Light-emitting diode

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"LED" redirects here. For other uses, see LED (disambiguation).

Blue, green, and red LEDs; these can be combined to produce any color, including
white. Infrared and ultraviolet (UVA) LEDs are also available.

LED panels allow for smaller sets of interchangeable LEDs to be one large display.

A light-emitting diode, usually called an LED (pronounced /ˌɛliːˈdiː/),[1] is a

semiconductor diode that emits incoherent narrow-spectrum light when electrically
biased in the forward direction of the p-n junction, as in the common LED circuit.
This effect is a form of electroluminescence.

A LED is usually a small area light source, often with optics added to the chip to
shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection. [2] [3] LEDs are often used as small
indicator lights on electronic devices and increasingly in higher power applications
such as flashlights and area lighting. The color of the emitted light depends on the
composition and condition of the semiconducting material used, and can be
infrared, visible, or ultraviolet. LEDs can also be used as a regular household light
source. Besides lighting, interesting applications include sterilization of water and
disinfection of devices.[4]
Contents
[hide]

• 1 History
o 1.1 Discovery and development
o 1.2 Practical use
• 2 LED technology
o 2.1 Physical principles
o 2.2 Light extraction
o 2.3 Materials
o 2.4 Ultraviolet and blue LEDs
o 2.5 White light LEDs
 2.5.1 RGB Systems
 2.5.2 Phosphor based LEDs
o 2.6 Quantum Dot LEDs
o 2.7 Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)
o 2.8 Efficiency and operational parameters
o 2.9 Failure modes
o 2.10 Research on DNA
• 3 Considerations in use
o 3.1 Advantages of using LEDs
o 3.2 Disadvantages of using LEDs
• 4 Types
o 4.1 Miniature LEDs
 4.1.1 Multi-color LEDs
 4.1.2 Five- and twelve-volt LEDs
 4.1.3 Flashing LEDs
o 4.2 Alphanumeric LEDs
o 4.3 Lighting LEDs
• 5 LED applications
o 5.1 List of LED applications
 5.1.1 Devices, medical applications, clothing, toys
 5.1.2 Lighting
o 5.2 LED panels
 5.2.1 Flat-panel LED TV history
 5.2.2 Indicators and signs
o 5.3 Optoisolators and optocouplers
o 5.4 Light sources for machine vision systems
o 5.5 Touch sensing
• 6 Power sources
o 6.1 Indicator LEDs
o 6.2 Lighting LEDs on mains
o 6.3 Lighting LEDs on low voltage
• 7 See also
 • 8 References

• 9 External links

[edit] History
[edit] Discovery and development

The first known report of a light-emitting solid-state diode was made in 1907 by the
British experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs. Russian Oleg Vladimirovich
Losev independently created the first LED in the mid 1920s; his research, though
distributed in Russian, German and British scientific journals, was ignored, [5] [6] and
no practical use was made of the discovery for several decades. Rubin Braunstein of
the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium
arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. [7] . Braunstein observed
infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using GaSb, GaAs, InP, and
Ge-Si alloys cooled by liquid nitrogen to 77 K. Experimenters at Texas Instruments,
Bob Biard [8] and Gary Pittman, found in 1961 that gallium arsenide gave off
infrared radiation when electric current was applied. Biard and Pittman were able
to establish the priority of their work and received the patent for the infrared light-
emitting diode.

The first practical visible-spectrum (red) LED was developed by Nick Holonyak Jr.
in 1962, then of the General Electric Company and later with the University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign[9] and is seen as the "father of the light-emitting
diode". [10] Holonyak's former graduate student, M. George Craford, invented in
1972 the first yellow LED and 10x brighter red and red-orange LEDs. [11]

Shuji Nakamura of Nichia Corporation of Japan demonstrated the first high-

brightness blue LED based on InGaN, borrowing on critical developments in GaN
nucleation on sapphire substrates and the demonstration of p-type doping of GaN
which were developed by I. Akasaki and H. Amano in Nagoya. In the 1995 Alberto
Barbieri at the Cardiff University Laboratory (GB) investigated the Efficiency and
Reliability of high-brightness LED demonstrating very high result by using a
transparent contact made by indium tin oxide (ITO) on (AlGaInP/GaAs) LED. The
existence of the blue LED and high efficiency quickly carried to the first white LED,
which employed a Y3Al5O12:Ce, or "YAG", phosphor coating to mix yellow (down-
converted) light with blue to produce light that appears white. Nakamura was
awarded the 2006 Millennium Technology Prize for his invention.[12]

[edit] Practical use

The first commercial LEDs were commonly used as replacements for incandescent
indicators, and in seven-segment displays, first in expensive equipment such as
laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as TVs,
radios, telephones, calculators, and even watches. These red LEDs were bright
enough only for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to illuminate
an area. Later, other colors became widely available and also appeared in appliances
and equipment. As the LED materials technology became more advanced, the light
output was increased, while maintaining the efficiency and the reliability to an
acceptable level, causing LEDs to become bright enough to be used for illumination.

Most LEDs were made in the very common 5 mm T1³⁄₄ and 3 mm T1 packages, but
with higher power, it has become increasingly necessary to shed excess heat in order
to maintain reliability, so more complex packages adapted for efficient heat
dissipation are becoming common. Packages for state-of-the-art high power LEDs
bear little resemblance to early LEDs (see, for example, Philips Lumileds).

[edit] LED technology

[edit] Physical principles

I-V diagram for a diode an LED will begin to emit light when the on-voltage is
exceeded. Typical on voltages are 2-3 Volt

Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material

impregnated, or doped, with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes,
current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in
the reverse direction. Charge-carriers—electrons and holes—flow into the junction
from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a
lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon.

The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band
gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium
diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition which
produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The
materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to
near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light.
LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide.
Advances in materials science have made possible the production of devices with
ever-shorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of colors.

LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-
type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as
well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate.

[edit] Light extraction

Substrates that are transparent to the emitted wavelength, and backed by a

reflective layer, and light spreading layer, increase the LED efficiency. The refractive
index of the package material should match the index of the semiconductor,
otherwise the produced light gets partially reflected back into the semiconductor,
where it may be absorbed and turned into additional heat, thus lowering the
efficiency. This type of reflection also occurs at the surface of the package if the LED
is coupled to a medium with a different refractive index such as a glass fiber or air.
The refractive index of most LED semiconductors is quite high, so in almost all
cases the LED is coupled into a much lower-index medium. The large index
difference makes the reflection quite substantial (per the Fresnel coefficients), and
this is usually one of the dominant causes of LED inefficiency. Often more than half
of the emitted light is reflected back at the LED-package and package-air interfaces.
The reflection is most commonly reduced by using a dome-shaped (half-sphere)
package with the diode in the center so that the outgoing light rays strike the surface
perpendicularly, at which angle the reflection is minimized. An anti-reflection
coating may be added as well. The package may be cheap plastic, which may be
colored, but this is only for cosmetic reasons or to improve the contrast ratio; the
color of the packaging does not substantially affect the color of the light emitted.
Other strategies for reducing the impact of the interface reflections include
designing the LED to reabsorb and reemit the reflected light (called photon
recycling) and manipulating the microscopic structure of the surface to reduce the
reflectance, by introducing random roughness, creating programmed moth eye
surface patterns. Recently Photonic crystal have also been used to minimize back-
reflections [13]. In December 2007, scientists at Glasgow University claimed to have
found a way to make Light Emitting Diodes brighter and use less power than energy
efficient light bulbs currently on the market by imprinting holes into billions of
LEDs in a new and cost effective method using a process known as nanoimprint
lithography.[14]

[edit] Materials

Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials,

producing the following colors:

• Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) — red and infrared

• Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP) — green
 • Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) — high-brightness orange-
red, orange, yellow, and green
• Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) — red, orange-red, orange, and yellow
• Gallium phosphide (GaP) — red, yellow and green
• Gallium nitride (GaN) — green, pure green (or emerald green), and blue also
white (if it has an AlGaN Quantum Barrier)
• Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) — 450–470 nm — near ultraviolet, bluish-
green and blue
• Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate — blue
• Silicon (Si) as substrate — blue (under development)
• Sapphire (Al2O3) as substrate — blue
• Zinc selenide (ZnSe) — blue
• Diamond (C) — ultraviolet
• Aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN), aluminium
gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN) — near to far ultraviolet (down to
210 nm[15])

With this wide variety of colors, arrays of multicolor LEDs can be designed to
produce unconventional color patterns.[16]

[edit] Ultraviolet and blue LEDs

Ultraviolet GaN LEDs.

Blue LEDs are based on the wide band gap semiconductors GaN (gallium nitride)
and InGaN (indium gallium nitride). They can be added to existing red and green
LEDs to produce the impression of white light, though white LEDs today rarely use
this principle.

The first blue LEDs were made in 1971 by Jacques Pankove (inventor of the gallium
nitride LED) at RCA Laboratories.[17] However, these devices had too little light
output to be of much practical use. In the late 1980s, key breakthroughs in GaN
epitaxial growth and p-type doping by Isamu Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano (Nagoya,
Japan)[18] ushered in the modern era of GaN-based optoelectronic devices. Building
upon this foundation, in 1993 high brightness blue LEDs were demonstrated
through the work of Shuji Nakamura at Nichia Corporation.[19]
By the late 1990s, blue LEDs had become widely available. They have an active
region consisting of one or more InGaN quantum wells sandwiched between thicker
layers of GaN, called cladding layers. By varying the relative InN-GaN fraction in
the InGaN quantum wells, the light emission can be varied from violet to amber.
AlGaN aluminium gallium nitride of varying AlN fraction can be used to
manufacture the cladding and quantum well layers for ultraviolet LEDs, but these
devices have not yet reached the level of efficiency and technological maturity of the
InGaN-GaN blue/green devices. If the active quantum well layers are GaN, as
opposed to alloyed InGaN or AlGaN, the device will emit near-ultraviolet light with
wavelengths around 350–370 nm. Green LEDs manufactured from the InGaN-GaN
system are far more efficient and brighter than green LEDs produced with non-
nitride material systems.

With nitrides containing aluminium, most often AlGaN and AlGaInN, even shorter
wavelengths are achievable. Ultraviolet LEDs in a range of wavelengths are
becoming available on the market. Near-UV emitters at wavelengths around 375–
395 nm are already cheap and often encountered, for example, as black light lamp
replacements for inspection of anti-counterfeiting UV watermarks in some
documents and paper currencies. Shorter wavelength diodes, while substantially
more expensive, are commercially available for wavelengths down to 247 nm.[20] As
the photosensitivity of microorganisms approximately matches the absorption
spectrum of DNA, with a peak at about 260 nm, UV LEDs emitting at 250–270 nm
are to be expected in prospective disinfection and sterilisation devices. Recent
research has shown that commercially available UVA LEDs (365 nm) are already
effective disinfection and sterilisation devices.[4]

Wavelengths down to 210 nm were obtained in laboratories using aluminium

nitride.

While not an LED as such, an ordinary NPN bipolar transistor will emit violet light
if its emitter-base junction is subjected to non-destructive reverse breakdown. This
is easy to demonstrate by filing the top off a metal-can transistor (BC107, 2N2222 or
similar) and biasing it well above emitter-base breakdown (≥ 20 V) via a current-
limiting resistor.

[edit] White light LEDs

There are two ways of producing high intensity white-light using LEDs. One is to
use individual LEDs that emit three primary colors[21] – red, green, and blue, and
then mix all the colors to produce white light. The other is to use a phosphor
material to convert monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum
white light.

[edit] RGB Systems

Combined spectral curves for blue, yellow-green, and high brightness red solid-state
semiconductor LEDs. FWHM spectral bandwidth is approximately 24–27 nm for all
three colors.

White light can be produced by mixing differently colored light, the most common
method is to use red, green and blue (RGB). Hence the method is called multi-
colored white LEDs (sometimes referred to as RGB LEDs). Because its mechanism
is involved with sophisticated electro-optical design to control the blending and
diffusion of different colors, this approach has rarely been used to mass produce
white LEDs in the industry. Nevertheless this method is particularly interesting to
many researchers and scientists because of the flexibility of mixing different colors.
In principle, this mechanism also has higher quantum efficiency in producing white
light.

There are several types of multi-colored white LEDs: di-, tri-, and tetrachromatic
white LEDs. Several key factors that play among these different approaches include
color stability, color rendering capability, and luminous efficacy. Often higher
efficacy will mean lower color rendering, presenting a trade off between the
luminous efficiency and color rendering. For example, the dichromatic white LEDs
have the best luminous efficiency (120 lm/W), but the lowest color rendering
capability. Oppositely although tetrachromatic white LEDs have excellent color
rendering capability, they often have poor luminous efficiency. Trichromatic white
LEDs are in between, having both good luminous efficiency (>70 lm/W) and fair
color rendering capability.

What multi-color LEDs offer is not merely another solution of producing white
light, but is a whole new technique of producing light of different colors. In
principle, all perceivable colors in the can be produced by mixing different amount
of three primary colors, and this makes it possible to produce precise dynamic color
control as well. As more effort is devoted to investigating this technique, multi-color
LEDs should have profound influence on the fundamental method which we use to
produce and control light color. However, before this type of LED can truly play a
role on the market, several technical problems need to be solved. These certainly
include that this type of LED's emission power decays exponentially with increasing
temperature,[22] resulting in a substantial change in color stability. Such problem is
not acceptable for industrial usage. Therefore, many new package designs aiming to
solve this problem have been proposed, and their results are being reproduced by
researchers and scientists.

[edit] Phosphor based LEDs

Spectrum of a “white” LED clearly showing blue light which is directly emitted by
the GaN-based LED (peak at about 465 nm) and the more broadband Stokes-shifted
light emitted by the Ce3+:YAG phosphor which emits at roughly 500–700 nm.

The method involves coating a LED of one color (mostly blue LED made of InGaN)
with phosphor of a different color to produce white light. Depending on the color of
the original LED, phosphors of different colors can also be employed. By applying
several phosphor layers of distinct colors, we can effectively increase the color
rendering index (CRI) value of a given LED.

Because this method of producing white LEDs heavily employs the usage of
phosphor, the resultant LEDs are called phosphor based white LEDs. Although
easier to be manufactured than multi-colored LEDs, phosphor based LEDs have a
lower quantum efficiency and other phosphor-related degradation issues. However,
it is still the most popular technique of manufacturing high intensity white LEDs as
well as high intensity LEDs of other colors because it requires much easier material
processing and therefore suits today’s applications. Much effort has been spent on
optimizing the operating environment, namely temperature and current, for this
type of LED.

Phosphor based white LEDs encapsulate InGaN blue LEDs inside of a phosphor
coated epoxy. A common yellow phosphor material is cerium-doped yttrium
aluminum garnet (Ce3+:YAG). Although the phosphor based white LEDs have a
relatively easier mechanism, they reach the fundamental limitation due to the
unavoidable Stokes shift energy loss, a loss that occurs when short wavelength
photons are converted to long wavelength photons. Regardless this technique of
manufacturing is adopted by most of the LED industry because of its low cost and
high output. All the high intensity white LEDs now on the market are manufactured
by this method.

Phosphor based white LEDs is so far the simplest solution to produce high intensity
white light. With its simplified mechanism, this type of LEDs has attracted much
interest from the lighting industry. Because of their more stable performance over a
range of temperatures, prototypes as well as products based on this phosphor based
mechanism have already appeared on the market. And more high intensity white
LEDs are expected to be produced in the near future. However, the biggest challenge
these phosphor based white LEDs face is solving the seemingly unavoidable Stokes
energy loss. Again this can be done by adapting a better package design or by
replacing a more suitable type of phosphor. Philips Lumileds patented conformal
coating process addresses the issue of varying phosphor thickness, giving the white
LEDs a more consistent spectrum of white light.

White LEDs can also be made by coating near ultraviolet (NUV) emitting LEDs
with a mixture of high efficiency europium-based red and blue emitting phosphors
plus green emitting copper and aluminum doped zinc sulfide (ZnS:Cu, Al). This is a
method analogous to the way fluorescent lamps work. However, the ultraviolet light
causes photodegradation to the epoxy resin and many other materials used in LED
packaging, causing manufacturing challenges and shorter lifetimes. This method is
less efficient than the blue LED with YAG:Ce phosphor, as the Stokes shift is larger
and more energy is therefore converted to heat, but yields light with better spectral
characteristics, which render color better. Due to the higher radiative output of the
ultraviolet LEDs than of the blue ones, both approaches offer comparable
brightness.

The newest method used to produce white light LEDs uses no phosphors at all and is
based on homoepitaxially grown zinc selenide (ZnSe) on a ZnSe substrate which
simultaneously emits blue light from its active region and yellow light from the
substrate

[edit] Quantum Dot LEDs

A new technique developed by Michael Bowers, a graduate student at Vanderbilt

University in Nashville, involves coating a blue LED with quantum dots that glow
white in response to the blue light from the LED. This technique produces a warm,
yellowish-white light similar to that produced by incandescent bulbs.[23]

Quantum Dots are semiconductor nanocrystals that possess unique optical

properties.[24] Their emission color can be tuned from the visible throughout the
infrared spectrum. This allows quantum dot LEDs to create almost any color on the
CIE diagram. This provides more color options and better color rendering white
LEDs. Quantum dot LEDs are available in the same package types as traditional
phosphor based LEDs.

[edit] Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)

Main article: Organic light-emitting diode

If the emitting layer material of the LED is an organic compound, it is known as an

Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED). To function as a semiconductor, the organic
emitting material must have conjugated pi bonds. The emitting material can be a
small organic molecule in a crystalline phase, or a polymer. Polymer materials can
be flexible; such LEDs are known as PLEDs or FLEDs.

Compared with regular LEDs, OLEDs are lighter, and polymer LEDs can have the
added benefit of being flexible. Some possible future applications of OLEDs could
be:

• Inexpensive, flexible displays

• Light sources
• Wall decorations
• Luminous cloth

OLEDs have been used to produce visual displays for portable electronic devices
such as cellphones, digital cameras, and MP3 players. Larger displays have been
demonstrated, but their life expectancy is still far too short (<1,000 hours) to be
practical.

Today, OLEDs operate at substantially lower efficiency than inorganic (crystalline)

LEDs. The best luminous efficacy of an OLED so far is about 68 lm/W[citation needed].

[edit] Efficiency and operational parameters

Most typical LEDs are designed to operate with no more than 30–60 milliwatts
(mW) of electrical power. Around 1999, Philips Lumileds introduced power LEDs
capable of continuous use at one watt (W). These LEDs used much larger
semiconductor die sizes to handle the large power inputs. Also, the semiconductor
dies were mounted onto metal slugs to allow for heat removal from the LED die.
One of the key advantages of LED-based lighting is its high efficiency, as measured
by its light output per unit power input. White LEDs quickly matched and overtook
the efficiency of standard incandescent lighting systems. In 2002, Lumileds made
five-watt LEDs available with a luminous efficacy of 18–22 lumens per watt (lm/W).
For comparison, a conventional 60–100 W incandescent lightbulb produces around
15 lm/W, and standard fluorescent lights produce up to 100 lm/W. (The luminous
efficacy article discusses these comparisons in more detail.)

In September 2003, a new type of blue LED was demonstrated by the company
Cree, Inc. to provide 24 mW at 20 milliamperes (mA). This produced a
commercially packaged white light giving 65 lm/W at 20 mA, becoming the brightest
white LED commercially available at the time, and more than four times as efficient
as standard incandescents. In 2006 they demonstrated a prototype with a record
white LED luminous efficacy of 131 lm/W at 20 mA. Also, Seoul Semiconductor has
plans for 135 lm/W by 2007 and 145 lm/W by 2008, which would be approaching an
order of magnitude improvement over standard incandescents and better even than
standard fluorescents.[25] Nichia Corporation has developed a white light LED with
luminous efficacy of 150 lm/W at a forward current of 20 mA.[26] In May 2008,
130lm/W is available from Chinese LED manufacturers.

It should be noted that high-power (≥ 1 W) LEDs are necessary for practical general
lighting applications. Typical operating currents for these devices begin at 350 mA.
The highest efficiency high-power white LED is claimed by Philips Lumileds
Lighting Co. with a luminous efficacy of 115 lm/W (350 mA).

[edit] Failure modes

The most common way for LEDs (and diode lasers) to fail is the gradual lowering of
light output and loss of efficiency. However, sudden failures can occur as well.

The mechanism of degradation of the active region, where the radiative

recombination occurs, involves nucleation and growth of dislocations; this requires
a presence of an existing defect in the crystal and is accelerated by heat, high
current density, and emitted light. Gallium arsenide and aluminium gallium
arsenide are more susceptible to this mechanism than gallium arsenide phosphide
and indium phosphide. Due to different properties of the active regions, gallium
nitride and indium gallium nitride are virtually insensitive to this kind of defect;
however, high current density can cause electromigration of atoms out of the active
regions, leading to emergence of dislocations and point defects, acting as
nonradiative recombination centers and producing heat instead of light. Ionizing
radiation can lead to the creation of such defects as well, which leads to issues with
radiation hardening of circuits containing LEDs (e.g., in optoisolators). Early red
LEDs were notable for their short lifetime.

White LEDs often use one or more phosphors. The phosphors tend to degrade with
heat and age, losing efficiency and causing changes in the produced light color. Pink
LEDs often use an organic phosphor formulation which may degrade after just a
few hours of operation causing a major shift in output color.

High electrical currents at elevated temperatures can cause diffusion of metal atoms
from the electrodes into the active region. Some materials, notably indium tin oxide
and silver, are subject to electromigration with the conseguence of leakage current
and non radiative recombination along the chip edges. In some cases, especially with
GaN/InGaN diodes, a barrier metal layer is used to hinder the electromigration
effects. Mechanical stresses, high currents, and corrosive environment can lead to
formation of whiskers, causing short circuits.

High-power LEDs are susceptible to current crowding, nonhomogenous distribution

of the current density over the junction. This may lead to creation of localized hot
spots, which poses risk of thermal runaway. Nonhomogenities in the substrate,
causing localized loss of thermal conductivity, aggravate the situation; most
common ones are voids caused by incomplete soldering, or by electromigration
effects and Kirkendall voiding. Thermal runaway is a common cause of LED
failures.

Laser diodes may be subject to catastrophic optical damage, when the light output
exceeds a critical level and causes melting of the facet.

Some materials of the plastic package tend to yellow when subjected to heat, causing
partial absorption (and therefore loss of efficiency) of the affected wavelengths.

Sudden failures are most often caused by thermal stresses. When the epoxy resin
used in packaging reaches its glass transition temperature, it starts rapidly
expanding, causing mechanical stresses on the semiconductor and the bonded
contact, weakening it or even tearing it off. Conversely, very low temperatures can
cause cracking of the packaging.

Electrostatic discharge (ESD) may cause immediate failure of the semiconductor

junction, a permanent shift of its parameters, or latent damage causing increased
rate of degradation. LEDs and lasers grown on sapphire substrate are more
susceptible to ESD damage.

[edit] Research on DNA

The DNA in salmon sperm has recently been discovered to amplify the effects and
quality of a LED light. [1]

See research at University of Cincinnati: http://www.uc.edu/news/NR.asp?id=7089

Articles from the UK:

http://www.theregister.co.uk/2007/09/18/led_salmon_dna_product_enhancement/
[edit] Considerations in use

Close-up of a typical LED in its case, showing the internal structure.

Unlike incandescent light bulbs, which light up regardless of the electrical polarity,
LEDs will only light with correct electrical polarity. When the voltage across the p-n
junction is in the correct direction, a significant current flows and the device is said
to be forward-biased. If the voltage is of the wrong polarity, the device is said to be
reverse biased, very little current flows, and no light is emitted. LEDs can be
operated on an alternating current voltage, but they will only light with positive
voltage, causing the LED to turn on and off at the frequency of the AC supply.
While the only definitive way to determine the polarity of the LED is to examine its
datasheet, these methods are usually reliable:

sign: + -

terminal: anode (A) cathode (K)

leads: long short

exterior: round flat

interior: small large

wiring: red black

Less reliable methods of determining polarity are:

sign: + -

marking
none stripe
:

pin: 1 2

PCB: round square

While it is not an officially reliable method, it is almost universally true that the cup
that holds the LED die corresponds to the cathode. It is strongly recommended to
apply a safe voltage and observe the illumination as a test regardless of what method
is used to determine the polarity.
Because the voltage versus current characteristics of the LED are much like any
diode (that is, current approximately an exponential function of voltage), a small
voltage change results in a huge change in current. Added to deviations in the
process this means that a voltage source may barely make one LED light while
taking another of the same type beyond its maximum ratings and potentially
destroying it.

Since the voltage is logarithmically related to the current it can be considered to

remain largely constant over the LED's operating range. Thus the power can be
considered to be essentially proportional to the current. In order to keep power
nearly constant with variations in supply and LED characteristics, the power supply
should be a “current source”, that is, it should supply an almost constant current. If
high efficiency is not required (e.g., in most indicator applications), an
approximation to a current source is made by connecting the LED in series with a
current limiting resistor to a regulated voltage source.

Most LEDs have low reverse breakdown voltage ratings, so they will also be
damaged by an applied reverse voltage of more than a few volts. Since some
manufacturers don't follow the indicator standards above, if possible the data sheet
should be consulted before hooking up the LED, or the LED may be tested in series
with a resistor on a sufficiently low voltage supply to avoid the reverse breakdown.
If it is desired to drive the LED directly from an AC supply of more than the reverse
breakdown voltage then it may be protected by placing a diode (or another LED) in
inverse parallel.

LEDs can be purchased with built in series resistors. These can save PCB space and
are especially useful when building prototypes or populating a PCB in a way other
than its designers intended. However, the resistor value is set at the time of
manufacture, removing one of the key methods of setting the LED's intensity. To
increase efficiency (or to allow intensity control without the complexity of a DAC),
the power may be applied periodically or intermittently; so long as the flicker rate is
greater than the human flicker fusion threshold, the LED will appear to be
continuously lit.

Multiple LEDs can be connected in series with a single current limiting resistor
provided the source voltage is greater than the sum of the individual LED threshold
voltages. Parallel operation is also possible but can be more problematic. Parallel
LEDs must have closely matched forward voltages (Vf) in order to have equal
branch currents and, therefore, equal light output. Variations in the manufacturing
process can make it difficult to obtain satisfactory operation when connecting some
types of LEDs in parallel.[27]

Bicolor LED units contain two diodes, one in each direction (that is, two diodes in
inverse parallel) and each a different color (typically red and green), allowing two-
color operation or a range of apparent colors to be created by altering the
percentage of time the voltage is in each polarity. Other LED units contain two or
more diodes (of different colors) arranged in either a common anode or common
cathode configuration. These can be driven to different colors without reversing the
polarity, however, more than two electrodes (leads) are required.

LEDs are usually constantly illuminated when a current passes through them, but
flashing LEDs are also available. Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they
contain an integrated multivibrator circuit inside which causes the LED to flash
with a typical period of one second. This type of LED comes most commonly as red,
yellow, or green. Most flashing LEDs emit light of a single wavelength, but
multicolored flashing LEDs are available too.

Generally, for newer common standard LEDs in 3 mm or 5 mm packages, the

following forward DC potential differences are typically measured. The forward
potential difference depending on the LED's chemistry, temperature, and on the
current (values here are for approx. 20 mA, a commonly-found maximum value).

Color Potential Difference (Vf)

Infrared 1.6 V

Red 1.8–2.1 V

Orange 2.2 V

Yellow 2.4 V

Green 2.6 V

Blue 3.0–3.5 V

White 3.0–3.5 V

Ultraviolet 3.5 V

Many LEDs are rated at 3 V maximum reverse potential.

LEDs also behave as photocells, and will generate a current depending on the
ambient light. They are not efficient as photocells, and will only produce a few
microamperes (µA), but will produce a electrical potential—as much as 2 or 3 V
depending on the band gap. This is enough to operate an amplifier or a CMOS logic
gate. This effect can be used to make an inexpensive light sensor, for example to
decide when to turn on the LED illuminator.

[edit] Advantages of using LEDs

LED schematic symbol

• LEDs produce more light per watt than incandescent bulbs; this is useful in
battery powered or energy-saving devices.[28]
• LEDs can emit light of an intended color without the use of color filters that
traditional lighting methods require. This is more efficient and can lower
initial costs.
• The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent
and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and
direct it in a usable manner.
• When used in applications where dimming is required, LEDs do not change
their color tint as the current passing through them is lowered, unlike
incandescent lamps, which turn yellow.
• LEDs are ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-off
cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that burn out more quickly when cycled
frequently, or HID lamps that require a long time before restarting.
• LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external
shock. Fluorescent and incandescent bulbs are easily broken if dropped on
the ground.
• LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to
50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. [29]
Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 30,000 hours, and incandescent
light bulbs at 1,000–2,000 hours.[citation needed]
• LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt burn-out of
incandescent bulbs.[30]
 • LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full
brightness in microseconds; Philips Lumileds technical datasheet DS23 for
the Luxeon Star states “less than 100ns.” LEDs used in communications
devices can have even faster response times.
• LEDs can be very small and are easily populated onto printed circuit boards.
• LEDs do not contain mercury, unlike compact fluorescent lamps.
• Due to the human eye's visual persistence LEDs can be pulse width or duty
cycle modulated in order to save power or achieve an apparent higher
brightness for a given power input. The eye will tend to perceive the peak
current light level rather than the average current light level when the
modulation rate is higher than approximately 1000 hertz and the duty cycle
is greater than 15 to 20%[citation needed]. This is also useful when applied to the
multiplexing used in 7-segment displays.

LEDs are produced in an array of shapes and sizes. The 5 mm cylindrical package
(red, fifth from the left) is the most common, estimated at 80% of world production.
The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the actual color of light emitted, but
not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared LEDs, and most
blue devices have clear housings. There are also LEDs in extremely tiny packages,
such as those found on blinkies and on cell phone keypads. (not shown).

[edit] Disadvantages of using LEDs

• LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital
cost basis, than more conventional lighting technologies. The additional
expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive
circuitry and power supplies needed. However, when considering the total
cost of ownership (including energy and maintenance costs), LEDs far
surpass incandescent or halogen sources and begin to threaten compact
fluorescent lamps[citation needed].
• LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the
operating environment. Over-driving the LED in high ambient temperatures
may result in overheating of the LED package, eventually leading to device
failure. Adequate heat-sinking is required to maintain long life. This is
especially important when considering automotive, medical, and military
 applications where the device must operate over a large range of
temperatures, and is required to have a low failure rate.
• LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a current
below the rating. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power
supplies.[31]
• The spectrum of some white LEDs differs significantly from a black body
radiator, such as the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and
dip at 500 nm can cause the color of objects to be perceived differently under
LED illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to
metamerism.[32] Color rendering properties of common fluorescent lamps are
often inferior to what is now available in state-of-art white LEDs.
• LEDs do not approximate a “point source” of light, so cannot be used in
applications needing a highly collimated beam. LEDs are not capable of
providing divergence below a few degrees. This is contrasted with lasers,
which can produce beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less.[33]
• There is increasing concern that blue LEDs and white LEDs are now capable
of exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye
safety specifications such as ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1-05: Recommended
Practice for Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems.[34][35]

[edit] Types
There are three main types of LEDs: miniature, alphanumeric, and illumination.

[edit] Miniature LEDs

These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various-size
packages:

• surface mount
• 2 mm
• 3 mm (T1)
• 5 mm (T1³⁄₄)
• Other sizes are also available, but less common.

Common package shapes:

• Round, dome top

• Round, flat top
• Rectangular, flat top (often seen in LED bar-graph displays)
• Triangular or square, flat top

The encapsulation may also be clear or semi opaque to improve contrast and
viewing angle.
There are three main categories of miniature single die LEDs:

• Low current — typically rated for 2 mA at around 2 V (approximately 4 mW

consumption).
• Standard — 20 mA LEDs at around 2 V (approximately 40 mW) for red,
orange, yellow & green, and 20 mA at 4–5 V (approximately 100 mW) for
blue, violet and white.
• Ultra-high output — 20 mA at approximately 2 V or 4–5 V, designed for
viewing in direct sunlight.

[edit] Multi-color LEDs

A “bi-color LED” is actually two different LEDs in one case. It consists of two dies
connected to the same two leads but in opposite directions. Current flow in one
direction produces one color, and current in the other direction produces the
another color. Alternating the two colors with sufficient frequency causes the
appearance of a third color.

A “tri-color LED” is also two LEDs in one case, but the two LEDs are connected to
separate leads so that the two LEDs can be controlled independently and lit
simultaneously.

RGB LEDs contain red, green and blue emitters, generally using a four-wire
connection with one common (anode or cathode).

[edit] Five- and twelve-volt LEDs

These are miniature LEDs incorporating a series resistor, and may be connected
directly to a 5 V or 12 V supply.

[edit] Flashing LEDs

These miniature LEDs flash when connected to 5 V or 12 V. Used as attention

seeking indicators where it is desired to avoid the complexity of external electronics.

[edit] Alphanumeric LEDs

LED displays are available in seven-segment and starburst format. Seven-segment

displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst displays can
display all letters.

Seven-segment LED displays were in widespread use in the 1970s and 1980s, but
increasing use of liquid crystal displays, with their lower power consumption and
greater display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and alphanumeric
LED displays.
[edit] Lighting LEDs

LED lamps (also called LED bars or Illuminators) are usually clusters of LEDs in a
suitable housing. They come in different shapes, among them the light bulb shape
with a large E27 Edison screw and MR16 shape with a bi-pin base. Other models
might have a small Edison E14 fitting, GU5.3 (Bipin cap) or GU10 (bayonet socket).
This includes low-voltage (typically 12 V halogen-like) varieties and replacements
for regular AC mains (120-240 V AC) lighting. Currently the latter are less widely
available but this is changing rapidly.

Seoul Semiconductor Co., Ltd produces LEDs that can run directly from mains
power without the need for a DC converter. For each half cycle part of the LED
diode emits light and part is dark, and this is reversed during the next half cycle.
Current efficiency is 80 lm/W.[36]

[edit] LED applications

LED panel light source used in an experiment on plant growth. The findings of such
experiments may be used to grow food in space on long duration missions.

Light sources for machine vision systems.

LED destination displays on buses, one with a colored route number.

Old calculator LED display.

Flashlights and lanterns that utilize white LEDs are becoming increasingly popular
due to their durability and longer battery life.

A single high-intensity LED with a glass lens creates a bright carrier beam that can
stream DVD-quality video over considerable distances. The device, RONJA, can be
built very simply by enthusiasts.

LED lights on an Audi S6

LED sign advertisement.

[edit] List of LED applications

Some of these applications are further elaborated upon in the following text.

[edit] Devices, medical applications, clothing, toys

• Remote controls, such as for TVs and VCRs, often use infrared LEDs.
• Glowlights, as a more expensive but longer lasting and reusable alternative to
Glowsticks.
• Movement sensors, for example in optical computer mice
• The Nintendo Wii's sensor bar uses infrared LEDs.
• In optical fiber and Free Space Optics communications.
• Toys and recreational sporting goods, such as the Flashflight
• Lumalive, a photonic textile
• In pulse oximeters for measuring oxygen saturation
• LED phototherapy for acne using blue or red LEDs has been proven to
significantly reduce acne over a three-month period.[citation needed]
• Some flatbed scanners use arrays of RGB LEDs rather than the typical cold-
cathode fluorescent lamp as the light source. Having independent control of
three illuminated colors allows the scanner to calibrate itself for more
accurate color balance, and there is no need for warm-up.
• Computers, for hard drive activity, power on, to draw attention to a given
component or show the state of the device, as the modern Macs that
"breathe" slowly in sleep mode.
• Sterilization of water and other substances using UV light.[4]

[edit] Lighting

• Grow lights using LEDs to increase photosynthesis in plants[37]

• Light bulbs
• Lanterns
• Streetlights
• Large scale video displays
• Architectural lighting
• Light source for machine vision systems, requiring bright, focused,
homogeneous and possibly strobed illumination.
 • Motorcycle and Bicycle lights
• Flashlights, including some mechanically powered models.
• Emergency vehicle lighting
• Backlighting for LCD televisions and displays. using RGB LEDs increase the
color gamut by as much as 45%.
• Stage lights using banks of RGB LEDs to easily change color and decrease
heating from traditional stage lighting.
• LED-based Christmas lights available in different colors and with low energy
consumption.

[edit] LED panels

The 1,500 foot long LED display on the Fremont Street Experience is currently the
largest in the world.

There are two types of LED panels: conventional, using discrete LEDs, and surface
mounted device (SMD) panels. Most outdoor screens and some indoor screens are
built around discrete LEDs, also known as individually mounted LEDs. A cluster of
red, green, and blue diodes is driven together to form a full-color pixel, usually
square in shape. These pixels are spaced evenly apart and are measured from center
to center for absolute pixel resolution. The largest LED display in the world is over
1,500 foot (457.2 m) long and is located in Las Vegas, Nevada covering the Fremont
Street Experience.

Most indoor screens on the market are built using SMD technology—a trend that is
now extending to the outdoor market. An SMD pixel consists of red, green, and blue
diodes mounted on a chipset, which is then mounted on the driver PC board. The
individual diodes are smaller than a pinhead and are set very close together. The
difference is that the maximum viewing distance is reduced by 25% from the
discrete diode screen with the same resolution.
Indoor use generally requires a screen that is based on SMD technology and has a
minimum brightness of 600 candelas per square meter (cd/m², sometimes informally
called nits). This will usually be more than sufficient for corporate and retail
applications, but under high ambient-brightness conditions, higher brightness may
be required for visibility. Fashion and auto shows are two examples of high-
brightness stage lighting that may require higher LED brightness. Conversely, when
a screen may appear in a shot on a television show, the requirement will often be for
lower brightness levels with lower color temperatures (common displays have a
white point of 6500 to 9000 K, which is much bluer than the common lighting on a
television production set).

For outdoor use, at least 2,000 cd/m² is required for most situations, whereas higher-
brightness types of up to 5,000 cd/m² cope even better with direct sunlight on the
screen. (The brightness of LED panels can be reduced from the designed maximum,
if required.)

Suitable locations for large display panels are identified by factors such as line of
sight, local authority planning requirements (if the installation is to become semi-
permanent), vehicular access (trucks carrying the screen, truck-mounted screens, or
cranes), cable runs for power and video (accounting for both distance and health
and safety requirements), power, suitability of the ground for the location of the
screen (if there are no pipes, shallow drains, caves, or tunnels that may not be able
to support heavy loads), and overhead obstructions.

[edit] Flat-panel LED TV history

The first known recorded flat panel LED television screen prototype was developed
by James P. Mitchell in 1977. The modular, scalable display was enabled by MV50
LEDs and newly available TTL (transistor transistor logic) memory addressing
circuit technology. The prototype and paper were displayed at an Engineering
Exposition in Anaheim May 1978, organized by the Science Service in Washington
D.C. The LED TV display received special awards and recognition from NASA,
General Motors Corporation and area universities including Robert M. Saunders of
The University of California Irvine, Professor of Engineering and National IEEE
President 1977. Additionally, technology and business representatives from the U.S.
and overseas witnessed operation of the monochromatic LED television display. The
prototype remains operational. An LCD (liquid crystal display) matrix design was
also presented in the accompanying scientific paper as a future alternate television
display method using a similar array scanning design.

The early display prototype was red monochromatic. Low-cost efficient blue LEDs
did not emerge until the early 1990s, completing the desired RGB color triad. High-
brightness colors gradually emerged in the 1990s enabling new designs for outdoor
signage and huge video displays for billboards and stadiums.

[edit] Indicators and signs

 • Status indicators on a variety of equipment
• Traffic lights and signals
• Exit signs
• Railroad crossing signals
• Continuity indicators
• Elevator push-button Lighting
• Thin, lightweight message displays at airports and railway stations, and as
destination displays for trains, buses, trams, and ferries.
• Red or yellow LEDs are used in indicator and alphanumeric displays in
environments where night vision must be retained: aircraft cockpits,
submarine and ship bridges, astronomy observatories, and in the field, e.g.
night time animal watching and military field use.
• Red, yellow, green, and blue LEDs can be used for model railroading
applications
• In dot matrix arrangements for displaying messages.
• Because of their long life and fast switching times, LEDs have been used for
automotive high-mounted brake lights and truck and bus brake lights and
turn signals for some time, but many high-end vehicles are now starting to
use LEDs for their entire rear light clusters. Besides the gain in reliability,
this has styling advantages because LEDs are capable of forming much
thinner lights than incandescent lamps with parabolic reflectors. The
significant improvement in the time taken to light up (perhaps 0.5s faster
than an incandescent bulb) improves safety by giving drivers more time to
react. It has been reported that at normal highway speeds this equals one car
length increased reaction time for the car behind. White LED headlamps are
beginning to make an appearance.
• As a medium quality voltage reference in electronic circuits. The forward
voltage drop (e.g., about 1.7 V for a normal red LED) can be used instead of
a Zener diode in low-voltage regulators. Although LED forward voltage is
much more current-dependent than a good Zener, Zener diodes are not
available below voltages of about 3 V.

[edit] Optoisolators and optocouplers

Main article: Opto-isolator

Optocoupler schematic showing LED and phototransistor

The LED may be combined with a photodiode or phototransistor in a single

electronic device to provide a signal path with electrical isolation between two
circuits. An optoisolator will have typical breakdown voltages between the input and
output circuits of typically 500–3000 V. This is especially useful in medical
equipment where the signals from a low voltage sensor circuit (usually battery
powered) in contact with a living organism must be electrically isolated from any
possible electrical failure in a recording or monitoring device operating at
potentially dangerous voltages. An optoisolator also allows information to be
transferred between circuits not sharing a common ground potential. An
optocoupler may not have such high breakdown voltages and may even share a
ground between input and output, but both types are useful in preventing electrical
noise, particularly common mode electrical noise, on a sensor circuit from being
transferred to the receiving circuit (where it may adversely affect the operation or
durability of various components) and/or transferring a noisy signal. Optoisolators
are also used in the feedback circuit of a DC to DC converter, allowing feedback
information to be transferred while retaining electrical isolation between the input
and output.

[edit] Light sources for machine vision systems

Machine vision systems often require bright and homogeneous illumination, so

features of interest are easier to process. LEDs are often used to this purpose, and
this field of application is likely to remain one of the major application areas until
price drops low enough to make signaling and illumination applications more
widespread. LEDs constitute a nearly ideal light source for machine vision systems
for several main reasons:
 • Size of illuminated field is usually comparatively small and Vision systems or
smart camera are quite expensive, so cost of LEDs is usually a minor
concern, compared to signaling applications.
• LED elements tend to be small and can be placed with high density over flat
or even shaped substrates (PCBs etc) so that bright and homogeneous
sources can be designed which direct light from tightly controlled directions
on inspected parts.
• LEDs often have or can be used with small, inexpensive lenses and diffusers,
helping to achieve high light densities and very good lighting control and
homogeneity.
• LEDs can be easily strobed (in the microsecond range and below) and
synchronized; their power also has reached high enough levels that
sufficiently high intensity can be obtained, allowing well lit images even with
very short light pulses: this is often used in order to obtain crisp and sharp
“still” images of quickly-moving parts.
• LEDs come in several different colors and wavelengths, easily allowing to use
the best color for each application, where different color may provide better
visibility of features of interest. Having a precisely known spectrum allows
tightly matched filters to be used to separate informative bandwidth or to
reduce disturbing effect of ambient light.
• LEDs usually operate at comparatively low working temperatures,
simplifying heat management and dissipation, therefore allowing plastic
lenses, filters and diffusers to be used. Waterproof units can also easily be
designed, allowing for use in harsh or wet environments (food, beverage, oil
industries).
• LED sources can be shaped in several main configurations (spot lights for
reflective illumination; ring lights for coaxial illumination; back lights for
contour illumination; linear assemblies; flat, large format panels; dome
sources for diffused, omnidirectional illumination).
• Very compact designs are possible, allowing for small LED illuminators to be
integrated within smart cameras and vision sensors.

[edit] Touch sensing

Since LEDs share some basic physical properties with photodiodes, which also use
p-n junctions with band gap energies in the visible light wavelengths, they can also
be used for photo detection. These properties have been known for some time, but
more recently so-called bidirectional LED matrices have been proposed as a method
of touch-sensing. In 2003, Dietz, Yerazunis, and Leigh published a paper describing
the use of LEDs as cheap sensor devices.

In this usage, various LEDs in the matrix are quickly switched on and off. LEDs
that are on shine light onto a user's fingers or a stylus. LEDs that are off function as
photodiodes to detect reflected light from the fingers or stylus. The voltage thus
induced in the reverse-biased LEDs can then be read by a microprocessor, which
interprets the voltage peaks and then also uses them elsewhere.
[edit] Power sources
LEDs have very low dynamic resistance, with the same voltage drop for widely
varying currents. Consequently they cannot connect directly to most power sources
without self destruction. A current control ballast is normally used, which is
sometimes constant current.

[edit] Indicator LEDs

Miniature indicator LEDs are normally driven from low voltage DC via a current
limiting resistor. Currents of 2 mA, 10 mA and 20 mA are common. Some low
current indicators are only rated to 2 mA, and should not be driven at higher
current.

Sub-mA indicators may be made by driving ultrabright LEDs at very low current.
Efficacy tends to reduce at low currents, but indicators running on 100 μA are still
practical. The cost of ultrabrights is higher than 2 mA indicator LEDs.

LEDs have a low max repeat reverse voltage rating, ranging from approximately 2
V to 5 V, and this can be a problem in some applications. Back to back LEDs are
immune to this problem. These are available in single color as well as bicolor types.
There are various strategies for reverse voltage handling.

In niche applications such as IR therapy, LEDs are often driven at far above rated
current. This causes high failure rate and occasional LED explosions. Thus many
parallel strings are used, and a safety screen and ongoing maintenance are required.

Alphanumeric LEDs use the same drive strategy as indicator LEDs, the only
difference being the larger number of channels, each with its own resistor. Seven-
segment and starburst LED arrays are available in both common-anode or
common-cathode form.

[edit] Lighting LEDs on mains

A CR dropper followed by full wave rectification is the usual ballast with series-
parallel LED clusters.

A single series string minimises dropper losses, while paralleled strings increase
reliability. In practice usually three strings or more are used.

Operation on square wave and modified sine wave (MSW) sources, such as many
invertors, causes heavily increased resistor dissipation in CR droppers, and LED
ballasts designed for sine wave use tend to burn on non-sine waveforms. The non-
sine waveform also causes high peak LED currents, heavily shortening LED life. An
inductor & rectifier makes a more suitable ballast for such use, and other options
are also possible.
[edit] Lighting LEDs on low voltage

LEDs are normally operated in parallel strings of series LEDs, with the total LED
voltage typically adding up to around two-thirds of the supply voltage, with resistor
current control for each string.

LED current is proportional to power supply (PSU) voltage minus total LED string
voltage. Where battery sources are used, the PSU voltage can vary widely, causing
large changes in LED current and light output. For such applications, a constant
current regulator is preferred to resistor control. Low drop-out (LDO) constant
current regs also allow the total LED string voltage to be a higher percentage of
PSU voltage, resulting in improved efficiency and reduced power use.

Torches run one or more lighting LEDs on a low voltage battery. These usually use a
resistor ballast.

In disposable coin cell powered keyring type LED lights, the resistance of the cell
itself is usually the only current limiting device. The cell should not therefore be
replaced with a lower resistance type, such as one using a different battery
chemistry.

Finally, LEDs can be run from a single cell by use of a constant current switched
mode invertor. The extra expense makes this option unpopular