strong
acids/bases
500 kg (1,100 lb)
6 Liquids with initial boiling
point > 35C (95F) and ash
point < 23C (73F) or other
packing group II materials,
excluding moderate acids/
bases
1,000 kg (2,200 lb)
or 7 bbl
7 Liquids with ash point 23C
(73F) and 60C (140F)
or liquids with ash point
> 60C (140F) released at
a temperature at or above
ash point or strong acids/
bases or other packing group
III materials or Division 2.2
nonammable, nontoxic
gases (excluding steam, hot
condensate, and compressed
or liqueed air)
2,000 kg (4,400 lb)
or 14 bbl
TABLE 5. Proposed key items of API/ISO protocol
for mechanical-seal air tests
Each sealing section shall be independently pressurized with clean
air to a gauge pressure of 0.17 MPa (1.7 bar or 25 psi). The volume
of each test setup shall be a maximum of 1.5 l.
Isolate the test setup from the pressurizing source and maintain
the pressure for at least 5 minutes.
Maximum pressure drop during the test shall be 0.014 MPa
(0.14 bar or 2 psi).
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Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201361
Special Report
Maintenance and Reliability
A. GLAUN and J. SHAHDA, GE Oil & Gas,
Avon, Massachusetts
Prevent methane hydrate formation
in natural gas valves
Gas flow across a control valve is considered a classic
throttling process that is defined by energy not being add-
ed or extracted from the process gas as it traverses the valve.
Therefore, total enthalpy is preserved, entropy increases and
the process is thermodynamically irreversible.
The consequences of this process are that many real
gases experience a drop in temperature while following
the constant enthalpy line as the pressure drops across the
valve. This effect was first described by William Thomson
and James Joule, and it now bears their names. The Joule-
Thomson effect is leveraged in the production of cryogenic
fluids such as liquid oxygen, nitrogen and argon, and it is the
principle of operation behind most air conditioners and re-
frigeration in use today.
Natural gas production, storage and transmission usually
take place close to ambient conditions, where a small change
in temperature can induce the formation of methane clath-
rates (hydrates). Once formed, methane hydrates can block
valves, fittings and pipelines. Newer facilities are using higher
transmission pressures, causing the temperature inside the
valve to approach or drop below 0C, with the risk of icing on
the outside of the valve.
The discussion here focuses on the thermodynamics in-
volved and on the requirements for a successful natural gas
valve application in which the incidences of hydrate formation
and icing of the valve are reduced. Computational fluid dy-
namics (CFD) studies are also presented showing the Joule-
Thomson effect in a real-world valve application.
What are methane hydrates? Natural gas/methane hy-
drates (also known as methane ice) are crystalline water ice-
like particles, where methane molecules are trapped inside hy-
drogen-bonded water molecules. Under the right conditions
of pressure and temperature, these form semi-solid particles
that tend to agglomerate, building up inside pipelines, valves
and other process equipment.
Why worry about methane hydrates in valves? Hydrate
ice particles may clog flow passages in control valves and, in
particular, valves with noise attenuation trim (small drilled-
hole cages, labyrinth passage stacks, etc.). This sometimes
causes a major reduction in the flow across the valve, badly af-
fecting system operation. Severe hydrate formation may even
clog large passages of the valve body and pipeline.
How do methane hydrates form? Hydrates form in natu-
ral gas pipelines when the local fluid temperature drops below
the hydrate-formation temperature at a specific pressure. This
temperature drop can occur when the natural gas flows through
a control valve, or when gas travels through transmission pipe-
lines under cold ambient conditions or through any other piece
of process equipment where the flow is restricted or accelerated
in such an orifice plate. This phenomenon of temperature drop
with pressure drop in a real gas is known as the Joule-Thomson
effect. Note: Hydrates can form at temperatures well above the
freezing point of water (FIG. 1).
Hydrate-formation temperature is difficult to predict and is
the subject of many academic papers. Prediction depends on
temperature and pressure, water concentration and the compo-
sition of the natural gas, where small concentrations of heavy hy-
drocarbons and other gases such as O
2
, N
2
, H
2
S and CO
2
can af-
fect the formation temperature. Software programs are available
to help the user predict the formation temperature, but the only
way to know for certain is to test a sample of the gas in question.
How is the gas temperature drop calculated? Flow across
a control valve is considered a throttling, constant enthalpy (is-
175
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
200 225 250
Temperature, K
Methane clathrate, stable
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

M
P
a
275 300 325
FIG. 1. Stability curve showing that methane hydrate is stable at 0.1
MPa (1 bar) if temperatures are low enough, and that it is stable far
above the melting point of ice (H
2
O) if pressures are high enough.
Data courtesy of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
62MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Maintenance and Reliability
enthalpic) process. This implies that the process occurs over a
very short period, making it adiabatic (no heat is lost or gained
during the process); enthalpy is preserved, and the process is ir-
reversible (i.e., entropy increases and cannot be recovered).
For a real gas flowing through a control valve, this process
gives a lower downstream temperature. Additional lowering
of the downstream temperature may occur due to high down-
stream velocity of the expanded gas (Eq. 1). For natural gas and
reasonable downstream velocities of less than 0.3 Mach num-
ber (Ma), the velocity terms in Eq. 1 are two orders of magni-
tude smaller than the enthalpy and can usually be ignored.

(1)

h
1
+
V
1
2
2
=h
2
+
V
2
2
2

Where:
h = Specifc enthalpy
V = Fluid velocity
1, 2
= Upstream and downstream conditions, respectively.
Two common methods exist to calculate the temperature
drop of natural gas for a given pressure drop across the valve.
The first method is to determine the enthalpy at the inlet pres-
sure and temperature and then to determine the outlet tem-
perature at the same enthalpy and outlet pressure. Software
programs and web-based calculators can give this data, but the
Mollier chart for methane can also be used, assuming an isen-
thalpic process in the valve from Eq. 1.
A Mollier chart, at minimum, displays properties of pres-
sure, temperature, enthalpy and entropy on one diagram, allow-
ing the user to define a state using only two properties and read-
ing off the other properties (FIGS. 24). By definition, this is an
accurate method of determining the downstream temperature;
it is only limited by the accuracy of the Mollier chart and by
the users ability to graphically interpolate the chart. Using soft-
ware may be more precise, but the authors believe that a Mollier
chart gives the user a visual sense of how the values are chang-
ing and leads to a better understanding of the thermodynamics.
After determining the inlet condition on the chart, the user
follows the lines of constant enthalpy until the downstream
pressure line is reached. The temperature now can be read at
this new position. The caveats to this method are that the as-
sumption of constant enthalpy is just thatan assumption. In
reality, there is some heat transfer across the valve/pipe bound-
ary, and the process is never precisely a true throttling process.
These inefficiencies will result in lower temperatures than
the ideal determined above.
The second method is a general rule used in the natural gas
industry where, for every 100-psi pressure drop, there is a cor-
responding 7F temperature drop; however, this rule is limited
to a maximum valve inlet pressure of 1,000 psi. Using the Mol-
lier chart for methane at room temperature, the accuracy of
this rule can be evaluated. It varies from 5.5F/100 psi for in-
let pressures of approximately 300 psi, to 6F/100 psi for inlet
pressures of approximately 1,000 psi.
The rule takes into account inefficiencies and is somewhat
conservative. However, for high inlet pressures and small pres-
sure drops, the rule is very conservative. For example, from a
270
3.5 3.7 3.9
Entropy, kJ/kg
Methane throttling process
4.1 4.3 4.5
280 A
1
2
B
290
300
310
C
o
n
s
ta
n
t e
n
th
a
lp
y
C
o
n
s
t
a
n
t
p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,
b
a
r
Hydrate formation line
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

K320
330
340
350
200 160 140 120
80
90
100
FIG. 2. Temperature drop inside a single-stage trim valve (Line A)
and a multi-stage trim valve (Line B).
FIG. 3. Single-stage contoured plug valve (Line A). FIG. 4. Multi-stage, expanding-area trim valve (Line B).
Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201363
Maintenance and Reliability
drop of 1,000 psi to 800 psi, the temperature drop is 4.5F/100
psi per the Mollier chart.
The temperature downstream of the valve is a concern, but
the lowest temperature inside the valve trim must also
be calculated. In fact, the pressure and temperature
at the trim vena contracta (smallest area of flow in the
trim) are usually lower than the pressure and tempera-
ture downstream of the valve. The lower temperatures
inside the valve are due to sudden accelerations of the
gas inside the valve trim and typically are thermody-
namically isentropic (reversible) in nature.
These internal pressure drops can be very large for
single-orifice valves and less so for multi-stage control
valve trims that drop the pressure over a number of
controlled pressure-drop stages; they can be visual-
ized if the reader follows the constant entropy line on
the Mollier chart. Fortunately, this vena contracta low tempera-
ture is not a permanent change of state, and the temperature due
to this effect recovers after the gas passes through the valve trim,
leaving only the vena contracta and adjacent areas cold.
How can hydrate formation be avoided? There are several
solutions to reduce the incidence of hydrate formation in valves:
1. Appropriate inlet temperature. The natural gas inlet
temperature can be chosen so that, when the pressure drops
across the valve, the resulting downstream temperature of the
natural gas is always above the hydrate-formation temperature.
Gas temperatures are normally determined by the gas field,
so external heating of the inlet gas prior to entering the valve
may be the only option. This is, however, expensive in terms of
heating equipment and fuel costs. The required inlet tempera-
ture can be determined using the Mollier chart or the 7F/100
psi rule, by starting at a known safe outlet temperature and
then working backward.
2. Inhibitor injection. Inhibitors can be injected upstream
of the control valve to prevent the gas from reaching the hydrate-
formation temperature, thereby preventing the formation of hy-
drates. The most common inhibitors are methanol and ethylene
glycol; these typically can be recovered from the gas and recir-
culated. However, inhibitor injection and recovery can be costly.
3. Valve trim design. As noted earlier, even if the valve
outlet is above the hydrate-formation temperature, the inter-
nal valve trim temperature may not be, and hydrate formation
is possible within the valve. If this is the case, then selecting a
multi-stage valve that gradually lowers the pressure across the
valve trim will help the situation. Note: Trim selection can-
not prevent downstream hydrate formation if the downstream
temperature is below the hydrate-formation temperature. The
Joule-Thomson effect is a state condition from upstream to
downstream, and changing the valve trim will not affect this.
The red lines in FIG. 2 show the properties of methane as
the fluid travels through the control valve from upstream (1) to
downstream (2). The long, dashed red line labeled A repre-
sents a single-stage control valve where the temperature drops
below the hydrate-formation line (blue line), making it pos-
sible for hydrates to form inside the trim. The dotted red line
labeled B represents a multi-stage control valve where the
temperature does not drop below the hydrate-formation line,
thus preventing hydrates from forming inside the trim.
Valve icing. Under high pressure-drop conditions, the outlet
temperature in the valve may fall below the freezing point of
water. This may not cause hydrate formation inside the valve
because inhibitors such as monoethylene glycol (MEG) can be
used with gas at 10C. Even so, condensation and freezing on
the outside of the valve body and pipeline can have serious ef-
fects. For example, coastal gas fields on the Saudi Arabian pen-
insula are notoriously humid and prone to ice buildup.
Extremely thick layers of ice can build up, preventing access
to the valve body or pipe wall. These layers of ice can add sig-
nificant weight to the valve and pipeline, with the possibility of
structural and/or vibration problems. The valve bonnet may
become iced, thus seriously impacting the valve stem packing
and raising the potential for leakage.
A real-world problem. A natural gas producer was flowing gas
through a control valve with the following winter conditions:
Upstream: 975 psia, at 57F
Downstream: 180 psia, with icing on the valve and pipe.
The icing was unacceptable to the plant operator, and the
only line heaters available were rated at 350 psia and could not
be used to heat the inlet gas. For the purposes of this example,
the natural gas is assumed to be methane.
An isenthalpic analysis showed that the downstream tempera-
ture reaches 14F (FIG. 5, points 12). Using a gas industry gen-
eral rule, the downstream temperature could reach 1.3F (FIG. 5,
points 13). The end user required that the downstream temper-
ature be no less than 40F to prevent icing and hydrate formation.
Hydrate-formation temperature is difficult
to predict and is the subject of many
academic papers. Software programs are
available to help the user predict the
formation temperature, but the only way
to know for certain is to test a sample
of the gas in question.
1 5
4 2 3
6
C
o
n
s
t
a
n
t
t
e
m
p
.
M
in
.
g
a
s
t
e
m
p
.
5
7

F
Inlet pressure
Outlet pressure
40F
20F
60F
80F
100F
0F
Heat input 59 kJ/kg
Originalisenthalpic
Original7F/100 psi
Solution 1isenthalpic
Solution 17F/100 psi
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
770 790 810 830 850 870 890
Enthalpy, kJ/kg
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
FIG. 5. Heating required at inlet pressure to keep outlet temperature
above 40F.
64MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Maintenance and Reliability
Solution 1: Heat gas at the valve inlet. A common solution
to this type of icing problem is to use pipeline heaters just up-
stream of the valve. The fuel for the heaters is usually the flow-
ing natural gas itself. However, this solution is costly in terms of
lost gas and the expense of high-pressure heaters.
Referring to FIG. 5 and using the 40F minimum outlet tem-
perature requirement (dashed blue line), point 4 can be located
and the temperature can be back-calculated to maintain 40F
at the outlet of the valve. The gas inlet temperature should be
above 95F (point 6) to avoid falling below 40F at the outlet.
Using an isenthalpic analysis, the inlet temperature should be
above 84F (point 5) to avoid falling below 40F at the outlet.
The difference between points 5 and 6 is quite substantial, and,
as discussed earlier, the authors believe that, for high pressures,
the 7F/100-psi rule is overly conservative. The isenthalpic anal-
ysis is ideal for this measurement; the true value lies somewhere
in between.
Note: The addition of hydrate inhibitors might lower the end
users specification of 40F minimum temperature at the outlet of
the valve. In this case, point 4 would move to a lower value to the
left and the analysis would be repeated, thereby lowering the min-
imum required inlet temperature to prevent hydrate formation.
The rate of energy input required to heat the gas can be read
directly from FIG. 5 by subtracting the enthalpy at point 6 from the
enthalpy at point 1. If this value is multiplied by the mass flowrate
in kg/s, then the answer is the rate of energy input in kJ/s or kW.
As mentioned before, this analysis is independent of the
type of trim in the valve. If the analysis shows that the tempera-
ture at the outlet is low enough to form hydrates, then changing
to a multi-turn or multi-stage trim will not alter the conditions
at the outlet. A multi-stage valve will, however, limit very low
temperatures inside the valve trim.
Solution 2: Use available low-pressure heaters. The first
option considered was to save the customer from having to buy
new equipment by using the existing, 350 psia-rated line heat-
ers (FIG. 6). This method required staging the pressure drop
by placing another valve in the line. The first pressure drop oc-
curred from 975 psia to the heater maximum pressure of 350
psia, and then down to the outlet pressure of 180 psia.
In the methodology of this solution, the outlet drop should
not fall below 40F, which allows point 4 to be located. An is-
enthalpic analysis is used to back up to the heater pressure of
350 psia, which gives points 3 and 5, respectively. Point 2 is
located on the 40F minimum line, and an isenthalpic analysis
is used to back up to the inlet pressure of 975 psia, giving points
1 and 6, respectively. The heat input is calculated from points
25. The addition of heat at 350F reduces the minimum inlet
temperature to 84F from 95F, with no heat addition.
Note: As with solution 1, the addition of hydrate inhibitors
might lower the end users specification of 40F minimum at
the outlet of the valve. In this case, point 4 would move to a
lower value and the analysis would be repeated, thereby low-
ering the minimum required inlet temperature to prevent hy-
drate formation.
Solution 3: Apply new low-pressure heaters. If the an-
swers from the first two solutions are inadequate, the next step
is to examine the lowest-pressure-rated line heaters that can be
used and still operate year-round at the minimum inlet tem-
perature of 57F. This requires a slightly different methodology
than that used previously.
Referring to FIG. 7 and starting at the minimum inlet tem-
perature at point 1, the pressure must then be determined for
when 40F is reached. This gives point 6, which is at 732 psia.
Knowing that the endpoint is point 4, one can work backwards,
using isenthalpic analysis, to arrive at point 5. The enthalpy
difference between points 5 and 6 is the resulting heat input
required. Comparing the result of solution 3 to solution 1, a
small reduction in heat input is required. Note that the heat in-
put found when using the general rule is identical to that found
when using the isenthalpic analysis.
At this point, it becomes a question for the end user of eco-
nomics and complexity. Solution 1 appears to be less complex,
since it requires only one control valve; however, a large pres-
sure drop across one valve results in a severe service applica-
tion with low internal valve trim temperatures, possibly requir-
ing an expensive multi-turn or multi-stage valve. High-rated
pressure-line heaters also must be purchased, and significant
heat must be added to the upstream gas.
Solution 2 does not appear to be useful since an additional
valve would need to be added to the line to accommodate the
pressure drop from 350 psia to the outlet pressure of 180 psia,
and the system would not be able to run unless the ambient
2
1 6
3
4
5
C
o
n
s
t
a
n
t
t
e
m
p
.
M
in
.
g
a
s
t
e
m
p
.
5
7

F
Inlet pressure
Outlet pressure
Heater max. pressure
40F
20F
60F
80F
100F
0F
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
770 790 810 830 850 870 890
Enthalpy, kJ/kg
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
Heat input 16 kJ/kg
FIG. 6. Minimum inlet temperature when using the existing
low-pressure line heaters.
2
1
3 6
4
5
C
o
n
s
t
a
n
t
t
e
m
p
.
M
in
.
g
a
s
t
e
m
p
.
5
7

F
Inlet pressure
732 psi
Outlet pressure
40F
20F
60F
80F
100F
0F
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
770 790 810 830 850 870 890
Enthalpy, kJ/kg
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
Heat input, 56 kJ/kg
FIG. 7. Heat input at lowest line heater pressure for preventing
hydrates at minimum inlet temperature.
Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201365
Maintenance and Reliability
(inlet) temperature reached 84F. However, there are some
geographical locations where this might not be such a burden.
Solution 3 requires the complexity of an additional valve,
but the pressure drop is broken up into two reasonable steps,
resulting in two less severe applications and warmer internal
valve trim temperatures. Lower-rated pressure-line heaters
would need to be purchased, and significant heat would need
to be added to the upstream gas.
Numerical analysis for valve trim temperature. CFD
can be used to model the flow through the trim of the valve.
An accurate CFD analysis to capture Joule-Thomson effects
is only possible if advanced real gas formulations are used. A
real gas model takes into account non-ideal compressibility
effects, whereas an ideal gas CFD analysis will only predict
localized drops in temperature resulting from increases in ve-
locity and reductions in local pressure due to the acceleration
of the fluid as it negotiates turns in the valve trim.
The proprietary CFD program used in this case has a real
gas model that uses the Redlich-Kwong formulation to pre-
dict the fluid properties, taking into account the non-ideal
compressibility of the working fluid. The program predicted
54F at the outlet of the trim, which compares favorably to
an isenthalpic analysis using a Mollier chart, which predicts
54.5F.
FIG. 8 shows a representative 22-turn trim (pictured is a
half-symmetry model of one flow channel) with an inlet
pressure of 975 psia and an outlet pressure of 180 psia. The
results show the even, gradual, staged pressure drop through
the valve trim. This style of trim serves two main purposes:
One is to lower the outlet jet Ma, producing a quiet valve, and
the other is to reduce the temperature drop inside the valve
trim to minimize hydrate formation and icing.
FIG. 9 shows the temperature results. The plot clearly shows
the Joule-Thomson effect of a permanent temperature drop
from inlet to outlet. It also shows areas inside the valve trim
FIG. 8. CFD pressure plot of a representative 22-turn, multi-stage
valve trim.
+1713-682-3651
TFHudgins.com
[email protected]
T.F. Hudgins, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Oil Mist Lubrication. Worldwide.
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66MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Maintenance and Reliability
where the temperature can drop below the outlet temperature,
although areas are localized and the temperature recovers.
Even accepted global standards for valve sizing, such as IEC
60534-2-1, do not take this real gas effect into account and base
the sizing exclusively on upstream temperature, assuming an
ideal gas where interstage and downstream temperature equals
the upstream temperature. (Note: IEC 60534-2-1 does warn
that compressibility of real gases should be taken into account
if an accurate upstream density is to be calculated.)
IEC control valve noise prediction standard 60543-8-3
explicitly states in its scope statement that ideal gas laws are
assumed, and it uses the upstream temperature to determine
downstream density, velocity and Ma. For this specific prob-
lem, the downstream velocity can be under-predicted by 8%.
Takeaway. Hydrate formation and icing in natural gas pipe-
lines and valves can be greatly reduced or even prevented en-
tirely if a detailed study of the thermodynamics of the system
is undertaken. An intimate knowledge of the process gas is es-
sential so that properties, such as hydrate-formation tempera-
ture, can be accurately determined. Also, using real gas analysis,
internal valve trim temperatures can be calculated, leading to a
better understanding of the type of valve trim required to in-
hibit hydrate formation.
ASHER GLAUN is a senior engineer and technologist for
Masoneilan Control Valves at GE Oil & Gas. He has worked in the
control valve industry for over 12 years. Prior to his work with GE
Oil & Gas, Mr. Glaun was employed for 11 years at Bird Machine
Co. in the design of high-speed centrifuges. His work at GE
involves leading new technology development specializing in
fluid dynamics, CFD, structural analysis/FEA and valve acoustics.
Mr. Glaun graduated with a BSc degree in mechanical engineering from the
University of Cape Town, South Africa, and he obtained an MS degree in
mechanical engineering from Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts.
JOSEPH SHAHDA is a senior applications engineer for
Masoneilan Control Valves at GE Oil & Gas. He has over 16 years
of experience in the control valve industry, with a focus on
applications engineering and delivering control valves
solutions to customers worldwide. Mr. Shahda holds an MS
degree in mechanical engineering from Northeastern
University in Boston, Massachusetts.
A
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FIG. 9. CFD temperature plot of a representative 22-turn, multi-stage
valve trim. A real gas solver formulation allows for the solving of
Joule-Thomson effects.
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Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201369
Special Report
Maintenance and Reliability
H. P. BLOCH, PE, Consulting Engineer,
Westminster, Colorado
Consider both actual and virtual
spare parts inventory
Globally, hydrocarbon processing industry (HPI) facilities
operate hundreds of thousands of fluid machinery assets. The
various service-specific internal components of these assets
are supported by many millions of spare parts, all of which
must be properly preserved and catalogued.
Operating companies and consultants often consider de-
veloping systems to unify or standardize spares maintained
in plant stores or inventories. Standardization initiatives can
provide economic benefits. Proper and unified part identifica-
tion efforts usually precede standardization of the spare parts
inventory. Both identification and standardization can help
reduce the number of spare part units held in inventory and
reduce plant costs. Also, access to spares will be facilitated in
instances where central part depots are involved.
Dual-purpose units. Some spares could be manufactured
with multi-purposes in mind. Multi-purpose parts could
be produced with oversize dimensions, which, upon finish-
machining, will suit the specific requirements of a particular
machine. Certain bore dimensions (for example, in coupling
and impeller hubs) could be stocked with undersized and
prebored concentricity-accurate pilot holes. On an as-needed
basis, these bores could be finish-machined to the precise
dimension on site. A single maximum diameter impeller, as
shown in FIG. 1, could be the standardized spare part for several
pumps. This impeller could be trimmed for use in a variety of
pumps presently operating at a particular site and used in dif-
ferent pumping services. Similarly, an oversized shaft could be
placed in the storeroom for future finish-machining and used
on a range of similar pumps or other fluid machines.
Consider everything. The concepts of shared capital
spares and/or requiring the vendor to stock spare parts are
not new.
1
Both conceptsshared spares and vendor stock-
ingwarrant more investigation. Major turbo-machinery
(fluid machinery) rotors can be jointly owned by a group
of potential users, call it an ownership pool. The financial
details for being able to use and replace co-owned spares
should be well defined in advance as part of the shared own-
ership pool. Vendor stocking arrangements place the vendor
under contractual obligation to have certain machines or
parts available on very short notice. In return, the potential
user of these parts or machines accepts the contractual ob-
ligation to purchase vendor-stocked assets at a predefined
premium cost.
Case for stocking only upgraded parts. Many spare parts
kept in storage at HPI facilities belong to fluid machines that are
not optimized in terms of hydraulic efficiency, permissible range
of operation, or component reliability. For decades, capturing
efficiency gains and avoiding equipment failures through proper
upgrading have been the priority concerns of industry. Moreover,
maintenance-cost reductions have been achieved through selec-
tive upgrading of existing parts and machinery. This upgrading
is usually planned by the user or equipment owner, and such ef-
forts receive considerable input from competent vendors. Cost
justifications are developed jointly and, if the results warrant, are
implemented during the next repair or scheduled downtime.
Whenever upgrading is done, the issue of spare parts adequa-
cy should be investigated. Fortunately, as of 2013, there are truly
advanced options that go well beyond simply buying new physi-
cal spare parts. These options should be investigated and evalu-
ated by forward-thinking of the plant and equipment operation.
Such exercises would engage assistance from design engineers or
consulting contractors. Before standardizing old, existing parts,
consider if these parts will be used again. Gain input on this
question before moving forward. Understand that the future of
the spare parts business is a new direction for HPI facilities.
Prioritize candidate machines for upgrading. A facil-
itys or corporations list of failure frequencies is one primary
way to determine where future upgrading will be most cost-
effective. These failure records often reveal weak links or repeat
failures that should be examined in greater detail. Risk-prone
components deserve to be upgraded whenever life-cycle costs
(LCCs) are favorable.
There are many reasons why upgraded components for
fluid machinery will often differ from the old original parts.
Modern or state-of-the-art designs may incorporate advanced
metallurgies or adjusted hardness of existing metallurgical
compositions. Hardness adjustments are often based on wear
amounts observed in the fluid environment of a particular pro-
cess unit. Actual hydraulic and wear-related performance data
are needed to impart value to a new spare part. These data are
supplied either by site engineers or a designated, experienced,
consulting entity.
There can be desirable changes to a more favorable duc-
tility of ferrous parts, with upgrade opportunities using
advanced stainless steel compositions. These changes are
particularly advantageous in oil sand projects and other ap-
70MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Maintenance and Reliability
plications where abrasive wear is prevalent. Upgrading to a
more suitable impeller (FIG. 1) has sometimes allowed shut-
ting down one pump in fluid loops which previously had two
pumps operating in parallel.
Fluid machines older than 20 years (especially, process
pumps) are in the top tier of candidates for upgrades. One
proceeds by studying such operating parameters as head vs.
flow at best efficiency performance (BEP), avoiding excessive
loads on bearings; transient conditions at startup and shut-
down, and the establishment of best sealing alternatives. These
projects will include flush plans selected for seal reliability and
for better power efficiency. The work requires involvement
of experienced personnel. Whoever is given the upgrade task
should receive the full support of plant engineering personnel.
In well-managed corporations with extensive computerized
maintenance management systems (CMMS), one would first
investigate the extent to which relevant failure data are avail-
able from these systems. As-built data sheets are sometimes
available from a users own central engineering group. In all
instances, the as-running or operational performance of fluid
machines must be ascertained before standardization studies
can be expected to yield maximum benefit.
Partner with advanced reverse-engineering capabilities.
Competent upgrade vendors view every repair event as an op-
portunity to upgrade. These vendors should be considered for
partnership discussions. The best upgrade vendors use con-
tour mapping and measuring machines for reverse-engineering
of existing parts. Their expertise is important. One reference
claimed to have found 14% of in-stock spares at a petrochemi-
cal plant to be unusable.
1
Not to be outdone, the machine shop
superintendent of a major US oil refinery claimed that 30% of
the spare parts at his location were incorrectly dimensioned or
simply unserviceable for a variety of reasons.
When working with a competent upgrade companys nearest
vendor shop, the shop, regardless of location, will be supported by
the upgrade companys home engineering organization. Also, the
best-equipped and most promising upgrade providers have high-
ly modern fluid-machinery testing facilities, as shown in FIG. 2.
2
The local shop will usually start its work with automated
contour mapping of the parts to be replicated or improved. All
dimensions are stored in a computer. However, based on the
possibility of dealing with deficient parts, the upgrade company
will use its considerable experience and judgment to monitor
the accuracy of these parts.
Simply reverse-engineering without further establishing the
correctness of such efforts could replicate certain vulnerabili-
ties. Impeller or blade contour adjustment studies are made on
some parts and must be catalogued. Available tweaking op-
tions are sometimes evident only to the best upgrade provid-
ers. The LCC assessment of upgraded parts becomes a key in-
gredient of further decision-making.
While equipment owners may wish to select a particular
vendor as the single-source supplier, this upgrade provider will
have to demonstrate full competence in understanding many
different machines, models, brands and configurations. But this
is not where the providers demonstration of competence ends;
it is, rather, where it begins.
The 21st century environment demands technology-opti-
mized methods and procedures. In this environment, an up-
grade provider must demonstrate the ability to create a virtual
spare parts storehouse. Actual physical spare inventories are
used in limited cases; these are situations where they still make
economic sense.
Advantages with a virtual inventory. In the future, spares
parts will not be sitting in an HPI facilitys warehouse. The fu-
ture is in make it as you need it. Major multinational equipment
upgrade companies use best-available technology throughout.
In general, these upgrade experts paint existing parts with
a scanner. A three-dimensional (3D) model is constructed
from the scanned data. The work flow goes from an electronic
library (a virtual inventory) to a printed sand-mold process in
which no pattern making is involved. The entire process can
take only a fraction of the total time that it would have needed
for conventional methods.
D' D
FIG. 1. A single impeller with diameter, D, could be site-trimmed
to the more exact diameter, D. Doing so would allow it to suit
the needs of a particular operating point or pumping service.
Note: The side plates will remain at the maximum diameter
for maximum preservation of energy (high efficiency).
FIG. 2. Partial view of a modern pump test stand with variable
speed drives. Source: Hydro, Inc., Chicago, Illinois.
Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201371
Maintenance and Reliability
The actual process uses 3D printer technology to print a
sand mold directly onto a print bed. No drawings are created,
and this true state-of-the-art process eliminates the need for
hard tooling. The process also supports geometries that were
once restricted to production-quantity investment castings.
Even complex cores and undercuts are now readily obtained
with modern 3D printer technology. The process is obviously
ideal for spare parts that, by definition, are needed in small
quantities. Surface finishes and mechanical properties are vir-
tually identical to traditional sand castings, and tolerances are
superior to many traditional processes. Sand molds can often be
produced in less than a single week. So, if a pump designated as
your A pump needed repairs after 20 months of operation
the mean-time between failure (MTBF)and it took 20 days
before it could be properly repaired, realize that there is a 97%
probability that the B pump will operate flawlessly during
those 20 days. Chances are that management is willing to take
the 3% probability or risk an outage that exists for the parallel
or spare pump. A rapid repair with an old part would also take
time, and result in old, inefficient or failure-prone operation
with parts that really deserved to be upgraded.
Final considerations. Consider fluid-machinery capital
spare pooling and vendor stocking programs. Both are con-
siderations that deal with standardization and cost savings.
Spare-parts cataloguing should, initially, concentrate on high-
value or repeat-failing parts; upgrading should be part of the
standardization efforts. Electronic libraries and virtual elec-
tronic inventories exist today at some forward-looking loca-
tions. They are the future.
While creating a virtual parts inventory of upgraded parts
can be a massive challenge, accomplishing the task will be
worth it. The ultimate savings will be huge. Enlist a compe-
tent equipment upgrade company, one with international
presence. Pick a group with the most modern tools and with
equipment testing capability.
2
Allocate funds for a demonstration project. Work with a
consulting company; with their input, let the upgrade com-
pany produce the upgraded components wherever cost justifi-
cations can be shown. Work toward a target return on invest-
ment (ROI). If only a somewhat lesser ROI is achieved, then
there will still be improvement.
So, to get things off to a manageable start, identify possibly
10 repeat-failure or low-MTBF process pumps. Ask the con-
sulting company and parts provider to actually produce the up-
graded components wherever cost justifications can be shown.
Report on tangible achievements and then expand your base to
include more assets. Do not make the mistake of making stan-
dardization an unwieldy open-ended task. Closely scrutinize
the process, as illustrated in FIG. 3, and, if needed, use it to over-
come an operations departments objections. The operations
department may be averse to running a process pump without
having a spare (or standby) pump sitting on the adjacent foun-
dation. Explain to the operations staff that there may be incre-
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72
Maintenance and Reliability
mental time needed for components to make their way from
an electronic library to becoming physical parts. However, de-
pending on the MTBF and days of unavailability because the
spare pump is out for repair, the probability of the presently
operating pump failing in that time may be acceptably low.
The next phase in the standardization and upgrading process,
involves quantifying the deliverables. Perhaps an experienced
consulting company, in conjunction with the upgrade provider
could commit to a full review of a given number of machines per
month. Throughout the process of physically upgrading com-
ponents or producing a virtual inventory, remember that the
quality of any job or task will only be as good as the people in-
volved. We advocate involving experienced and well-motivated
individuals in the task of identifying upgrade candidates. From
there, consider progressing to a virtual library for all assets in
the facility. As with everything else, you get what you pay for.
The ultimate results of these endeavors may not be immediately
obvious, but they will become quite evident in time.
LITERATURE CITED
1
Bloch, H. P., Improving Machinery Reliability, Third Edition, Gulf Publishing Co.,
Houston, 1998.
2
Bihler, K., D. Dominiak, B. Keith and J. Johnson, Apply new pump software to
test performance, Hydrocarbon Processing, October 2012, pp. 9196.
3
HP In Reliability, Hydrocarbon Processing, August 1992, p. 25.
HEINZ P. BLOCH resides in Westminster, Colorado. His
professional career began in 1962 and included long-term
assignments as Exxon Chemicals regional machinery specialist
for the US. He has authored over 520 publications, among
them 18 comprehensive books on practical machinery
management, failure analysis, failure avoidance, compressors,
steam turbines, pumps, oil-mist lubrication and practical
lubrication for industry. Mr. Bloch holds BS and MS degrees in mechanical
engineering. He is an ASME Life Fellow and maintains registration as a
Professional Engineer in New Jersey and Texas.
1
1
2
3
4
5
7
10
15
20
50
100
3 4 7 10
Mean-time-between-repairs (MTBR), months
R
e
p
a
i
r

t
i
m
e

o
r

d
a
y
s

u
n
a
v
a
i
l
a
b
l
e
R
=
9
5
%
R
=
9
7
%
R
=
9
8
.
5
%
R
=
9
9
%
R
=
9
9
.
5
%
R
=
9
9
.
7
%
R
=
9
8
%
20 50 100 40 30 15 5 2
FIG. 3. The probability that a spare pump with an MTBR of
15.5 months will operate flawlessly in the 7 days it takes to repair
the main pump will be 98.5%.
3
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Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201375
Special Report
Maintenance and Reliability
M. G. CHOUDHURY, A. KULKARNI and D. KORANGA
Reliance Industries, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Improve design for pump suction nozzles
Several analysis methods exist to determine the effective-
ness of the pump suction piping systems first adjustable sup-
port and how that impacts nozzle loading. Parameters for
consideration include how to model the trunnion dummy leg,
determining the thermal load for the dummy leg and accurately
predicting the first adjustable support base plates stiffness.
DIAGNOSING THE PROBLEM
The pump piping system is a common component of most
hydrocarbon processing complexes. It is essential that this sys-
tem is analyzed correctly, so that future problems can be mini-
mized. Within this system, the first support adjacent to the
nozzle plays a vital role during analysis. This support is often
an adjustable type that helps in maintaining the pump shaft
axis in line with the nozzle axis.
A popular analysis program uses the pipe centerline mod-
eling approach. Generally, an ambient temperature pipe trun-
nion from the pump centerline to the trunnion support base
plate is modeled during analysis. This approach is sometimes
criticized, as the trunnion pipe is welded at the main pipe bot-
tom and the diametrical growth of the pipe is ignored. To cir-
cumvent this criticism, some analysts advocate a more refined
analysis using the element from the suction pipe centerline to
the bottom of the suction pipe, where the trunnion has been
welded as a rigid element, with a temperature the same as that
of the suction pipe. Then a trunnion with ambient temperature
and without fluid density and pressure is modeled.
A commonly used analysis technique is the centerline anal-
ysis method. In this method, the dummy is modeled from the
straight pipe neutral or at the mid-node of a three-node elbow,
as shown in FIG. 1. The trunnion itself is assumed to be at ambi-
ent pressure and temperature. This analysis does not address
the issue of pipe diametrical growth at elevated temperatures.
The rigid-element analysis addresses this issue.
To address the diametrical pipe growth issue, rigid-element
analysis is used. In method, a rigid element is modeled from
the pipe centerline to its periphery. Then the dummy with
ambient temperature and pressure properties is attached to it
(FIG. 2). The rigid element takes care of the radial expansion of
the parent pipe. Due to this additional radial expansion, there
will be a substantial rise in vertical pipe displacement, which
increases nozzle loading.
CASE STUDY
This sample scenario offers an opportunity to see the di-
rect effect of both techniques. Consider a side-suction pump
system at a 340C design temperature, as shown in FIG. 3. This
system is then analyzed using a recent edition of popular pipe
stress analysis software.
Centerlinemodelinginstraightline Centerlinemodelingatelbow
FIG. 1. Normal centerline analysis method.
Rigidelement
FIG. 2. Rigid-element analysis method.
FIG. 3. A side-suction pump system at a 340C design temperature.
76MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Maintenance and Reliability
Various cases in the software are then formed:
a) Normal centerline method: For this case, only a dummy
is modeled in front of the nozzle with a sliding base support,
with FIG. 4 showing = 0.1.
b) Rigid element method: in this instance, the rigid ele-
ment is modeled from the pipe center to the parent pipes outer
periphery (see Node A to Node B in FIG. 5) while maintaining
the same conditions as the parent pipe. Then a dummy is at-
tached at Node B, with the base support still sliding.
TABLE 1 summarizes the resulting nozzle loads from both
analysis methods.
TABLE 1 demonstrates that the loads increase tremendously
during the actual simulation of the pipes diametrical expan-
sion. This can be attributed to substantial nozzle displacement
in the vertical direction, which increases the vertical loads.
There are many ways to counter this vertical loading; the
obvious option is changing the lines routing. But this and oth-
er methods increase the overall cost to the system. However,
one other way can decrease the loading on the nozzle.
The first adjustable support was closely examined for sup-
port stiffness implications on the nozzle loading. Normally in
software analysis, default stiffness in the program is used. FIG. 6
shows a typical adjustable support.
FIG. 4. Normal centerline method.
FIG. 5. Rigid-element method.
Center line
Guide gap
Guide gap
Pipe trunnion
Plan
Elevation
Center line
FIG. 6. The trunnion support rests on a thin stub-base plate, which
is attached to the ground with the help of bolts and a series of plates.
TABLE 1. Nozzle loads tabulated
FX, N FY, N FZ, N MX, N-m MY, N-m MZ, N-m DX, mm DY, mm DZ, mm
Normal centerline method 4,564 2,256 6,021 987 4,309 4,172 0 0 1.936
Rigid element method 4,563 73,437 12,948 77,036 4,308 6,507 0 0.008 1.936
TABLE 2. The results show reduction in the vertical loads
FX, N FY, N FZ, N MX, N-m MY, N-m MZ, N-m DX, mm DY, mm DZ, mm
Normal centerline method 4,564 2,256 6,021 987 4,309 4,172 0 0 1.936
Rigidelement method 4,563 73,437 12,948 77,036 4,308 6,507 0 0.008 1.936
Rigidelement method with
actual support stifness
46,611 15,641 7,973 14,715 4,372 4,562 0 0.002 1.936
Maintenance and Reliability
77
As FIG. 2 illustrates, the trunnion support rests on a thin
stub-base plate that is attached to the ground with bolts and a
series of stainless steel (SS), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
and carbon steel (CS) plates.
The base plate material will be the same as the trun-
nion material. The PTFE plate inserted between the SS
and CS plates will reduce the friction loads as its fric-
tion co-efficient is 0.1.
The most common assumption made during this
analysis is that the first adjustable supports stiffness is
the stiffness default value. In the case of this software
analysis, it is 1.0E12 N/mm. This high value of stiff-
ness corresponds to a rigid base, like solid ground or
some concrete structures. Since this scenario features
a support that is effectively resting on a plate 10-mm
thick, the stiffness will be lower.
STIFFNESS CALCULATION
To predict the effects of the first support stiffness on the
nozzle loads, the support stiffness must be calculated accurate-
ly. The stub base plates vertical displacement must be accurate
to calculate the plates vertical stiffness.
The simulated vertical displacement results are shown in
FIG. 7. For simplification, the scenario assumed that the vertical
bolt stiffness is sufficiently high as to assume it to be acting as
a vertical restraint. The plate dimensions considered were 250
mm 250 mm 10 mm, with a 1,000-N external load ap-
plied on the trunnion periphery. From the stiffness equation, F
= KX, for an applied load of 1,000 N, and vertical displacement
of .0031512 mm, the vertical (Y) base plate stiffness is calcu-
lated as 31,7339 N/mm.
UTILIZATION
By utilizing the base support stiffness, a more accurate
analysis can be performed. TABLE 2 lists the results of all three
analysis techniques.
TABLE 2 shows that the vertical loads are considerably re-
duced. This is due to the fact that the vertical displacement was
reduced by utilizing the calculated support stiffness.
By predicting the accurate support stiffness, more accurate
analysis of the pump suction piping is possible. Even after us-
ing the pipe element radial growth, the nozzle loads have not in-
creased. This analysis type approach may be adopted when it is
necessary to do a rigorous analysis for a critical pump nozzle load.
FINAL ANALYSIS
For high-temperature lines, diametrical pipe growth plays an
important role in assessing the nozzle loading on a pump. When
incorporated in a pump system analysis, this thermal loading
will greatly increase the loading on the nozzle. To minimize the
overall alteration of the system, it is advisable to use the actual
support stiffness of the first adjustable support, thus reducing
the overall cost to the system.
FIG. 7. Simulated vertical displacement results.
For high-temperature lines, diametrical
pipe growth plays an important role in
assessing the nozzle loading on a pump.
When incorporated in a pump system
analysis, this thermal loading will greatly
increase the loading on the nozzle.
Select 170 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS

|
Bonus Report
PETROCHEMICAL DEVELOPMENTS
The petrochemical industry is a complex global business.
Feedstocks dominate total production costs for hydrocarbon-
based products. Consumer demand for petrochemical-based
end products will sustain an annual growth rate of 4%
through 2018. Developing nations are the drivers for the
expanding petrochemicals industry, and they will account
for 70% of the global ethylene market.
Ariel view of Braskems UNIB 2 RS cracker at Triunfo
located in the state of Rio Grande Do Sul, Brazil. Besides
the cracker, Braskem has its Innovation and Technology
Center and the worlds first green ethylene plant, part
of the green polyethylene (PE) production, along with
three PE and two polypropylene industrial units located
in the Triunfo Petrochemical Complex. Photo courtesy of
Braskem America.
Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201379
Bonus Report
Petrochemical Developments
J. FU, C. ZHAO and Q. XU, Lamar University,
Beaumont, Texas
Consider novel CGC and front-end depropanizer
system for olefins production
In many liquid-cracking ethylene facili-
ties, the multistage charge-gas compressor
(CGC) is used with a front-end depro-
panizer (DeC
3
) process. The optimal de-
sign and operation of an integrated CGC-
DeC
3
system can provide energy savings
and other benefits. In the presented case
study, an innovative design for an inte-
grated CGC-DeC
3
system introduces part
of the heavier condensate from the early
compression stages directly into the high-
pressure (HP) depropanizer. Result: The
compression work and CGC stripper
loading are reduced. This design also low-
ers heat duty for part of the heat-exchang-
er network. Using rigorous simulation,
this new conceptual design can offer sig-
nificant energy-saving potential.
BACKGROUND
Steam cracking is the dominant ole-
fin-production method. It includes sev-
eral basic processing processes: cracking
feedstocks, quenching charge-gas ef-
fluents, compressing cracked gas com-
bined with drying (deacidification and
dehydration), chilling the charge gas,
hydrotreating acetylene and methyl acet-
ylene/propadiene (MAPD), and sepa-
rating of various components, such as
ethylene, propylene, methane, propane
and hydrogen. There are three types of
olefin plants as defined by the recovery
sequence, first separation step and po-
sition of the acetylene hydrogenation;
these process methods include the:
Front-end demethanizer (DeC
1
)
system
Front-end deethanizer (DeC
2
)
system
Front-end depropanizer (DeC
3
)
system.
The front-end DeC
1
system is the
most commonly adopted scheme. The
process is used predominantly by earlier-
constructed ethylene plants. It can be
applied to all feedstocks from ethane to
gasoil (GO). Other processing schemes
are preferred when considering high ef-
ficiency and when feedstock flexibility
to process heavier feeds such as propane,
naphtha and GO are a priority.
l
In the
presented study, the DeC
3
system will be
evaluated; the new system applies a two-
tower subsystem positioned immediately
after the CGC and drying steps.
FIG. 1 shows the integrated CGC and
front-end DeC
3
system of an ethylene
plant. After the naphtha feedstock is
cracked, it is sent to the oil-quench and
water-quench towers. In the quench sys-
tem, the cracked gas is cooled and partially
condensed. The quench-tower overhead
vapors are sent to a four-stage CGC sec-
tion for compression and drying before
being directed to the DeC
3
subsystem.
The DeC
3
subsystem is used to sepa-
rate C
3
and lighter components from the
charge gas. It consists of two distillation
columns: a HP depropanizer (HP DeC
3
)
operated at 12 bar, and the low-pressure
depropanizer (LP DeC
3
) operated at 7
bar. The C
3
and lighter components are
removed from the top of HP DeC
3
, while
C
4
and heavier components exit from the
bottom of the LP DeC
3
.
By applying the HP and LP DeC
3
sub-
systems, the olefin-unit operational flex-
EV-01
CGC 1st CGC 2nd CGC 3rd
EV-12 EV-02
EV-04
EH-01
EH-02 EH-03
EH-11 EV-06
ER-50
ER-60
ET-10
EV-42
CGC 4th
ER-32
EH-52
EH-51
ER-05
EH-53
ER-31
EH-56 EH-58
EV-41
ET-11
EH-61
EV-40
EP-20
Feed
from
quench
Minimum ow bypass
Anti-surge recycle
Vapor to DeC
1
EV-16
ET-16
To water
quench
To water quench
To DeC
4
Liquid to DeC
1
Anti-surge
recycle
To DeC
4
ET-12
EV-03
EP-16
EH-16
EH-59
EH-60
EH-50
FIG. 1. Flow diagram of the integrated CGC and front-end DeC
3
system.
80MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Petrochemical Developments
ibility can be improved when heavy feed-
stock, such as naphtha, is used. The system
is considered cost-effective because most
of the C
3
and lighter components can be
removed from the feed stream and sent to
the LP DeC
3
tower. This design signifi-
cantly reduces the refrigeration duty and
minimizes fouling problems, which are
experienced in a one-tower system.
In addition, there is no need for exter-
nal hydrogen supply for the acetylene re-
actor, since the overhead stream from the
HP DeC
3
contains enough hydrogen for
hydrogenation. Note: The fourth stage of
the CGC is actually located after the over-
head drum of the HP DeC
3
. It only com-
presses the C
3
and lighter components;
this also reduces the compressor loading
as compared to a back-end DeC
1
process,
which compresses everything before the
cracked gas enters the demethanizer.
Process description. As shown in
FIG. 1, the CGC system consists of four
stages with intercooling, liquid separa-
tion, pumps and various auxiliaries. The
cracked gas from the quench is fed to the
first-stage compressor through a suction
drum, and its pressure is raised from 1.28
bar to 3.36 bar. An interstage cooler chills
the compressed cracked gas to 20C.
Similarly, each of the compression stages
consists of a suction drum, i.e., EV-01,
EV-02, EV-12 and EV-42, a compres-
sor (first stage to fourth stage), and an
aftercooler, i.e., EH-01, EH-02, EH-03
and EH-51. The pressure of the cracked
gas is raised to 7.76 bar after the second
compression, 14.87 bar after the third,
and 39.7 bar after the fourth. In the CGC
flash drums, the cracked-gas mixture is
separated into two phases: oil-liquid and
vapor; or into three phases: water, oil-
liquid and vapor. Condensates from the
second-stage discharge drum (EV-03),
the third-stage suction drum (EV-12)
and the dryer knockout drum (EV-06)
are sent back to the second-stage suction
drum (EV-02), where the condensed liq-
uid is fed to the CGC stripper (ET-16)
and the vapor goes to the second-stage
compressor. Condensate from the third-
stage discharge drum (EV-04) is recycled
to the third-stage suction drum (EV-12).
Other than the listed units, a caustic
wash tower (ET-12), and a series of dry-
ers and dehydrators are included in the
CGC section. Between the second and
third stages, the cracked gas is treated by
a caustic tower to remove acid gases
carbon dioxide (CO
2
) and hydrogen
sulfide (H
2
S)to mitigate corrosion and
freezing problems in the cold-separation
section. The liquid hydrocarbon from the
second-stage suction drum (EV-02) is
fed to the CGC stripper (ET-16), where
the overhead is sent back to the water-
quench tower, while the bottoms are
pumped to the debutanizer tower. After
the third-stage discharge drum (EV-04),
a dryer feed cooler (EH-11) chills the
cracked gas to 13.5C. Next, the dryer
knockout drum (EV-06) removes water,
and the heavy hydrocarbons are sent back
to the second-stage suction drum. The
cracked-gas dryer (ER-50) and cracked-
gas dehydrator (ER-60) further eliminate
water from the cracked gas before the gas
enters the HP DeC
3
tower (ET-10).
The cracked gas from CGC is cooled
to 14C by the HP DeC
3
feed chiller
(EH-50) prior to feeding to tray 21 of
HP DeC
3
. The overhead stream from HP
DeC
3
is sent through the fourth-stage
compressor to reach a pressure of 39.7
bar. A guard bed (ER-32) removes arsenic
from the cracked gas. A series of acetylene
reactor feed/effluent heat exchangers
(EH-51 and EH-52) are arranged to warm
the feed to the reaction temperature; the
acetylene reactor (ER-05) hydrogenates
acetylene from the HP DeC
3
overhead.
Effluent from the acetylene reactor is
routed back through the acetylene-reac-
tor effluent cooler (EH-53), and sent to
a molecular-sieve-dryer guard bed (ER-
31) to remove any traces of remaining wa-
ter. The dryer effluent is further cooled in
the HP DeC
3
reflux chiller (EH-56), and
then partially condensed by C
3
refriger-
ant to approximately 33.5C in the HP
DeC
3
condenser (EH-58), before enter-
ing the HP DeC
3
reflux drum (EV-41).
The condensed HP DeC
3
overhead leaves
the reflux drum and is sent to the top tray
of the HP DeC
3
. The vapor overhead
from the reflux drum, containing C
3
and
lighter components from the cracked gas,
is sent to the DeC
1
and cold-box section.
To avoid excessive bottom tempera-
tures, some C
3
components are allowed
in the bottom of the HP DeC
3
. High bot-
tom temperatures tend to induce fouling
of the reboiler and tray due to polym-
erization of C
4
and C
5
dienes. The HP
DeC
3
is reboiled by quench oil in the HP
DeC
3
reboiler (EH-59).
The bottoms from the HP DeC
3
are
sent to tray 24 of the LP DeC
3
(ET-11),
where the overhead is totally condensed
to 3C against a tertiary refrigerant in the
LP DeC
3
condenser (EH-61). The con-
densed overhead is sent to the LP DeC
3

EP-add
Cooling water
Propylene refrigerant
LP pressure steam
Quench oil
Quench water
Electricity
HP steam
Extra pipeline
Water
EV-01
CGC 1st CGC 2nd CGC 3rd
EV-12 EV-02 EV-04
EH-01
EH-02
EH-03
EH-11 EV-06
ER-50
ER-60
EH-50
ET-10
EV-42
CGC 4th
ER-32
EH-52
EH-51
ER-05
EH-53
ER-31
EH-56 EH-58
EV-41
ET-11
EH-61
EV-40
EP-20
Feed
from
quench
Minimum ow bypass
Anti-surge
recycle
Vapor to DeC
1
EV-16
ET-16
To water
quench
To water quench
To DeC
4
Liquid to DeC
1
Anti-surge
recycle
To DeC
4
ET-12
EV-03
EP-16
EH-16
EH-59
EH-60
FIG. 2. New design of the integrated CGC and front-end DeC
3
system.
Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201381
Petrochemical Developments
reflux pumps (EP-20) and is split to pro-
vide reflux for both the HP and LP DeC
3
s.
The larger portion of the LP DeC
3
reflux
is sent to the top tray of the LP DeC
3
. The
remainder is routed to tray 6 of the HP
DeC
3
. The LP DeC
3
is reboiled against LP
steam in the LP DeC
3
reboiler (EH-60).
The outlet material from LP DeC
3
bot-
tom, containing the C
4
and heavier com-
ponents, is sent to the debutanizer section.
NOVEL DESIGN
This study focused on energy sav-
ings by improving the design of an inte-
grated CGC-DeC
3
system. To study the
integrated system behavior, four stages of
compressors with suction drums, caustic
wash tower, cracked-gas dryer, HP and LP
depropanizers with reboilers and condens-
ers, C
2
convertor and other related process
units are included in the case study model.
New design configuration. The gen-
eral idea of the new design is to introduce
heavy streams from the early compression
sections directly into the fractionation sec-
tion. Results: Loading of most processing
units can be reduced, thus achieving en-
ergy savings for compression work, heat-
ing/cooling duty and electricity. However,
some processing requirements must be
satisfied. First, the heavy stream must be
acid-gas free before entering the fraction-
ation sections. Second, the streams must
be dried before entering the DeC
3
column.
Third, certain pressure increments for the
heavy streams may be needed to make
them viable as feed to the DeC
3
columns.
FIG. 2 is one innovative design, where
condensate streams from the third-stage
suction drum EV-12 and discharge drum
EV-04 are sent into the HP DeC
3
directly.
A caustic wash (ET-12) ensures no H
2
S
or CO
2
contamination. To carry out the
new design, several major changes were
considered:
One pump (EP-ADD) is added to
increase the pressure of the first heavy
stream from 7.73 bar to 14 bar.
One dryer (EV-ADD) is required to
knock out water from the heavy stream.
The feed tray of the heavy stream
to the HP DeC
3
must be identified and
optimized.
Operating conditions of both LP
and HP DeC
3
columns, e.g., reflux ratio,
boil-up ratio, are optimized.
Based on this design, several improve-
ments are expected:
A significant amount of compress-
ing work on heavy components in the
second and third stages can be saved.
Operation loading of the CGC
stripper can be reduced due to a lower
inlet flowrate, including a work reduction
in the pump.
The cooling duty for the CGC
third-stage aftercooler can be reduced.
Improvements in other units, in-
cluding pumps and heat exchangers, are
achievable.
Simulation and optimization results.
The optimization work of the new design
is conducted with commercially available
simulation software.
a
By establishing a
steady-state model of the integrated CGC-
DeC
3
system, the operation parameters
are tested. Likewise, the separation specifi-
cations and safety requirements are moni-
tored before the optimal results are ob-
tained. For example, in the CGC section,
the inlet/outlet pressure and temperature
of each compressor stage are carefully han-
dled to maintain a defined range.
TABLE 1 summarizes the operating con-
straints of the DeC
3
subsystem. There are
specifications for the top temperatures
and pressures of the two columns. More
importantly, both towers are designed
to operate with a bottoms temperature
less than 82C. This low temperature re-
duces fouling in the trays and reboilers.
The calculated results from this study
are 74.62C of the HP DeC
3
bottom, and
78.54C of the LP DeC
3
bottom; both are
within the specs.
The DeC
3
subsystem is the first sepa-
ration unit of the whole fractionation
section. It removes C
3
and lighter compo-
nents from the heavier ones, which will
cause critical impacts to downstream pro-
cessing if not operated properly. The C
4

fraction in the top of HP DeC
3
is limited
to less than 100 ml/m
3
, which in this study,
is reduced to 10 ml/m
3
. Some C
3
s are al-
lowed in the bottoms of both columns to
maintain low temperatures, thus mitigat-
ing fouling problems. The specification
of C
3
s in the HP DeC
3
bottom is less than
37 mol%, and the calculated value is 14.29
mol%. It requires less than 1,095 ml/m
3
of
C
3
s in the bottom of LP DeC
3
. Study re-
sults indicate 914.61 ml/m
3
. Other than
listed specifications, the C
2
fraction in the
bottom of HP DeC
3
is limited to less than
10,951 ml/m
3
. The result from this study
is 3,580.20 ml/m
3
, which meets process-
ing requirements. In summary, the calcu-
lated data are all qualified with respect to
the specifications listed in TABLE 1.
TABLE 2 indicates the energy usage re-
sults with the new and the old designs,
along with possible energy reductions.
According to different utilities, seven
TABLE 1. Operating constraints of HP DeC
3
and LP DeC
3
columns
Column Description Model data Comment
HP DeC
3
(ET-10)
Top temperature, 303 C 31.51 Qualied
Bottom temperature, 715 C 74.62 Qualied
Pressure, 122 bar 12.2 Qualied
C
4
in top, < 100 ml/m
3
1,3-Butadiene 3.52
10 Qualied Isobutylene 6.29
n-Butane 0.19
C
3
in bottom, < 37 mol%
Propadiene 0.94%
14.29% Qualied Propylene 13.07%
Propane 0.28%
C
2
in bottom, < 10,951 ml/m
3
Acetylene 166.08
3,580.2 Qualied Ethylene 2,424.31
Ethane 989.81
LP DeC
3
(ET-11)
Top temperature, 75 C 2.9 Qualied
Bottom temperature, 756 C 78.54 Qualied
Pressure, 70.8 bar 6.5 Qualied
C
3
in bottoms, < 1,095 ml/m
3
Propadiene 909.36
914.61 Qualied Propylene 3.46
Propane 1.79
82MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Petrochemical Developments
different colors are used to represent
cooling water, C
3
refrigerant, LP steam,
quench oil, quench water, HP steam and
electricity. Detail locations of each utility
usage in the integrated CGC and DeC
3
system are indicated in FIG. 2.
Results in the Saving % column of
TABLE 2 show that almost half of the ener-
gy consumption units can improve perfor-
mance via reduced energy requirements.
For example, the heating duty of the CGC
stripper reboiler can be reduced by 42.1%,
and the work required by the CGC strip-
per pump can be reduced by 31.3%. The
cooling duty of the CGC second- and
third-stage aftercoolers can have a reduc-
tion of 9.6% and 22.7%, respectively.
In the CGC, the most significant im-
provements are achieved by the second-
and third-stage compressors, which can
reduce needed work by 0.4 MMBtu/hr
and 0.5 MMBtu/hr. There is a negligible
increment of 0.1 MMBtu/hr on the cool-
ing water duty, a small amount of addi-
tional heating duty, 1.2 MMBtu/hr from
quench water, and a tiny increment of
0.002 MMBtu/hr on electricity.
The energy savings are significant
with the new design as compared with
previous designs. For example, the total
amount of saved cooling duty from C
3

refrigerant is 4.1 MMBtu/hra 10% re-
duction. This suggests significant reduc-
tions in the workload for the C
3
refriger-
ant system. Meanwhile, the heating duty
required for LP steam can be reduced by
2.8 MMBtu/hr, which is a 26.9% savings
as compared to the previous design. In ad-
dition, a 2.4 MMBtu/hr reduction saves
75.3% heating duty for the CGC stripper
reboiler under the new design. Finally, the
amount of work needed for the compres-
sors can be reduced by 0.87 MMBtu/hr in
total, which saves 2.1% from the previous
consumption of CGC work.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research work was supported in part by the
Texas Air Research Center, Texas Hazardous Waste
Research Center and the Graduate Student Scholarship
from Lamar University.
NOTES
a
The optimization work of the new design is carried
out with Aspen Plus 7.3, Aspen Technology, Inc.,
2011.
LITERATURE CITED
1
Falqi, F., The Miracle of PetrochemicalsOlefins
Industry: an In-Depth Look at Steam-Crackers,
Universal Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida, 2009.
JIE FU is a PhD candidate with the
Dan F. Smith Department of
Chemical Engineering at Lamar
University. He holds a BS degree
from the East China University of
Science and Technology and was an
exchange student at the University
of Houston. His research interests include process
design, dynamic simulation and production scheduling
for energy saving and emission reduction in industries.
CHUANYU ZHAO is a PhD candidate
with the Dan F. Smith Department of
Chemical Engineering at Lamar
University. She received her BS
degree from the East China
University of Science and
Technology, and was an exchange
student at the University of Houston. Her research
areas include process modeling, planning, scheduling
and optimization, process simulation, process safety
and process synthesis with particular applications in
petrochemical, refining and electroplating industries.
QIANG XU is an Associate Professor
of the Dan F. Smith Department
of Chemical Engineering and 2012
University Scholar at Lamar
University. He holds BS and MS
degrees along with a PhD from Tsin-
ghua University, China, all in chemical
engineering. His research involves process modeling,
scheduling, dynamic simulation and optimization,
industrial pollution prevention and waste minimization,
and chemical process safety and flexibility analysis. His
research work has been extensively supported by indus-
tries and by federal and State of Texas funding agencies.
TABLE 2. Energy consumption optimization results summary
Unit Description Utility, MMBtu/hr Previous design New design Saving Saving, % Total savings
EH53 C
2
Reactor ef uent cooler Cooling water 9.73 9.76 0.03 0.3
0.1 (0.2%)
EH01 CGC 1st-stage aftercooler Cooling water 23.63 26.43 2.8 11.8
EH02 CGC 2nd-stage aftercooler Cooling water 9.93 8.98 0.95 9.6
EH03 CGC 3rd-stage aftercooler Cooling water 18.08 13.98 4.1 22.7
EH11 Dryer feed chiller Cooling water 0.63 0.79 0.18 25.6
EV12 CGC 3rd-stage suction drum Cooling water 0.33 2.53 2.2 668.1
EH50 HP depropanizer feed chiller C
3
refrigerant 8.54 6.85 1.69 19.8
4.1 (10.0%)
EH58 HP depropanizer condenser C
3
refrigerant 13.51 13.54 0.03 0.2
EH56 HP depropanizer reux chiller C
3
refrigerant 12.35 12.44 0.09 0.8
EH61 LP depropanizer condenser C
3
refrigerant 6.56 6.48 0.08 1.3
EH52 Acetylene reactor feed heater LP steam 4.49 4.50 0.01 0.2
2.8 (26.9%)
EH60 LP depropanizer reboiler LP steam 6 5.88 0.12 2.0
EH59 HP depropanizer reboiler Quench water 5.72 6.80 1.08 18.9 1.2 (21.5%)
EH16 CGC stripper reboiler Quench oil 3.22 1.87 1.36 42.1 2.4 (75.3%)
CGC 1st CGC stage 1 HP steam 11.94 11.94 0.0 0.0
0.87 (2.1%)
CGC 2nd CGC stage 2 HP steam 10.37 9.97 0.40 3.9
CGC 3rd CGC stage 3 HP steam 7.59 7.09 0.50 6.6
CGC 4th CGC stage 4 HP steam 11.28 11.31 0.03 0.3
EP16 CGC stripper pump Electricity 0.024 0.016 0.01 33.3
0.002 (4.7%) EP20 LP depropanizer reux pump Electricity 0.019 0.018 0.001 5.3
EPAdd Added pump Electricity 0.00 0.011 0.01
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Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201385
Bonus Report
Petrochemical Developments
J. SHIN, J. LEE and S. LEE, LG Chem Ltd., Daejon, South
Korea; B. LEE, AMT Pacific Co. Ltd., Seoul, South Korea;
and M. LEE, Yeungnam University, Gyongsan, South Korea
Enhance operation and reliability
of dividing-wall columns
Dividing wall columns (DWCs) are an attractive option
when the goals are to reduce energy consumption and capital
investment for distillation processes. A major component in a
DWC system is the reflux splitter, which separates the liquid
products from the column overhead into two liquid streams:
one to the prefractionation section and the other to the main
column section of the DWC. A more reliable reflux-splitting
system stabilizes the entire column, thus minimizing unit/pro-
cess downtime. Several novel developments for a reflux-split-
ting system can improve the operation and reliability of DWCs.
Background. DWC technology has been successfully applied
in various petrochemical processes.
1,2
A DWC can reduce en-
ergy consumption by removing the remixing phenomenon
within a conventional two-column system for a ternary mix-
ture. DWC systems can minimize capital investment by inten-
sifying a conventional two-column system into a single column
with a simple dividing wall.
The concept of DWC was proposed in 1949; however, it took
a long time to adopt this principle.
3
Availability of proper design
tools is a major obstacle in developing more complex separation-
column systems as compared to a conventional column. Since
the 1980s, powerful CAD software enables the design and com-
mercialization of DWCs for a range of petrochemical processes.
Once the structure of a DWC is fixed for a given product
specification, the most important optimizing variables remain-
ing are the liquid and vapor split in the dividing wall section,
as shown in FIG. 1. These variables have a significant effect on
the total separation performance in the DWC.
4
FIG. 2 shows
the effect of internal flow distribution on the energy consump-
tion in a typical DWC. This figure illustrates the existence of
an optimal internal flow distribution that generates the lowest
energy consumption. Generally, the internal liquid and vapor
flows into the prefractionator and main dividing wall section
are the most crucial design factors. Both impact the total en-
ergy consumption and separation efficiency. The energy effi-
ciency of DWC can drastically deteriorate by a small deviation
in the internal flows from the optimal conditions. Conversely,
only the liquid split can be adjusted during operation. The va-
por split cannot be manipulated arbitrarily once the column is
0.0
0.6
1.2
1.8
2.4
3.0
3.6
4.2
4.8
5.4
6.0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
R
e
b
o
i
l
e
r

h
e
a
t

d
u
t
y
,

M
W
P
re
liq
u
id

o
w
ra
te
, k
g
m
o
le
/
h
r
P
re
v
a
p
o
r in
te
rn
a
l
o
w
ra
te
, k
g
m
o
le
/h
r
FIG. 2. Typical effects of liquid and vapor split on energy efficiency
in DWCs.
Main column
Dividing wall
Prefractionation
section
Vapor split
Liquid split
FIG. 1. Schematic diagram of a typical DWC.
86MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Petrochemical Developments
constructed. For this reason, in most commercial DWCs, there
should be a device to split the liquid coming from the column
overhead into sections divided by a wall, i.e., a prefractionation
section and main column section.
Several reflux splitters have been adopted in commercial
DWC installations. A simpler and more reliable reflux-splitting
system is the optimum choice for better operability and reliabil-
ity of the total column system. A novel reflux-splitting system
can provide better operation and a more energy-efficient DWC.
Internal reflux splitters for DWC. Conceptually, the split-
ting of a liquid stream can be achieved by a simple arrangement
of a pump, valves, pipes and vessel, as shown in FIG. 3. Nev-
ertheless, it still requires additional plot area, equipment and
instruments. The increased equipment inventory within the
system should be minimized. For this reason, this concept is
barely used in practical applications of DWCs.
The ideal reflux-splitting device for DWC applications
should have these technical features and requirements, consid-
ering its purpose and mounting location:
Design does not include a pump and a moving/rotating unit.
Height and volume of the column should be minimized.
System can accurately manipulate and control the split ratio.
Unit is simple, durable and reliable.
Moving bucket reflux splitter. First-generation reflux-split-
ting systems are shown in FIG. 4.
5,6
These early systems consist
of a casing that is subdivided into three chambers. The feed
chamber is located above where the liquid is directed onto
either the prefractionation or main column chamber depend-
ing on the positioning of the dividing body. The split ratio is
controlled by adjusting the timing of the hollow inner bucket
into the prefractionation or the main column chamber. The
dividing body is actuated by magnetic coupling, which allows
a pressure- and vacuum-tight design. The exterior drive is a
pneumatically driven rotary motor.
Manual reflux splitter. The moving elements in the first-gen-
eration reflux splitter can be damaged by the constant movement
of the mechanical parts. In a petrochemical plant, the splitter
should operate at least 8,400 hr/yr without mechanical prob-
lems. For example, the naphtha cracking center (NCC) has more
severe requirements to address possible equipment malfunction
because it needs to have run length of at least three to four years
without regular scheduled plant maintenance. A more reliable
liquid-splitting device should be used in such cases. For this
purpose, a manual-type reflux splitter that requires no moving
element was devised, as shown in FIG. 5, and it was successfully
installed on several commercial DWCs in LG Chem plant sites.
7
The internal structure of the manual reflux splitter appears
complex, but the basic principle is quite simple. As shown in
FIG. 5, the splitter is divided into several sections that receive
the liquid drawoff from the column overhead. Note: Each sec-
tion has a liquid distributor with a different number of holes to
adjust the liquid flowrate.
An on/off type of automatic valve is mounted to each sec-
tion. If the valve is closed, the received liquid will overflow
into the main section, which is connected directly to the main
column without a valve. By combining the opening of each
valve, the split ratio can be controlled by predetermined val-
ues. The control range of the split ratio can be determined
FIG. 4. Reflux splitters with moving elements.
5, 6
FIG. 5. Cutaway view of a manual reflux splitter.
FC
Vessel
FIG. 3. Conceptual design of liquid splitting in a DWC.
Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201387
Petrochemical Developments
from a sensitivity study of the DWC column for possible op-
eration scenarios, such as variations in feed compositions and
product quality. The performance of the reflux splitter can be
verified before mounting it into the DWC column
using a water-run test.
In-the-column reflux splitter. The latest develop-
ment in the reflux-splitter system increases unit reli-
ability with a simple modification of the conventional
distributor and collector tray, as shown in FIG. 6.
8
The
in-the-column reflux splitter consists of a modified
collector tray, collector box and two transfer lines.
The collector tray gathers the liquid from the top sec-
tion and transfers it to the collector box located below.
Holes in the middle of the collector tray (see FIG.
6B) divide the liquid into four sections in the collector box with
predefined fractions. As shown in FIG. 6C, the splitting ratio can
be adjusted by the on/off operation of two valves, which are
located on the transfer lines (see FIGS. 6A and 6C) at the out-
side of the column. If the two valves are open, then the liquid
stream from the middle sections goes to the pre-section via
liquid transfer lines, which are connected to the distributor for
the presection. Thus, it will increase the liquid flow to the pre-
section. If the two valves are closed, the liquid flow to the main
section will be increased by the liquid overflow to the main sec-
tion. Four combinations in the on/off valve are possible, and,
thus, the four split ratios are available. In the design phase, the
required split ratios can be predefined considering possible op-
erational scenarios.
The developed reflux splitter satisfies all the technical re-
quirements or specifications described earlier; it can reduce
fabrication and installation costs. This splitter type is simpler
and cheaper than the manual reflux splitter, as well as the buck-
et splitters. In addition, it can reduce the column height, thus
providing the opportunity to install more trays or packing sec-
tions with a longer length.
The operating range of this splitter can be predetermined and
the performance can be verified before installation in the col-
umn. As shown in FIG. 7, the reflux-split ratio can be controlled
accurately by closing and/or opening the valves. LG Chems ex-
perience from several petrochemical applications suggests that,
in most cases, only four combinations are sufficient to control
the split ratio for expected operational variations.
Evaluation. Several types of internal reflux splitters were ana-
lyzed in terms of reliability, structural simplicity and ease of
maintenance. TABLE 1 summarizes the results of the study com-
paring three different reflux splitters.
Recent developments in the internal reflux-splitting sys-
tem make the DWC application more reliable with a simpler
structure. The reflux splitter without a moving element may
not cover a wider range of split ratios, but it can provide more
robust and reliable operation with less maintenance. Overall,
FIG. 6. In-the-column reflux splitter: A) overall, B) collector tray and
C) collector box and transfer lines.
Design
Actual, min. ow
Actual design
Actual, max. ow
1.5
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
FIG. 7. Results of the water-run test for the in-the-column reflux splitter.
A new internal reflux-splitter system with
no moving part can achieve more reliable
operation of DWCs. A DWC can reduce
energy consumption by eliminating the
remixing phenomenon with a conventional
two-column system into a single column.
TABLE 1. Comparisons of several reux-splitter systems
Splitter type Operating
window/control
Reliability/
maintenance
Cost/structure
Moving bucket Wide/continuous Fair/overhaul
needed
High/complex
Manual Narrow/discrete Excellent/regular
valve inspection
Moderate/simple
In-the-column Narrow/discrete Excellent/regular
valve inspection
Low/simple
88MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Petrochemical Developments
system specific design with a modeling study for possible op-
erational scenarios is recommended to overcome the flexibility
issues of the newly developed splitter.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study was supported by the Basic Science Research Program through
the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of
Education, Science and Technology (2012012532).
LITERATURE CITED
1
Asprion, N. and G. Kaibel, Dividing wall columns: Fundamentals and recent
advances, Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 49, 2010, pp. 139146.
2
Shin, J., S. Lee, J. Lee and M. Lee, Manage risks with dividing-wall column instal-
lation, Hydrocarbon Processing, June 2011, pp. 5962.
3
Wright. R. O., Fractionation Apparatus, US Patent 2,471,134, May 1949.
4
Lee, S., M. Shamsuzzoha, M. Han, Y. Kim and M. Lee, Study of structure char-
acteristics of a divided wall column using the sloppy distillation arrangement,
Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering, Vol. 28, 2011, pp. 348356.
5
http://www.montz.de/sites/products/reflux.fr.html.
6
http://www.nascentprocess.net.
7
Lee, B., G. Kim, M. Lee, J. Lee, J. Shin, and S. Lee, Liquid splitter, Korea patent
pending, 10-2010-0120467, November 2010.
8
Lee, B. and G. Kim, Liquid splitter, Korea patent pending, 10-2012-0030223,
March 2012.
JOONHO SHIN is a process systems engineer at LG Chem Ltd., in
South Korea. In 1997, he began his professional career as a design
and control specialist with SK Engineering & Construction.
Dr. Shins industrial experience has focused on modeling,
optimization and control of chemical and petrochemical
industrial plants. He holds a BS degree in chemical engineering
from Korea University, and an MS degree and PhD in chemical
engineering from the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST).
SUNGKYU LEE is a process systems engineer at LG Chem Ltd.
in South Korea. He holds BS and MS degrees in chemical
engineering from Chungnam National University. He has
worked on modeling, optimization and control of chemical and
petrochemical plants since 2002.
JONGKU LEE is the vice president of LG Chem Ltd. at
Research Park, South Korea. He holds a BS degree in chemical
engineering from Seoul National University, and an MS degree
and PhD in chemical engineering from KAIST. Since joining LG
Chem in 1994, he has worked on numerous process modeling
and optimization projects. Dr. Lee is in charge of LG Chems
process modeling and solutions group and is performing
research in the areas of energy saving and sustainability in chemical plants.
BYEONGKYEOM LEE is a chief technology officer of process
engineering, mass-transfer equipment design and application
for AMT Pacific Co. Ltd., in South Korea, since 2000. He holds a
BS degree in chemical engineering from Sungkyunkwan
University. He began his professional career as a process
engineer at Kolon Engineering Inc. in 1989, and worked in
SK Engineering & Construction Co. Ltd. from 1991 to 2000 as
a specialist of mass-transfer equipment design and application. He has over
20 years of experience in distillation column design and applications for refinery,
petrochemical and chemical plants.
MOONYONG LEE is a professor at the school of chemical
engineering at Yeungnam University in South Korea
(http://psdc.yu.ac.Kr). He holds a BS degree in chemical
engineering from Seoul National University, and an MS degree
and PhD in chemical engineering from KAIST. Dr. Lee worked
in SK Energys refinery and petrochemical plants for 10 years
as a design and control specialist. His current areas of
specialization include modeling, design and control of chemical processes.
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TERMINALS
AND STORAGE
Overflow systems are the last line of defense T92
Terminals and storage news T94
CORPORATE PROFILES
InduMar Products, Inc. T95 CB&I T97
2013
Special Supplement to
T92 TERMINALS AND STORAGE 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
TERMINALS AND STORAGE
OVERFLOW SYSTEMS ARE
THE LAST LINE OF DEFENSE
M. TOGHRAEI, Engrowth Training, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
The overflow system is the last line of defense against the
excessive container filling. An overflow system consists of an
overflow nozzle with internal and/or external piping and, in
some cases, a siphon breaker. In this context, the container
could be an atmospheric tank or a non-flooded vessel. Howev-
er, not all the containers need an overflow system. If siphoning
the liquid out of the container is not affordable, or if the other
protective layers against overfilling provide sufficient coverage,
an overflow system may not be necessary. In general practice,
atmospheric tanksbut not vesselshave overflow systems.
Overflow nozzle location. Orienting the overflow nozzle
tends to not be significant from a process perspective, unless
the tanks possess complexities such as compartments. The
overflow nozzle orientation can be decided based on plot plan
preference (FIG. 1).
In a very basic design, the overflow nozzle may be located
high on the side of the tank, usually above high high liquid level
(HHLL) and below the roof seam. Subsequent research re-
vealed that this design causes liquid splashing during the tank
overflow, which is hazardous if the liquid in question is an ag-
gressive liquid, meaning it is flammable, irritable or corrosive.
To fix this problem, the overflow nozzle can be piped down to
the bottom of the tank, where an elbow can prevent the tank
foundation from washing out due to the overflow liquid (FIG. 2).
If a tank is blanketed at the top, such an overflow arrangement
could provide an opportunity for the blanket gas to escape from
the tank. To prevent this, the overflow nozzle could be extended
internally to the lower part of the tank. One option is to lead this
pipe down to below the low low liquid level (LLLL) in order
to ensure the presence of a liquid at the inlet of the overflow,
preventing the escape of the blanket gas. Care should be taken
to not extend the internal pipe to the very bottom of the tank,
especially if the stored liquid is not very clean and sludge may
be present at the bottom of the tank, which could clog this pipe.
Additionally, there may be cases where it is required to have
both an internal pipe and an external one, in which case it is
important to utilize a siphon breaker. In the absence of such a
breaker, the overflow stream will continue even after the liquid
has dropped to below the threshold for the overflow nozzle.
In other words, the tank will continue to overflow even after
recovering from an upset.
Overflow sizing. Proper overflow nozzle sizing relies on a
careful definition of its purpose within a refinerys needs. The
nozzle should provide enough area to discharge the flow out
of a container to protect it from overflowing, when all other
outlets to the container are blocked and all the inlets are pass-
ing. Alternatively, some companies define an overflow scenario
as one where all the nozzles are blocked except for the biggest
inlet nozzle. The second definition is obviously less conserva-
tive than the first one. Therefore, the first step of overflow sizing
is deciding on the flow (or summation of flows) that causes a
container to overflow.
To develop a methodology for overflow sizing, first observe
the phenomenon. When all the outlet nozzles are blocked, the
liquid level in the container starts to rise from normal liquid lev-
el (NLL). This continues until the liquid level reaches the bot-
tom of the overflow nozzle, at which point the tank begins to
overflow. Because the overflow nozzle is not sealed by flow, the
overflow area is sufficient and the tank level continues to rise.
Assume for the sake of discussion that the overflow nozzle
area is not adequate for overflow and that the tank level con-
tinues to rise. This is significant if and when the liquid level
reaches the seam of the roof. At this point, the flow out of the
overflow nozzle should be equal to the flow that comes into
the tank. In such a case, the overflow nozzle fails if and when
it is unable to accommodate a flow equal to inlet flow and the
liquid level inside of the tank reaches the roof space.
Assume a hypothetical draining container exists at the top
of the tank. The solution is:
Q C
d
A
2
2gh

(1)
Q is the inlet governing flowrate , C
d
is the discharge co-effi-
cient (which can be considered as 0.6 for a sharp-edged outlet)
and h is the distance between line from the overflow nozzle to
the top of the tank. From Eq. 1, the overflow area (A) and the
overflow inside can be calculated (FIG. 3).
Elevation
Side view Plan view
Orientation
FIG. 1. Plot plan preference
FIG. 2. The overflow nozzle can be piped down to the tank bottom.
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING|TERMINALS AND STORAGE 2013 T93
TERMINALS AND STORAGE
Example 1. Determine the overflow size for a water tank with
15 m height and 24 m diameter. The governing in-flow is 850
m
3
/hr as shown by:
Q C
d
A
2
2gh

(2)
Assume that the height of liquid above the centerline of the
overflow nozzle is 0.5 m, then Eq. 3 is:
(3)
850
3,600
0.6 A
2
2 9.8 0.5
D = 15.8 in. or 16 in.
When a pipe is connected to the overflow nozzle, the same
formula can be used with a slight correction:

(4)

Q =
C
d
1+ f
L
D
A 2gh
f is the moody friction factor and L is the total actual and
equivalent length of overflow pipe with D as the diameter.
Two-phase flow. Another aspect of overflow nozzle needs to
be addressed two-phase flow. Initially, the overflow system
(nozzle and downcomer) is full of air until the onset of over-
flowing when a partial flow will appear. If the level goes higher
and flow increases, the liquid stream and air will generate a two-
phase flow. There is not much research on vertical downflow
liquid-gas two-phase flows; however, three regimes have been
identified in such an arrangement.
1
At a low liquid rate, the regime will be annular flow for a
short period, slug flow at a moderate rate and bubble flow
at a high liquid rate (FIG. 4).
Because the air pressure is not high, there is a chance that
in the last stage of the regime, it will be converted into a single,
liquid phase. This actually is preferable, because if the regime
is annular, then the capacity of the overflow system is reduced;
and in the two other regimes there would be a big vibration in
the overflow pipe. This favored regime conversion can happen
if the liquid velocity is higher than the sweeping velocity. To
ensure the liquid velocity is higher than sweeping velocity, it is
recommended that Eq. 5 is followed:
2
Fr 0.31 (5)
Fr is the liquid-phase Froude number:


Fr =
V
L
gD
2

G

(6)
However, air density is negligible in comparison to liquid
density and the Froude number can be reduced:

(7)

Fr =
V
L
gD
2

Therefore, the Froude number of overflow should be greater
than 0.31. Otherwise, the overflow nozzle should be decreased,
and the liquid head above nozzle should be increased accordingly.
Example 2. In Example 1, make sure there is minimum vibra-
tion during overflowing:

(8)
850
3, 600

4
16
25.4
1,000

2
=1.82 m/sec
1.8
9.8 16
25.4
1,000

2
=0.91>0.31

With Eq. 8, the air slugs should be swept away. Another
method to ensure there is no entrainment in the overflow
downcomer is:
3
Fr 1.6
h
D
2

(9)
Siphon breaker sizing. A siphon breaker is a pipe that is located
at the highest point of the inverted U and is routed to the atmo-
sphere, outside or inside of the tank. This pipe allows the system
to suck the gas from outside the system. This breaks the siphon
and prevents flow out of the overflow nozzle, due to the siphon
phenomenon. As a rule of thumb, this pipe is a straight pipe
with a length of around 4 m to 5 m and a diameter of 2 in. to 3 in.
However, for the detailed design, it should be considered that a
quick gas stream from the outside needs to break the vacuum
by travelling through this pipe, so that there is an increase in
the vacuum pressure (almost 0 kpag) to a pressure equal to the
liquid column in the inverted U leg.
h
FIG. 3. Overflow nozzles can fail when the liquid level reaches
the roof space.
Increasing liquid ow
Slug ow Annular ow Bubble ow
FIG. 4. Three liquid rate possibilities.
T94 TERMINALS AND STORAGE 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
TERMINALS AND STORAGE
This flow is in an adiabatic condition because of its rapid
occurrence. In a simple system, the flow through a 2-in. pipe is
about 0.29 kg/sec and is meant to fill out a specific space in the
bend of the inverted U to break the vacuum. This space is theo-
retically only a thin layer of gas in the inverted U cross-section
which provides discontinuity in liquid siphon flow. However, in
practical situations, it is possible that a larger space will be needed
to fill out and discontinue siphon flow. A realistic approach is to
assume that the destination space could equal the bend volume.
Ideal Gas Law PV = nRT can predict the required mass in this
flow and these two numbers together provide the time to break
the vacuum. This is the time that must elapse to stop the flow of
siphon out of the overflow nozzle. Now it is up to the designer
to decide if this time is acceptable or if the siphon breaker pipe
should be enlarged.
Example 3. In Example 1, calculate the siphon breaker size.
The source data is atmospheric pressure; assume a pressure of
101 kpag, an ambient temperature of 20C, and the destination
point data is pressure zero. The pipe is assumed to be 4 m long
with a 2-in diameter.
The solution is based on calculating adiabatic compress-
ible flow.
4
N represents all the losses in pipe and is K + f
(L/D). K is considered 1 for an exit and for friction factor ( f ),
a fully turbulent flow friction factor is used (TABLE 1).
5
For N
equal to 2.5, flux will be 143.6 kg/s.m
2
or 0.29 kg/s.
This flow should fill the bend volume. If the stretched
length of bend is 5 m, its volume would be 0.65 m
3
. If the
height of the inverted siphon leg is 10 m, the pressure in the
bend will be:

P = gh =
1,0009.810
1,000
= 100 KP absolute pressure

(10)
PV
m
M
RT
100 .065
m
29
0.008314 20273
m = 1,554 gr
R
0.008314 m
3
kPa
mol. K

(11)
M = 29 for air
T = 20C = 293K
Gives m = 1,554 gr or 1.554 kg
Elapsed time would be:

(12)

t =
m
m
=
1.554
0.29
= 5.3 sec

During this 5.3 sec, 1.26 m
3
of water will be wasted due to
siphoning:
Volume = 5.3 850/3600 = 1.26 m
3
or
0.02% of total tank volume
(13)
LITERATURE CITED
1
Barnea, B. Flow Pattern Transition for Vertical Downward Two Phase Flow,
Chemical Engineering Science, Vol. 37, Issue 5, 1982.
2
Coker, A. K., FORTRAN: Programs for Chemical Process Design, Analysis and
Simulation, Gulf Professional Publishing, p. 182, 1995.
3
Perry, R. H., and D. W. Green, Eds., Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 6th Ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York , pp. 6-28, 1984.
4
Perry, R. H., and D. W. Green, Eds., Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 6th Ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 6-23, 1984.
5
Crane Technical Paper No. 410, Crane Valves Co., New York, 1988.
MOHAMMAD TOGHRAEI is a consultant with Engrowth Training. He has over 20
years of experience in the field of industrial water treatment. His main expertise is
in the treatment of wastewater from oil and petrochemical complexes.
TERMINALS AND STORAGE NEWS
METHANOL STORAGE IN LOUISIANA
Kinder Morgan Energy Partners has entered into a long-term
contract with Methanex to support the construction of metha-
nol storage capacity near Kinder Morgans Geismar liquids ter-
minal (GLT) in Geismar, Louisiana. Kinder Morgan will build,
own and operate the storage tanks and related infrastructure,
including improvements to its existing dock at GLT. The assets
will provide critical marine, rail and truck access in support of
the 1 million tpy methanol production plant being relocated by
Methanex from Chile.
The terminal infrastructure is expected to be in service dur-
ing the second half of 2014, coinciding with the anticipated
startup of the relocated plant. In a separate deal, Kinder Mor-
gan also acquired Quality Carriers 26-acre terminal located in
Chester, South Carolina. The 19-tank facility currently provides
storage for a single customer, with a capacity of 35,000 bbl. The
terminal receives product by rail and distributes by truck.
TESTIMONY BLASTS DHS EFFORTS AT ASSESSING
CHEMICAL SECURITY RISK
The US Government Accountability Office (GAO) has
found that the tiering approach used to regulate high-risk chem-
ical facilities by the Department of Homeland Security (DHS)
Infrastructure Security Compliance Division fails to properly
consider each of the risk elements involved in a potential ter-
rorist attack (threat, vulnerability and consequence). This con-
clusion was presented on March 14 by GAO Director Stephen
Caldwell during testimony before the US House Energy and
Commerce Committee. A similar finding was also the basis for
the International Liquid Terminals Association petition to DHS
to remove gasoline facilities from regulation under the Chemi-
cal Facility Anti-Terrorism Standards (CFATS). GAO estimates
that it could take seven to nine more years for ISCD to complete
its first review of security plans from all CFATS-regulated sites,
which began during 2011.
TABLE 1. Pipe friction data for clean commercial steel pipe with ow in complete turbulence
Nominal size
1
2 in.
3
4 in. 1 in. 1
1
4 in. 1
1
2 in. 2 in. 2
1
2 in., 3 in. 4 in. 5 in. 6 in. 810 in. 1216 in. 1824 in.
Friction factor, fr 0.027 0.025 0.023 0.022 0.021 0.019 0.018 0.017 0.016 0.015 0.014 0.013 0.012
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Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 201399
Refining Developments
T. TEMUR, M. HAKTANIR, F. UZMAN, and
M. KARAKAYA, Turkish Petroleum Refineries Corp.
(Tpra), Kocaeli, Turkey; and A. K. AVCI,
Boazii University, Istanbul, Turkey
Optimize vacuum ejector operations
Vacuum distillation unit (VDU) designs generally involve
jet ejectors due to their low capital and operating expenses, high
reliability, durability and simplicity. Once the ejector is installed
and commissioned, it may never require any maintenance as
long as it is operated within its design limits. The major draw-
backs associated with using ejectors are the dramatic perfor-
mance losses with deviations from operating condition limits
and low thermal efficiency.
1
Ejector models, found in the literature, were developed for
design purposes that estimate the cross-sectional areas of the
converging and diverging sections or their respective ratios,
and for determining intermediate pressures and velocities.
14
Upon validation against field measurements, these models can
be used to evaluate the performance of installed ejectors and
enhance operating efficiency.
Case history. Simulation and evaluation of ejectors and field
trials have focused on a wet-fuel vacuum unit with precondens-
ers at Tpra Izmit refinery. The ejector system comprises of
three-stage parallel ejectors, a precondenser, an intercondenser
and an aftercondenser, as shown in FIG. 1. The ejectors at each
stage are designed to accommodate one-third and two-thirds of
the load. Motive steam to the ejectors is supplied directly from
the low-pressure steam header at a nominal pressure of 3.5 kg
f
/
cm
2
. Due to numerous branches from the refinerywide steam
header, instantaneous pressure variations are unavoidable; thus,
the ejectors are subjected to unregulated motive steam flow
with pressure generally above the ejector design value of 3.5
kg
f
/cm
2
. A practical procedure for estimating cost savings via
regulation of the steam pressure is evaluated in the presented
case study. Annual savings for a 44,500-bpd vacuum unit is esti-
mated to reach $526,000.
Procedure. Prior to the field trials, theoretical evaluations of the
ejector performance were conducted to screen the conditions at
which the ejector will function properly. The principal condition
is that motive steam reaches supersonic velocities (Ma > 1) in
the nozzle throat.
5
As shown in FIG. 2, the evaluation task is ini-
tiated by validating a mathematical model that predictsalong
the length of the ejectorthe pressure and velocity profiles,
either of the motive steam or of its mixture with the entrained
vapor from the vacuum tower. The validation step is based on
comparing steam consumption by the actual ejector system and
those calculated by the model, which is easy to apply and capable
of accurate predictions. If the discrepancies between the model
results and time-averaged process data are high, then the model
must be revised by progressive relaxation of certain assumptions.
Basic model. The one-dimensional (1D) model assumes that
mixing the motive steam and entrained vapor occurs at con-
stant pressure.
1
The other major assumptions forming the basis
for the calculations are:
1
The mixing pressure is equal to the saturation pressure of
steam at T
motive
.
Flow along the ejector is adiabatic.
Expansion of motive steam in the nozzle is isentropic.
Isentropic expansion coefficient is constant.
Motive steam and the mixture follow ideal gas behavior.
Velocity of the entrained vapor is zero.
Outlet velocity of the mixture is negligible.
The steam flowrate through each ejector is calculated as:
(1)


m
motive
kg s
A
1
P
motive
RT
motive
n
1
2
1 1
PI PI
PI PI
PI PI
Ofgas
B A
Surge drum
H6
Barometric
seal drum
Vacuum
distillation
column
Steam header
Proposed pressure
control system
1st-, 2nd- and 3rd-
stage ejectors
Precondensers
C D E F
FIG. 1. Process flow diagram of the three-stage ejector system.
100MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Refining Developments
where T
motive
is given by the Antoine equation (Eq. 2) for tem-
perature:

(2)

T
motive

= 42.678
3,892.7
ln P
motive
1,000 ( )9.486

273.15
The compression ratio, , and the nozzle efficiency,
n
, are
assumed to equal to 1.31 and 0.85, respectively.
1,6
The cross-
sectional areas of the nozzle throats differ from stage to stage,
but are identical for a pair of parallel ejectors. Position indica-
tor 1 (FIG. 3) denotes the midpoint of the nozzle throat, while 2
denotes the nozzle outlet. When comparing the model results
with the actual consumption data for validation, consistency
leads to the next step. However, high discrepancy requires
modifying the existing model, which is beyond the scope of
this article.
Critical throat velocity. The ratio of the cross-sectional area
of the nozzle outlet (position 2 in FIG. 3) to that of the nozzle
throat (position 1) can be expressed as:

(3)

A
2
A
1
=
1
Ma
2
2
2
+1
1+
1
2
Ma
2
2

+1 ( )/ 1 ( )
Eq. 3 can be solved for the Mach number at the outlet (Ma
2
)
since both the throat and outlet diameters are known from the
equipment data sheets. The velocities of the motive steam into
the ejectors can be calculated using the flowrates obtained
from Eq. 1. The throat velocities are then interpolated linearly
between the values at the ejector inlet and nozzle outlet. If Ma
1
,
the throat velocity, is less than the critical value of 1, the ejector
shows a poor performance, which leads to loss of vacuum at the
top of the tower.
Minimum steam pressure. Once the relationship between
the motive steam pressure and nozzle throat velocity is estab-
lished, in practice, it remains a trial-and-error procedure to
determine the minimum motive steam pressure at which the
critical throat velocity can be reached, and to realize the opera-
tional cost savings if steam from the header had been regulated
prior to the ejectors. Note: A safety margin of Ma = 0.05 is al-
lowed to prevent potential malfunctioning of the ejectors dur-
ing the field trials.
Optional rigorous path. The discussed model is based on
1D gas dynamics. The obtained results are expected to shed
light on how the actual ejector system configuration should be
tested in the field. Conversely, when verified by experimental
data, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model of a system
is a very useful tool for testing and analyzing complex geomet-
ric designs under a variety of operating conditions.
Apart from the basic model, the CFD model of the ejector
is constructed to predict the nozzle throat velocity by provid-
ing a detailed CAD drawing, and the inlet steam velocity and
outlet pressure as boundary conditions. In the ejector, the
velocity and pressure profiles of motive steam and entrained
vapors can be obtained over the entire domain by solving the
compressible turbulent Navier-Stokes equations. Depending
on the complexity of the geometry, the grid resolution and the
underlying physics (e.g., high Mach number flows), solution
methods for these sets of equations may demand too much
Calculate steam
consumption by the
ejectors for various
P
motive
(basic model)
Read the steam header
pressure, P
motive
P
motive
=

P
header
Do the model
predictions compare
with average
process data?
Calculate total steam
consumption at P
motive
by the ejectors
Calculate the inlet velocity
of motive steam into the
3rd-stage ejectors for P
motive
Determine the nozzle throat
velocity in the 3rd-stage
ejectors for P
motive
(CFD model)
Stop!
Minimum P
motive
has been
reached. Further reduction in
motive steam pressure can
lead to loss of vacuum
at the tower top
Is throat
velocity
greater than
Ma = 1.05?
Determine the nozzle throat
velocity in the 3rd-stage
ejectors for P
motive
(Basic model)
No
Yes
Yes
Field trial at this P
motive
is
allowed. Calculate actual
steam consumption by the
ejectors
Calculate the operating cost
savings by reducing the motive
steam pressure
Yes No
Optional
No
Revise the ejector model,
e.g., raise the hierarchy
Model
validation
Throat
velocity
estimation
Reduce the current
trial pressure:
P
motive
=

P
motive
0.1 kg/cm
2
Is throat
velocity
greater than
Ma = 1?
FIG. 2. Procedure for determining the cost savings by working at the
minimum possible motive steam pressure of the ejectors.
2
0
1
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
,

M
a
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

k
g
f
/
c
m
2
2
3 4 5
2 1
0
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Entrained
vapor
Motive steam
1
2
3
4
3
Location along the ejector
4 6 5
FIG. 3. The basic model results for the pressure and velocity profiles
along the ejector H6 for different motive steam pressures.
Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 2013101
Refining Developments
computational power and time.
7
However, pertaining to the ex-
perience of the authors, any ejector system can be dealt within
no more than a few seconds, using a now-standard desktop PC
with 2 GB of RAM.
Case study. The time-averaged-process data can be used to
validate the model. Steam header pressure and total consump-
tion trends from Jan. 1, 2012, to Aug. 30, 2012, are shown in
FIG. 4. For an average pressure of 4 kg
f
/cm
2
, the model forecasts
the actual consumption rate within 4% error. On the day of the
field trial, the header pressure over a 3-hour period was 3.7 kg
f
/
cm
2
, which equates to a total steam consumption rate of 13.5
tph. The model prediction was 7.5% off the actual consump-
tion rate, which is acceptable, considering the numerous as-
sumptions made during development and possible orifice-flow
measurement errors. TABLE 1 summarizes the model findings
and actual figures.
The critical velocity at the nozzle throat of ejector H6 (FIG.
1) was estimated using Eq. 3 and the iterative procedure listed
in FIG. 2 for motive steam pressures of 3, 3.5 and 4 kg
f
/cm
2
.
The Mach number, which was fairly unaffected by reductions
in pressure (see FIG. 3), was above the critical value of 1. Thus,
it is possible to operate the ejectors at pressures around their
minimum design value of 3 kg
f
/cm
2
. Decreasing the pressure
below 3 kg
f
/cm
2
, however, led to throat Mach numbers less
than the critical velocity, and, thus, a loss of vacuum at the top
of the tower.
Findings of the basic model were verified by the CFD mod-
el, and the results are shown in FIG. 5 for motive steam pressures
of 4, 3.5, 3 and 2.8 kg
f
/cm
2
. Nozzle throat velocities for the first
three pressures that were above the critical Mach number of
1while going below 3 kg
f
/cm
2
pulled the velocity below
sonic levels. The CFD model considered only motive steam
flow through the ejector, since reaching supersonic speeds at
the nozzle throat is the most important criterion for a success-
ful ejector operation.
5
The suction section was not included in
the computational domain.
Field trials. In the Tpra refinery, the system considered
items A through F, as shown in FIG. 1. The gate valves admit
steam to the ejectors from the header, and the valves cannot
be used to regulate steam flow during normal operation. To
prevent an irreversible upset of the vacuum system, only the
valve (item F in FIG. 1) that is associated with the smaller of the
third-stage ejectors (H6) was restricted
with extreme care to reduce the steam
pressure in accordance with the results of
the basic and CFD models. All the other
five ejectors were subjected to steam
at the header pressure (3.7 kg
f
/cm
2
on
average). Upon the reduction from 3.7
kg
f
/cm
2
to 3 kg
f
/cm
2
, the lower limit of
safe operation, the column vacuum was
actually increased by 3 mm Hg (FIG. 6),
while total steam consumption rate de-
creased by 0.2 tph. The vacuum increase
is explained by the relief of the aftercon-
denser loading as the amount of steam
condensed is reduced.
Although the motive steam pressures below 3 kg
f
/cm
2
were
anticipated by the models to be detrimental to operation, the
system was technically analyzed by the engineers and opera-
tors. It was concluded that drawbacks resulting from vacuum
loss for a very short time would be minimal. Therefore, the
steam pressure through ejector H6 was further reduced to 2.4
kg
f
/cm
2
by tighter restriction of valve F, which, however, led
to a dramatic 16% increase in the column top pressure from
45 mm Hg to 52 mm Hg. Restriction on valve F was immedi-
ately lifted, and the pressure increased back to 3 kg
f
/cm
2
. Once
again, the model prediction for the system was correct.
Economic gain through regulation. From the model-
ing studies and field trials, it is apparent that regulating the
pressure of motive steam leads to considerable reduction in
3.5 12
13
14
15
16
11/3/2011 12/23/2011 2/11/2012 4/1/2012 5/21/2012 7/10/2012 8/29/2012 10/18/2012
S
t
e
a
m

h
e
a
d
e
r

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

k
g
f
/
c
m
2
T
o
t
a
l

s
t
e
a
m

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n
,

t
p
h
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4.0
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
5.0
FIG. 4. 2012 trends of steam header pressure and total steam
consumption by the ejector system.
FIG. 5. Velocity profiles in the ejector and nozzle throat (insets) obtained with the CFD model
for various motive steam pressures.
TABLE 1. Comparison of model results and actual steam
consumption rates
Motive
steam
pressure,
kg
f
/cm
2
Model results
for consumption at
ejector stage, tph
Model results
for total
consumption,
tph
Actual
consumption,
tph
Error,
%
1 2 3
3.7 2 4.2 7.3 13.5 14.6 7.5
4
*
2.1 4.5 7.9 14.4 14.9 4
*
Year-long (2012) average of steam header pressure
102MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Refining Developments
consumption without impacting the vacuum system. From
FIG. 1, installing a control valve on the steam header before it
branches off to the ejectors is necessary to maintain pressure
at 3 kg
f
/cm
2
.
The economic consequence of such a commonplace opera-
tion is immense compared to its simplicity. Operational cost
savings for the vacuum system by the reduction and regulation
of the motive steam pressure is summarized in TABLE 2. Con-
sumption rates at 3.5 kg
f
/cm
2
are values at the minimum design
pressure, and are obtained from the equipment data sheets;
whereas, rates at 3 kg
f
/cm
2
are calculated using the basic mod-
el. The projected reduction in steam consumption for the ejec-
tor system under consideration is 1.67 tph, and its economic
payoff is $526,000/yr. Remember: This systematic demon-
stration of the concept that even the most steadfast of the refin-
ery equipment should be evaluated for potential performance
increases and cost reductions. When the evaluation task in the
field is expensive and poses risks to unit operations, even the
simplest process models can assist engineers or unit operators
develop a safe procedure for the specific evaluation.
NOMENCLATURE
A
1
Cross-sectional area at the nozzle throat, m
2
A
2
Cross-sectional area at the nozzle outlet, m
2
m
motive
Motive steam flowrate through the ejectors, kg/s
Ma
1
Mach number at the nozzle throat
Ma
2
Mach number at the nozzle outlet
P
motive
Pressure of motive steam, kg
f
/cm
2
R Universal gas constant, kJ/kg-K
T
motive
Temperature of motive steam, C
Compression ratio

n
Nozzle efficiency
LITERATURE CITED
1
El-Dessouky, H., et al., Evaluation of steam jet ejectors, Chemical Engineering and
Processing, June 2002, Vol. 41, pp. 551561.
2
Keenan, J. H. and E. P. Neumann, A simple air ejector, Journal of Applied
Mechanics, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. A75A81.
3
Huang, B. J., et al., A 1D analysis of ejector performance, International Journal of
Refrigeration, May 1999, Vol. 22, pp. 354364.
4
Aly, N. H., A. Karmeldin and M. M. Shamloul, Modeling and simulation of steam
jet ejectors, Desalination, January 1999, Vol. 123, pp. 18.
5
Lieberman, N. P. and E. T. Lieberman, A Working Guide to Process Equipment,
2003, 2nd Ed., McGraw-Hill, New Jersey.
6
Eames, I. W., S. Aphornaratana and H. Haider, A theoretical and experimental
study of a small-scale steam jet refrigerator, International Journal of Refrigeration,
June 1995, Vol. 18, pp. 378385.
7
Nazarov, M. and J. Hoffman, Residual-based artificial viscosity for simulation of
turbulent compressible flow using adaptive finite element methods, Numerical
Methods in Fluids, No: 10.1002/fld.3663.
TOLGA TEMUR is a senior process engineer and has been with
Tpra since 2008. He is responsible for the crude units and
vacuum processes. Mr. Temur also has experience in cracking and
hydrodesulfurization processes. He holds a BS degree in
chemical engineering and an MS degree in fuel and energy
technologies from Boazii University.
MERT HAKTANIR is a senior process engineer at Tpra and
has four years of engineering and troubleshooting experience
in catalytic cracking and crude/vacuum distillation units. His
current interests include upgrading and conversion of heavy
crudes and shale oils, and detailed kinetic modeling of
complex reaction systems. Mr. Haktanir holds a BS degree in
chemical engineering from Boazii University, and MS degree
in chemistry from Purdue University. At present, he is pursuing a PhD in process
and reactor design from Istanbul University.
FIRAT UZMAN joined Tpra in 2010, and is the senior R&D
engineer with expertise and focus on modeling, control and
optimization of refinery processes. His previous career
experience includes tenure in the automotive industry. Mr.
Uzman holds a BS degree in mechatronics engineering from
Sabanci University, and is pursuing an MS degree in industrial
engineering from Ko University.
MUSTAFA KARAKAYA, PhD, is an R&D engineer with Tpra.
He received BS and MS degrees and a PhD in chemical
engineering from Boazii University. His professional and
research interests include CFD design and analysis of catalytic
reactors, development of GTL catalysts, and modeling and
optimization of hydrotreating processes.
AHMET K. AVCI, PhD, has received BS and MS degrees and a
PhD in chemical engineering from Boazii University. From
2003 to 2005, he worked as the R&D manager for Procter &
Gamble. In 2006, he joined Boazii University as a full-time
faculty member. Assoc. Prof. Avcis research interests are
focused on catalytic hydrogen and synthesis gas production
and conversion technologies, and on intensification of catalytic
reactors by microchannel technology. He is the leader of numerous projects
funded by governmental research institutes and the industry and is the author
of more than 20 articles published in international journals.
P
motive
= 2.4 kg
f
/cm
2
P
motive
= 3 kg
f
/cm
2
P
motive
= 3.7 kg
f
/cm
2
2:52 pm
V
a
c
u
u
m

c
o
l
u
m
n

t
o
p

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

m
m

H
g
T
o
t
a
l

s
t
e
a
m

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n
,

t
p
h
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
13.0
14.0
15.0
13.5
14.5
15.5
3:21 pm 3:50 pm 4:19 pm 4:48 pm 5:16 pm 5:45 pm 6:14 pm 6:43 pm 7:12 pm 7:40 pm
FIG. 6. Variation of total steam consumption by the ejectors and the
vacuum column top pressure by the pressure of motive steam into
ejector H6.
TABLE 2. Operational cost savings upon regulation of the
motive steam pressure
Motive
steam
pressure,
kg
f
/cm
2
Steam consumption
at ejector stage, kg/h
Total
reduction,
tph
Cost
savings,
$million/yr
1 2 3
3.5
1
1,896 3,986 7,026
3
2
1,651 3,471 6,117
Reduction 245 515 909 1.67 0.526
3
1
Design value
2
From the basic model
3
Based on the year-long average of cost of steam generation, $36/t
Expert Engineering.
Proven Results.
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Select 74 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
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Mitigating Cyber Threats:
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Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 2013105
Safety/Loss
Prevention
J. THARAKAN, Suncor Energy Products,
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Flare header failure: An investigation
A 60-in. flare header suffered three identical failures with
buckling and cracking at the circumferential weld at the bottom
of the pipe. The failures are believed to have originated during
hot reliefs.
The flare header handles liquid, vapor and gas intermittently
relieved from various process units. The flare header runs hori-
zontally for a length of 3 km and has a built slope of 1 in 500 for
free draining. The hottest relief is from the coker unit, which
could be at a maximum temperature of 815F.
The flare header was designed to ASME B 31.3, non-severe
cyclic service with a design pressure of 50 psig at 815F. It was
fabricated using 0.375-in. thick carbon steel plate with non-
post-weld-heat-treated welds. The header was also heat traced
and insulated.
FIG. 1 depicts the failure locations. All failures were with-
in about 60 ft on either side of the tie-in from the sulfur unit
(sulfur lateral).
FIG. 2 shows a typical buckling and cracking failure at the bot-
tom of the circumferential weld on the flare header.
Points to ponder. At the time of investigation, the failed areas
were enclosed with leak containment devices (LCDs) installed
to arrest leaks on a temporary basis. Therefore, closer observa-
tion of the failure wasnt possible.
Buckling occurs due to compressive stress (or compressive
strain) and cracking is caused by tensile stress. Therefore, it ap-
peared strange how both could occur at the same location. An-
other boggling question was which occurred first, the buckling
or the cracking?
The welds are, in general, stronger than the pipe. Why would
the girth weld area buckle, as opposed to the pipe itself ?
Why were all the failures occurring at the vicinity of the sul-
fur lateral? The buckling at the bottom section of the pipe could
be associated with a bending of the pipe in the vertical plane.
The pipe is designed to move in the horizontal plane during
thermal growth. Why should it move in the vertical plane?
Movement of the pipe in the vertical direction can result
if there is a temperature difference between the top and bot-
tom of the pipe. Therefore, it was suspected that there could be
some insulating deposit at the bottom of the flare header near
the sulfur lateral.
Onstream inspections. Gamma ray scanning ruled out the
presence of internal deposits in the flare header. Scanning re-
sults from the welds and the pipe near the sulfur lateral elimi-
nated environmental cracking and thinning.
Visual inspection of the 60-in. header revealed:
The pipe developed an ovality due to a support reaction
at the vicinity of the saddle supports
Vertical
restraint Guide
From coker
unit
60-in. are
header
110 ft
Axial
restraint
Sliding
support (typ.)
F
a
i
l
u
r
e
-
2
To are
knockout pot
Sulfur
relief
F
a
i
l
u
r
e
-
3
F
a
i
l
u
r
e
-
1
FIG. 1. Failure locations: All failures were within about 60 ft on either
side of the tie-in from the sulfur unit (sulfur lateral).
FIG. 2. Typical buckling and cracking failure at the bottom of the
circumferential weld on the flare header.
FIG. 3. Evidence of vertical movement of the pipe.
106MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Safety/Loss Prevention
The pipe was not touching one of the bottom supports (1-
in. gap), due to a permanent deformation in the vertical plane
The lone Y- stop that prevented upward movement of the
line was forced open (see FIG. 3)
There was no ovalization at the long radius bends
There was no sign of excessive axial or lateral movement
There were no fretting marks on supports, that could be
associated with vibration.
The first three observations led to the conclusion that the
flare header must have undergone thermal movement in the
vertical plane.
Design observations. Several design features were observed
during the investigation. The saddle support for the 60-in. flare
header had an angle of contact of 72. This is less than the mini-
mum angle of contact of 120 for saddles for horizontal pressure
vessels. The flare header was not designed for hydro-fill condi-
tions. Some pipe spans that exceeded 40 ft, coupled with defi-
ciency in saddle design, caused high local stress and ovalization
of the pipe near supports, as confirmed with stress analysis.
The pipe thickness (t) was too thin for its outside diameter
(D), i.e., it had a large D/t ratio of 160, as against the industry
norm of 120. In FIG. 4, it can be seen that when the D/t ratio
increases, the allowable strain limit decreases.
Strain limit. When a pipe is bent by the application of an ex-
ternal moment, it tends to develop changes in cross-section.
The outer radius develops flattening and inner radius kinks
inward (buckling).
Strain limit is often used to assess the bending capability of
pipe. As shown in FIG. 4, the strain limit decreases with an increase
in the D/t ratio. The strain referred to here is the mechanical
strain that produces stresses. Free thermal expansion produces
thermal strain without stressing the material. In a piping system,
restraints always limit free thermal expansion; therefore, some
mechanical strain is also induced during thermal expansion.
Gresnigts equations are the basis of FIG. 4.
1
c = 0.5 t/(D-t) 0.0025 for (D-t)/t < 120
c= 0.2 t/(D-t) for a (D-t)/t 120
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-0.01000
0.00000
0.01000
0.02000
0.03000
0.04000
0.05000
0.06000
0.07000
0 50 100 150 200

c

D/t ratio
FIG. 4. D/t ratio vs. strain limit, c.
Select 175 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Safety/Loss Prevention
107
D/t is not the lone parameter limiting the bending capacity
of pipe. The other factors are:
Nonhomogeneity or the presence of imperfections in the
material
Initial out-of-roundness
Loading conditions
Residual stress
Strength of the material in the longitudinal and circum-
ferential directions
Shape of the stressstrain diagram.
Thermal bowing. The flare header is designed for flexibil-
ity at 815F. As per the design, it is expected to move only in
the horizontal plane while undergoing thermal expansion. A
movement in the vertical plane has to counter the gravity loads;
however, the several conditions have led to thermal bowing of
the flare header in the vertical plane:
Occasional temperature difference between the top and
bottom half of the horizontal flare header
Ovalization of the pipe, which reduced the stiffness of the
pipe in the vertical direction, compared to the horizontal direction
To accommodate growth, the pipe tends to bend in the di-
rection of least stiffness.
The reason for the circumferential thermal gradient is not
well understood. Within the horizontal flare header, there could
be a two-phase flow of hot fluid, with the film-heat transfer co-
efficient being different for the liquid flow and the vapor flow.
This difference can cause a temperature gradient between the
bottom and top of the pipe. Another possibility is the intermit-
tent and partial flow of liquid, hotter or colder than the mean line
temperature; it could create a circumferential thermal gradient.
FIG. 5 shows thermal bowing of a pipe due to circumferential
thermal gradient. The pipe will bend with outer curvature at
the hotter region. The nature and extent of stresses generated
is dependent on the boundary condition. In this example, the
vertical restraint opposes free thermal bowing. The region of
the pipe where actual displacement is less than needed for free
thermal expansion would be in compression and if reversed,
in tension. Therefore, the hotter half of the pipe will be under
compression and the colder half in tension.
Initial conclusions. The preliminary investigation conclud-
ed that the failure was initiated by local buckling at zones of
compressive strain when thermal bowing occurred in the flare
header. The vertical restraint amplified the stresses at the re-
gion of Failure 1. At failure locations 2 and 3, the sulfur lateral
restrained the rotation and lifting of the 60-in. header, thereby
increasing the stresses.
The large pipe D/t ratio is the root cause of local buckling.
From FIG. 4, the strain limit = 0.00126 for the flare header with
a D/t ratio of 160. This translates to a stress of 35.3 ksi (1 ksi
= 1,000 psi), which is lower than a yield stress of 38 ksi. Imper-
fections and residual stress at the circumferential weld lower
the strain limit, thus explaining how all three failures occurred
at the circumferential welds.
Hoop tensile stress opposes inward buckling of the pipe.
The flare header operating pressure does not exceed 10 psig
and this low value added negligible hoop tensile stress to
counter buckling.
The cracking occurred after the buckling damage. For crack-
ing, tensile stress is required, and this must have resulted dur-
ing straightening of the pipe when thermal gradients receded
or when reversed.
About 150 ft on either side of the sulfur lateral was deemed
as the only area where all the following conditions required for
local buckling co-existed:
High temperature due to downstream coker unit relief
Restraints that opposed thermal bowing
Large D/t ratio
Pre-existing ovality due to large local stresses near saddle
supports.
Repairs carried out. After thorough evaluation, repair strat-
egy improvement began. Key improvements included:
Cold sidetensile stress
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

r
e
s
t
r
a
i
n
t
Hot sidecompressive stress
Sliding support
FIG. 5. Thermal bowing of pipe due to circumferential thermal gradient.
Select 173 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
108MAY 2013|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Safety/Loss Prevention
A 300-ft section encompassing the failure was replaced
with a thicker pipe
The D/t ratio for the replacement section was 96
The saddle supports for the replaced section were rede-
signed with an angle of contact of 120
The vertical restraint was modified to a sliding support
Skin thermocouples were installed at the top and bottom
of the pipe
The new welds were post-weld-heat-treated to reduce re-
sidual stress and to safeguard against environmental cracking.
Metallurgical examination. A close inspection of the flare
header section removed for metallurgical inspection is shown
in FIG. 6. Metallurgical observations included:
Metallurgy of the pipe and weld were verified and found
to match with the original design specification
No weld defects were detected; two of the failures were
on shop welds and one was on a field weld
No sign of fatigue or environmental cracking was found
on the specimens examined
The bottom portion of the pipe, at the weld, buckled in-
ward and the cracks originated at the buckled area
The cracking was due to ductile overload
The crack originated at the toe of the weld from the OD
surface of the pipe at the buckled region.
Skin temperature readings taken from the top and bottom
of the pipe after replacement revealed a circumferential ther-
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Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 2013109
Safety/Loss Prevention
mal gradient of 150F. In general, the pipe is hotter at the bot-
tom; however, in some instances, the temperature gradient is
reversed, with the top of the pipe being hotter.
Discussions. Vertical movement of the pipe causing lift-off
from support will add gravity loads to the pipe. Thermal bow-
ing will negate the free draining capability of the line, leading to
localized liquid pooling and associated issues. Thermal bowing
is not common with process plant piping, and when it occurs,
it is a difficult problem to correct. Most failures due to thermal
bowing are fatigue cracking at the circumferential welds. Buck-
ling due to thermal bowing is extremely rare due to installing
pipes with favorable D/t ratio. The 60-in. flare header had both
a very large D/t ratio and a loading/displacement condition
that increased vulnerability to buckling.
When large lateral displacements are imposed on piping,
failure generally manifests as localized buckling. Buckling is
a failure due to instability and it causes process of achieving
equilibrium between external loads, internal resistance and
boundary restraint. Strain-based design is typically adopted for
displacement controlled designs. Examples are subsea piping
or buried lines with large ground movements.
In a piping flexibility analysis, the displacement stress range
is compared with the allowable stress range. This is essentially
a check against potential fatigue failure due to cyclic tensile
stress. Compressive stress or strain limit checks are not part
of a piping flexibility analysis. Piping stress analysis softwares
treat pipe as a beam and cannot predict local buckling of the
shell elements.
Large D/t ratio also increases susceptibility to failures due
to acoustic induced vibration (AIV). AIV is caused by high
sound pressure levels inside flare headers during significant
relief scenarios. AIV failures typically develop at small bore tie-
ins to the flare header.
Findings. If the D/t ratio of the pipe exceeds 100, these pre-
cautions apply:
When the pipeline is subjected to large bending mo-
ments, external pressure or axial compression, strain-based de-
sign/buckling assessment using finite element analysis (FEA)
should be performed
Equations for stress intensity factors given in ASME
B31.3 are valid only for D/t 100
During flexibility analysis, corrected stress intensity fac-
tors estimated through FEA should be used
Flare headers should be designed with a dead load that
includes one quarter full of liquid
Saddle supports for piping with a large D/t ratio require
design considerations like pressure vessel saddles (Zick analysis)
The D/t ratio for flare headers should be less than 120.
LITERATURE CITED
1
Gresnigt, A. M. and R. J. Van Foeken, Local buckling of UOE and seamless steel
pipes, 11th International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference, Stavanger,
Norway, June 2011.
JULY 3031, 2013
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ADVERTISERS INDEX / HydrocarbonProcessing.com
The first number after the company name is the page on which an advertisement appears. The second number, appearing in parentheses, after the company
name, is the Reader Service Number. There are two ways readers can obtain product and service information:
1. Go to www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS. Follow the instructions on the screen, and your request will be forwarded for immediate action.
2. Go online to the advertiser's Website listed below.
Company Page RS#
Website
Company Page RS#
Website
Company Page RS#
Website
ae Solutions ............................................................. 4647 (165)
www.info.hotims.com/45679-165
Aggreko ........................................................................ 41 (162)
www.info.hotims.com/45679-162
Ametek Process Instruments ........................................... 45 (164)
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ARCA Regler GmbH ......................................................... 72 (169)
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Avondale .......................................................................90 (77)
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Axens ........................................................................... 116 (51)
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Babbitt Steam Specialty Co. ............................................40 (160)
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BETE Fog Nozzle .............................................................84 (58)
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Borsig GmbH ................................................................. 19 (153)
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Cameron ....................................................................... 52 (55)
www.info.hotims.com/45679-55
Carboline Company ........................................................88 (171)
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CB&I ...........................................................................T-96 (54)
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Cudd Energy Services ......................................................71 (168)
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Curtiss Wright Flow Control Company, DeltaValve ................... 68 (67)
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Curtiss Wright Flow Control Company, Farris Engineering .........73 (56)
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Dresser-Rand ................................................................. 67 (62)
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Elliott Group ................................................................. 115 (52)
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Emerson Process Management, Fisher ............................. 33
Emirates .........................................................................13 (68)
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Exxon Lubricants & Specialities ........................................51 (71)
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Flexitallic LP ....................................................................5 (93)
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GE Measurement & Control, Inspection Technology ........... 26 (155)
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GE Oil & Gas, Surface Pumping Systems ........................... 34 (86)
www.info.hotims.com/45679-86
Gulf Publishing Company
Construction Boxscore .............................................T-98
EventsGTL ............................................................. 109
EventsIRPC ........................................................... 67
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Hermetic Pumpen GmbH ................................................ 32 (158)
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Linde Engineering North America Inc. .............................. 42 (73)
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Linde Process Plants ....................................................... 14 (85)
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Paharpur Cooling Towers, Ltd. ......................................... 28 (102)
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PARCOL SpA ....................................................................15 (152)
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Pentair Porous Media .....................................................60 (64)
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Petro-Canada Lubricants ..................................................2 (76)
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Quest Integrity Group LLC.................................................31 (157)
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Samson GmbH ...............................................................66 (167)
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Sandvik Materials Technology ......................................... 74 (61)
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Servomex Ltd............................................................... 106 (175)
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Smith & Burgess LLC ....................................................... 83 (72)
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T.F. Hudgins, Inc ............................................................. 65 (166)
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Team Industrial Services ................................................. 23 (95)
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Tiger Tower Services ....................................................... 18 (75)
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Total Safety ................................................................... 56 (99)
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Trachte USA ..................................................................107 (173)
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UOP, A Honeywell Company ............................................ 24
Vega Americas, Inc. .........................................................12 (151)
www.info.hotims.com/45679-151
Weir Minerals Lewis Pumps ............................................. 16 (94)
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Zyme-Flow, Decon Technology ........................................89 (92)
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This Index and procedure for securing additional information is provided as a service to Hydrocarbon Processing advertisers and a convenience to our readers. Gulf Publishing Company is not responsible for omissions or errors.
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Engineering
Case Histories
A. SOFRONAS, CONSULTING ENGINEER
http://mechanicalengineeringhelp.com
Case 72: Interaction between disciplines
when troubleshooting
When troubleshooting, we can become fixated on the dis-
cipline that we are most familiarin the authors case, me-
chanical engineering. Investigating the failure of a machine
may have a group of mechanical engineering specialists in-
volved in the troubleshooting effort. When ones specialty is
vibration analysis, the first thought for the failure could be
a torsional or linear vibration problem. A stress analyst will
focus on developing an analytical model to describe this fail-
ure. Conversely, the materials engineer will be investigating
corrosion issues as the root cause. Likewise, the process and
control engineers will be reviewing computer simulations
and searching for possible abnormal operations.
Its human nature to want to analyze problems with the
tools that you are most familiar in using. I certainly have done
this during my career.
Solution. When the solution is obvious, then the one-disci-
pline approach can work. A specialist may have seen a very
similar failure and solved the problem. Indeed, most day-to-
day failures are resolved by part replacement or with field per-
sonnel applying a simple fix. Replacing damaged bearings be-
cause the oil was contaminated, and correcting the root cause
for the contamination, will mitigate future failures.
Silver-bullet solutions. A silver-bullet, single solution
does not work well on complex multivariable system prob-
lems. Erroneous solutions can result in severe consequences
to equipment, personnel and careers with the one-discipline
approach.
This can be addressed by using a structured-team prob-
lem-solving approach, with all of the necessary disciplines
represented and a team leader who has been selected by
management. In this way, all of the potential causes can be
identified, using the multi-discipline team. There is no pur-
pose in outlining technical problem-solving methods that
are well documented.
1, 2
Most of us have attended seminars
or have been involved in such sessions. We are familiar with
the benefits.
Follow through. I have noticed during my career that there
are times when the structured-team methods have not been
applied correctly. There are many reasons for the lapse in ap-
plication and include:
A deadline is approaching, and it is imperative that this
deadline be met. Result: The uninformed make critical deci-
sions.
No one knows that such an approach will help, and no
one has been trained for it.
The problem solving is well under way before it is real-
ized that the approach is chaotic, and that a more structured
method is needed.
There is not much urgency in solving the problem; no
one wants to spend any money, delegate personnel or be
responsible.
The solution to the problem is started with no action
plans and no definite responsibilities.
Various disciplines that are needed to solve the problem
are not available at the site.
Who is responsible? It is managements job to address all of
these listed reasons. The question becomes: When is it neces-
sary to utilize a structured-team approach to solve a problem?
From my viewpoint, when safety, litigation concerns, ma-
jor production losses or careers may be at risk, then a struc-
tured-team approach is needed. Many excellent articles have
been written on when just making a repair is inadequate and
more should be done.
3
A quick computer search on engineer-
ing disasters will show many such failures, and, unfortunately,
most were avoidable. There are many reasons to consider
structured-team problem-solving approaches, and training in
root-cause analysis methods, such as the Kepner-Tregoe or
TapRooT methods.
Due to the present litigious society, it is very prudent to
invest in methods that produce a paper trail and show that a
sincere and thorough effort was made to address the concern.
Detailed and concise calculations provide a method to docu-
ment that a sincere effort has been made to understand the
concern. Other ways are to include the input of well-known
technical experts familiar with the equipment or process in-
volved and have experience with similar failures.
LITERATURE CITED
1
Bloch, H. P. and F. K. Geitner, Machinery Failure Analysis and Troubleshooting, Gulf
Publishing Company, Houston, p. 343.
2
Kepner, C. H., and B. B. Tregoe, The Rational Manager: A Systematic Approach to
Problem Solving and Decision Making, Kepner-Tregoe, Second Ed., 1976.
3
Bloch, K., Extreme failure analysis: Never again a repeat failure, Hydrocarbon
Processing, April 2009, pp. 8797.
DR. TONY SOFRONAS, P.E., was worldwide lead
mechanical engineer for ExxonMobil Chemicals before
retiring. He now owns Engineered Products, which
provides consulting and engineering seminars on
machinery and pressure vessels. Dr. Sofronas has
authored two engineering books and numerous
technical articles on analytical methods. Early in his
career, he worked for General Electric and Bendix, and
has extensive knowledge of design and failure analysis
for various types of equipment.
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