ON THE WEB : http://cisr.jmu.edu/Journal/15.2/index.

htm

The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Center for International Stabilization and Recovery at James Madison University Issue 15.2 Summer 2011 | ISSN: 2154-1469 Print Date: July 2011 Additional articles available online: http://cisr.jmu.edu/Journal/15.2/index.htm Journal of Mine Action (printed edition) Issue 3.3 through Issue 12.1: ISSN 1533-9440 The Journal of ERW and Mine Action (printed edition) Issue 12.2 and ongoing: ISSN 2154-1469 Journal of Mine Action (online edition): ISSN 1533-6905 The Journal of ERW and Mine Action (online edition): ISSN 2154-1485 Upcoming Issues Issue 15.3 | Fall 2011 (Print and Online) Focus: Cluster Munitions Feature: Government Stability and Mine-action Support Issue 16.1 | Winter 2011 (Online only) Focus: Food/Water Security and Health Issues Feature: The Impact of Aging and Excess Conventional Munitions on the Environment and Terrorism Issue 16.2 | Summer 2101 (Print and Online) Focus: How SA/LW Affects Security Feature: Mine-action Disability Issues and Rights of Persons with Disabilities Visit http://cisr.jmu.edu/journal/index/callforpapers.htm for more details and additional Calls for Papers. Editorial Board Katherine Baker Lois Carter Fay Geary Cox II Kristin Dowley Nicole Neitzey Jennifer Risser Ken Rutherford R&D Review Board Charles Chichester Michel Dirickx Pehr Lodhammar Noel Mulliner Peter Ngan Erik Tollefsen Graphic Design Heather Bowers Graphic Assistants Amy Crockett Chris Foster-Baril Webmaster Heather Bowers Administrative Support Carolyn Firkin Editors Lois Carter Fay, Editor-in-Chief Nicole Neitzey, Technical Editor Geary Cox II, Assistant Editor Jennifer Risser, Assistant Editor Amy Crockett, Copy Editor Eric Wuestewald, Content Editor Editorial Assistants Dan Baker Paul Gentine Ivy Hensley Kathleen Imbriglia Pamela Kidd Tyler McAvoy Julia Mitchell Chris Murguia Carly Quaglio Megan Sarian Kathleen Sensabaugh Samantha Shankman Jeremiah Smith Kara Sordelette Meghan Wallace Dylan Walsh Blake Williamson Zarina Yancheva

Cover Photo A woman who lost her arm to a landmine in Bosnia-Herzegovina holds her new baby with her prosthetic arm. Photo Paul Jeffrey. Contributors Dan Baker Vittorio Belotti Teresa Broers Michael Carrier Emanuela Elisa Cepolina Gabrielle Chaizy Ronald Collins Charles Downs Eric de Brun Daniel Eriksson Melissa Freeman Tamar Gabelnick Zoran Grujic Armen Harutyunyan Thomas Henderson Jonas Herzog Roger Hess Nam Hoang Boutros Hobeika Mohammed Ismail Rasmus Stuhr Jakobsen Theresa Kane Phung Tran Kim Goran Knez evic Pierre Lacroix Cameron Macauley Aurora Martinez Brent Maxwell Julia Mitchell Reykhan Muminova Wanda Munoz Sharmala Naidoo Ann Mary Olsen Scott Poff Melanie Reimer Jennifer Risser Ken Rutherford Megan Sarian Andy Smith Tamar Szeps-Znaider Maria Townsend John Unruh Meghan Wallace Blake Williamson Zarina Yancheva Matteo Zoppi

Directors Message
Dear Readers, Victim assistance has been discussed in The Journal since its very first issue more than 14 years ago. We return to it now, and for good reasonmany mine-action and explosive-remnants-of-war programs are at a critical juncture as evidenced by the recent victim-assistance symposium held in Tirana, Albania, that discussed cooperation and assistance as it relates to VA. We know that the economic downturn has been inordinately painful for donors, nongovernmental organizations, international agencies and businesses; yet, the downturn has been met with incredible innovation. As I witnessed in Albania at the Kukes Regional Hospital, VA is a sustainable, exportable capacity that can reach beyond landmine victims to include victims of all types of trauma. NGOsespecially local organizationshave recently used their well-stocked toolbox of responses to widen their support to post-conflict communities. Im proud to share the heroic stories of four advocates in this issues Focus section (see page 13) since their efforts are indicative of creative solutions that not only reach more victims, but also meet their needs more holistically. The Center for International Stabilization and Recoverys Post-Conflict Recovery Week, built around April 4, the International Day for Mine Awareness and Assistance in Mine Action, brought presenters from around the world to James Madison University and reminded me of the wide extent of the support network. Our featured speaker, Jordanian landmine survivor and NGO founder Kamel Saadi, underscored this sentiment when he said, Landmines are a crisisbut there are other kinds of tragedy. I am encouraged by VA programs such as CISRs Pathways to Resilience (P2R) training workshop conducted with the Lebanon Mine Action Center. As this issue goes to press, a team of CISR staff and JMU faculty recently returned from Lebanon where they joined Saadi, Adnan Al Aboudi (landmine survivor and P2R trainer profiled in my article on page 13) and partners to work with 29 participants from Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon and Yemen. P2R, funded by the Office of Weapons Removal and Abatement in the U.S. Department of States Bureau of Political-Military Affairs (PM/WRA), will have a cascading effect as participants take active roles in working with other survivors and victims when they return home. Through innovative programs like P2R, and championed by survivor heroes like the ones discussed in my article, VA is changing perspectives and encouraging sustainable development in postconf lict communities. I am convinced that this is our best course toward real growth and recovery. During our Post-Conflict Recovery Week, global advocates challenged a new generation of leaders from JMU to seize greater opportunities to change our world. The Journal returns to cover victim assistance as P2R and other creative programs take off. Through these efforts, we can see how survivors and innovative thinkers are answering the biggest question of our time: Whats next? Sincerely, Ken Rutherford
Photo courtesy of Missouri State University Photo Services.

Table of Contents
Editorial 4 4 5 8 James Lawrence Appointed Director of PM/WRA Letter to the Editor We Can Only Be Mine Safe When We Are Mine Free by Tamar Gabelnick Paved with Good Intentions by Roger Hess

The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Editorial Board reviews all articles for content and readability, and it reserves the right to alter articles for readability and space concerns. Every effort is made to assure accuracy and to maintain the integrity and meaning of the text. Manuscripts and photos will not be returned unless requested. The Journal Editorial Staff reserves the right to reject submissions that include text copied from other sources in part or in whole. Previously published works to which the author retains publishing rights may be submitted, but The Journal requires notification of this previous publication when authors submit material so that reprint permission may be verified. Please note that all rights to content (including photographs) published in The Journal are reserved, and notification and written approval are required before any content may be used by another source or publication. Authors who submit articles to The Journal are expected to do so in good faith and are solely responsible for the content therein, including the accuracy of all information and correct attribution for quotations and citations. Views expressed in The Journal of ERW and Mine Action are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Center for International Stabilization and Recovery, the Mine Action Information Center, James Madison University, the U.S. Department of State or the U.S. Army Humanitarian Demining Program. Please direct all Journal submissions, queries and subscription/CFP requests to: Lois Carter Fay, Editor-in-Chief Center for International Stabilization & Recovery James Madison University 800 S. Main Street, MSC 4902 Harrisonburg, VA 22807 / USA Tel: +1 540 568 2503 Fax: +1 540 568 8176 E-mail: [email protected]

Focus: Victim Assistance 13 Survivor Heroes Heal Lives and Landscapes Throughout the World by Ken Rutherford 17 Peer Support and Recovery from Limb Loss in Post-conflict Settings by Cameron Macauley, Marcia Townsend, Melissa Freeman and Brent Maxwell 21 Art Therapy and Sport Activities Enhance Psychosocial Rehabilitation by Reykhan Muminova Feature: Deminers on the Front Lines 24 Somalia: Working in High Risk Environments by Ann Mary Olsen 26 Gambling Life and Limb by Blake Williamson Obituaries 29 In Remembrance: Shingairai Chimuriwo-Tichawanga Special Report: Information Management and GIS/Mapping 30 The Database of Demining Accidents by Andy Smith 36 Land-release Information Management by Aurora Martinez and Daniel Eriksson 41 The Bosnia and Herzegovina Mine Action Information System by Zoran Grujic 46 Mine Risk Management by Mapping by Russell Gasser, Goran Knez evic and Michael Carrier Notes from the Field 50 Study of ERW Accidents in Quang Tri Province, Vietnam by Phung Tran Kim and Nam Hoang 54 Community Safety in Somalia by Rasmus Stuhr Jakobsen 57 Land Rights in Mine-affected Countries by Jon Unruh, Gabrielle Chaizy and Sharmala Naidoo Book Review 62 Laos: Legacy of a Secret, by Sean Sutton, Thongloun Sisoulith, Lou McGrath, and Tim Page, reviewed by Jennifer Risser Research and Development 64 The PECO Wolverine by Ronald Collins and Thomas Henderson 67 Toward LOCOSTRA by by Emanuela Elisa Cepolina, Matteo Zoppi and Vittorio Belotti 74 SCAMP Anti-personnel Mine Roller Performance Testing by Eric de Brun and Scott Poff Endnotes 80\ Directory of Online-only Articles 82

Like CISR on http://www.facebook.com/JMUCISR To subscribe to The Journal of ERW and Mine Action, or any other CISR/MAIC publication, visit http://cisr.jmu.edu/journal/index/subscribe.asp

EDITORIAL

James Lawrence Appointed Director

n 8 May 2011, James (Jim) F. Lawrence was appointed Director of the Office of Weapons Removal and Abatement in the U.S. Department of States Bureau of Political-Military Affairs (PM/WRA). Although

We Can Only Be Mine Safe When We Are Mine Free

Despite the fact that the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction makes no mention of the term mine safe, it is still a frequent term used by mine-contaminated states. However, the International Campaign to Ban Landmines maintains that in order for states to be safe from the dangers posed by mines, all mined areas must be clearednot only those areas which are deemed to pose an immediate threat.
by Tamar Gabelnick [ International Campaign to Ban Landmines ]

this is a new official title for Lawrence, he is no stranger to the State Department or PM/WRA. He started his career with the State Department in 1980 as the Executive Director of the Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration, a program that annually admits 70,000 refugees to enter the United States and supports millions of refugees internationally. From 1998 to 2008 he worked on a number of different mine-action programs, serving as the Director of the Office of Mine Action Initiatives and Partnerships for the majority of that period. For the last two years, he has served as the Acting Director of PM/WRA. When asked about his plans and goals as Director, Lawrence said he intends to continue on the path set out by his predecessors while at the same time, adapting to the many changes in the field of mine action. The landmine problem has not disappeared, but it has reached a plateau. Several countries have declared themselves mine-safe and more will attain that status in the next few years, he said. My priorities are to continue with a strategic approach to the execution of our programs and the allocation of our resources. In the current environment of declining resources, we need to make our budgets go further even while our mandate is expanding to areas such as the destruction of small arms/light weapons and MANPADS, and stockpile security. He also emphasized the importance he places on empowering local populations to deal with their own mine-action issues. Our strategy going forward will continue to focus on local capacity-building with the final aim of turning the program over to local experts. Lawrence made a point to comment on the personal satisfaction he gets from his job, both from the work itself and the exceptional people in the mine-action community as well as the enjoyment he is experiencing in leading his own team. I love being able to hire extraordinarily talented people and watch them succeed. In his role as Director, Jim Lawrence looks forward to continuing to support worthwhile conventional weapons destruction projects and programs that will make the world a safer place for everyone.. ~Dan Baker, CISR staff

Letter to the Editor

Dear Ms. Ca rter Fay:

ed your re aderse d and complet Journal of ERW Plea se find enclo e Th as published in re sponse su rvey g 2010. , Issue 14.1, Sprin and Mine Action sel f and say a few nt to introduce my I feel it is importa Journal. words about The y I have a m ilitar ur subscr ibers, ve ser ved ha d an Li ke ma ny of yo hip ns ize ld dual cit back grou nd. I ho Ar m ies. My Br itsh and Ca nadian in both the Br iti mplet ion of the des successfu l co se. On graduclu in e vic ser ish Cour ch nica l Officers ch nica l Am mu nition Te , Am mu nition Te 29 er mb Nu e th ce seran dn or ati ng from my , 90 in Febr ua ry 19 n dutio ni mu Officers Course am with perform ing ed nc rage me sto m e in co e Rh e vic itish Ar my on th ties at for wa rd Br 90, I deployed to Saud i Arabia er 19 sites. In Decemb into the 1991 Gu lf War. Du ring ed for what develop nsula, I ser ved as the Arabian Peni to t en ym plo de my issues. On ret ur nessing ordnance a sta ff officer addr nt inued to perform a wide ra nge I co g ing to Germany, decom m issionin s, includi ng the n he W es. sit ge of ordnance dutie ra sto rd am mu nition , wa via for sla l go era Yu sev of of blic e out in the Repu the civ il wa r brok Br ita ins U.N. m ission to Bosnia of I deployed as pa rt nt hs in Bi H, perI ser ved seven mo cludi ng ex ploand Herz egov ina. in ordnance duties, rse ve di g in m for f-war removal. sive-rem na nts-o

In 2003, havi ng retur ned to Cana da, I had a chance to meet with a former colleague and was asked to join the Canadian Army. On joini ng, I performed a range of ordnance duties, including servi ng with the Office for Improvised Explosive Ordnance Devices at NATO Headquar ters in Kabu l, Afghanistan in 2007. I have been receiving your publ icatio n for several years. I feel you fill an important void in the hor rid business of dem ining. I use the word hor rid regretfully, as too many 20th and 21st centu ry wars have left behi nd live ordnance affec ting local popu latio ns that strug gle with ERW s constant threat. I feel The Jour nal pres ents a bala nced and tech nica l response regarding dem ining. To your cred it, I retai n all back issues of The Journal as a resou rce libra ry. ~Michael E. Lambert Former Ammunition Tech nical Offic er Canadian Army and British Army

Deminers walk over land cleared of mines during a ceremony to hand land over to a local community in Yemen (2007).

Photo courtesy of Jackie Hansen.

n January 2011, Sri Lanka experienced its heaviest rainfall since 1917, bringing landmines and unexploded ordnance back into areas previously surveyed, partially

and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction (also known at the Anti-personnel Mine Ban Convention or APMBC) entered into force, some mine-affected states (both States Parties and others) maintain that reaching such a goal is neither possible nor necessarily a desirable end state. The ICBL strongly disagrees.
The Article 5 Framework

cleared and deemed safe for populations to return.1 These populations are again at risk from injury according to the Sri Lankan Army, a risk that could have been avoided if all mined areas had been cleared rather than only high-impact regions. This example is just one of many reasons that the ICBL has insisted on the need for mine-affected states to fully clear all mined areas, not just those deemed to pose an immediate threat to the local population. Twelve years after the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production

If we print something that begs for your comment, submit your own Letter to the Editor. Please keep your response short and to the point200 words or so. Since we have limited space, we reserve the right to edit the comments to fit the space and have done so here. Send your letters to [email protected]. Visit our online journal at http://maic.jmu.edu/journal/index.

Article 5 of the APMBC requires States Parties to make every effort to identify all areas under [their] jurisdiction or control in which anti-personnel mines are known or suspected to be emplaced and to destroy or ensure the destruction

editorial | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | editorial

ed by floods, which dislodged mines and UXO that injured five civilians in three separate incidents.6 Some states might not think there is a need to clear seemingly remote or uninhabited places because of an expectation that no one will cross or use such land. Yet many situations occur where people wander into isolated places or move into previously unpopulated areas. Some casualties in Croatia,
Demining activities in Albania. Albania declared completion of its Article 5 obligations in 2009.
Photo courtesy of the author.

Article 5s unequivocal language. In 2008, the U.K. again tried to use similar arguments to justify a virtually openended extension to its Article 5 deadline, receiving strong criticism from a significant number of states. Instead, the U.K. agreed to begin immediate clearance of the Falkland/Malvinas Islands, though the pace to date has been exceedingly slow. In many other instances, States Parties have reaffirmed the need to fully meet the obligations of Article 5, noting for example during the 7 Meeting of
th

for example, were reported on islands where tourists were not expected to travel. People often go into marked and fenced areas accidently or even intentionally, proving that marking and fencing is not a sufficient long-term solution. Information obtained under the United Kingdom Freedom of Information Act showed that many people, including several local children and tourists, have wandered into mined areas in the Falkland/Malvinas Islands over time, escaping disaster through luck alone.
7

INTERSOS deminers inspecting marked land outside Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2005).
Photo courtesy of the author.

of all anti-personnel mines in such areas as soon as possible but not later than ten years after joining the treaty. This
2

Completely Safe, for All Time

the States Parties that at least two States Parties [previously] referred to their end state under Article 5 obligations as 'impact-free' or having no new victims, terms which are neither in the convention nor consistent with [APMBC] obligations.9 This notion that neither minesafe nor impact-free could be equated to full treaty compliance has been repeated in several other progress reports.
Mine-Free, an Achievable Goal
10

this challenge on their own. The ICBL believes that virtually all states are in a position to contribute in some way, for example by providing technical assistance or sharing expertise. The strong demand for continued international support for affected states led to the creation of a new Standing Committee on Resources, Cooperation and Assistance in 2010, with the goal of exploring new and more efficient ways of mobilizing and using resources. Some states efforts to carry out mine clearance will outlast the initial 10-year deadline, in which case they are allowed to seek a deadline extension. For states with extensive mine contamination, it is also crucial to develop the capacity to tackle the problem at the national level in order to ensure programs can be sustained for as long as is necessary. This will help states keep a residual capacity to respond quickly to mines found occasionally after all known mined areas are cleared. See endnotes page 80
Tamar Gabelnick is the Policy Director for the International Campaign to Ban Landmines-Cluster Munitions Coalition. ICBL, a 1997 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, is a global network of advocacy organizations, mine-clearance operators, victim-assistance organizations and dedicated individuals working in more than 90 countries toward the goal of a mine-free world. Gabelnick works with States Parties of the APMBC, U.N. agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and other partners to pursue the conventions full and timely implementation. She has previously worked on conventional-armsexport policy in Washington, D.C., as a Human Rights Officer with the United Nations in Croatia and at NATO in Brussels from 199295. She has a Masters in Public Affairs from the Woodrow Wilson School at Princeton University.

As shown by the Sri Lankan example, one reason all mined areas need clearing is because while mine contamination might be a finite problem, it is not necessarily a static one. Mines can be displaced over time due to rain, flooding, mudslides or other climatic factors. Populations may seek to move into hazardous areas due to demographic pressures, a search for fertile land, displacement or to return home after conflict. States can never be sure that no one will walk through what they consider a remote contaminated area. As Croatia explained at the APMBCs intercessional Standing Committee meetings in June 2005, For all of us to be mine-safe, we must become mine-free.3 In the last year alone, several natural disasters have led to landmines being displaced to previously uncontaminated areas and threatening civilian lives. In June 2010, the Bosnia and Herzegovina Mine Action Center warned its citizens that mines had moved from marked mined areas due to floods and landslides in the north. Then, in early August
4

does not mean that states must search every square meter of their land in order to find and destroy the last mine. However, it does mean that reaching a mine safe or impact free state is not good enough. Instead, states must do their best to accurately identify mined areas through Non-technical and Technical Survey, and subsequently ensure those areas are cleared of all minesreaching what we call a mine-free state. Even for mine-affected states that are not parties to the convention, this simple and clear Article 5 framework shouldand in many cases doesguide their efforts to address their mine problem. As we move along collectively in our fight against landmines, we should not abandon the goal of a mine-free world in favor of a lesser standard. Even when high- and medium-priority areas are completed, mine action must continue until all known mined areas are cleared. Reasons to continue demining range from legal and moral imperatives to enabling economic land development, building confidence among neighboring states and preventing reuse of buried mines. Two of the principal reasons why mine-safe or impact-free are insufficient are described briefly in this article.

A Legal Commitment for the Majority

A second key reason that all States Parties to the APMBC must clear all mined areas is their legal responsibility under the convention. The APMBC has no exemption for areas that pose no immediate threat to the population, nor does it differentiate in any other way among mined areas, definitively stating they must all be cleared as soon as possible. Further, while authorities should prioritize clearance of high- and medium-impact areas, as Norwegian Ambassador Steffen Kongstad emphasized: Let there be no mistake, all mine-affected state parties are obliged to clear all mined areas Only mine-free is acceptable.8 The United Kingdom tried during the 1997 negotiation of the APMBC to include an exception for areas without a demonstrated impact on the population, but this was rejected in favor of

Reaching a mine-free state may be time-consuming and expensive, but it is an achievable goal over the long term, especially with recent improvements in surveying efficiency and reinforced calls for sustained international cooperation and assistance. States are now encouraged to use all techniquesincluding Non-technical and Technical Survey to release suspected hazardous areas, leaving the deployment of full clearance assets to accurately defined mined areas. Such efforts are helping to avoid spending time and resources on clearing land with no contamination and to speeding up the release of land in general. In addition, while mine-affected states bear the ultimate responsibility for mine clearance, the right to receive international cooperation and assistance under Article 6 of the APMBC shows they are not meant to deal with

Tamar Gabelnick ICBL-CMC Policy Director International Campaign to Ban Landmines-Cluster Munitions Coalition 9 Rue de Cornavin 1201 Geneva / Switzerland Tel: +41 22 920 0320 Fax: +41 22 920 0115 Mobile: +41 79 470 1145 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://icbl.org

2010, North Korean landmines drifted along streams between North and South Korea due to heavy rainfall, causing the death of one man and injuring another.
5

In mid-August, 2010, the Dera Ismail Khan region of Pakistan was devastat-

editorial | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | editorial

Paved with Good Intentions: The Realities of Safe Versus Free

Government-initiated landmine and unexploded-ordnance clearance policies often dictate unrealistic standards and goals that differ from the practical reality of landmine/UXO removal. The author argues that end use of the land, as well as the variables of munitions deterioration due to aging and environment, and the level of expected risk should be considered in landmine/UXO policy-making.
by Roger Hess [ Golden West Humanitarian Foundation ]

goes much deeper. A missed signal is unlikely to kill the clearance team, however, the people occupying and developing the land afterward may not be so lucky. Either way, it should be acknowledged that the threat from an explosivefilled munitiona landmine, cluster munition, hand grenade, mortar, etc. is still an explosive threat. Wars happen, and since the invention of the cannon ball, hazardous items remain. After the war ends, rebuilding must occur, and the remaining hazards must be managed.
Assessing and Managing the Risk Figure 1. Extract from CONWEP showing depth and the soil type required to nullify a detonations effects.
All graphics courtesy of the author.

wars in the last 20 years, such as Afghanistan, Angola, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cambodia, Croatia, and Iraq. Explosive ordnance, chemical munitions and other hazardous remnants from World War I and World War II are still commonly found during construction and rebuilding in Belgium, France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom. Many of these items remain very active and highly dangerous, but the risk level is anticipated, managed and dealt with accordingly. For countries recovering from more recent conflicts, the significant difference is in the way the threat is managed and addressed and how clearance standards are set. So with this in mind, why are newer post-war environments held to standards that have not been achieved in some of the most developed countries in the world? Let us consider a more realistic approach to clearance standards involving risk mitigation.
Policies versus Practicality

rom a global perspective you will find that much of Western Europe has not reached the same standards expected of those countries that have experienced

I have encountered a few common unrealistic standards over the years, including: The country must be made landmine/UXO-free and to a lesser extent, The entire site must be cleared of all landmine/UXO to a depth of five, 10 or even 15 meters (1649 feet). Such unrealistic expectations have resulted in some of the most heavily debated topics of our profession and have normally been generated from a policy established at the governmental or geopolitical levels. These policies are generally written on principles that may have seemed logical at their inception but are not always reviewed for practicality as time goes on. Senior politicians developed and/or put in place some of these policies, thereby making the nation as a whole bound to implement them. While a few countries, such as Costa Rica and Macedonia, were fortunate enough to have conditions where landmine/UXO-free status was achievable, for most countries this goal is nearly impossible. Landmine/UXO contamination that presents a direct threat to the public or impedes development must be cleared; this is without question. Not everyone agrees, however, that land that does not directly threaten the public or immediately stop development does not require clearance (See Tamar Gabelnicks editorial on page 5). There are far more cost- and time-effective methods to manage the risk in these areas without compromising safety. Without delving into the different techniques involved with clearing each type of threat, the key issue is freedom of movement. Clearing shallow-laid landmines to create free access over a contaminated area results in very little freedom of movement, because a missed signal can kill or seriously injure the operator or his/her team members, as well as anyone who subsequently uses the land. Clearing buried UXO allows far more freedom of movement but requires a search method that

In Europe, a significant amount of buried munitions remain. In the case of the U.K. more deeply buried munitions are likely larger aircraft bombs dropped by the Luftwaffe. In much of the rest of Western Europe, smaller munitions such as landmines, artillery, mortars, grenades, cluster munitions and other aircraft bombs persist in the ground. The good news is that since many smaller UXO in Europe are deeply buried, it is feasible for pedestrians and vehicles to pass over them without causing detonation. If this UXO you drove over had detonated, you probably would not even have known it unless you had seismic instruments already in position. The detonation of a high-explosive compound creates a shock wave and rapidly expanding gases. However, this power is finite, and any surrounding matter, such as compacted earth, directly affect the explosion impact.
How Deep is Deep Enough?

ventional Weapons Effects Program (CONWEP); the current Windowsbased version (2.1.0.8) is restricted due to its new features, but many people still have access to the older DOS-based program. The Russian PMN-2 anti-personnel mine is one of the most common AP mines worldwide and is provided as an example. It contains a 108-gram main charge of a compound named TG-40, which is fairly close to U.S.-made Composition B explosives. Using the unclassified CONWEP cratering profiles with a dry, sandy clay environment at 0 centimeters, the apparent crater will be 15 cm. (6 inches) deep, and window breakage can be expected at nearly 25 meters (82 feet). When buried to 58 cm. (23 in.) in the same environment, the blast goes to null and has no noticeable effects. If it is buried 57.5 cm. (22.6 in.), the apparent crater is only 2.6 millimeters (0.10 in.) deep, and window breakage is down to 23 cm. (9 in.) away (see Figure 1 above). Essentially, if you wear a decent set of shoes when walking over a PMN-2 at this depth and it does detonate, you might need to touch up your shoe polish. The more we tested the

CONWEP predictions against various situations, the more accurate we found the predictions. The CONWEP program was useful, for example, when we worked a 27-hectare (67 acres) clearance program for a development project in Vietnam at Vung Ha, which is south of Dong Ha in Quang Tri province. We were fortunate enough to have an overview of the development plans that called for no excavation around the site once it was cleared and indicated that between 1.4 and 4.0 m. (4.5913.12 ft.) of soil would be deposited on top of the area when handed over. However, the national policy directed: All landmine/UXO would be cleared to a depth of -5.0 m. [-16 ft.], which is what we were asked to accomplish. This included cluster munitions or any other item that might be at this depth. As part of the research and development program linked with this clearance (funded by the U.S. Department of Defenses Humanitarian Demining R&D Program), we conducted numerous tests with the detection equipment and established a quality-control lane with identical free-from-explosive munitions buried at the maximum depths

Compared to how we went about our tasks 15 years ago, the landmine and UXO clearance field has matured a great deal. Unfortunately, the same cannot always be said for the policies governing some landmine/UXO clearance efforts. Like many in our field, I have often been placed in situations where I was expected to meet unrealistic standards and goals because policy requirements were at odds with the level of threat. Using an example later in this article, I will explain how this situation occurred while we were working in Quang Tri province in Vietnam. In situations where policies and threat level are at odds, it is challenging to explain why unrealistic standards and goals are, in fact, a waste of time, money and resources.

Calculating the factors required to nullify the effects of an underground detonation requires consideration of several variables such as the quantity and depth of the explosive and soil type. These calculations can be done using specialized software programs. The best program I have seen to date is the Con-

editorial | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | editorial

from the countrys Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Planning and Investment, along with the Peoples Committee and Ministry of Defense. The briefing included a video of a 155-gram (4-ounce) charge buried 80 cm. (32 in.) deep and then detonated as I stood a few meters from it. If this charge was on the surface, I would likely have been seriously injured or killed, but I barely had a layer of dust on my shoulders. While this entertained the audience, unfortunately the individuals in positions to change the policies (Finance and Planning Ministries) did not understand the point I tried to make. This raises two questions about some
Figure 2. Extract from CONWEP overlaid onto CAD diagrams of Vung Ha clearance site showing requirements for a detonation breaking the surface of the topsoil following filling for development. Figure 5 Figure 4

of the policies governing our actions:

If a hazard is in a position or location unlikely to hurt anyone, why is time and money spent trying to remove it when other more pressing, life-threatening hazards are present?

where they could be reliably located. The QC lane was used to test the detectors on a daily basis and the provincial authorities assessed it with their own detection equipment, agreeing that it was very realistic. Using the development plan, we plotted what size munition could break the surface after the site was backfilled. The smallest item that would create a surface threat after the topsoil was added would be a 155-mm. projectile buried 60 cm. (24 in.) under the existing surface (see Figure 2 above). This munition weighs 42 kilograms (93 pounds) and contains almost 7.0 kg. (15 lb.) of explosive that equates to about 35 kg. (77 lb.) of steel. When de-tuning our detection instruments to locate the 155-mm shell at this depth we could still reliably find larger items such as 250-lb. (113-kg.) bombs while tuning out the smaller items that would not pose a threat once the site was developed. The authorities agreed to this in principle but were bound to adhere to the national policy. If the team could have used the adjusted parameters, it would have al-

lowed the handover within a matter of 4560 days. However, the national policy was followed, and the parameters expanded for smaller munitions. The clearance began 4 June 2008, and the land was handed over eight months later on 30 January 2009. Figure 3 below shows only the south side of the project; the black dots show all of the targets investigated in accordance with the national standards. The blue dots are the large munitions that would have posed a hazard once the site was developed as specified in the plans. The potential time and money that could have been saved on this site without any risk to the end user is obvious. Had proper planning and risk-management methods been allowed taking into consideration the land's end, the savings in money, manpower and effort could have been applied to other high-risk priority sites. In November 2009, I gave a presentation in Vietnam outlining the relevant issues for planning a project which would substantially accelerate the clearance rates. It was attended by members

Figure 4. (top) Extract from CONWEP overlaid onto CAD diagrams of Ai Tu clearance site (partial). Depicts blast limitation of MK-81 250 and MK-82 500-pound bombs under surface layer of a hill. Figure 5. (bottom) Extract from CONWEP overlaid onto CAD diagrams of Ai Tu clearance site (partial). Depicts blast limitation following construction clearance for redevelopment of land, making munitions a much greater threat.

presenting a clear threat to the population, or is it in a position likely to present a valid threat? It is true, however, that previously cleared land may not always stay clear due to environmental factors. Flood waters can redistribute landmines and UXO the same way rocks and other debris are moved. Erosion can expose deeply buried items that were beyond the reach of detector systems used at the time of clearance, so what may have been considered cleared to standards at one time, may reveal hazardous items when the topsoil shifts. In addition, construction can expose buried UXO if the construction projects scope of work is not known at the time of clearance. Often, clearance is requested for an area with rolling hills and valleys that upon completion will be used for development. The clearance team can only work from the surface that is present at the time and search as deep as the capability of their detectors. So without knowing the detailed development plan, time and money is wasted, and safety is not always assured for those who follow (see Figures 4 and 5 above). When turned over to construction crews, the hills are often leveled out to backfill the valleys and make a flat surface for building. The clearance effort has now been wasted in two ways:

soil level in which only very large munitions would be able to create a hazard.

If a buried munition detonates undetected, what makes it a risk?

Larger munitions located beyond the detectors limitations posed no surface threat at the time of clearance. Once construction crews level out the hills, however, the previous clearance depth is exceeded, and items may now be at a position where they present a substantial surface hazard.

The popular stance of Because it is there and could kill someone if the conditions are just right is not a justifiable answer. The question should be: Is it

Flood conditions can also place landmines/UXO at a depth that is no longer hazardous, which was the case during the clearance of Vung Ha. This area typically floods on an annual basis with 530 cm. (1.9711.81 in.) of silt deposited each year, depending on how high the flood waters rise. The battles ended at this site more than 30 years ago. This gives a perspective on how deep the munitions are now. From an R&D perspective, Vung Ha received an unexpected benefit as it effectively proved how deep the detection systems being tested could search and locate. The provincial military quality-assurance teams also scanned the area with their own instruments and could find nothing remaining, so it was deemed as meeting or exceeding the national standards. Fortunately, the project included mechanical-assistance support to excavate the signals located at these nationally-specified depths, as this would have been manually impossible. Almost 400 items were located with an average depth of 1.25 m. (4 ft.).

Figure 3. Contamination overview, Vung Ha clearance site, south portion.

The time spent searching for small, subsurface munitions in the valley was pointless. It is now under a

10

editorial | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | editorial

11

Survivor Heroes Heal Lives and Landscapes Throughout the World

Landmine and traumatic-accident victims and their families face numerous recovery obstacles in any setting, but in a post-conflict setting resources may be scarce. Victims must deal with emotional and
Image 1 (left). U.S. BLU-26 submunition remains found at 55 cm. during Vung Ha clearance. Image 2 (middle). U.S. BLU-61 submunition found in deep search excavation spoils during Vung Ha clearance. Image 3 (right). U.S. 105-mm projectile with T-227E2 variable time fuze located at 1.5 m. deep in non-oxidizing layer, at Vung Ha clearance site.

FOCUS

psychological trauma, often for years after the event. These challenges range from physical limitations and psychological aftermath to the economic impact on their livelihoods. Some victims take their traumatic experienceone in which the victim is terrified, afraid for him or herself as well as for others, temporarily helpless, humiliated, and isolatedand apply them to assisting other victims through activism and support.
by Ken Rutherford, Ph.D. [ Center for International Stabilization and Recovery ]

From an operational perspective, the task site could have been completed faster, less expensively and with the same degree of safety for the end user, if the correct planning approach and riskmanagement system was applied.
Aging of Landmines/UXO

lar environments. The BLU-26 fuze was completely nonfunctional upon closer examination, but the BLU-61 was in perfect condition. Both items were found at a depth where they presented no surface hazard. Aside from the munition design, the position in the soil has a direct effect on the functionality of the munitions. For our purposes, the soil structure can be divided into oxidizing and non-oxidizing layers. This is the amount of oxygen available to help the materials corrode or deteriorate. Items such as the BLU-26 with exposed ferrous metal components positioned in the oxidizing layer will deteriorate at a faster pace than those in a non-oxidizing layer. However, if the same item managed to penetrate into the non-oxidizing layer of the soil, it can stay fully operational for many decades.
Indisputable Facts

support of economic development tasks help to save lives and create jobs that will improve the overall livelihood of those in underdeveloped areas. These tasks deserve the most focus from international humanitarian donor funding. Worldwide donor funding is in very short supply, and it affects all of us in this profession. The policies driving national and international goals should be readdressed to ensure that they are reasonable and that the limited funds available are maximized to save lives and support the recovery of post-conflict environments. see endnotes page 80

Another factor to consider is the effects of aging on munitions. The aging effects on landmines and UXO have been studied, showing that some items will render themselves useless over time, but not all of them will follow this pattern.1 The physical state of subsurface munitions will vary greatly depending on the design and materials used, along with the munitions exposure to geological and weathering conditions. Items made from poor materials placed close to the surface can deteriorate to the point of becoming non-functional over the course of a few years. Some of the Chinese-made landmines and U.S.-made cluster munitions such as the BLU-26 can come apart in 1020 years when placed in flood zones or extreme environments. However, the Yugoslavian PROM series bounding mines or the urethane-coated U.S. BLU-61 cluster munition will remain functional for much longer due to better design and materials. Examples of the BLU-26 and BLU61 are shown in Images 1 and 2 above. Both were dropped on Vietnam around the same period and were found in simi-

n war-ravaged countries and post-conflict regions, most landmine amputees struggle simply to survive. Victims often experience extended separations from family

As a token of appreciation for their leadership, I would like to highlight four of these unique and special survivor heroes Adnan Al Aboudi (Jordan), Bekele Gonfa (Ethiopia), Jess Martnez (El Salvador) and Nguyen Thi Kim Hoa (Vietnam). I have particularly selected them from among the hundreds of survivors I have met over the last two decades of victim-assistance work in many countries. Their leadership and capability in providing survivors with the direction to achieve their personal goals have helpedand continue to helpother victims and survivors develop their own personal strengths. Let me introduce them to you.
Bekele Gonfa, Ethiopia

members, decreased employment opportunities and shifting demands. For someone missing arms or legs, tasks that were once easy to complete can become Herculean chores. This often leaves survivors and their families to face harrowing experiences and uncertain futures. Survivors may also experience psychological and cognitive damage following the accident, leaving them at risk for mental health problems, family difficulties and unemployment. Many can no longer find work and cannot afford to buy crutches, wheelchairs and/or artificial limbs. Survivors are often ostracized and are denied proper medical care. One thing is clear: most landmine survivors rarely return to normal lives. Despite these discouraging obstacles, some victims have become survivor champions on their way to becoming leaders

Born the second son of a farming family in rural Ethiopia, Bekele Gonfa distinguished himself in school and at the Harar Military Academy. While serving in the Ethiopian Armed Forces, he fell victim to a landmine explosion in the town of Qore in central Ethiopia. His left leg required amputation and his painful rehabilitation took 11 months. Gonfa enrolled in Addis Ababa University when he was released from the hospital. Access to facilities was difficult for Gonfa, who was still adjusting to life as a landmine survivor when he began attending the university. Besides getting into the library and other buildings, he had difficulty traveling between classes within the allotted time. Despite the added obstacles, he obtained a Bachelor of Science in statistics. Gonfa became Director of Landmine Survivors Network (later renamed Survivor Corps) in Ethiopia in 2003, a position he held until 2009, when Survivor Corps closed. He tirelessly worked to assist the rehabilitation of survivors, families and entire communities throughout Ethiopia. He developed an extensive network of partnerships and collaborations that

Post-war minefields close to the population always lead to loss of limbs and lives. Anti-tank mines buried in critical roadways can kill many people on a bus in a single blast. A surface UXO visible to a child can be mistaken for a toy, and it will kill them and their friends when they decide to see if it really does go boom like the mine-risk education people said. The demining and explosive ordnance disposal teams working in these situations carry out duties that directly prevent the loss of life and improve public safety. Clearance teams working in

Roger Hess has spent more than 30 years in the demining/EOD field. He joined the U.S. Army in 1977 as a Combat Engineer, volunteered for EOD in 1978, retired as a First Sergeant 22 years later and moved directly into humanitarian demining/EOD operations afterward. His past work includes governmental, nongovernmental and commercial clearance operations in Africa, the Middle East and Southeast Asia.

and productive community members by devoting their lives to helping other victims.1 They are committed to expanding the solid foundations of peer support by helping others build resilience and understanding through conversation and problem-solving.2 They provide practical instruction with care and compassion to thousands of survivors of landmines, trauma and war-related violence. Survivors peer skills are in many cases essential in helping other survivors recover. In addition to counseling, outreach workers help survivors obtain training, benefits and healthcare through local service providers. In the most extensive study of landmine/unexplodedordnance survivors ever conducted, survivors in six countries reported significantly improved perceptions of their own mental and physical health following 12 months of peer support provided by trained outreach workers.
3

Roger Hess Director, Field Operations Golden West Humanitarian Foundation 6355 Topanga Canyon Blvd, Suite 517 Woodland Hills, California 91367-2110 / USA Tel: +1 818 703 0024 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://goldenwesthf.org

12

editorial | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | focus

13

In 1999, he was appointed director of LSNJordan, where he worked with a team of social and outreach workers to handle a caseload of more than 1,500 amputees. Of this number, some 500 were landmine victims. Aboudi says that he worked to ensure that all survivors received health care, social livelihoods and the economic care needed to regain and maintain their lives.4 Seeing recreational sports as a positive path to an integrated rehabilitation, Aboudi has promoted and participated in numerous inclusive sport activities. This personal passion is evident: Besides recreational water skiing, scuba diving, swimming, discus and table tennis, he has been a national representative at regional and international competitions. Aboudi participated in the 1996 Paralympics in Atlanta, Georgia (U.S.) and the 1998 British World Championship.
to a landmine survivor Bekele Gonfa presenting an award pia. Ethio , Abba s Addi in 2009 in athlete
All photos courtesy of the author.

Suffering is tragically common in the area but especially in her family. Before Hoa was born, her eight-year-old brother was one of three local boys killed by a cluster bomb that they thought was a toy, a loss that continues to affect the family today. Looking beyond her own familys hardships, Hoa has devoted her professional life to alleviating the suffering of other conflict-affected families and communities. She joined LSN in 2005, a time she still calls her day of destiny. Based in Quang Binh province, LSNs victimassistance program continues as the Association for the Employment of Persons with Disabilities and is the provinces only opportunity for victim support and rehabilitation. Hoa serves as Monitoring and Evaluation Officer for peer-support activities, promoting access to quality healthcare, peer support, economic assistance and education services for survivors and their communities. Hoa has provided a powerful voice in Vietnam for advocacy, promoting the recent Cluster Munitions Convention, the 1997 Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and their Destruction (also known at the Anti-personnel Mine Ban Convention or the APMBC), and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Working nationally, regionally and internationally, Hoa has organized or participated in working groups, meetKim Hoa participating in the Signing Conference of the Convention on Cluster Munitions in Oslo, Norway in December 2008.

Aboudi has been active in global advocacy for PWDs rights since discussions took place to negotiate the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. He was the only Arab PWD at the Ad Hoc Committee Meeting for the CRPD. Adnan was elected as an NGO representative from West Asia to the conven-

spanned across civil society, the private sector and government agencies. His frequent and positive contact with this network made him a powerful force for advocacy and human rights for persons with disabilities. More than 2,000 survivors were rehabilitated and empowered during his tenure, and many thousands more became the beneficiaries of the work LSN/SC undertook in Ethiopia. Not limiting himself to landmine advocacy, Gonfa has been deeply involved in development activities for many years. He founded the indigenous nongovernmental organization Katar Development Association in 2003, where he serves as Vice Chairman. Additionally, he served on the board of the Ethiopian Disability Action Network and on the executive committee of the Ethiopian National Paralympics Committee. Recently, Gonfa has turned his attention to promoting best practices for other practitioners. His research for the International Campaign to Ban Landmines, Handicap International and the Landmine Monitor/Cluster Munitions Report are the latest example of his advocacy. Gonfa uses his expertise to promote sustainable survivor-assistance programs.
Adnan Al Aboudi, Jordan

tion drafting meeting. He has consistently pushed for increased awareness and participation across the Middle East, most recently in May 2011 at the Center for International Stabilization and Recoverys Pathways to Resilience program for nearly 30 Arab PWDs and their providers in Hammana, Lebanon.

active and coordinated civil society campaign. I am proud to say that Kim
5

persons injured during the war. His frustration nurtured a determination to overcome physical barriers and discriminatory attitudes. In 1994, he managed a business that produced hospital clothing and focused on integrating landmine survivors. Three years later, he applied his university studies in business administration to start his own business, manufacturing clothing with other landmine survivors. He also became active in sports, playing competitively at regional and international sporting events. Martnez became Executive Director of LSNEl Salvador in 2000, formalizing his role as leader and activist for an entire network of victims and their communities. His work expanded beyond El Salvador to a regional and international network promoting physical and emotional well-being as well as economic development. Today, he is the Executive Director of the Red de Sobrevivientes y Personas con Discapacidad (Network of Survivors and Disabled Persons). The organization promotes the legacy of LSN in El Salvador.

Hoa is a leading voice of compassion and advocacy in all these ways.

Jess Martnez, El Salvador

By the age of 10, Jess Martnez had moved from his rural home to the outskirts of San Salvador to study and search for work. Despite an ongoing civil war, Martnez, the second of seven children, needed to contribute economically to his extensive family. In 1989, at the age of 17, Martnez and a bus of commuters stopped at a guerrilla blockade. Leaving the bus and walking around the blockade, Martnez grew impatient in the single-file line. He stepped out of line and onto a landmine the guerrillas had emplaced around the blockade. The explosion tore off both of his legs, putting him in the hospital for five months. The civil war had taken a large toll on the civilian population, and he met many fellow survivors during his rehabilitation. The conflict ended three years after his accident, and Martnez began organizing people with disabilities and

Adnan observing His Royal Highness Prince Raad, on behalf of Jordan, signing the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities at the United Nations on 1 April 2007.

ings and conferences that further promote the inclusion of survivors and increased attention and resources for victim assistance and human rights. Addressing the 1617 November, 2009 Regional Conference on the Promotion and Universalization of the Convention on Cluster Munitions in Indonesia, Hoa said that global change requires a clear and common goal shared across a range of actorsand a strong,

Aboudi says, My mandate has always been Nothing about us without us.4
Nguyen Thi Kim Hoa, Vietnam

Adnan Al Aboudi is an example of how the post-conflict community benefits from the energies and perspectives of all types of trauma survivors. A double-leg amputee following a car accident in 1989, Aboudi has worked for the Jordanian Ministry of Youth and on the board of the Al-Mustaqbel Club for PWDs.

Kim Hoa is a survivor of a different sort. Born to a closeknit family in Quang Tri province, Hoa grew up in the region most heavily contaminated by cluster munitions in Vietnam.

14

focus | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | feature

15

Peer Support and Recovery from Limb Loss in Post-conflict Settings

In this article, the authors describe an unprecedented study on peer-support services for landmine
Kenneth Rutherford, Ph.D., serves as Director of the Center for Stabilization and Recovery at James Madison University. CISR helps support survivorassistance initiatives around the world and has led efforts to promote peer-topeer support on four continents, include people with disabilities in landmine- /explosive remnants of war-risk programs, trained outreach workers to work with torture victims, and championed the rights of all survivors, persons with disabilities, women and children. The work of CISR, formerly the Mine Action Information Center, reinforces JMUs post-conflict and stability operations. Rutherford is in a unique position to help advance several of these policy goals. In 2011, CISRs ongoing programs and new projects will, for example, advocate disability rights as human rights in mineaction programming, promote peace and reconciliation through survivor-led collective action and address the longer-term humanitarian-assistance needs for survivors of landmines and cluster munitions. Ken Rutherford, Ph.D. Director Center for International Stabilization and Recovery James Madison University 800 South Main Street, MSC 4902 Harrisonburg, VA 22807 / USA Tel: +1 540 568 2718 Fax: +1 540 568 8176 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://cisr.jmu.edu

survivors and victims of explosive remnants of war based on the strategic approach implemented by Survivor Corps, in which survivors were trained to provide psychosocial assistance to other survivors. The studys methodology is thoroughly explained and analyzed by the authors.
by Cameron Macauley [ Center for International Stabilization and Recovery ], Marcia Townsend [ Independent Consultant ], Melissa Freeman [ Independent Consultant ] and Brent Maxwell [ Fathom Creative ]

Jess Martnez speaking at the United Nations about victim assistance with regard to the APMBC.

n the largest study1 of its kind ever conducted, survivors of injuries by landmines and explosive remnants of war in six countries reported significantly improved percep-

Problem Statement

Between 1997 and 2009, LSN/SC operated Peer Support networks in Bosnia, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Jordan and Vietnam.3 A program was also conducted with Iraqi refugees in Jordan. The programs strove to empower individuals, families and communities affected by landmines to recover from trauma, fulfill their rights and reclaim their lives.4 The principle methodology was peer support, defined by LSN as encouragement and assistance provided by a trained survivor who has successfully overcome a traumatic experience to another survivor in order to engender self-confidence and autonomy. As early as 2002, research on LSN beneficiaries revealed the importance of peer support to limb-loss survivors.5,6 LSNs five network programs employed a total of 44 outreach workersthemselves amputee landmine survivors who received four weeks of training in basic counseling techniques to locate and contact other survivors, many of whom suffered alone in self-imposed isolation.7 Forming a bond of trust and understanding is the first step toward reintegrating survivors into society, helping them regain self-confidence, find work or training, and participate in community activities. Outreach workers initially visited survivors in their homes and, in many cases, introduced survivors to support groups where they could engage in income-generation activities, sports or other forms of socialization. Outreach workers acted as role models, demonstrating that limb-loss survivors can overcome physical, social and economic barriers to interact normally in society. Outreach workers accompanied (linked) survivors to agencies and institutions where jobs, education or financial assistance could be obtained, or they referred survivors to local service providers. These links and referrals constituted a major source of survivor support and made use of locally available services. The

tions of their own mental and physical health following 12 months of peer support provided by trained outreach workers, as measured by the internationally recognized SF-36. The SF36 is a 36-question survey designed to measure the subjects self-perceived physical and mental health within eight domains: physical functioning, role limitations due to physical health, bodily pain, general health perceptions, vitality, social functioning, role limitations due to emotional problems, and mental health. Since 1988, the SF-36 has been used in thousands of studies around the world.2 Outreach workers were landmine survivors trained in peer

Despite his continued success and fervent defense of PWDs, Martnez still recalls the words of the soldier who carried him from the minefield after his accident: God brought you into the world with your legs, but now he has permitted you to lose them. You can still move forward. Martnez now says, My greatest satisfaction is knowing that I can help others.6
Conclusion

Survivors peer skills are in many cases essential in helping other survivors recover. In addition to counseling, outreach workers help survivors obtain training, benefits and healthcare through local-service providers. Aboudi, Gonfa, Martnez and Hoa help start survivor support groups in their respective countries, thus allowing victim communities to take that first important step in helping survivors help themselves, and continuing to assist and lead them to go on to become independent organizations. Thankfully for the global community, their works impact continues to greatly benefit the lives of landmine, trauma and armed-violence survivors, as well as their families and communities. See endnotes page 80

counseling who acted as role models to help other survivors, in group settings or through household visits. In addition to counseling, outreach workers helped survivors obtain training, benefits and healthcare through locally available service providers. This unprecedented study is the most extensive survey of landmine/ERW survivors yet completed.
Background

Aboudi, Gonfa, Martnez, Hoa and other survivors have trained hundreds of social workers and outreach workers to provide peer-support visits and other therapeutic contacts to landmine survivors and their families. They have transformed themselves from victims to active citizens in their communities, and their work and inspiration has helped survivors make even greater strides in accessing services, rights and opportunities as they worked to reclaim their lives.

Between 1997 and 2010 Landmine Survivors Network, later renamed Survivor Corps, operated a peer-support outreach program to provide comprehensive amputee-to-amputee peer support in countries heavily affected by landmines and ERW. LSN/SCs programmatic model provided support to landmine survivors in healthcare, economic opportunity and human rights. The model recognized that peer support would have limited success without addressing barriers and obstacles survivors face in post-conflict settings. LSN/SCs peer-support strategy empowered individual survivors to claim their rights and draw attention to issues of inclusion.

16

focus | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | focus

17

Comparison of Initial Score With Change in Score by Interim (Physical Health)

Comparison of Initial Score With Change in Score by Exit (Mental Health)

40

Country Bosnia & Herzegovina El Salvador Ethiopia Iraq Jordan Vietnam

Mean Change in Physical Health SF-36 Score (Interim)

77 84 27 47 121 114

Male Female

362 108

vited them to receive peer-support services. If the subject agreed, an initial interview was conducted, the SF-36 was administered and services were then initiated. As part of LSN/SCs counseling program, survivors were encouraged to develop a detailed list of personal achievement objectives that they wished to pursue during the next two years. With outreach workers assistance, accomplishing these objectives then became the survivors primary focus. The Interim Interview was conducted after approximately one year of peer support, and the Exit Interview was given as the survivor prepared to end his or her participation in the peer-support program, not more than one year after the Interim Interview.

Mean Change in Mental Health SF-36 Score (Exit)

Number of Survivors

Sex

Number of Survivors

LSN/SC outreach workers located the survivors in their communities and in-

30

40

20

Figure 4. Sex of survivors.

10

Age 0-17 years 18-29 years 30-39 years 40-49 years 50-59 years >60 years

Figure 1. Distribution of survivors by country. Number of Limb Amputations 0 1 2 Number of Survivors 125 300 45 Figure 2. Distribution of survivors by number of limb amputations.

20 41 68 103 96 142

-10

-40
0

Number of Survivors

-20

20

20

40

60

20

40

60

60

Initial Physical Health SF-36 Score

Initial Mental Health SF-36 Score

Figure 6. Initial physical and mental-health SF-36 scores. Time Since Amputation/ Physical Health SF-36 Score Change Injury/Paralysis Mean (95% /CI) 0-2 years 7.70 (5.98-9.42 >2 years 4.14 (3.32-4.97) No. Observations 104 310

Mental Health SF-36 Score Change Mean (95% CI) 9.14 (6.42-11.87 6.3 (4.93-7.67 No. Observations 104 310

Figure 5. Age of survivors.

mines. Sixty participants were survivors of accidents or acts of violence such as gunshot wounds, and 154 had amputations resulting from illness, infections, disease or other causes (see Figure 3). Males predominated, which reflects the worldwide predominance of male versus female landmine survivors (see Figure 4), and 73 percent of participants (341) were over the age of 40 (see Figure 5). Participants had received healthcare as available in their communities, but little or no formal psychotherapeutic care. A health screen was conducted revealing that many of the survivors suffered from chronic physical complaints, in addition to depression, insomnia and other post-traumatic-stress disorder symptoms.
Study Design

Cause of Injury/ Paralysis/ Amputation Lanmine/UXO Diabetes Other Illness/ Infection/Disease Accident Act of Violence Other

Number of Survivors 256 91 20 53 7 43

Figure 7. Time since compared Mean amputation/injury SF-36 Domain Scores (Interim) to change in SF-36 score (exit).
60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Analysis and Discussion

Mean Score SF-36 V.2

Results

LSN/SC relied heavily on the SF-36 to show that peer support is effective, and certainly the use of other instruments would have allowed for some triangulation. However, trauma survivors in conflict zones are often reticent to submit to psychometric testing; therefore, the administration of a single questionnaire with multiple domains was deemed sufficient. The use of a control group would have strengthened the study
PF RP BP GH VT SF RE MH

In comparing the overall scores for physical health and mental health, those survivors who scored high on the initial administration of the SF-36 tended to show little change on subsequent administrations, and in some cases subsequent scores were lower. The lower the initial score, the greater the change seen in subsequent scores. Statistically significant changes were observed in SF-36 scores of nearly all survivors studied, including those injured more than two years previously, as shown in Figure 7 (next page). These survivors had already achieved some recovery, but once they began receiving peer support they showed an additional increase in their self-perceived mental and physical health. Significant increases were observed in all eight SF-36 domain scores after one year of peer support (see Figure 8 next page); however, the results showed that mental-health changes were less prominent than physical-health chang-

Figure 3. Distribution of survivors by cause of injury.

outreach workers were supervised by social workers who oversaw information collection about survivors and, together with the outreach workers, monitored survivors progress in recovery.
Demographics
8

Figure 8. Mean SF-36 Domain Scores (interim).

SF-36 Domains

design and, as a result, the attribution of change due to peer support would have been better demonstrated, but the changes were evident among survivors who, several years after receiving injuries, still manifested significant improvements from peer-support services. Peer support generally focuses on emotional and psychological support, whereas LSN/SC offered a full range of services through local providers and made every effort to address social issues including unemployment, human-rights violations, vocational needs and access to healthcare, in addition to providing psychological counseling. In this respect, LSN/ SC was broad and holistic in its vision and benefited survivors as thoroughly as possible under the austere conditions present in these post-conflict settings.
Conclusion

es among the interim group than in the exit group (see Figure 9 on the next page). Most survivors, with the help of their outreach workers, succeeded in achieving the majority of their objectives by the time of the Exit Interview, resulting in improved self-perceived mental health. The success of LSN/SCs peer outreach model was evident in the area of social empowerment, and empowerment is seen as crucial to reaching greater social capital and reduced violence. Survivors exhibited significant improvement in their access to information, decision making, ability to self-advocate for their rights, understanding of disability as a rights issue and capacity to describe local laws and policies related to empowering or meeting the needs of people with disabilities (see Figure 10 on the next page). Upon entering the program, few survivors could discuss disability from a rights-perspective or describe local laws or policies affecting them, while 67 percent could do so after one year of peer support.

Study data was obtained from 470 survivors in Bosnia, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Jordan and Vietnam. Three hundred forty-five of these survivors are amputees, as shown in Figures 1 and 2. The Jordanian program provided assistance to Iraqi and Jordanian survivors. Participants were primarily survivors of violent trauma, usually traumatic amputations, 256 of which were caused by ERW, particularly landSurvivors were administered the SF-36 to measure the impact of peer support on their self-perceived physical and mental health status. The SF-36 was selected for this study because of the dynamic relationship between physical recovery and psychological recovery following a traumatic event such as a landmine injury.

The LSN/SC model for psychosocial rehabilitation for trauma survivors was neither complex nor exceptionally difficult to implement, and results presented here indicate that

18

focus | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | focus

19

Mean Change in SF-36 Summary Scores (Interim)

8 8

Mean Change in SF-36 Summary Scores (Exit)

Mean Change in Score SF-36

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Mean Change in Score SF-36

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Art Therapy and Sport Activities Enhance Psychosocial Rehabilitation

Physical Health Mental Health SF-36 Summary Scores

Physical Health

Mental Health

SF-36 Summary Scores

Figure 9. Mean change inSocial SF-36 domains. Empowerment - Interim

Dr. Marcia Townsend works as an independent consultant focusing on the effects and benefits of shale gas drilling in the Marcellus Shale Region in Pennsylvania. She was Director of Program Development at LSN/SC from 2004 to 2010.

The Tajikistan Mine Action Centre has worked to improve the physical and psychological health of landmine survivors through its summer camps in Dushanbe, Tajikistan. Using sport activities, survivors improve their ability to function physically and learn to adjust to life with their disability, while art therapy helps them overcome fears of self-expression, enabling them to form healthy relationships with others.
by Reykhan Muminova, M.D., Ph.D. [ Tajikistan Mine Action Centre ]

100% 80%

Dr. Marcia Townsend Independent Consultant E-mail: [email protected]

67% 53% 67%

Percentage

60% 40% 25% 20% 0%

traumatic stress disorder, and survivors often have reduced emotional well-being due to depression, anxiety, fear, anger, dependence on others and isolation due to feelings of shame

19%

21%

and discrimination. For mine victims to become survivors, in addition to needing medical care and prosthetic devices, they generally

Access Information & Make Decisions

Knowledge of How to Advocate Initial Interim

Understand Disabilty and Describe Local Laws and Policies

need psychological rehabilitation. TMAC has found that survivors benefit from peer-to-peer support (which allows them to
Melissa Freeman works as an independent consultant and also serves as a board member with Hope Extended, a nonprofit providing disaster preparedness training and disaster-relief teams in developing countries. She was Senior Monitoring and Evaluation Officer at LSN/SC from 2007 to 2010.

share their experience and pain with someone who has experienced a similar trauma) to learning that they are not alone, overcome isolation, and ultimately become contributing members of society. However, in Tajikistan, like in many other postconflict countries, the hospitals and clinics have no specialists in psychological support who can treat landmine survivors and no no existing peer-to-peer support groups.
TMAC Summer Camps

data sample represents all the survivors who had both an Initial Interview and an Interim Interview filled out. N=433 Figure This 10. Social empowerment (interim). This data sample represents all the survivors who had both an Initial Interview and an Interim Interview completed. N=433.

such programs offer significant benefits for trauma survivors, their families and their communities. Nearly all the survivors included in this study described an improved sense of physical and mental well-being, and felt better able to participate in rebuilding their communities and engaging in the process of post-conflict reconciliation. See endnotes page 80
Cameron Macauley is the Trauma Rehabilitation Specialist at the Center for International Stabilization and Recovery at James Madison University. He holds degrees in anthropology and psychology and became a Physician Assistant in 1984. Between 2005 and 2010, he was the Health Education Specialist for LSN/ SC. He joined CISR in August 2010.

Melissa Freeman Independent Consultant E-mail: [email protected]

Preparation for swimming training under the supervision of Khujamkulova Aydulan, multi-winner of the Asian para-Olympic arm-wrestling championships.
All photos courtesy of the author.

TMAC, in cooperation with Tajikistans Ministry of Labor and Social Protection as well as a number of International Organizations such as the United Nations Development Programme, Red Crescent Society of Tajikistan, Canadian Centre for Mine Action Technologies, and other partners, conducts summer camps in order to provide psychological and physiological rehabilitation to landmine survivors. Since 2005, a total of 160 landmine/explosive remnants of war survivors have enjoyed two weeks at TMAC summer rehabilitation camps. Each year one group of up to 25 survivors of different ages has the opportunity to enjoy the camps which are located in hospitals and resorts in the picturesque Romit and Varzob valleys in the Dushanbe vicinity. The summer camps have positively affected survivors general health by bringing together physiotherapy and adaptive sport in a friendly atmosphere to enhance the participants communication and social-integration abilities. The summer camps have also provided psycho-

T
Brent Maxwell is a Senior Developer and Technical Advisor for Fathom Creative, a Washington, D.C.-based interactive design firm. He was Monitoring and Evaluation Database Analyst at LSN/SC from 2007 to 2010. Brent Maxwell Senior Developer and Technical Advisor Fathom Creative Washington, D.C. / USA E-mail: [email protected]

ajikistan joined the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Antipersonnel Mines and their Destruction (also known

as the Anti-personnel Mine Ban Convention or APMBC) on 1 April 2000 and is one of the 26 States Parties with a significant number of landmine victims. The Victim Assistance Program of the Tajikistan Mine Action Centre has recorded approximately 828 landmine/unexploded-ordnance victims since 1992, with 466 injured and 362 killed by landmines. However, the total number of Tajikistans landmine victims is still not known because accidents sometimes go unreported. Survivors are often left with permanent physical disabilities, which can affect their ability to work and can lead to workplace discrimination and loss of employment. As a rule, most landmine survivors show symptoms of chronic post-

Cameron Macauley Peer Support and Trauma Rehabilitation Specialist Center for International Stabilization and Recovery James Madison University 800 South Main Street, MSC 4902 Harrisonburg, VA 22807 / USA Tel: +1 540 568 4941 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://cisr.jmu.edu or http://maic.jmu.edu

20

focus | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | focus

21

During exercise metabolic processes and blood circulation increase, which improves body regulation. At the same time, physical exercise and conditioning improve efficiency of rehabilitation and resistance to changing temperatures and weather conditions. Physical exercise contributes to functional and morphological recovery of the affected organs and systems, strengthening weak muscles. The medical team uses therapeutic exercises to stimulate the physiological processes and to counteract muscle stagnation.
Art Activities

eral survivors painted one picture. They had to decide on the subject of the painting and who would start. The goal of the session was to help build respect for one another, to facilitate personal conversations, to allow them to work through arguments and to support each others ideas. They were able to finish the painting, and in the process, they discussed and agreed on a subject to draw (both genders respected the others ideas).
Group work in art therapy. The art-therapy process brings pleasure to participants.

ery is not just about regaining physical functions; it is also about recovering from trauma emotionally and spiritually. With this holistic approach to rehabilitation, survivors can better understand who they are and how they fit in with society. They become contributing members and no longer allow feelings of self-pity and loneliness to dictate their self-image. TMAC will be very glad to share its experience with colleagues from other victim-assistance programs. The Centre plans to continue its projects using art therapy and adaptive sport for many years to come.

At the beginning of art therapy, the team provided cultural stimulation through excursions to the ancient Hisor Fort and to the museums in the capital city, Dushanbe, where the participants were introduced to various art forms. Most of the survivors had not had the opportunity to attend museums or had not thought much about art. The art therapist exMorning physical exercises under the observation of a doctor and a professional coach.

They did not use negative elements, and they shared the tasks of drawing and painting. On the last day of the program, the art therapist asked survivors to paint a picture for a person they love or respect that they could later show to that person. The goal of this session was to teach survivors to express their feelings toward others instead of repressing feelings. This session allowed them to give and receive love and attention.
Building on Success

art therapist taught them how to open their senses to the world and meditate on their inner power, letting it flourish and not seeing their limitations as barriers but as unique qualities to embrace. The art therapist continued the session teaching basic artistic techniques using pencils and water colors. During the first art-therapy sessions when survivors began to draw, they feared they could not draw good pictures or that their works of art would not be perfect. However, when the session discussed how life is full of imperfections and that those imperfections must be accepted and not eluded, the participants found the courage and started to draw. A discussion of artwork was conducted directly after the art session. The therapist asked each participant to interpret the meaning of their drawing, hoping to stimulate discussion that could provide them with insights for future psychological rehabilitation with the survivors. Group work in art therapy is important because it allows patients to adapt to social situations. The collaborative work helps them understand their role in society and cope with difficulties of self-expression. It is also an additional form of communication between survivors. When working in a group, sev-

plained to them that art has an important role in our spiritual lives, which has a direct influence on our minds. As the art therapy began, the participants were told that the goal of the art sessions was to express themselves, not to become professional painters.

logical rehabilitation through art therapy and individual and group psychological discussions, which improve self-confidence and self-esteem among survivors.
Sport Activities

Throughout the summer camps, TMAC uses adaptive sport activities supervised by a professional trainer and doctor. Sport activities consist of morning exercises, walking, games and competitions. Morning exercises occur every day before breakfast with time allotted to walk around the resort afterward if weather conditions allow. Group games include football, volleyball, basketball, tugof-war games, and other recreational activities. These games help with team building and play an important role in improving the survivors communication skills. In the afternoon, survivors participate in 100-meter races, arm wrestling, chess, table tennis, swimming, and other competitions. The hottest time of the day is designated primarily for restful recreationlying in a hammock or on couches or playing table games. In the evening survivors enjoy dancing, singing and watching movies in the front yard. Sport activities have improved survivors physical and emotional stability. Staying active strengthens the will of survivors and gives them confidence in their abilities while helping them adapt to the physical stress encountered in their everyday life. Combining physical activity with exposure to nature makes rehabilitation even more effective.
Excursion to the art museum in the ancient fort at Hisor.

TMACs successful use of art therapy at rehabilitation camps suggests that hospitals and clinics could also benefit from this program. Survivors who attended the camps were pleasantly surprised by the effectiveness of the art therapy, which helped to reduce their aggression, anxiety, and fatigue and gave them a positive outlet for negative emotions. Survivors found that the therapy improved their creativity, self-expression, overall mood and communication skills. Team-building skills were also improved through the sport activities. As survivors saw themselves growing stronger physically, the psychological effect of that improvement increased self-confidence and motivation to help them become even more self-reliant. The results of this art therapy and sport rehabilitation show that recov-

Reykhan Muminova, M.D., Ph.D., joined the Tajikistan Mine Action Centre in 2006 as the Victim Assistance Officer to coordinate the VA Program and ensure that VA initiatives were well integrated into national disability planning and frameworks. She has worked on projects related to victim and survivor assistance, and has significantly contributed to TMACs surveys and VA activities. She graduated from Tajik State Medical University and holds a doctorate in psychiatry and medical-social expertise and rehabilitation of persons with disabilities. She served at Tajikistans National Research Institute for Rehabilitation of Persons with Disabilities, where she started her research devoted to landmine survivors and their quality of life. She has authored more than 20 scientific articles in different medical journals and research papers published in Tajikistan and abroad.

The therapist conducted the art therapy outdoors in the morning. However, for the survivors who needed more psychotherapy sessions, additional individual art therapy and psychology sessions were held in the afternoons. The art therapy session usually started with 10 minutes of meditation, during which the therapist asked survivors to relax and think of an image that would loosen them up and help them express themselves through painting. The

Dr. Reykhan Muminova Victim Assistance Officer Tajikistan Mine Action Centre 15 M. Kurbonov Street Dushanbe 734025 / Tajikistan Tel: +992 37 227 09 47 Fax: +992 37 221 66 87 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://mineaction.tj

22

focus | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | focus

23

FEATURE

Somalia: Working in High-risk Environments and Fragile States

As the security situation continues to deteriorate in Somalia, humanitarian organizations are finding it increasingly difficult to achieve their desired results. Working conditions for these organizations in Somalia are particularly harsh when compared to those in other developing countries. Humanitarian-aid workers must accept these risks as a fundamental requirement of their involvement, and donors must be prepared to take more chances in these environments as well.
by Ann Mary Olsen [ Danish Refugee Council ]

ment and technical staff on temporary visits, to support and guide the national teams and monitor results. As a precondition to the work carried out in the field, a strict security protocol must be in place. Organizations need to conduct everyday risk assessments and consider security threats.
Aid Workers and Safety

Staff is our main asset, and ensuring their protection is crucial. Clear strategies help to reduce staff vulnerability. In the Somali context, simple precautions and security measures must be part of daily routines and can help save lives. For instance, respecting curfews, having a limited amount of cash, driving in older cars or convoys, using logos and T-shirts to identify staff and equipment, and using radios, identity cards, etc., are a few ways to help prevent problems. A very important element in the security strategy is continuing to place great importance on community acceptance. Despite the fragmentation of traditional leadership structures and their loss of authority, the community still provides a foundation for staff security, and the local community, often through the local councils of elders, frequently helps lessen tense situations while facilitating access.
Safeguarding Finances Accountability DDG facilitator ensuring that men and women from local communities can voice their concerns and priorities.

conflict, suffering, vulnerability and indignity have reached their limit. For those seeking to assist, much of Somalia remains difficult to access, a dangerous place to operate and full of dilemmas which challenge humanitarian principles. The humanitarian community must find a careful balance between the imperative to address humanitarian needs and the perils encountered in Somalia, such as costs and risks in terms of financial resources, the possibility of corruption, security concerns and the threats to humanitarian principles. Taking well-accounted risks and achieving results are interlinked in Somalia. Humanitarian agencies can and should work in Somalia, and indeed they have delivered assistance and results in a manner consistent with humanitarian principles. However, a number of critical areas are crucial to consider in order to mitigate risks. Risk management is a prerequisite for operation and achieving the results necessary to assist the people.
Negotiating Access Meeting with local representatives is the first step toward developing a community safety plan.
All photos courtesy of Peter Mller.

omalias humanitarian context is one of the worst in the world. It is a place of extremes for intended beneficiaries and for aid workers. Those who survive the

sure, the organization, not the staff, should take responsiblity for minimizing and avoiding the likelihood of corruption. As employers in insecure work environments, the organizations are responsible for mapping and analyzing risks and developing guidelines to mitigate these risks.

inform the organization about their views and wishes and a right to complain and be heard if the organization does not live up to its promises. Meaningfully engaging people usually fosters several benefits: greater degrees of empowerment, mutual respect, dignity, agency security, beneficiary resilience, and program relevance and effectiveness. The link between accountability to beneficiaries and better quality programs is well established. The more difficult the situation in Somalia gets, the more important the issues of accountability and quality management become.

Accountability is a key requirement for the humanitarian community, because it is challenged by humanitarian works fundamental principles and values. No one can act in an ideal manner in the Somali environment, and therefore it is crucial that any deviation from the ideal is revealed and accounted for. Organizations should not have to face the challenges alone, especially since pushing operational principles creates implications for all organizations operating inside Somalia. All stakeholders must take on their responsibility, and to make that happen, accountability and transparency need strengthening. Last but not least, accountability toward beneficiaries is crucial when striving to improve the quality of work. Being accountable to beneficiaries means allocating rights to them: a right to know the organization and how and with what the organization intends to assist them, a right to participate and

nors do not appreciate their politics, standpoints or actions. If organizations did so, they would violate all fundamental, humanitarian-work principles, as organizations would compromise the most important foundation for their workthe humanitarian imperativeby not reaching those in need. Organizations would compromise their impartiality and their obligation to assist on the basis of need alone. Furthermore, they might be seen as driven by a political agenda, thus compromising their independence and possibly, security.
Staying Onboard

The international community needs to constantly reaffirm independence and impartiality, meaning that in negotiating access to beneficiaries, ideally humanitarian organizations should not tolerate interference from the various insurgent groups seeking to influence their operations. At the same time, humanitarian organizations need to engage and talk with the different groups on the opposing sides of the conflict (local leaders, armed groups, state and nonstate actors, and groups perceived as illegitimate) in order to negotiate and achieve unhindered access to those they wish to assist. Humanitarian-aid workers cannot refrain from discussing and negotiating access for those in need with local leaders or armed groups, even if organizations or their do24 feature | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

When handling funds from institutional and private donors, organizations have an obligation to do their utmost to avoid fraud and corruption. In Somalia, corruption is a constant risk. The different types of corruption are many and sometimes extreme: from the taxation of registration, road blocks and gatekeepers to threats, bribery and the misuse of entrusted funds. Financial-risk management is crucial in this context. Since individual staff members are under constant pres-

Ann Mary Olsen is Head of the International Department in the Danish Refugee Council. She has worked with DRC for more than 20 years and has previously been posted in Nairobi, Kenya, as well as in the Balkans. She is based in Copenhagen, Denmark, and is in charge of activities in more than 30 countries and with in excess of 4,300 employees. Ann Mary Olsen Head of the International Department The Danish Refugee Council Tel: +45 3373 5002 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.drc.dk, http://danishdemininggroup.dk

Violence, insecurity and the near impunity of many armed groups and de facto authorities have led to great difficulties for aid workers to move around safely and monitor the results that humanitarian organizations set out to achieve. In most locations in Somalia it is possible to have a wide outreach with just national staff or with expatriate manage-

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | feature

25

Gambling Life and Limb: Humanitarian Hazards

Noncombatants, specifically journalists, war correspondents and humanitarian workers take extreme risks and make serious sacrifices while operating in conflict areas around the world. Despite being noncombatants, such individuals are often at the forefront of danger and share the risk of bodily harm with those on the front lines. This article discusses some of the recent casualties suffered by noncombatants in conflict and post-conflict regions.

above the knee and the other below along with his left arm below the elbow.7 After being flown to Kandahar Air Field for amputations, Duley was flown back to the U.K. to Queen Elizabeth hospital in Birmingham for further treatment.8 Prior to the injuries he received in Afghanistan, Giles Duley spent time as a fashion and music photographer before turning his attention to humanitarian work. In addition to working for Camera Press, Duley worked for Mdecins sans Frontires. His photographs have been featured in Rolling Stone, the Sunday Times and Vogue.8 Moreover, Duley won the 2010 Prix de la Photographie Paris for his photograph of a southern Sudanese woman delivering a baby.7 After spending 110 days in the hospital, Duley was sent to a military rehabilitation facility at Headly Court for physiotherapy.9 He explained that the use of prosthetic legs takes 260 percent more effort than walking with normal legs; as a result, physiotherapy is intensive and activities include rowing, swimming and weight lifting.8 Despite having suffered a triple amputation, Duley has vowed to return to work, stating that he has received hundreds of e-mails encouraging him to come back once he has recovered. In addition, Duley told reporters he had actually vowed that his injuries would not prevent him from returning to his field of work. In fact,
9

n 23 October 2010, New York Times war photographer Joo Silva became a double below-knee amputee after stepping on an anti-personnel mine in

Afghanistan a mere 300 meters (984 feet) from the U.S. base he had left earlier that morning.1 Embedded with a unit of

U.S. infantry and an accompanying minesweeper team, Silva was traveling through an area near Arghandab when he accidentally detonated a mine, reportedly no bigger than a can of floor polish. In addition to Silva, three U.S. servicemen were injured in the incident and received concussions from the blast. Within seconds, field medics rushed to Silvas aid and, fortunately, were able to prevent an excessive loss of blood, securing the photographers survival. Following his injuries, Silva was flown to Kandahar Air Field, the joint American/ NATO base in the region, for surgery before being sent to Bagram Air Base near Kabul and then on to a hospital in Germany. Doctors at Kandahar credited Silvas survival to the rapid response of the soldiers from the unit in which he was embedded.2 Upon receiving treatment in Germany, Silva spent time at Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Washington, D.C. (U.S.), for rehabilitation.3 Known throughout the world as one of the top war photographers, Silva could be considered a legend. He belonged to the well-known Bang Bang Club, a name primarily associated with four photographers active within the townships of South Africa during the Apartheid period in the early 1990s. Silva and his colleagues gained popularity through their coverage of the violence during that period. One of only two surviving members of the group, Silva has worked in Afghanistan, Iraq, southern Africa, the Balkans and the Middle East.4 Bill Keller, Executive Editor of The New York Times, noted that Silva continued to shoot photos even after the landmine detonated under him. In response to the incident, Greg Marinovich, the other surviving member of the South African group with whom Silva wrote the book The
British war photographer Giles Duley lost three limbs to an improvised explosive device in Afghanistan.
Photo courtesy of Hastings Observer Group/a friend.

Brian Carderelli (center) was killed by insurgents while documenting humanitarian aid in Afghanistan.
Photo The Carderelli Family

forces on 20 April 2011.8 Tim Hitherington, a British citizen, was wellknown for co-directing the Afghan war documentary Restrepo, nominated for an Oscar.9 Chris Hondros was an American with a distinguished career, known for winning the Robert Capa Gold Metal for war photography. Document9

wearing it. Along with Hitherington and Hondros, Cornish photographer Guy Martin and American photographer Michael Christopher Brown were also present and suffered injuries.11 Hitherington and Hondros were not the first journalists to be killed in Libya. In March 2011, two Libyan nationals, Ali Hassan al-Jaber and Mohammad al-Nabbous were killed. 12,13 The tragedy surrounding these events is a testament to the danger faced by correspondents allowed to accompany combat units into areas of the world plagued by conflict and violence.

ing the conflict of the Libyan civil war, Hitherington and Hondros were photographing frontline combat and were not

Duley stated that he was incredibly lucky, and that, while he survived thanks to the brilliant efforts of the U.S. troops, another person who suf-

Bang Bang Club, 5 said Silva is the most talented and courageous contemporary conflict photographer. Bar none.6 This past February, British photographer Giles Duley lost three limbs to an improvised explosive device while traveling with U.S. troops near Sangsar in Kandahar province in Afghanistan. Having been in the country for less than two weeks shooting photos for Camera Press, Duley was accompanying U.S. soldiers when he triggered an explosion. While he did not suffer any internal injuries, both of his legs were severedone

An unintended consequence of this requirement for security is that insurgents may perceive both armed personnel and unarmed noncombatants as hostile.
wearing protective gear when they were struck by the blast of the RPG. Allegedly, customs officials have attempted to stem the flow of protective jackets and helmets into the country from neighboring Egypt,10 and this may have played a part in why the two were not

fered nearly identical injuries a week later did not live.9 Amid fierce fighting in the streets of Misrata, Libya, Tim Hitherington and Chris Hondros were killed by a rocket-propelled grenade in a firefight involving Libyan rebels and pro-Qaddafi

While these individuals risk life and limb to provide an objective view of the human suffering that most of the world cannot possibly witness themselves, so too do humanitarian workers sacrifice safety and security to serve conflict areas in desperate need of aid.

26

feature | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | feature

27

Humanitarian Workers

es, are considered legitimate targets. Alternatively, insurgents dont always look for legitimate reasons to target humanitarian aid workers as evidenced by recent
Brian Carderelli
Photo The Carderelli Family

Similarly, Somali aid workers and journalists have been increasingly targeted. Conflict involving the Transitional Federal Government and Somali militias in opposition to the TFG has created a dangerous work environment for Somali journalists. In 2008, Amnesty International reported that journalists have been targeted specifically in an effort by each side to suppress coverage of the violence.22 Additionally, Amnesty International pursued several cases in which humanitarian workers were killed and found that, in the majority of the 46 cases studied, workers were deliberately targeted with the intention of suppressing known human rights violations.22
Deminers

erately. In several incidents, insurgents seemed interested in maintaining certain areas as mined, on account of having emplaced mines themselves or because they benefit from security forces being unable to use the area. As a result, insurgent forces have attacked and killed NGO deminers intentionally.23 Alternatively, deminers have also been killed by IEDs, which can be construed as either purposeful or accidental as IED victims are often targeted indiscriminately.
Conclusion

On 8 October 2010, the death of U.K. citizen Linda Norgrove brought attention to the vulnerability of humanitarian aid workers in Afghanistan, a tragic outcome of one of many kidnappings involving humanitarian workers in the country.14 An increase in violent encounters between aid workers and militant groups reveals a fading distinction between the occupying force and those involved in humanitarian aid, a division the Taliban does not honor. Deaths among aid workers have noticeably increased in recent years: in 2002, a total of 85 workers were killed, whereas 225 aid workers were killed in 2010.15 Although many nongovernmental organizations remain financially independent from state entities, many contract with U.S. government agencies such as the United States Agency for International Development.16 From an insurgent perspective, this alignment links humanitarian aid workers and security forces together, increasing their vulnerability. Notably, in order to receive grant

events. Delivering much-needed medical aid to rural parts of the country, a group of 10 humanitarian workers, including six Americans, one Briton, one German and two Afghans, were accused of being Christian missionaries and American spies when Taliban insurgents robbed and murdered the team in the Sharrun Valley of northern Afghanistan on 5 August 2010.
17,18

While many areas of the world desperately require humanitarian support, there are those who will stop at nothing to stifle the flow of aid or silence those who report on the harsh realities in these areas. Alternatively, there are also those who risk life and limb to provide much-needed support to these areas, be it through aid or through publicizing situations that would otherwise go unnoticed to the majority of the world. Without the dedication and vigilance of these individuals, scores of desperate populations will continue to suffer and their cries for help will not be heard. ~Blake Williamson, CISR staff See endnotes page 80

Hardly free from the dangers faced by journalists, photographers and humanitarian workers, deminers have become increasingly subject to the risks involved in their efforts to clear landmines and being targeted by insurgents. In fact, the U.N.-affiliated Mine Action Coordination Center for Afghanistan reported that 17 deminers were killed in 2010 while another 35 were injured and 73 abducted. Demining vehi23

Returning to Kabul from a venture deep within the Nuristan of province, the team humanitarian workers was on an optometric expedition,

the death of U.K. citizen Linda Norgrove brought attention to the vulnerability of humanitarian aid workers in Afghanistan, a tragic outcome of one of many kidnappings involving humanitarian workers in the country.13

cles often resemble vehicles used by security forces, therein attracting opportunistic attacks on behalf of insurgent forces. This tactic has led to fatalities caused by misidentifying deminers as targets; however, deminers are also targeted delib-

funding from USAID to operate in conflict zonesmainly in Afghanistan and IraqNGOs are required to work in tandem with the U.S. military, effectively removing the appearance of a nonpartisan organization.17 An unintended consequence of this requirement for security is that insurgents may perceive both armed personnel and unarmed noncombatants as hostile. If seen as an instrument of foreign militaries, aid organizations lose impartiality and legitimacy with the local people, and humanitarian workers, along with foreign security forc-

according to Dirk Frans, director of the International Assistance Mission, the Christian aid group to which the workers belonged.19 Those who were murdered included Briton Dr. Karen Woo, who was engaged and scheduled to return home for a wedding, Dr. Tom Little, an American optometrist who had been working in the country for four decades, and James Madison University graduate Brian Carderelli of Harrisonburg, Virginia (home to JMUs Center for International Stabilization and Recovery).18,19 Dirk Frans responded to the accusation that the team consisted of missionaries and spies stating that it would be against the laws of this country and the rules of our organization.17 Elsewhere in the world, humanitarian aid workers in Sudan face dangers as the army of southern Sudan, the Sudan Peoples Liberation Army, has been accused of looting and harassment. In response to the these claims, high-ranking Sudanese officers have stated that organizations would be expelled if such accusations become too harsh.20 Humanitarian agencies have reported roughly 120 interferences with the delivery of aid in 2010, and top U.N. relief coordinator Valerie Amos is pressuring the southern-Sudanese administration to protect aid workers, stating the violence against aid workers is unacceptable.21 A spokesman for the Sudanese Army acknowledged that workers belonging to a group known as Tearfund had been beaten and detained by the Armys soldiers, stating that workers had been supporting opposing parties.20

In Remembrance:

Shingairai Chimuriwo-Tichawangana
Bergen, Norway to study in a year-long program for her masters degree. She returned to Zimbabwe in 2001 and became NPA Zimbabwes Program Coordinator in 2004. Shingie was passionate about promoting justice and equality, and her work at NPA involved empowering women, children and the poor of Zimbabwe. A memorial service was held at Celebration Centre in Borrowdale at 10 a.m. on 18 March 2011. Following the service, Shingie was buried at Glen Forest Cemetery. She is survived by her husband, Fungai James Tichawangana. ~Dan Baker, CISR staff

Shingairai Chimuriwo-Tichawangana, affectionately called Shingie by friends and colleagues, died at The Avenues Clinic in Harare, Zimbabwe early in the morning on 16 March 2011. Her death was the result of injuries obtained during a car accident the previous night. The accident, which occurred while Shingie was traveling home from a work function, was caused by a drunk driver who failed to yield at the intersection of Enterprise and Ridgeway roads in Harare. At 30 years old, Shingie was the youngest employee of the Norwegian Peoples Aid office in Zimbabwe. She started working part-time with NPA in the 1990s and in 1993, traveled to

Aid awaiting distrubution in Libya.

Photo courtesy U.N./David Ohana.

28

feature | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | feature

29

The Database of Demining Accidents: A Driving Force in HMA

This article evaluates the need for a centralized accident-report database within the field of humanitarian mine action. The author argues that the failure to report accidents by on-site personnel can inadvertently lead to otherwise avoidable accidents where similar events occur. The author highlights the benefits that the database has provided for the community and makes several recommendations on how to further reduce severe injury within the industry.
by Andy Smith [ AVS Mine Action Consultants ]

With the database as evidence, it was possible to show the following:

related to field safety in one way or another. Below are several of the updates:

In almost all cases, deminers did not lie down to excavate: they knelt or squatted. Anti-personnel blast mines were the most common device involved in accidents. Severe eye and hand/arm injuries were more common than severe leg injuries. Heavy PPE was rarely worn correctly. No commonly used PPE could provide appropriate protection against the close-quarter detonation of a fragmentation device.

The distinction between working-distances and safety-distances in IMAS 10.20 was supported by accident data analysis that showed that the minimum safety distances imposed for an AP blast-mine risk were frequently ignored and that secondary injuries only occurred when a second person was very close to the detonation. The required IMAS distance was actually a safe distance for a deliberate detonation (with a large safety margin) but was often impractical and unnecessary during field operations. A distinction between working-distances (when no deliberate detonations will occur) and safety distances (when deliberate detonations will be made) was introduced. This allowed more people to work simultaneously in many areas, thereby increasing efficiency. It may also have increased field safety by making supervision easier.

Electronics Command, Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate. The database is an easy-to-use system containing the original demining accident reports with corresponding summaries.

he Database of Demining Accidents (DDAS) was started in 1998 using public data gathered for the United States Army Communications-

There was no reason to believe that a ballistic helmet or armor back-panel were necessary during demining tasks.

High-tech blast boots were of no proven advantage and could give false confidence, while common footwear (not specially designed to prevent injuries) was equally effective/ineffective when stepping on the smallest mines.

Figure 1: Analysis of the DDAS can highlight failings in equipment or training. Between 2005-10 58 percent of missing mine accidents were missed while using a metal-detector.

Safer working procedures were more likely to prevent severe injury than the use of more PPE. Traumatic injury was increasingly rare and could usually be stabilized in the field by appropriately trained and equipped paramedics.

The database was used to support the contention that the largest ERW in a minefield should not be presumed to be the greatest threat when determining working distances. It was decided that the greatest threat should be the largest device that could be detonated when using the predetermined procedures and tools. This meant that in mixed AP and anti-tank minefields, manual working distances could often be based on the AP threat. Evidence that visors were habitually not worn, or were worn incorrectly, led to the redrafting of IMAS 10.30 to allow other eye protection as a minimum. Five-millimeter polycarbonate goggles became the minimum requirement (subject to a risk assessment), although full-face visors remained the preferred option.

Shortcomings in management, leadership and training could be identified as a primary or contributory cause in many accidents.

During a rest break in Mozambique photographs are used to explain how devices function.
All photos and graphics courtesy of the author.

The activities conducted when accidents occurred The explosive remnants of war most commonly involved in accidents The areas of the body most in need of protection The effectiveness of protection used The working methods most common around the world The limitations of commonly used metal-detectors The shortcomings of some mine-detection dog procedures and processes The minimum level of medical provision needed That mechanical demining was not the panacea it was claimed to be

Not all of these findings were universally accepted, but the evidence meant that they could not be ignored and a process of compromise within the IMAS Board membership could begin with the aim of achieving a pragmatic and practical consensus.
Post-2001 IMAS Updates

DDAS Influence on Humanitarian Mine Action

Having a collection of field reports about demining accidents and the context surrounding them has influenced the evolution of the International Mine Action Standards. Basing IMAS content on empirical evidence rather than received wisdom has enhanced United Nations Mine Action Services field authority and contributed to its success. During the drafting of IMAS 2001, the DDAS proved invaluable in settling disputes about basic demining safety considerations. In the absence of other data, the previous U.N. standards (1997) had been dominated by caution and were not well received in the field. With the database as evidence, the following was established:

The Database has provided evidence in support of several updates to the 2001 IMAS. These updates were all

The final wording of the new Land Release IMAS

The Database of Demining Accidents contains the original demining accident reports overlaid with a summary and easy-search facility. Always available on request, the database records were put online at http://ddasonline.com in 2006. This site receives an average of 400 discrete visits a day, with the most popular topic being Deminer training (http://ddasonline.com /suggested_training_usesDDAS.htm).

At the time, received wisdom was that deminers lie down to excavate, should wear personal protective equipment with ballistic helmets and back-panels, and that the most common demining accident was stepping on a mine. Deminers protective visors had to be 13-millimeters thick, and casualty evacuation by helicopter was required at all sites.

30

special report | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | special report

31

of general conclusions that outweigh any individuals personal opinion. For an explanation of the quantitative and qualitative data analysis, see http://ddasonline.com/ observeinferDDAS.htm.
Lessons Learned

accidents. UNMAS has supplied a few accident records, but no one has conducted a comprehensive data-gathering exercise, thus leaving the DDAS as the only record of accidents in the industry. The value of a good accident archive is recognized in all hazardous professions except, it seems, mine action. The current number of recorded victims in the DDAS is close to 1,000. This includes all the records for some countries in some periods, which has allowed an assessment of the data-spread to conclude that the records are broadly representative of all injurious humanitarian-demining accidents. Despite the current IMAS requirement for demining groups to share accident data, many do not. Accident secrecy has been a constant problem, arising sometimes out of loyalty to colleagues and sometimes because the investigators want to protect the victims insurance payout. It is hard to criticize demining groups when the United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Office of Project Services and UNMAS are also reluctant to share any possibly embarrassing data. Because the names of the victims, investigators or demining groups are not published, however, there is no real reason to fear sharing accident details and the lessons that can be learned from them. The database has been in the public domain for 12 years, and the media or competing demining organizations have not abused it, implying that the removal of names and identifiers before publication has been successful in preventing abuse.

Future Uses

The weight of evidence within the database changes as new records are added. Currently, database evidence could be used to improve the safety of deminers in several ways:

The use of purpose-designed blast-resistant hand tools can save fingers and hands. This has been known for more than a decade but overlooked by managers, conscious of insufficient resources, who instead provide cheaper alternatives such as gardening tools that put the users hand on top of the blast, then shower the deminer with fragments as the tool breaks up. Compelling evidence exists for the use of purpose-designed, blast-resistant hand tools to be made a requirement (instead of a recommendation) in IMAS 10.30.

In 2008, the authors DDAS analysis showed the following:

The folding Minelab detector, an ergonomic success.

Failings in management and supervision have increased over time. There has been an increase of expatriate field supervisors who had limited knowledge or appropriate experience regarding humanitarian demining. Some suffered accidents; others were a direct cause of them.4

08.20, 08.21 and 08.22 were also informed by a close knowledge of the accident record.1

The EOD-accident record informed the IMAS 09.30 Explosive Ordnance Disposal revisions. The IMAS Technical Notes 10.20-02/09 for Mine Action on Field Risk Assessment depends heavily on an intimate knowledge of the accident record and the factors that commonly contribute to accidents.2

Many expatriates routinely applied double-standards and did not comply with their own rules: Their leadership abilities were put in question.
5

Using a pickaxe has been common in some countries for at least 15 years. Clearing mines with a pickaxe sounds bizarre, but when starting an excavation in compacted or rocky ground, other tools can be ineffective and frustratingly slow. Banning the use of the pickaxe has been tried and widely ignored. Engineers at MIT have designed an alternative tool that can do the same job as a pickaxe with reduced risk. The tool is far easier to guide the tip to the intended spot, requires less energy to use and reduces risk if detonation occurs. A field trial of this MIT device in Sri Lanka during 2006 was a success. Most people, however, have never heard of this tool, and it has not been widely used. The existence of a pickaxe alternative, designed to stay intact and protect the users hands, should be publicized along with examples of accidents in which pickaxes were used.

Severe hand/arm injuries became more common than severe eye injuries, albeit by a very small margin. Low-cost PPE6 was as effective as expensive PPE and often easier to use. Body protection (aprons) with a NATO STANAG V50 of 380 m/s was involved in more than 30 accidents and always provided effective protection, even when faced with boosted AP blast mines.

A significant number of accident reports include elements that show the investigators did not know (or had misunderstood) the IMAS requirements. This has supported arguments for simplifying the language and presentation of IMAS documents.

Research

Visors used in the field more than five years shattered in several accidents, implying that sun-hardening was a problem (this led to UNMAS Technical Note 10.10 / 02 for Mine Action addressing the subject).
7

The authority of the database as an objective record has been widely accepted. Evidence from the database is frequently cited in academic papers (Post-Conflict Reconstruction Master of Arts at York, U.K., and doctorate research at University of Genova, Italy, for example). The Massachusetts Institute of Technology runs doctorate research requiring students to study accidents from the database, 3 and other universities have asked for permission to link to the DDAS site. The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, a government research institute in South Africa, has based several projects on the results of studying the DDAS. Between 2001 and 2010, technical inquiries to Noel Mulliner at UNMAS were frequently answered with reference to DDAS accident records. The database cannot be used to prove much statistically because it does not include all accident records and relies on the honesty and sometimes questionable objectivity of the original accident investigators. However, the database allows qualitative assessments backed by quantitative analysis, together providing compelling evidence

Wearing a full-face visor did not reduce the incidence of severe eye injury. The need for dedicated on-site, ambulance vehicles was reinforced when an accident occurred in which the only vehicle, plus the only radio, were destroyed in an accident at a remote minefield. Several fatalities resulted.

Manual deminers using metal detectors provide an archetypal image of the working deminer. While some deminers are skilled with metal detectors, evidence indicates that many deminers and their trainers do not understand the limitations of these tools, and they do not know how to use metal detectors with confidence and competence. For example, accidents have occurred when a detector is wrongly adjusted and is unable to detect the targets. Inadequate detector training has also led to inaccurate pinpointing and excavations starting on top of the mine. The accident record contains abundant evi-

Common training needs of deminers and medical staff were identified. Some of these conclusions were difficult for IMAS

Board Members or field practitioners to accept, but unexpectedly, more accident data was informally supplied than at any time before.
Data Gathering and Security

Responsible field staff provide accident records because they understand that sharing this information might prevent the unnecessary repetition of avoidable
Figure 2. Blast resistant long-handled tools have been proven to reduce the risk of severe hand injury.

dence supporting the need to improve metal-detector training at all mine-action levels.

32

special report | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | special report

33

Among the records, frequent evidence shows that the appointment of international staff with inadequate knowledge of the IMAS or demining (despite high-level academic or military qualifications) can lead to increased risk for working deminers. In the field, experience and a commitment to learning from others are more valuable qualifications than academic or military achievement. This could be stressed in the IMAS and put into practice by the U.N. agencies and various demining organizations.

the detailed reports that provide the core of the DDAS. Without the original accident report to which to refer, analysis will rely on a brief summary made by an office-based staff member. This initiative may succeed, but the result will be shallow because it will depend entirely on the many levels of interpretation between the accident event and the tick placed in an available box on a form. In the meantime, the DDAS is currently being updated. Demining accident records, questions and comments should be sent to the author at avs@nolandmines.
Figure 3. A two-handled excavator designed at MIT to replace the pick-axe. The author believes that if the Afghans alone were to adopt this tool, it would save at least a dozen hands a year.
The longest serving member of the IMAS board, Andy Smith has worked in humanitarian mine action since 1995. Demining jobs have included mine clearance, surveying, nongovernmental organization management and United Nations Development Programme country program management. Not-for-profit research and development work has included developing safety equipment for use in HMA. Examples include the most commonly used blast visor and blastresistant hand tools. Consultancy work has included working for the U.S. government, U.N. agencies, NGOs, universities, private companies and the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining. Andrew Vian Smith AVS Mine Action Consultants 14 Old Dixton Road Monmouth / U.K. Tel: +44 (0) 16 0071 9993 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://nolandmines.com; http://www.ddasonline.com

From the earliest records to the present day, there are examples of new commercial organizations having accidents that repeat the obvious errors of previous accidents (recently, this has been especially obvious in Afghanistan). This implies that contract conditions need revising so that the deminers safety shares the same priority as cost and which require a knowledge of the history of demining (including any accidents) where the contract is awarded. withhold or conceal information that could prevent future accidents. When organizations do not disclose accident data, the managers run the risk of appearing criminally negligent by ignoring their responsibility for the safety and occupational health of their staff. Deminers are the agents of those who fund humanitarian mine action. They work to priorities that the donors have imposed, yet their treatment after an accident usually lacks any sign of the humanitarian concern that lay behind their employment. It is remarkable that a humanitarian industry has made no real effort to make long-term provision for themdespite interest shown in international forums by expatriate field practitioners who are concerned for their colleagues regardless of their nationality. It is time for a U.N. agency to take the DDAS under its management, enforce the IMAS requirement for the sharing of accident records, and maintain the principles of anonymity and of keeping original accident reports on which the DDAS was founded. This would be a requirement in any responsibly controlled industry and is a glaring omission in humanitarian mine action. A U.N. agency should accept responsibility for gathering accident records, creating an archive and conducting informed analysis of that archive. Earlier this year UNMAS asked the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining to gather accident data in a new system extending the tick-box accident records recorded in the Information Management System for Mine Action. Unfortunately, this would effectively mean creating a new database (instead of updating the existing DDAS), and would require ignoring

com. See endnotes page 81 The originator and keeper of the Database of Demining Accidents, which is online at http://ddasonline.com, wrote this article.

The insurance provision for local deminers injured at work throughout humanitarian mine action is varied but always far less than an expatriate would expect. Generally, national deminers receive medical care and a single payment considered derisory in a Western environment. Despite some informal attempts to provide long-term support, there are no formal provisions for severely disabled deminers to receive a disability allowance or even longterm prosthetics and therapy assistance. Among the records, some evidence indicates that accident victims have been abandoned and have died in extreme poverty or committed suicide. Those in dire circumstances can only be inferred because no comprehensive follow-up has been conducted. Improved provision for demining accident victims should be addressed.

Conveying Lebanons Cluster Bomb Issue through Film

li offensive against Hezbollah in Lebanon. Today, in addition to killing and maiming indiscriminately, these weapons continue to contaminate lands where children once played and make agricultural land unavailable to farmers. Throughout the films concise run time of just over 11 minutes, editorial cartoonist Patrick Chapette manages to convey the dread of these horrific weapons in a unique fashion. His black-and-white illustrations are surprisingly lively while alluding to the starkness of the issue. When these illustrations mix with real-life photographs, statistics and stories, they pack a serious punch. The film premiered at the Visions du Rel film festival in Nyon, Switzerland on 8 April 2011 and is currently available on the International Committee for the Red Crosss website: http://bit.ly/j6pjIo. ~Dan Baker, CISR Staff

eath in the Fields is an animated documentary that focuses on the cluster bomb crisis in southern Lebanon. The millions of unexploded bomblets scattered across the countrys south are the ill-fated result of a 2006 Israe-

Summary and Recommendations

The DDAS has been of proven value to the humanitarian mine-action industry. It has been a driving force in promoting practical change and the sharing of experience, in creating and updating the IMAS and in the field. An anonymous database, it protects the privacy of those involved in accidents while allowing others to learn from their experience. As an industry, international mine action has not matured to the point where it is open and transparent about its accidents. Some individuals and groups at all levels

34

special report | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | special report

35

Plan Clearance

Feedback loop

Land-release Information Management: Advocating for a Collaborative Approach

For land release to become more efficient and less dangerous, operations on the ground need accurate information. Collaboration between information management and operational planning will help increase safety while working toward releasing more land. The most challenging aspect of land release is the identification of boundaries around contaminated areas, and using new information technologies will aid not only operation managers in the area, but also senior managers setting long-term goals.
by Aurora Martinez and Daniel Eriksson [ GICHD ]

Linear approach Gather info

Dynamic approach - to be promoted where appropriate

Also, the information manager should point out the cost of delivering the requested information and other implications, such as skills and availability of the opera-

Gather info Analyze

Analyze

tions staff at each step of the information-management cycle. For example, operations normally conducts data collection (whether on paper or digital). The information-management professionals will then have to match the complexity of the data entry form to the capacity of the survey team or provide training to ensure clear understanding on how to fill out the forms properly. Strong data-ownership by operational staff is a key factor in ensuring data quality, in particular when it comes to deciding which data should supersede the other. The actual task of recording data, verifying its accuracy and analyzing it should be undertaken by operational staff (the domain experts). Domain experts are in the position to interpret and analyze all information brought together to either validate or call for complementary details. Information managers use their knowledge to the benefit of the domain expertsfor instance, designing data-entry quality filters and building report templates that compile data into readable formats for the operations staff. It is very important that operations staff clearly express what information needs to be compiled for them to analyze it. Starting from the expected information output, information-management staff should then work counter-clockwise.

Plan Execute (Release & Clear)

Execute Clearance

Hand over ............................................................................... Land in use as planned Land in use as planned

Figure 2. Linear versus dynamic approach (where information gathering and operation adjustments are made).

cess of information gathering and analysis to help better target clearance assets. Appropriate adjustments to plans when operations are underway are expected to occur as additional evidence is gained. This stresses the fact that information is actively sought throughout the duration of a task. A dynamic approach (see Figure 2 above) that aims
Figure 1. Toward better definition of the contamination through NTS and TS. Clearance is conducted on the DHA.

dresses more than pure operational processes. Among other enabling factors, information management plays a key role in supporting consistent and efficient decisionmaking in the operational process. Effective operational
1

and release aims to increase the efficiency of survey and clearance operations. The application of an efficient land-release methodology, however, ad-

to define as precisely as possible the location of mines/ ERW requires clear documentation procedures stipulating mandatory fields, such as the exact location of contamination. By doing so, a useful audit trail is created. Future decisions on land release may have to refer to past data, which should remain traceable throughout. At the same time, land release also requires mindful data management to avoid data overlaps and duplications that may confuse. This is particularly true with the initial storing of suspected hazardous areas in a database. Therefore, the application of a more stringent process subject to quality assurance1 is strongly advised when recording a SHA in a database.
Increasing Collaboration

decisions rely on the quality and quantity of information. The more reliable the information, the higher the confidence in the operational decision-making process, and as a direct result, more efficient land-release decisions can be made. This relationship promotes the maximization of Nontechnical and Technical Survey approaches which heighten the understanding of the nature of a hazardous area. This basis allows clearance activities to focus on areas genuinely contaminated and ensures the application of the most economical methods for land release (see Figure 1 above). Land release is mostly considered at an operational task level. Nonetheless, the ultimate goal of the process is to release communities from mine/explosive remnants of war contamination. Information management should serve the needs of on-site operational planning and execution as much as those of the mine-action program on a broader scale. The latter will be mostly concerned with overseeing progress toward set objectives, proving efficiency of the selected methodology and confidently declaring communities released from mine/ERW contamination. On-site operational planning, on the other hand, requires considerably more detailed technical data to take operational decisions. As is the case for any other activity, the information needs for land release must be carefully

assessed before information gathering occurs in order to avoid recording inadequate quantities of information or low quality information. Effective land-release information management should strive to provide the right information at the right time without it being cumbersome for any user and should concurrently link together the needs for all levels of a mine-action program.
An Iterative Process

Land-release information management must overcome considerable challenges to properly support the overall decision-making process. The land-release approach is defined as iterative as opposed to sequential.
1

Operational planning and execution will gain efficiency through a methodical collaboration with information management. As the holders of the knowledge on the data accuracy and relevancy that is collected, operations staff should have an active role throughout the cyclic information-management process, from collection needs to analysis, including data recording. With information management lies the responsibility to advise on how to best manage the data to properly serve needs, including implementation of technological support tools where appropriate (see Figure 3).
Defining Information Needs Figure 3. The inforamtion-management cycle.

This means that the order of the connected steps (workflow) designed to achieve land release can vary from case to case. Unlike a sequential approach, where the workflow follows all steps of a defined process in a linear way, the land-release approach entails adaptation according to circumstances. It is not the removal and destruction of mines/ERW but rather the precise identification of the contamination boundaries that is the most challenging aspect for mine-action operators.1 Efficient operational planning and execution depend on an iterative cyclic pro-

Planning and prioritization often start with baseline data from broad national surveys. Not only is that data often improperly used to describe the extent of national contamination, it also fails to address the needs

36

special report | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | special report

37

presence and evidence from land use. Additional techArea C High Threat TS 50 Area D Low Threat

nical surveying will depend on the values provided by some of the following criteria: nature of contamination, asset types deployed, methodologies used, delimited sectors within boundaries of a hazardous area1 and areas where assets were deployed. The suitability of the technical survey assets used to confirm the presence or absence and type of contamination require assessment of further technical details, such as age and condition of mines, burial depth of mines, soil and ground conditions, vegetation cover, natural obstacles, terrain and seasonal changes. With that information, operations staff are in a position to balance the performance of a given asset against its highest probability of finding evidence.1 The purpose of accurate collection and analysis of these values is to enable further evidence-based planning.
2

Area A Low Threat POM-Z

Total sq.m. of released land in use for agriculture

Total number of mines destroyed by DHA

Percentage of sq.m. cleared

Total number of completed NTS

Total number of mines celared by sq.m.

Area E Area B High Threat Low Threat Possible (locals living No 4s in area) Figure 4. Example of polygon division into sectors (South Sudan).

Figure 5. Indicators can be presented in a digital dashboard for an overview of what has been done and what is left to do.

fine-tuning the overall land-release framework if the results do not meet the expected efficiency standards. Information management's role is ensuring the data collection required for specific calculations, even if operational planning may not see a need for it. Recording intended land use, for example, might be of less relevance for a land-release task than it can be for strategic management purposes and prioritization. The information-management capacity must hence be shaped to properly measure all information needs and liaise with different components of a mine-action program. Indicators can aim at measuring any of the following:

staff and information managers, with the technical help of IT specialists, perform IMSMANG configuration.4 Once they finish this customization in the installation phase, the other functionality of the system is standard. That functionality was primarily designed with the operations staff in mind. The overall objective of the IMSMA NG design is to offer a tool that would open access to information outside the information technology cell. This approach has given the system two benefits:

of site-specific operational planning. Therefore, it is strongly advised that no operational planning starts until operational staff with technical training perform an initial screening of all available information. As part of this revision, the given priorities will also undergo a technical evaluation to determine which areas warrant mine-action follow-up. It may happen that data sought for analysis was already collected. However, it may not have been properly extracted and may consequently not be visible in a compiled report. Information-management staff should support this initial step by filtering data, querying and extracting information to help identify gaps (see Figure 4 above). This technical exercise should identify where data quality and quantity need improvement for operational planning purposes. It entails reviewing the data-collection forms, ensuring they are well designed to capture reliability and evidence data that builds understanding of the nature of the hazardous areas and the contamination type. Land-release information management must support the escalating system of survey activities it pro1

Apart from core item categories useful for operations such as hazards and processes, it is equally important to consider auxiliary data for comprehensive operational planning and execution. Those data types may include road access, evacuation plan, medical access and infrastructure like bridges or heliports. Auxiliary data can vary considerably from case to case, so keeping this list up-to-date is important.
Filtering Information

The subject-matter experts, who hold the knowledge of the reality that the data depicts, control the data quality.

Impact of the field activities should measure pertinence of the defined priority settings. Field-activity productivity should measure if the maximization of resource and asset allocation is met.

High system user-friendliness through an intuitive interface allows users with limited computer literacy to execute common tasks.

A mine-action programs senior management should aim to measure its land-release efficiency along with progress achieved toward set objectives. Senior management should ensure maintainable dashboards for this purpose. In Balanced Scorecards & Operational Dashboards with Microsoft Excel, Ron Person says that dashboards are the maps and measures that show how to accelerate success (see Figure 5 next page).
3

Field-activity progress should measure percentage of accomplished work versus work left to do. Status of the defined business rules should measure accomplished status of the interrelated decisions.

Efficiency of the defined activities and business rules should measure planning costs and logic of the defined interrelated decisions.

motes, which only resorts to full clearance as a last option. What operations staff will want to achieve through technical revision of existing data and information needs is to have an overview of the evidence data and to determine whether it is up to a satisfactory level. That level is reached when they are able to balance factors that raise confidence for releasing land without being subject to clearance and for appropriately applying survey approaches to areas with suspicion of contamination. Data collection details should hence aim at supporting informed decisions within an operational concept. A Non-technical Survey data-collection form, for example, should include historical evidence provided by military and civil informants, physical evidence of mine

While operations staff will assure that the nationally defined processes and procedures meet quality standards1 on a daily basis, senior management will focus on operational performance and productivity through selected indicators. An efficient land-release methodology should result in cleared areas with the highest yield of mines. Indicators also serve the purpose of readdressing priorities by the senior management.1 Indicators are often compilations or calculations of available datafor instance, the total number of square meters matching national land-classification schemes or the total number of square meters of land released meeting cancellation and release-of-land governing criteria. Upon indicators, senior management may see room for

Considerations for the Use of Technology

The costs inherent to using information technology should be weighed against the benefits. The development of the Information Management System for Mine Action Next Generation was undertaken in response to the needs expressed in the field. IMSMA NG provides a flexible decision-support tool allowing tracking and monitoring capabilities (see Figure 6). The system was designed to provide users with tools to adapt input forms and output reports in the system to the actual workflows in the organization. Operations Risk-management frameworks and other models that determine threat or suspicion levels for land release are sometimes handled outside IMSMA NG. Nevertheless, the system does not prevent the inclusion of explicit decisions or solutions supplied outside the system to generate
Figure 6. Benefits of separate proprietary software should be weighted against the all-in-one IMSMANG technological advantages.

38

special report | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | special report

39

comprehensive knowledge to inform strategic decisions, coordination and prioritization of the high-risk tasks. The initial configurations performed on the system and the data quality itself will help fulfill the overall objective of efficient land release. While IMSMANG can effectively support land-release information management, it should remain clear that it is effective management of information that is fundamental to support land release. see endnotes page 81
Daniel Eriksson, Ph.D., is Head of the Information Management section at the GICHD. Eriksson was introduced to mine action during his Swedish military service as an explosive ordnance disposal specialist. After completing his mandatory service in 1997, he was involved in research and implementation of information management and decisionsupport systems in Afghanistan, Iraq and Sudan. His past employers include the Swedish Rescue Services Agency, the European Commission, United Nations Office for Project Services and Vietnam Veterans of America Foundation/Information Management and Mine Action Programs. Daniel Eriksson, Ph.D. Section Head, Information Management Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining Tel: +41 22 906 1684 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://gichd.org, http://www.imsma.org

The Bosnia and Herzegovina Mine Action Information System

With technological advancements in mind, the Bosnia and Herzegovina Mine Action Center has maintained a current and efficient mine-action information system, working through a variety of difficulties. BHMAC has developed a system to accommodate a growing collection of demining reports and maps to aid efforts to cleanse the nation of mines and other explosive remnants of war.
by Zoran Grujic [ Bosnia and Herzegovina Mine Action Center ]

Aurora Martinez provides support to mine-action programs using IMSMA NG, and works on the development of information-management publications and course curricula. Martinez joined the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining in 2006. She previously acted as the GICHDs Outreach Officer for the implementation of a communications plan. She holds a masters degree in economic and social history from the University of Geneva, and completed a two-year program at Genevas Graduate Institute of Development Studies. Aurora Martinez IMSMA NG Support Officer Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining Avenue de la Paix 7bis CH-1211 Geneva / Switzerland Tel: +41 002 906 1655 Fax: +41 22 906 1690 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://gichd.org

he life and blood of a mine-action program is the information system. It is one of the most criticized, yet frequently used mine-action tools. The

Initial Configuration

The problem had been identified; the experts were in place to provide staffing and infrastructure, and U.N. Department of Peacekeeping Operations provided the software. At the time, the database-management system was the U.N. preferred Borland Paradox and the recommended GIS software was MapInfo. That software combination shaped the entire Bosnia and Herzegovina Mine Action Information Systems existence. Paradox proved to be a good system for networking a database and the program language was simple enough for new database administrators/programmers to learn in less than a week. The database continues to use Paradox (version 11) today, but the program has had many upgrades and has evolved into a more sophisticated information system. The other half of the software marriage, MapInfo, proved to be an excellent tool for mapping and cartography in general. In the beginning, the Geographical Section General Staff of the British War Office provided a gazetteer, which provided basic conditions for spatial queries. Paradox 11 and MapInfo 10 continue to work well together.
Initial Challenges

Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) mine-action information system program, originally called The Database, started in 1996. At the time, Microsoft Windows 95 made networking simple and a must, but the geographic-information systems that were available created a challenge for information-systems teams. The BiH team was tasked with developing a networkbased information system that could handle scanned images. In addition, there was a need to enable standard database operations and provide abilities to use SQL statements (relational queries). Last but not least, the system would need real GIS capabilities to make accurate, quality and clearly readable maps in less than 20 minutes from the request time. The data workload was described by the Annex 1A, Chapter 4, Parts I and II of the Dayton Peace Accords,
1

forcing former warring factions to remove minefields and submit their data on remaining minefields and booby traps. The deadline was short, so the system needed preparation and full operation from Day One. Suspected Cluster-Munition Use by Pro-Qaddafi Forces
The New York Times recently reported that pro-Qaddafi forces are using cluster munitions on the civilian population in the city of Misrata.1 Human Rights Watchs on-the-ground inspection discovered the use of Spanish-made MAT-120 120mm mortars produced in 2007, prior to Spains signing of the Convention on Cluster Munitions, targeting residential areas one kilometer away from front-line fighting. 2 The mortar opens in mid-air and releases 21 submunitions over a wide area.2 A further interview with ambulance drivers conducted by HRW discovered that cluster attacks occurred before 14 April 2011. 2 Despite the Libyan governments denial of cluster-bomb use, doctors in Misrata acknowledge that patient wounds are consistent with cluster munitions.3 HRW describes the danger of these munitions as anti-personnel, as well as antimateriel, because the munitions are designed to not only hurt people but damage armored vehicles. 2 Libya is not a signatory of the CCM. See endnotes page 81 ~Zarina Yancheva, CISR staff

It was immediately clear that BiH had no indigenous resources that could cope with the problem; therefore, help was requested from the international community during the London Peace Implementation Conference. The international community agreed to support the effort and program implementation began in March 1996. The U.S. Department of State funded two contractors that were tasked with various assignments. Infrastructure creation and staffing were assigned to RONCO Consulting Corporation, a leading international demining company, and database creation was tasked to FGM, Inc., an information-technology company from Washington, D.C. (U.S.).

According to their obligations prescribed by the Dayton Peace Accords, former warring factions provided more than 16,000 minefield reports to NATO implementation task forces. Data were entered and submitted to BHMAC (then known as UNMAC), together with some 1,100 mine incident data reports also entered into the database and charted on GIS. The puzzle became more complex on a daily basis. At the time, procedures for demining were mostly unclear. The peculiarity of BiHs

40

special report | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | special report

41

contaminationscattered, small, irregularly shaped minefields; single mines and well-organized minefields in areas where terrain allowedset a new challenge not only for the information department but also for those involved in demining operations. In October 1996, the first meeting on humanitariandemining standards took place in Copenhagen, Denmark. Therefore, we were absolutely and totally free to make all possible mistakesand we made most of them.
Centralization

2. The Sarajevo location, which received an additional

server for the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Mine Action Center data

cies or redundancies. The process was iterative, and as the projects scope evolved, the system was developed according to operational needs. System changes were never cosmetic; if something needed to be added, it usually related to linked activities and the systems corresponding information layers. While we worked as the emergency-response project, all data were presented as dots. Several attempts were made to show no-risk and at-risk areas as shapes, but the accuracy of reports was simply too low to produce maps that were current and not misleading. Raster maps used (Scale 1:50,000) were no longer detailed enough, so we shifted to 1:25,000 scaled maps. Cadastral mapping, showing the boundaries of land parcels within a given region, was also introduced at that time, but since Cadastral maps were so accurate, we were unable to register images properly and were unable to correlate the maps with the vector data we had at the time. Between 2000 and 2003, the International Trust Fund for Demining and Mine Victims Assistance, with support from the European Commission and U.S. DepartDemining activities

3. The BHMAC headquarters, which kept a consolidated database for the entire state Scanned images were also divided among these centers and program priorities were shifted from emergency response to planned mine action. The database needed to be amended accordingly. This meant that the database structure became a bit more complicated, as shown in Figure 2 below. The blue squares represent new modules added in order to enable full application of the information system into mine action. Field activities were
Figure 1. First version of BHMACs data structure.

The information systems initial structure was created primarily around minefield data and incident data. As program development progressed, the database became more complicated. The database was centralized. The entire data-entry process was completed and housed in Sarajevo headquarters on 10 networked computers. The server ran on the Windows NT 3.5 operating systemthe best that was available at the time. enter demined areas. A lot of modules added later were not even conceived when it was first constructed. A request for action initiated the process. At that time, the program was based on emergency response; therefore, exceptional request tracking and the ability to respond quickly was essential. The system used contamination information (minefield and incident data), and a General Survey was the main action. Following the assessment, the task order was issued and clearance was completed. All these aspects were also presentable on maps. As soon as demining activities started, a dilemma appeared. Geographic Section General Staff maps Series M709 in 1:50,000 scale were up-to-date but useless, as they were not available to the warring factions during the conflict. As a result, ground features referenced on minefield reports were not identically described. In addition, the elevation points did not have the same heights as shown on maps used during the conflict. The only solution was scanning all Yugoslavian Army maps and registering them as future reference material. Consequently, the first and the most important lesson learned was that information systems must be able to use the same raster backdrops as the military forces use during the conflict.
A network rack containing equpment.
All photos and graphics courtesy of the author.

reshaped almost daily, and the well-structured database became the very core, not only of the information system, but also of mine-action activities. When we were unable to put something into the information system, it indicated that business logic for the activity in the matter was wrong. Since the system was designed from the ground up, implementing operational ideas into the information system revealed inconsisten-

Request

Landmine victim

General survey Mine contamination data Mine incident data Victim Risk area Projects Proles Emergency marking Donors Needs Technical survey task Demining task Project No-risk area

No action

Mineeld Incidents

Organizations

Permanent marking

Expanding Statewide

After 1998, the information system and all assets for demining activities at the state level was handed over to BiH national authorities. Foremost was the request for the necessary decentralization of the system. As a result, the system was split between the following three locations:

No-risk area

Mineeld

Initial construction as of August 1997 can be described with the few squares and lines as shown above in Figure 1. In the beginning, the idea was to stress simplicity of structure; the entire system was actually a tasking mechanism, using minefield reports and incident data to determine where to demine and what basic abilities were needed to

Demining task Permanent marking task

Figure 2. Database structure, 19992001.

1. The Mine Action Centre of Republic of Srpska,

which began keeping data for its territory

42

special report | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | special report

43

Sarajevo
Windows Server 2003 PDC

Central O ce

Banja Luka

Windows Server 2003 BDC

AD, UDP

http

ment of State, implemented the GIS for Mine Action in South-East Europe project which provided low-resolution data of the entire region (including BiH), ortophoto of high priority minefields, and new hardware and software equipment. The GIS project also trained BHMAC staff in information technology, image processing, and other competencies in order to improve their planning, implementation and monitoring of mine actions. When the Japanese government provided a donation of equipment to BHMAC on 2 March 2001, the differential global-positioning service was introduced and accuracy of less than 10 centimeters (3.94 inches) (that is, allowing for more accurate measurements) was achievable. This provided a basis to begin developing a system to trace activities in the field and to show and keep data accurately, exactly as it was taken from the field. At the same time, the state showed increased interest in our data. On the positive side, our reports became a prerequisite for reconstruction projects. More negatively, however, a number of court cases were demanding accurate historical data. The system had to be improved once more.
Added Capabilities

The systems previous generation is shown within the rounded square in Figure 3. All system elements are interacting; the database is level 3 normalized, meaning the databases logical design has been improved to avoid data duplication. Yet again, data modeling proved to be the cutting edge of the system. Procedures were then amended as needed once the basic layout was constructed. As a result, the information system followed thereafter. Slowly but surely the system grew and became more complex. At this stage, the system was comprised of around 450 tables, 250 forms and more than 400 reports. The mapping function contained BiH 1:1,000,000, 1:300,000, 1:200,000, 1:100,000, 1:50,000 Defense Mapping Agency, 1:50,000 Yugoslav Peoples Army (JNA), 1:25,000 JNA and targeted areas 1:10,000, 1:5,000, 1:2,500 and 1:1,000. The system contains vector data describing all aspects of mine-action activities in BiH. At this time, the system network was also improved. In the beginning, Sarajevo headquarters was connected to the Internet at 128/128 KB speed. In Phase 2, the network speed was increased to 1 MB/1 MB and regional offices were connected to the Internet at a lower speed. In Phase 3, all regional offices were connected to a virtual private network using Cisco ASA, and the data were updated daily. Current performances are as follows:

OracleNet 1521 Oracle 11g

HTML Browsers, MapGuide Studio, Design Review Thin Clients, Map-Authoring, Advanced mapping

AC, UDP Oracle 11g OracleNet 1521

OracleNet 1521
Application Server for Public Access, no Windows Authentication

IIS MapGuide, Reporting Server http Data Entry + WebGIS VPN

O ce

IIS MapGuide, Reporting Server http Data Entry + WebGIS VPN

O ce

HTML Browsers Thin Clients

HTML Browsers Thin Clients

IIS MapGuide, Reporting Server Data Entry + WebGIS

Replication of data and con guration

VPN
VPN VPN

VPN

HTML Browsers Thin Clients

Pros: - No publication mechanism HTML Browsers Thin Clients - SSO for BH-MAC users (AD) - Public data is up to date - Direct data entry of LMVA-, MRE- and Company Reporting-Data, for the public Cons: - Increased subscription costs - Increased maintenance e ort - Increased development e ort
Tuzla

VPN

VPN

VPN

VPN

VPN

VPN

Pale

Mostar

Bhac

Broko

Travnik

HTML Browsers Thin Clients

HTML Browsers Thin Clients

HTML Browsers Thin Clients

HTML Browsers Thin Clients

HTML Browsers Thin Clients

HTML Browsers Thin Clients

Figure 4. Future structure of BHMAC Information System.

reporting since differential GPS is in effect.

Last but not Least

All other maps are now used for planning and wider area analysis.

Developing a mine-action information system is not just about data, but is also a teaching endeavor. During the last 15 years, BHMACs information department has hired people to fill several new positions, including a U.N. database developer, chief of operations in Srbija, chief of logistics at BHMAC, chief of operations at BHMAC, Microsoft-certified trainers, and databank analysts, etc. This benefit of the BHMAC Information System is, by my opinion, equally important and definitely warms my heart. See endnotes page 82

New requests included records and mechanical tools for deminers accreditation and mine-risk education activities. In addition, some requests were made to record data not directly connected to mine action. We were asked to take care of some logistical and human resources issues as well. Donors interest began to decrease, and public relations activities soon demanded a Web presence for the mine-action center. In November 2000, the BHMAC website was developed using HTML coding, the most
3

Sarajevo and Banja Luka nodes are in full replication and updated daily. Regional offices, excluding Banja Luka and Sarajevo, are updated daily or on demand. All locations have wired network 100 Base-T and Internet access 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Differential GPS is the standard measuring/reporting tool. Points acquired are downloaded into the system so that nothing has to be hand typed; therefore, errors are minimal.

The Programs Future

The BHMAC program has evolved to a point that realtime database management is needed. That said, Paradox struggles to meet the current demands. MapInfo might also have difficulties processing a huge data amount through a complex network. Therefore, retiring the old software combination and upgrading to a new database system is necessary. Figure 4 shows the new informationsystem structure. The system uses an Oracle application using a custom-made GIS application. The initial activities began in March 2009, and the system is currently in its final development phase.
Personal

up-to-date way (at the time) to create websites. The BHMAC servers hosted and updated the site. Figure 3 below shows the information-system structure at that time.
MRE Landmine Victims Mineeld incidents

Cadastral mapping is the standard backdrop for

OA Logistics

Demining Activities

The database relations and data complexity will remain much the same as they were. Mapping backdrops will be preserved, and a new layer of data, utilizing full vector coverage at 1:25,000 scale, will be implemented. The system will use digital elevation data, making 3-D mapping possible. MapInfo will remain the main cartographic software, and the entire interface will be Internet-accessible, keeping data security in mind. Currently, the system is in its final deployment phase, and expected implementation is sometime during this demining season.
Zoran Grujic is the founder and Head Program Designer of the Bosnia and Herzegovina Mine Action Information System. He is finishing his masters thesis in strategic management at the European Center for Peace and Development in Belgrade, Serbia. He holds a masters in capacity building and possesses in-depth field experience in unexploded ordnance removal. Zoran Grujic Chief IT Bosnia and Herzegovina Mine Action Center Tvornicka 3 71000 Sarajevo / Bosnia and Herzegovina Tel: +387 33 253 858 Fax: +387 33 464 565 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.bhmac.org

Organization

Donors

Donors

Victim

Request

Inspection

Resources

Vehicles

Inventory

Ofce supplies

HR evidence database

Project

Donations pledged

Projects

Proles

Monthly report Achievements (products)

Donations given

General Survey Mine-contamination Data Risk Area

No action

Regular inspections

Deminers

Donors

Needs

Sampling

Dogs

Emergency marking Technical survey task

Project

Non-risk area

Final acceptance inspection

Mechanical tools

Demining task

Permanent marking

Companies

Non-risk area

Mineeld

Demining task

Figure 3. Data structure after 2001.

Permanent marking task

44

special report | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | special report

45

Mine Risk Management by Mapping

This article discusses the issues and benefits involved in attaining information on local areas containing explosive remnants of war through the local population that use these areas, a process called direct mapping. Once collected, data is used to discern which areas, based on the local populations activities, deserve the highest clearance priorities. This process is described through in-depth analysis of the steps involved.

Risky behaviors

a) b)

Mine-risk Management Assessment Analyses, 2010

Demining priority tasks

by Russell Gasser [ Humanitarian Technology Consulting Ltd. ], and Goran Kneevic and Michael Carrier [ Handicap International ]

c)

Municipal Priority List for Demining, 2010

Demining priority tasks

andmines and unexploded ordnance make life difficult for people living in contaminated areasnot only in terms of the risk of injury or death, but in terms of the negative economic, social and devel-

BiH. The technique fits well with the use of Geographic Information Systems but can also be used as a standalone method.
Identifying the Risk

d)

Cleared tasks Tasks Demined During PMAD, 2007-09

opment impacts. Mines may obstruct land needed for grazing animals. Children may not receive an education because the road on which their bus must travel may contain mines. Visiting the neighbors may involve a long detour to avoid a path suspected to be contaminated with mines. In colder climates, wood for winter fuel may be unavailable due to a mine-contaminated forest. Mine clearance is also expensive, slow and can take years to complete. People in affected areas often suffer while waiting for clearance. When they cannot use land, roads and services, family income is reduced, and many development organizations will not begin projects that would improve employment and family income until land is cleared. In desperation, people start to use suspected-hazardous areas or are forced to leave the area and continue life as refugees.
Mine Risk Management by Mapping

Mine-risk management starts by defining risk as the combination of an ERW hazard and human activity (although there are other definitions of risk, Mine Risk Management by Mapping employs this one). Risk can be controlled by reducing the hazard (demining) or modifying the activity (clearly marking/fencing SHAs and using mine-risk education to prevent locals from entering known hazardous areas). Combining hazard and activity management can be effective, especially if mine clearance will take several years to complete. Any measures that improve the enforced co-existence of people and mines can have a significant positive effect on the quality of life of local people and reduce the risks they take.
Gathering the Data Figure 1. The MRMM process.

BHMAC-suspected hazardous areas in local communities

e)

BHMAC Database

BHMAC-local community map

Since MRE aims to increase awareness about the dangers and risks of entering a SHA, most people will not readily admit to entering a SHA (even under economic necessity). Few people want to admit to taking these risks and facing the stigma of being foolhardy as well as desperately poor. However, by soliciting information about both activities and hazards, the MMRM allows for more detailed and possibly more honest responses from the local population. The photos depict examples the overlays for one location were drawn. The layers in this case are as follows:

Even if the underlying map is not completely accurate, the same map is used for each of the overlays (see Figure 1 above).
Analyzing the Results

MRMM is easy to implement, as it requires only a map, transparent overlays and marker pens. Basically, it is a pen-and-paper extension of a multi-layer GIS. A map of the local area is overlaid with a sheet of transparent plastic. The map can be a quality sketch or, if possible, an ordinary large-scale map. The process, however, relies heavily on the local population's ability to understand maps, and instruction on how to read a map may be necessary. A marker-pen is used to draw human activities, such as the paths that locals use and the frequency of use (daily, weekly, monthly, etc.). The transparent overlay is then changed and hazards are drawn on the other layers, such as the location of SHAs and unexploded ordnance, including all areas known to local people. Impact-assessment methods have been used to help define risk and prioritize demining but have not usually been quick, intuitive or easy. Mine Risk Management by Mapping is a simple and effective solution shown to work alongside existing survey methods used to gather local information. Adriana Moreno and Russell Gasser initially developed the direct mapping method for the Colombia Landmine Impact Survey in 2009, and Russell Gasser and Goran Kneevi later adapted it to Mine Risk Management by Mapping in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) in 2010. The methods first field trials were successful, far exceeding expectations in Colombia and in

Once the maps are drawn, combining the transparent layers is done by laying them on top of each other. Holding them up to a light source allows the user to see through several layers at once. It is immediately obvious where human activities and hazards intersect, and which groups or livelihoods within the community are most affected. This information can be compared with official data, and then further used to pinpoint SHAs and prioritize clearance. The real breakthrough happens when a group of people, both locals and experts, discuss details of the map together. Putting location data into words can

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Infrastructure and meeting places (black) Key agricultural land (green) Water sources (blue) Paths hunters use (purple) Areas local people consider to be hazardous (red) Areas already cleared (blue)

46

special report | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | special report

47

Russell Gasser is an engineer who began in mine action by helping start a wheelchair-repair workshop in Nicaragua in the late 1980s. He received is Ph.D. from Warwick University (U.K.) writing a doctoral thesis about advanced technology research failing to deliver new demining tools and equipment. After working for the European Commission for three years, he formed a consultancy, Humanitarian Technology Consulting Ltd., to provide mine-action program evaluation. Russell Gasser, Ph.D. Project Officer Humanitarian Technology Consulting Ltd. Kaestrich 2 Alzey 55232 / Germany Tel: +49 (0) 6731 547 1501 Fax: +49 (0) 6731 547 1503 E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Dragan Okuka (on left), Mine-risk-education certified member of the hunters organization "Prepelica," with people of the village of Pocrnje, Municipality Berkovic i, Bosnia and Herzegovina, during the risk-mapping process.
All graphics courtesy of Goran Kneevic .

Clear, objective criteria can be established by the mine-action center in consultation with local communities before the MRMM process begins to prioritize which areas should be cleared first. For example, a SHA located near a path used by children, or an area of land in a SHA that is needed for more than one essential activity (e.g., grazing land with a water source) could be determined to be a top clearance priority. Local needs affect this prioriImage 1 (top left). Infrastructure and meeting places (black). Image 2 (top right). Key agricultural land (green) and water sources (blue). Image 3 (bottom left). Paths used by hunters (purple). Image 4. (bottom right). Areas local people consider to be hazardous (red) and areas already cleared (blue).
Michael Carrier works for Handicap International as a Deputy Desk Officer for Central Asia, Middle East and North Africa. He is involved in the Participatory Mine Action and Development project in Bosnia and Herzegovina as Local-development Technical Adviser. He is pursuing doctoral research on land-contamination issues at the University of Gloucestershire (U.K.) Michael Carrier Handicap International South East Europe Programme Hakije Kulenovica 22 71000, Sarajevo / Bosnia and Herzegovina Tel: +387 33 266 880 Fax:+387 33 266 881 E-mail: [email protected]

tization, taking into account inputs from technical demining experts, development specialists and above all, locals. If this is done before the mapping exercise, subjective views about importance and, in some areas, local influence or favoritism can be reduced. The map overlays will show where the high-priority activities are taking place in an unequivocal and objective way.
Summary

be difficult and often makes people uncomfortable. In a post-war community where inter-communal relations are still sensitive, writing and signing a document that will be handed over to the local or national authorities is often perceived as a threatening activity. However, standing around a map and drawing lines and areas on an overlay usually starts a free-flow of information and opinions. This exchange can include controversial or sensitive information, including areas officially mined but considered safe by locals, areas where unofficial and unauthorized mine clearance has taken place, or areas that contain mines despite being officially considered safe. These areas need further verification by a Technical Survey process and the resulting status of each area should be publicized to the local people. In BiH we found that the people quickly became engaged in the process after a few minutes of explanation. The images above are the result of the MRMM process in BiH. Simply defining the problem does not resolve the issue, but it does provide a firm foundation for the next steps.

Prioritizing the Clearance

By identifying the economic activities leading to high-risk behavior, development organizations have information regarding best practices to help locals reduce risk and survive the long wait for clearance completion. This is instrumental in the process of linking mine action and development. In terms of planning and implementing clearance, the next step is to use the MRMM together with information from the national mine-action center, the municipality, and other analyses to produce a demining-prioritization map that can be used to create a demining task list. The process uses the same conceptual model of a multi-layer map and can be easily implemented on a widely used and well-known GIS, such as MapInfo or ArcView. The diagram shows how the prioritization stage brings the information together. When used correctly, this is an example of the multi-layer method, effectively combining a variety of information into a single coherent view.

MRMM provides a useful method for attaining SHA information from the local populace. The process relies heavily upon the locals ability to grasp the concept of a map; however, trials conducted in Colombia and particularly in BiH were highly successful. Identifying local activities within SHAs facilitates a risk analysis, significantly improving the success of clearance prioritization. With this data, ERW-affected areas are easily identified through methods compatible with standard GIS systems, providing essential information to those tasked with discerning clearance priorities.
Goran Kneevic is an economist from Bosnia and Herzegovina. He has worked for Handicap International since 2008 and is based in HIMostar working on the Participatory Mine Action and Development project, serving as Mine Risk Management Advisor. During 2003, he also worked for HI as the regional coordinator on the Landmine Impact Survey project. Goran Kneevic Handicap International South East Europe Programme Hakije Kulenovica 22 71000, Sarajevo / Bosnia and Herzegovina Tel: +387 33 266 880 Fax:+387 33 266 881 E-mail: [email protected]

48

special report | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | special report

49

NOTES FROM THE FIELD

Study of ERW Accidents in Quang Tri Province, Vietnam

The purpose of the study discussed in this article was to determine statistical findings, as well as the knowledge, attitude, practices and beliefs of the affected population, regarding the number of explosive-remnants-of-war victims in Quang Tri province, Vietnam, from the end of the AmericanVietnam War in 1975 through 2010.
by Phung Tran Kim, M.D., Ph.D. [ Quang Tri Province Department of Health ] and Nam Hoang [ Quang Tri Province Department of Foreign Affairs ]

District Trieu Phong Hai Larg Gio Linh Vinh Linh Cam Lo Huong Hoa Dakrong Dong Ha Town

Population 93,640 85,962 72,457 84,810 44,253 75,228 36,308 82,944 23,219 400 599,221

Total Casualties 1,297 1,124 1,081 812 783 1,103 411 297 167 0 7,075

Casualties as % of population 1.39% 1.31% 1.49% 0.96% 1.77% 1.47% 1.13% 0.36% 0.72% 0.00% 1.18%

Fatalities 478 536 380 289 271 319 155 136 71 0 2,635

% fatalities of total casualties 36.85% 47.69% 35.15% 35.59% 34.61% 28.92% 37.71% 45.79% 42.51% 0.00% 37.24%

people in Vietnam. Explosive-remnantsof-war contamination remains one of the countrys most severe problems, impeding socioeconomic development, threatening peoples lives and safety and damaging the environment. According to figures from Vietnams Ministry of Defenses Technology Centre for Bomb and Mine Disposal, U.S. military forces deployed 15 million tons of bombs and landmines, shells and other weapons during the war in Vietnamthree times the amount used in the American-Korean War. The U.S. Depart1

he American-Vietnam War caused lasting and tragic consequences to the land and the

Quang Tri Town Con Co Province total

Table 1: Total mine and ERW casualties, including fatalities, for the period of 19752010 in the 10 districts of Quang Tri province.

of all land in the province is contaminated with ERW. Until recently, only a small amount of verifiable information and data analysis had been conducted regarding the ERW situation and humanitarian mine-action operations throughout Vietnam.
Research Methodology of ERW-affected Victims

Methodology in KAPB Survey

In 2010, the Vietnamese nongovernmental organization Project RENEW, with the provincial Department of Health in Quang Tri, conducted a cross-sectional epidemiological KAPB study in order to describe the incidence and risk factors in ERW accidents in the province. The required sample size for the KAPB study was calculated by the following formula where n = sample size, = significance level at 0.05, Z = 1.96, d = expected preciseness at 0.014 and P = 0.5. This gives a sample size estimate of 4,900 study units. With the provisional alternative of an additional 5 percent, at least a total of 5,100 subjects were required for the study. The research subjects were then selected among the verified casualty population by purposive sampling in all 10 districts of Quang Tri province using the method of accumulating population, iterated addition and division into 30 random groups. All research subjects were family members who were at least seven years old and could answer the contents of a predefined questionnaire. In each district, the method of selecting the probability sample relevant to the population at random was used. Each random group had at least 170 research subjects (5,100 divided by 30 equaled 170 for each random group). This formula can be used for calculating sample size: n=A2(1-a/2) P(1-P)/d2 . The investigators were all university graduates who were experienced medical staff. The KAPB data was collected by structured interviews at families homes with facilitation of

A cross-section of the targeted population using descriptive research was conducted among ERW victims in nine districts (including one town) of Quang Tri province. The goal of our "Knowledge, Attitudes, Practices and Beliefs" survey was to gain information about the knowledge, attitude, practices and beliefs of these victims and their family members to determine if they comprehend the means to avoid and prevent accidents caused by ERW. The reference population for the study was the human population of Vietnam. The study sample was selected from families in Quang Tri province that were exposed to ERW accidents from 1975 until the end of 2010. The study was carried out as a household survey with a cross-section design. The identification of landmine/unexploded ordnance victims was done through a reduction process. First, the public head of all villages provided the study committee with lists of all deaths and injuries that occurred during the study period. This village data was then cross-checked with data from the local health center, and then was scrutinized through
An administrative map of Quang Tri province. The orange band indicates the former Demilitarized Zone, which divided Vietnam into two parts during the American-Vietnam War (195475).

ment of Defense estimates that about 10 percent of this ordnance did not detonate as designed; there are hundreds of thousands of tons of ERW, landmines and other lethal weapons still scattered across Vietnam.
2

More than 35 years after the war, Vietnamese citizens, especially those in Quang Tri province, are still threatened by these ERW, which not only endanger the living and working conditions of the people, but also hinders community development efforts. Approximately 1.18 percent of the Quang Tri provinces population has been victimized by ERW incidents and approximately 83.8 percent

direct interviews in which investigators contacted each of the listed families as well as their neighbors. The study sample was then selected from this pool of known casualties.

50

notes from the field | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | notes from the field

51

1500 Fatalities Total Casualties 1200

erage of 25 people were involved in ERW accidents in the province per year. Still, this number is relatively high in comparison with other affected countries. Quang Tri province witnessed some

3000 Fatalities 2500 Total Casualties

2000

900

of the most severe fighting of the war. As a result, UXO clearance programs have
1500

600

been concentrated in this area. ERW casualties were found in all districts of the
1000

300

province. The three districts with the highest number of ERW casualties were Trieu Phong (1,297 casualties), Hai Lang (1,124) and Huong Hoa (1,103) respectively. It should be noted that Trieu Phong and Hai Lang are the two most populous districts in Quang Tri province. In the first five years after the war (197579), ERW accidents caused 3,193 casualties, accounting for 46.1 percent of the total number of victims since 1975. The number of casualties was reduced significantly in the next five years (198084) to 983, accounting for 14.2 percent of the total figure. Since 1990, the number of annual ERW casualties has generally been on the decline. In 200010, Quang Tri province began cooperating with international NGOs in neutralizing ERW, and as a result, the average number of annual victims has fallen to 38, a reduction of 81 percent in comparison with the average figure for the 19752010 period. When we review the data, the geographical skew is confirmed when we look at ethnicity. For instance, most ethnic minorities (Van Kieu and Paco) live in mountainous areas, especially in Huong Hoa and Dakrong districts, which were sites of fierce battles, military bases and heavy U.S. bombing of the Ho Chi Minh Trail. While ethnic minority groups comprise only 7.9 percent of the province total, this subsample accounts for 16.6 percent of all ERW casualties that occurred during the study period. The victims belonged to all age groups, but the vast majority were chil-

500

Phung Tran Kim obtained his M.D. from Hanoi Medicine University, and his Ph.D. in epidemiology from National Epidemic and Hygiene Institution. Working as a part-time teacher at Hue University of Medicine, he is Senior Advisor for Project RENEW.

0 Trieu Phong Hai Lang Huong Hoa Gio Linh Vinh Linh Cam Lo Dakrong Dong Ha Town Quang Tri Town

1976-1980

1981-1985

1986-1990

1991-1995

1996-2000

2001-2005

2006-2010

Figure 1: Total number of casualties, including fatalities, for the period of 19752010 in the 10 districts of Quang Tri province.

Figure 2: Total number of ERW casualties, including fatalities, for five-year periods from 19752010. There is a reduction in the number of injuries and deaths over time.

dren, teenagers and middle-aged adults. Victims under 36 years of age constituted 80 percent of total casualty numbers, and those younger than 20 years of age made up 46 percent of the total. Gender was also skewed, as male victims comprised 83 percent of victims, despite the fact that the study population was quite balanced in terms of gender (50.4 percent female, 49.6 percent male). The suspected reason is that accidents are mainly related to outdoor income-generating activities such as farming (38 percent), collecting scrap metal (11.4 percent), herding cattle (8.3 percent) and tampering with ERW (6.3 percent). The problem mainly affects the poor groups of the population. Out of all affected households, 72 percent earned less than US$130 per year as compared to the average per capita income in Quang Tri province of approximately $330 per year (2005 estimate). The au4

they saw ERW daily. They reported that 92.7 percent of incident sites were not marked with an ERW warning sign.
Conclusion

Phung Tran Kim, M.D., Ph.D. Vice Director of Quang Tri Province Department of Health Tel: +84 91 3456818 Fax: 84 53 852586 Email: [email protected]

local guides and interpreters. To ensure preciseness and uniformity of the data, the research committee trained the team of investigators using the questionnaire before the interviews were conducted. In cases involving fatalities, data was collected from family members and/or survivors from the same accident. The study was approved by the Quang Tri Peoples Committee. Any interviewee who refused to answer the questionnaire was excluded. As 5,100 questionnaires provided sufficient data, we included all for the study research in addition to 7,075 cumulative ERW victims. Data were processed by using Confident Interval Analysis software, version 1.2. Proportion was expressed with a 95-percent Confident Interval. After collected forms were transferred to the Quang Tri Department of Health, the research team checked all information and concluded that there were 7,075 accident victims since the war ended (19752010), comprising 1.18 percent of the provincial population (95 percent CI 1.071.12) , including 2,635 deaths accounting for 37.2 percent (95 percent CI 36.238.4) and 4,435 injuries. As a cross-sectional study, we could not collect the actual number of casualties in each community; howev-

er, this study may be representative of the whole province. ERW constitute the main problem; more than 90 percent of the casualties were ERW-related, and only 9.8 percent of casualties were caused by landmines. Cluster munitions and M-79 rifle grenades were the most common types of weapons involved in ERW accidents, accounting for 44 percent and 13 percent of all ERW accidents, respectively. The legacy of war has put a heavy burden on the population. The overall mortality rate in ERW accidents during the study period was 37.2 percent (95 percent CI 36.238.4). There were no significant variations in trauma mortality rates between the study districts (see Table 1 on the previous page and Figure 1 above). Reliable data on every ERW-related accident within the province was not available, some victims had moved away from the province or were only visitors when their accident happened. In 2005, the death rate from ERW in Quang Tri was 37 percent, which was much higher than the death rate from all other types of accidents.
3

The study illustrates that 1 percent of the population suffers from ERW accidents involving unexploded cluster munitions. As late as 2004, Quang Tri province alone reported higher casualty numbers than country counts from most other mine- and UXO-contaminated countries. Mine and UXO injuries are severe and have higher mortality rates than other types of trauma. The problem mainly affects low-income households in remote rural areas. Efforts to neutralize the effect of ERW in Quang Tri province include risk education, victim assistance and ERW clearance. The capacity of these projects depends on available funding; however, we are appealing funding resources, so that we may establish a mine-action coordination entity in the province to continue the aforementioned activities. We recommend that ERW-risk education programs take into account the epidemiological findings when designing future campaigns in order to target high-risk areas and activities. See endnotes page 82
Nam Hoang Vice Director of Quang Tri Province Department of Foreign Affairs Project RENEW Coordinator Tel: +84 53 3555977 Fax: +84 53 3851200 Email: [email protected] Nam Hoang received a bachelors degree in economics from Da Nang University of Economics, a Bachelor of Science degree from Hue University of Sciences, and an Advanced Diploma in political science and administration from Ho Chi Minh Institute of Politic Sciences and Administration.

thors found that people with less income take greater risks to earn more and often go into contaminated areas even if they know ERW are present. More than half the informants said they encountered ERW at least once a year. One in every nine participants said they encountered ERW monthly, one in every 30 encountered ERW weekly and one in every 37 people (4 percent) said

There was a significant decrease in annual incidence rates during the study period (see Figure 2 on the next page). During the last five-year period, an av-

52

notes from the field | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | notes from the field

53

Community Safety in Somalia

Danish Demining Group is introducing new ways of working with conflict-affected populations in fragile parts of Somalia to pave the way for stabilization by enhancing community safety and improving livelihoods. Through a joint effort with the Danish Refugee Council, DDG strives to increase development and stability in violence-prone regions of Somalia using a community-driven, grassroots approach. This approach allows communities to work together on reconstruction projects as well as intervention strategies aimed at reducing violent behavior.
by Rasmus Stuhr Jakobsen [ Danish Demining Group ]

climactic hazards, massive displacement and questionable international interventions have left Somalis in a dire situation. As one of the three poorest countries in the world, Somalia continues to be ravaged by civil war. Through joint interventions and the synchronization of efforts, the Danish Refugee Council and its demining unit, Danish Demining Group, strive to create new ways of working in an unstable and volatile environment. DRC and DDG strongly believe Somalia needs support for local capacities to enhance community safety and strengthen protection and livelihood opportunities in order to stabilize the region and improve the quality of life for Somalis.
Joint Intervention Preparing for the demolition of ERW in Somalia. Community safety is a priority for the Danish Demining Group.
All photos courtesy of Peter Mller.

omalia may be considered one of the longest standing failed states in the world. Two decades of intermittent but fierce conflict, widespread societal fragmentation,

Women on their way to meeting. Involving women in the development of community safety plans is a key priority.

ties by enabling them to freely exercise their right to decide on the design, implementation and evaluation of their own development programs. The project further requires meeting community-development needs by providing social and economic infrastructure and services. Overall, interventions are characterized by promoting bottom-up governance development and building local-government capacity to take over the function and responsibility of helping communities help themselves.
Tangible Benefits

The Cost of Armed Violence

The human and economic costs of armed violence are tremendous. In Somalia, the continued armed conflict has led to the forced displacement of hundreds of thousands of families, with the social capital eroded and the infrastructure destroyed. Instability is to a large extent impeding investment in reconstruction and reconciliation. Somalias situation clearly demonstrates how armed violence undermines development and underdevelopment fuels armed violence. As a result of the past two decades of conflict, Somalia is characterized by significant population displacement, widespread societal fragmentation, extremely high levels of food insecurity, erosion of the rule of law, massive proliferation of small arms and light weapons, and the buildup of armament and ammunition stockpiles.
Displacement

The DRC/DDG joint strategy in Somalia encompasses and integrates a number of projects implemented in line with overall aims toward paving the way for stabilization and development. The DRCs Community Driven Recovery and Development project focuses on service-delivery enhancement and bottom-up governance. Secondly, the DRCs approach encompasses a number of livelihoods and protection activities. Lastly, DDGs Community Safety project aims to reduce threats to human security through comprehensive community-driven programming.
Community Safety

societal levels. It is aimed at those affected by armed violence, as well as the perpetrators of armed violence, the instruments used to commit violence, and the wider institutional and cultural environment that enables or protects against violence. This comprehensive approach emphasizes participatory visioning, planning and implementation, as well as focuses at the grassroots level on bringing members of a community together to identify and develop solutions to their problems.
Recovery and Development

A tangible benefit of Somalias Community Safety project is the reduction in target-community conflicts, while another and important tangible benefit of the Community Driven Recovery and Development project is the visible reconstruction achieved through community cooperation. The increased income, new infrastructures or renewed social services have provided immediate affirmation of the benefits of peace and stability in the Puntland, Somaliland and Southcentral Somalia communities.

The Community Safety project goal is to strengthen the communities capacity to resist pressures and to prevent and resolve behaviors which contribute to violent conflict. With a mix of quick impact and long-term impact interventions, the Community Safety project comprises interventions at all

Service-delivery enhancement and bottom-up governance are at the heart of the Community Driven Recovery and Development project. The projects goal is to contribute to the improvement of livelihoods in local Somali communities. Specifically, the project aims to empower communi-

According to the United Nations Refugee Agency data, the number of displaced Somalis is more than 2.1 million.1 While the vast majority of displacement consists of people fleeing

54

notes from the field | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | notes from the field

55

Land Rights in Mine-affected Countries

Land rights in conflict and post-conflict environments is an increasing area of concern within humanitarian and development communities. When conflicts end, land rights may be threatened, especially for women, subsistence farmers and other marginalized populations. Secure land rights are, therefore, a critical issue for humanitarian response, sustainable peace-building and longer-term economic recovery, particularly in countries where agriculture is key to livelihoods. While mine-action activities such as priority-setting, survey and clearance bring mine-action organizations into direct contact with land-rights issues, most tend to avoid these issues. This article looks at how mine-action organizations can better address land issues.
by Jon Unruh [ McGill University ], Gabrielle Chaizy [ DRC United Nations Mine Action Centre ] and Sharmala Naidoo [ GICHD ]

I
Developing a community safety plan facilitated by DDG employees.

n 2010, the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining commissioned research to examine landrights issues in several mine-affected countries, including

Afghanistan, Angola, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, South Sudan and Yemen, and how mine-action organizations handle these issues. This article describes the findings of GICHDs research1 and provides practical guidance for mine-action organizations on how to do no harm and address the land issues they commonly encounter. This study utilized various methodologies for collecting the direct effects of conflict violence, a growing number of Somalis are also affected by the secondary effects of conflict, which include breakdown of the economy, failure of state services and ultimately reduced state and community-coping mechanisms against hazards or shocks. For example, drought has now become a significant cause of displacement. Those affected suffer from lack of state services, but also limited international services such as foodaid distribution, development aid and physical-security enforcement.
Bleak Outlook

process, the outlook is bleak. Somalia is at war and it appears that it will be so for the foreseeable future. Even though the autonomous
Rasmus Stuhr Jakobsen is Head of Danish Demining Group, the Danish Refugee Councils mine-action unit. Prior to joining DDG, he worked with the Red Cross and the United Nations primarily in disaster management. He has been posted in Italy, Serbia, South Africa and Uganda.

qualitative data, such as interviewing land-rights and mineaction experts, and studying relevant literature about landrights issues. As such, it did not collect statistical data and reports no quantitative data. The studys purpose was instead to determine practical ways to engage in land-rights issues by examining specific cases in the field.
Land Rights in Conflict-affected Contexts Mother and child beneficiaries, Iraq.
Photo courtesy of Vera Bohle.

Northern region of Puntland is less volatile than Southcentral Somalia, Puntland is experiencing a rise in insecurity and political tension. At its roots are poor governance, weapons proliferation and a collapse of the intra-clan cohesion. Also in the north, Somaliland is still vulnerable to armed violence and negative external pressures. Political disputes, clan-based politics and resource conflicts are rising. Furthermore, the continuing violence in Southcentral Somalia has led to an inf lux of displaced people that the region is ill-equipped to handle. See endnotes page 82

Land and property issues are often a central feature of civil wars. Violence, displacement, property destruction, military capture and loss of territory, pervasive food insecurity and the breakdown of land and property-administration systems significantly change relationships between people, land use, production systems and population patterns. During a war, the state's land and property-administration system can be crippled and rules can become unenforceable. Once the violence ends, displaced persons often seek to reestablish their homes and livelihoods, creating a surge of land and property problems. Depending on the size of the displaced population and the duration of displacement and

conflict, these issues can quickly become critical in post-war recovery. The reestablishment of ownership and the use-andaccess rights to land after a war ends is often very difficult when people try to reclaim what they lost. Failure to effectively address these problems can set the scene for renewed armed confrontation.
Land-rights Issues and Mine-action Organizations

In the Southcentral region of Somalia, there is no sign that conflict will decrease. Instead, with the growth of splinter opposition groups and the stalled peace

Rasmus Stuhr Jakobsen Head of Danish Demining Group Danish Demining Group Borgergade 10, 3 - 1300 Copenhagen K / Denmark Tel: +45 3373500 E-mail: [email protected] Website:http://www.danishdemininggroup.dk

Landmines and explosive remnants of war leave a distinct imprint on post-war landscapes. Because they deny access to key resources, mines/ERW tend to exacerbate land and property issues. Communities are forced to adapt to new scarci-

56

notes from the field | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | notes from the field

57

an NGO can direct which areas they believe a mine-action organization should focus on clearing first, i.e., communities that are the most vulnerable and have the worst contaminated land. However, when the land is released, the demining group has little power over who receives the land. One way governments, such as Afghanistan, South Sudan and Yemen, handle disputed land is to continue to list it as inaccessible to all disputing parties following clearance. Many individuals who find this land valuable and indispensible
Minefield near Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Photo Courtesy of Kerry Brinkert.

do not take an active role in the resolution of the disputes or the development of new land-management systems, they try to ensure that tensions will not increase because of the release of previously hazardous or suspected-hazardous areas. This approach reduces the potential harm that may come from land released through survey and clearance. Prioritizing which areas to clear first can be a minefield. Priority-setting can affect land rights and land disputes. In conflict and immediate post-conflict contexts, the first priority is road clearance in order to facilitate humanitarian and peacekeeping access. Another priority is access to residential areas, in order to support the return and resettlement of internally displaced persons and refugees. Agricultural land is typically cleared after roads and residential locations. However, because land may be contaminated in different parts of a country, the focus on clearing residential land first may mean that agricultural land is cleared long after residential areas. As a result, in countries like Sri Lanka, few civilians who return are able to farm and instead rely on humanitarian support or encroach on uncontaminated land belonging to someone else to meet their agricultural and foodsecurity needs. Information sharing and transparency. Adequate communication about the status of contaminated and released land can have a significant impact on affected communities. If land is released, and insufficient information is provided to local communities about the status of their land, many civilians are unlikely to return to reassert their rights. This leaves the land open for others to claim. On the other hand, with limited information, rumors can emerge regarding the lands status, which can mislead affected communities and encourage some to return to contaminated land. For instance, the Sri Lanka

case study found that information sharing was problematic. The return and resettlement of IDPs in 2009 and 2010 took place without sufficient information provided to the IDPs regarding the status of their homes, land and the mine-action operations. In a workshop that GICHD organized, the studys author, Bhavani Fonseka, mentioned that in the Sri Lanka context, there were cases where rumors spread quickly within IDP camps about the return/resettlement process in part because the government did not provide IDPs with any information about the return process and access to land. 3 As a result, some IDPs returned to find that while their residential areas had been released, their agricultural land remained contaminated, forcing many to either rely on food aid or to farm uncontaminated land belonging to someone else. Improved information sharing with IDPs and between mine-action and humanitarian and development organizations would improve coordination between return, resettlement and mine-action operations and facilitate durable solutions for IDPs. Mine-action organizations do not always have well-established links and coordination with the wider humanitarian and development sector for several reasons. In the past, they have tended to view mine contamination as a disarmament or humanitarian issue, but in many countries, it is also a development issue. Most mine-action programs were established in response to humanitarian emergencies or conflict, and mine-action actors have had problems changing focus from humanitarian mine action (designed to save lives and limbs) to the provision of mineclearance services in support of reconstruction and development. Also, mine-action practitioners were understandably preoccupied with the technical

to their livelihood will wait indefinitely for its release. Others may knowingly take risks and use the land prior to approval. South Sudan, a basic understanding of land-related challenges would enable mine-action organizations to improve the socioeconomic impact of mine action and ensure that interventions do not exacerbate already existing tensions. While some organizations collect data on land-rights issues, there are very few guidelines to recommend the correct way in dealing with land disputes.
2

ties, creating increased pressure to control access and use of valuable, uncontaminated land. Every time a mine-action organization works in a conflict-affected country, its work is likely to impact land rights. Conflict-affected countries typically have weak or non-existent property enforcement in place to deal with land conflicts and this can lead to instability and land grabbing. Humanitarian and development organizations cannot use neutrality as an excuse to avoid dealing with land issues. Removing landmines changes the local context by making previously unavailable land available. Newly cleared land can provide opportunities for community wealth, but it can also prompt competition and even violence over who owns the land. Although mine-action organizations try to help, there is the potential of reversing the progress made by humanitarian and development organizations by releasing land haphazardly. Lets look at some of the issues involved in the land-release process that mine-action organizations encounter. Lack of awareness. Mine-action organizations tend to be unaware of the exact status of contaminated land (i.e., legal status, ownership, etc.) before commencing work in an area. They also generally do not know how survey and clearance will affect adjacent land and land rights once they have handed over an area to a community. Some believe that because they do not encounter many land disputes during survey and clearance, land problems are therefore few or minor. Many mine-action organizations hire local staff members who are not aware of communal and customary land rights and this can create problems. The South Sudanese mine-action community, for example, has limited awareness of the complexities of land rights. Yet, given the contentious nature of land in

Some may even use/grab land that doesnt belong to them. Yet releasing this land, without securing sustainable and peaceful solutions between the disputing parties on its management and use, can quickly lead to renewed conflict and violence. Yet releasing this land, without securing sustainable and peaceful solutions between the disputing parties on its management and use, can quickly lead to renewed conflict and violence. Neutrality versus do no harm. In many instances, mine-action organizations have refused to play a role in the resolution of land disputes, claiming neutrality. However, this desire to remain disengaged from land politics can open the door for post-clearance conflict and can expose mine-action organizations to aggression from local parties. Local actors often perceive mine-action organizations as distinctly political, especially when mines/ERW are cleared from disputed areas. In response to these potential risks, mineaction organizations in Afghanistan have developed engagement criteria which stipulate that land disputes must be adequately resolved before they begin to clear contaminated land. While they

There is also little understanding of the impact of mineaction operations on land-rights issues. Not only is the Angolan mine-action community generally unaware of any potential land problems, there is also an assumption that since the state owns all the land, and very few people have any land-related documents, there is no conflict. Despite this perception, conflict between citizens and government demining organizations in Angola is common, since very little land is released to the community or to individuals. The government often re-appropriates land for commercial interests, and the rights of local communities are frequently ignored. As a result, conflict (sometimes violent) can occur between the government and local communities. Removing mines/ERW can spark resource competition and land grabbing. The release of formerly contaminated land makes valuable resources available. Unfortunately, mine-action and nongovernmental organizations cannot control who receives the released land since, in the majority of instances, the government and local leaders already predetermine land ownership. In places where land or water resources are scarce, such as Yemen, this land release can create conflicts. The upper classes often try to take newly released land for their own purposes, leaving intended beneficiaries marginalized and without adequate legal protection. A donor or

58

notes from the field | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | notes from the field

59

of areas following clearance. This knowledge will also improve the alignment between mine action and local processes of return, reintegration and livelihood recovery.

tractual obligations where applicable. Responsibilities regarding land-rights considerations and actions should be included as a part of the division of responsibilities in contract documents. The question of land rights and related liability issues should be considered for inclusion as a part of terms and conditions for contracts by contracting agencies.
Jon Unruh is Associate Professor of Geography at McGill University in Montreal, Canada. His research and policy work over the past 20 years has dealt with post-conflict land and property rights in the developing world. John Unruh Associate Professor McGill University E-mail: [email protected]

Recognize the special needs and vulnerabilities in relation to women and their land rights. Promote the active inclusion and participation of women, particularly femaleheaded households, throughout the mine-action process (i.e., plan-

Raise awareness about community-level land rights and laws. When interacting with affected communities at the planning and initial survey stages. Informing local communities about their land rights would reduce the likelihood of easy land grabbing. Where there are concerns of maintaining neutrality, partner with NGOs that can engage in this community work or simply refer communities to the proper organization.

Small boy from a mine-affected community in Pailin district, Cambodia.

Photo courtesy of Sharmala Naidoo.

ning and prioritization) implementation, handover procedures, and post-clearance monitoring and evaluation. Collect and analyze all relevant data in a sex- and age-disaggregated manner, enabling the identification of gender-specific patterns and concerns.

aspects of demining, in particular safety and efficiency considerations, and gave less attention to broader issues of livelihoods and the developmental outcomes resulting from mine clearance. The individuals working for mine-action organizations, particularly at an operational level, typically have ex-military backgrounds and may not be accustomed to sharing information and coordinating their work with humanitarian/development NGOs, which usually have a very different organizational culture. Mine-action organizations are just beginning to recognize the need to ensure their work supports wider humanitarian/development work and are trying to establish better coordination. As mentioned previously, mine-action organizations often try to remain neutral (i.e., not undermine or challenge government policies) in the face of land-rights problems, and try to ensure that handover documents are not used as proof of land ownership. However, from a land-rights perspective, such efforts can work against attempts to ensure that released land goes to intended beneficiaries. Mine-action activities (survey, marking, clearance and handover of released land) unintentionally create a wide variety of evidence that can help a communitys claim to land. Mine-action organizations often have little control over how local communities interpret and use these documents. Providing handover documents in a highly transparent manner would obstruct potential land grabbers and facilitate land claims. Womens land rights. Female-headed households can be more vulnerable to land grabbing as they are often less aware of their land rights than male-headed households, and are more likely to be illiterate, poorer and have fewer livelihood options.4 They may also have limited or no land-inheritance rights under customary or even statutory law in many mine-

affected countries, such as in Afghanistan and South Sudan. Therefore, they may be less able to defend their land claims.
Recommendations

The decision to survey and clear particular land areas inevitably involves land-rights issues. Avoiding these issues can seriously compromise the return of displaced populations, and limit mine-action effectiveness and developmental outcomes. However, mine-action organizations can take several actions to ensure they do no harm and respond to the land issues they encounter, such as the following:

When conducting surveys, collect data on post-clearance land use and intended beneficiaries . Conduct post-clearance assessments that also examine whether intended beneficiaries are actually the cleared-lands occupants. Oftentimes, the NGO or donor operating with the government and local leaders in a specific district will direct what areas should be clearance priorities based on the areas vulnerability and contamination level.

Gabrielle Chaizy is Programme Officer for the United Nations Mine Action Centre in the Democratic Republic of Congo. She previously worked with GICHD, the Geneva Infant Feeding Association and Defense for Children International, and as a legal researcher in Palestine and the Philippines. Gabrielle Chaizy Programme Officer UNMAC DRC E-mail: [email protected]

Seek alignment with and minimize contradictions among various land-rights policies and mine action in order to protect the rights of intended beneficiaries and minimize land-seizure opportunities.

Coordinate with humanitarian and development organizations that deal with conflict-affected populations, and national and international organizations dealing with land issues. These organizations can provide advice or take on the land-rights issues that surface as a result of survey and clearance operations. Mineaction organizations should establish links with the international and national housing, land and property networks, local NGOs, and other resources.
5

Promote balanced local recruitment (gender, ethnicity, alignment to different sides in the conflict, religion, clan, survivors, etc.) in mine-action activities in order to avoid a perception that a mine-action organization is biased in the prioritization, survey and clearance of land. Such a balance can also mitigate, to a degree, the notion of a tight alignment with the government. For additional information on landSharmala Naidoo is Project Manager for GICHDs Mine Action, Security and Development Programme, and author of GICHDs Linking Mine Action and Development Guidelines for Policy and Programme Development. She previously worked with Saferworld, Amnesty International, local human rights and development NGOs in Zimbabwe, and in the Canadian Foreign Ministry. Sharmala Naidoo Project Manager Mine Action, Security and Development Programme Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining 7 bis, Avenue de la Paix PO Box 1300 1211 Geneva 1 / Switzerland Tel: +41 22 906 83 22 Fax: +41 22 906 16 90 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.gichd.org/masd

Ensure a formal land-handover process which involves local communities, intended beneficiaries, government representatives, etc. Ensure the land release is widely communicated to those unable to participate in handover events.

Consider land rights when setting mine-action priorities. Do not clear land that is disputed if there is equally high-priority undisputed land that needs clearance. Communicate with local communities, NGOs and authorities that the reason an area is not being cleared is because it is in dispute. This decision to postpone clearance will likely encourage civilians to resolve land disputes.

Put in place a post-clearance monitoring process once handover takes place, particularly regarding land rights, claims and disputes.

Promote community participation in priority-setting. Use community liaisons and surveys to identify community priorities for survey and clearance, concerns regarding post-clearance land use, and perceptions of tenure security. Obtaining this information prior to any survey and clearance will decrease the risks of, or preempt, illegal land grabs and the surprise rezoning

mines and land rights in conflict-affected contexts, see http://bit.ly/hUOTew. See endnotes page 82

When developing contracts, include the need to partner with land-rights organizations in the contract documents and con-

60

notes from the field | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | notes from the field

61

BOOK REVIEW

Laos: Legacy of a Secret

by Sean Sutton, Dr. Thongloun Sisoulith, Lou McGrath OBE and Tim Page Dewi Lewis Publishing, 1 March 2011 ISBN: 9781907893018 http://amzn.to/gsEE2K US$40.00
uring the Indochina War from 1964 to 1973, the United States dropped more than 270 million cluster munitions on Lao PDR. Up to 30 percent failed to detonate on impact, leaving the largely agriculturally supported country littered with hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of unexploded cluster munitions (or bombies as they are called in Laos) that three decades later continue to maim and kill Lao villagers. As a photographer with MAG (Mines Advisory Group), Sean Sutton has traveled the globe, documenting the humanitarian impact of unexploded ordnance, landmines and other remnants of war. In Laos: Legacy of a Secret, Dr. Thongloun, Lou McGrath OBE and Tim Page tell the story of a country struggling to rid itself of mines, while Sutton provides a visual documentation of the legacy of the bombings in Lao PDR, capturing the locals as they go about their daily lives in a land invested with cluster munitions and unexploded ordnance. From villagers fashioning tools, fences and daily utensils out of cluster-bomb units to scrap-metal collectors dismantling bombs for income to MAGs mine-risk-education efforts to teach children and villagers how to identify UXO, Sutton provides a stunning visual story of a countrys resilience in a perilous land. Photographer Tim Page describes Sutton as a battlefield archaeologist, and notes his photos are haunting and revealing of the Lao peoples struggle for normalcy in a country riddled with UXO. ~Jennifer Risser, CISR Staff

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

Research and Development Section Sponsored by

Photos from the book, Laos: Legacy of a Secret.

Photos courtesy of Sean Sutton.

62

book review | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | research and development

63

The PECO Wolverine: Evolution of a Demining Area-preparation Tool

This article discusses the development of an essential mine-action tool: a preparation system for demining areas thick with vegetation. After covering the need for the technology, the authors explain how a commercially available product evolved into a highly capable remote-controlled vegetation cutter for demining, and how the manufacturer subsequently adopted the modified system for the commercial marketplace. Modifications made to the PECO are discussed in depth, and an accompanying analysis provides interesting insight into how the PECO project became a success for those in need of an efficient and effective brush-clearing device.
by Ronald Collins and Thomas Henderson [ DoD Humanitarian Demining Program ]

he U.S. Department of Defenses Humanitarian Demining Research and Development Program assesses, develops, demonstrates and evaluates new mine and unexploded-ordnance detection and clearance technology for use in worldwide demining operations. The U.S. Army Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate Countermine Division executes the HD R&D Program for DoD. The program focuses on utilizing and enhancing mature technologies, using commercial-off-theshelf technologies whenever possible. A COTS brush cutter formed the basis of an HD R&D development project beginning in 2007 that resulted in a new area-preparation machine.

Original COTS PECO Brush Blazer.

figuration that is software programmable for the system to which it is being integrated. The remote-controlled vegetation cutter can also be controlled manually, which allows it to be loaded, unloaded and walked to its designated work area. Integration of the already developed SRCS package into the Brush Blazer was relatively straightforward. A more complex technical effort facing program engineers was upgrading the hydraulic subsystem. The original Brush Blazer was not designed for the difficult terrain, vegetation density and environmental conditions in mined areas worldwide. Strengthening the hydraulic system was necessary to improve system performance and to provide better power management while traveling and cutting. Specific modifications included replacing the manufacturers manually-controlled hydraulic pumps and valves with a load-sensing hydraulic pump and electrohydraulic control valves. The original hydraulic reservoir and heat exchanger were replaced with larger capacity units. In less than eight months of design and fabrication work, the HD R&D Program transformed the Brush Blazer into a remotecontrolled, area-reduction vegetation cutter capable of line-of-sight operation from 400 meters distance. The upgraded PECO Area Preparation System weighs 627 kilograms (1,380 pounds), making it easy to transport in mine-affected countries. When operating in a mined area, the pressure the system places on the ground should be as low as possible. The ground pressure of the Area Preparation System is 3.17 pounds per square inch.
Testing the PECO Area Preparation System

PECO Area Preparation System operating in Thailand.

PECO Wolverine.
All photos courtesy of Humanitarian Demining R&D Program.

One of the most significant challenges facing deminers is safely removing thick vegetation that has overgrown mine-suspected areas. This vegetation must be removed before mine-clearance operations can begin. Development of technologies able to meet this need has been an important priority for the HD R&D Program. One of these technologies is the PECO Wolverine. The HD R&D Program collaborated with industry to transform a commercial landscaping vegetation cutter into a capable demining area-preparation system. In humanitarian demining, area preparation is defined as the removal of vegetation and other obstacles to enable demining teams to enter the mine-suspected area and begin manual mine-clearance operations. The PECO Wolverine is an excellent

example of industry participation with the HD R&D Program resulting in the availability of a capable area-reduction system in the commercial marketplace. Responding to a need identified by demining organizations, the HD R&D Program team initiated a new project in 2007 to develop a robust vegetation cutter optimized for small areas. After performing market research, program engineers selected the Brush Blazer, a commercial vegetation cutter manufactured by PECO, Inc., as a starting point for the project. The Brush Blazer is a tracked, lightweight, low-cost, walk-behind vegetation-cutting system. The PECO Brush Blazer has many ideal features for the challenges associated with area preparation and vegetation reduction in mine-affected countries. It is 2.4 meters long, incorporates a 1.2 meter-wide cutting deck and can perform 180-degree turns within its length. The system encompasses numerous safety features that make it excellent for demining tasks, including a chain-guarded deck, a front safety bar and the ability to traverse side slopes up to 30%. Transformation of the Brush Blazer into a vegetation cutter suitable for operation in mined areas required two major modifications: integration of a remote-control capability and a significant upgrade to the hydraulic subsystem. The remote control allows deminers to operate the equipment in mined areas without placing themselves in danger. Because remote control is an important part of many HD R&D Program developments for detection, area preparation and mine clearance, the HD R&D Program had already developed a Standardized Remote Control System package. The SRCS uses a common, proven, supportable hardware con-

The PECO Area Preparation System underwent a technical two-week performance evaluation to determine its capabilities and limitations. Key parameters measured by the test were traction ability, size of vegetation the

revised system can cut and performance of the SRCS. Along with demonstrating its improved capabilities for demining operations, the PECO Area Preparation System maintained its commercial capabilities which included cutting trees up to 10 centimeters in diameter. During testing, the system could clear an average of 2,000 square meters of moderately dense vegetation per hour. With technical testing complete, the PECO Area Preparation System was ready for an operational field evaluation in actual demining operations. In 2008, the HD R&D Program provided the PECO Area Preparation System to Thailand for an operational field evaluation by the Thailand Mine Action Center. The OFE took place in conjunction with demining efforts at the Pau Dau border area in northern

Thailand. Prior to beginning the OFE, HD R&D technicians provided extensive operations and maintenance training to TMAC members. With the added capability of the PECO Area Preparation System, TMAC was able to clear, in one hour, an area of land that normally takes 12 deminers a day to accomplish manually. The TMAC OFE table (located on page 66) summarizes the PECO Area Preparation Systems performance during this limited OFE.
Industry Collaboration Leads to the PECO Wolverine

The HD R&D Program provided the technical data and the test results of the Area Preparation System to PECO, Inc. A PECO representative visited NVESD to review the

(Left) Ronald Collins remotely operates PECO Wolverine in a technical test at Fort A.P. Hill, Virginia. (Right) PECO Wolverine prototype test at Fort A.P. Hill, Virginia.

64

research and development | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | research and development

65

TMAC OFE - Performance from February 2008 to October 2009

Mine Field Total Mines Found Total Area Cleared Total Hours Operation
Table 1: Results of TMAC OFE.

Pau Dau Border 76 150,650 sq meters 417

Ronald Collins is the Lead Engineering Equipment Specialist for the Humanitarian Demining Research and Development Program efforts at the U.S. Army Night Vision and Electronics Sensors Directorate prototype fabrication facility. Collins has 45 years of experience with ground-engaging and vegetationclearance equipment. He has been an integral part of several humanitariandemining technology developments including the PECO cutter, the Beaver system, Uni-disk, Survivable Demining Tractor, the Raptor area preparation system and the ARMTRAC tilling system. Ronald Collins Engineering Technician Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate (NVESD) Humanitarian Demining Research and Development Program 10221 Burbeck Road Fort Belvoir, VA 22060-5806 / USA E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://humanitariandemining.org

LOCOSTRA: Blast-resistant Wheels Test

Technical Survey, often an efficient method of achieving land release, can also be prohibitively expensive for certain communities due to the utilization of the same hulking, heavily-armored machines used in clearance operations. If Technical Survey could be achieved through the use of less expensive agricultural equipment that is already present in communities near suspected areas, land release could be achieved at a much lower price. The following study explores this possibility by examining the explosion resilience of four different designs of blast-resistant tractor wheels, each made of commercial off-the-shelf components and designed for easy reproduction in mine-affected communities.
by Emanuela Elisa Cepolina [ Snail Aid Technology for Development ], Matteo Zoppi [ PMARlab, University of Genoa ] and Vittorio Belotti [ PMARlab, University of Genoa ]

design modifications made to the original Brush Blazer. The representative saw a commercial market for a remote-controlled cutter where rough terrain and side slopes are safety concerns for manual operation. Discussions with HD R&D Program engineers and data from the technical test and the TMAC OFE pointed out areas where the system could be further improved. Naming the new design Wolverine, PECO replaced the 23-horsepower gasoline engine with a 25.5-hp diesel engine to improve torque and increase safety in hazardous environments. A lower profile diesel engine system provided an additional benefit by lowering the center of gravity which increased stability for operation on slopes. Fuel consumption averages three liters of diesel per hour, depending on the vegetations density and thickness. PECO integrated a commercially available remote control and added longer tracks for improved stability. The system is equipped with two circular triblades, and the cutting deck can be hydraulically adjusted up and down. The deck movement increases the ability of traversing side slopes and operating in varying terrain with increased vegetation density. Leveling, which sets the distance between the cutting blades and the ground, is adjusted manually. The remote control senses engine loading and will adjust the travel speed to minimize overloading or stalling. The cutting deck is attached with a quick-coupling mount that provides easy installation and deck removal, and a simple method of integrating additional tools. The PECO Wolverine weighs 818 kg. and has a ground pressure of 3.07 psi. The HD R&D Program procured three Wolverines for technical testing and to have assets available for additional OFEs. Data from the technical test identified a few minor improvements, which PECO has already incorporated. In June 2010, the HD R&D Program designed and fabricated a tiller attachment for the PECO Wolverine to determine its effectiveness as a rapid quality-assurance tool. Quality assurance takes place following detection and clearance to ensure all mines have been removed and the land is now safe. The

tiller attachment is capable of tilling the soil to a depth of 13 cm. Technical testing for the tiller attachment is ongoing with published results expected in late fiscal year 2011.
Summary

The PECO Wolverine project began with a commercial-off-the-shelf brush cutter. The HD R&D Program technicians integrated remote control, strengthened the hydraulic system, conducted a technical test and provided it to a supported country for an OFE. The brush cutters original manufacturer, using the data and lessons learned from the HD R&D Program effort, then developed the commercially available PECO Wolverine. The Wolverine is one example of the more than 100 technologies the program has provided to demining nongovernmental organizations, mine-action centers and foreign militaries in 35 countries. For additional information on the DoD Humanitarian Demining R&D Program, visit the website at http://bit.ly/lg9rlW.

Wheel Name Wheel n (used only for reference in the text)

Description

Characteristics

All steel

Vented steel wheel

External diameter: 900mm Width: 235mm Weight: 85kg Steel thickness: 4mm External diameter: 900mm Width: 205mm Weight: 86kg Steel thickness: 4mm Inner wheel: inflatable tire wheel (trailer) with tube, external diameter of 500mm External diameter: 890mm Width: 250mm Weight: 161kg Steel thickness: 10mm Inner wheel: inflatable tire wheel (4WD vehicle) tubeless, external diameter of 750mm External diameter: 865mm Width: 205mm Weight: 118kg Steel thickness: 4mm Inner wheel: solid rubber wheel (forklift truck), external diameter of 595mm

Florida

Embedding a small inflatable tire

Call for Papers

Research, Technology and Development in Mine Action
For submission guidelines, please visit:

http://tinyurl.com/4kq6cso

Thomas Henderson is an Acquisition Analyst with 23 years of government and industry acquisition experience, more than a decade of which were in support of the HD R&D Program. Following a U.S. Army career as a logistician and acquisition professional that included a tour as a product manager, in addition to the HD R&D Program, he also supported Marine Corps combat-engineer acquisition programs. Henderson earned a masters degree from Florida Institute of Technology and a Bachelor of Science degree from Indiana University of Pennsylvania (U.S.). Thomas Henderson Program Analyst Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate (NVESD) Humanitarian Demining Research and Development Program 10221 Burbeck Road Fort Belvoir, VA 22060-5806 / USA E-mail: [email protected]

EPR

Embedding a large inflatable tire

Genoa

Embedding a solid rubber tire

Figure 1. Wheels tested.

All graphics courtesy of PMARlab.

JAMES MADISON UNIVERSITY 800 S. Main Street, MSC 4902 Harrisonburg, VA 22807 USA ph +1 540 568 2718 | http://cisr.jmu.edu

The Center for International Stabilization and Recovery

uring May and June 2010, a series of comparative tests were conducted with four different designs of blast-resistant wheels built in the context of the LOCOSTRA (Low COST TRActor) project. Tests took place in an open-air quarry named Valcena near Parma, Italy. Three different types of charges containing 120g of Goma2Eco plastic explosive, 120g of TNT powder and 240g of TNT powder, respectively, were used in the tests.

The wheel prototypes are designed to resist physical damage and protect the vehicle on which they are mounted by consistently absorbing the resulting shockwaves caused by anti-personnel mine explosions. Because the wheels were developed with off-the-shelf material, they are simple and affordable. Moreover, they are designed for easy repair in local, nonspecialized workshops and, therefore, are appropriate for developing countries. The average cost of each wheel produced

66

research and development | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | research and development

67

The tractor on which the LOCOSTRA is based is slightly modified to host an industrial dual remote control. This means that no manual onboard controls are modified or removed, and the operator can drive the tractor or operate it remotely. The tractor is also equipped with light armoring composed of 3 mm-thick, steel deflection plates and new blastresistant wheels. The article presents results from a comparative test of four different designs of blast-resistant wheels made with commercial off-the-shelf components and designed for easy production in local workshops in mine-affected countries.
Blast-resistant wheels

Figure 2. Pendulum digital mock-up and prototype set-up before the test.

is 850 (US$1,187).1 The results from these comparative tests may be of great interest to the mine-action community.
The Problem

Each of the four wheels prototyped and tested was designed to withstand blasts and to limit shockwave transfer to the relevant parts of the vehicle to which the wheels are mounted. In particular, blast-resistant wheels have been designed to: Withstand 240g of TNT and resist at least five explosions before maintenance is needed Keep the tractor safe by reducing the shockwave transmitted to the hub to harmless levels Be inexpensive Be easy to repair locally Have good traction Be lightweight The four wheels are design variations of a concept intended to maximize shockwave venting and/or shockwave absorption via a flexible inner wheel, originally conceived by Andy Vian Smith, an active participant in the design. Figure 1 on page 67 shows the four wheels with their numbers and characteristics. Within the text of this article, for ease of reference, wheels are identified by the dummy names indicated in Figure 1 instead of numbers.
Figure 4. Charges.

Figure 5. Placement of the charge underneath the wheel and thermalite block.

The global community is witnessing an increase in poor countries vulnerability to weather and economic volatilityin other words, a decrease in their resilience. Resilience shares a strong link with investments in agricultural technologies, and the cause of decreasing resilience traces back to poor agricultural investments. While Africas development aid has increased by 250% since the early 1980s, the allocation to agriculture has halved. 2 As the lands importance and value increases daily, releasing mine-suspected areas to local communities more quickly is increasingly necessary. Luckily, many different countries are using Technical Survey to release land faster than in the past. While being quicker, though, the process is not inexpensive. Often, in fact, the machines used to process the ground in Technical Survey are the same employed for full clearance: expensive, heavily armored, highly powerful machines. As Technical Survey aims at verifying mine absence, machines used in Technical Survey are mainly employed on uncontaminated land. If an explosion occurs, these machines are withdrawn from the field, and the area is treated with other more accurate methods. 3 If ground-processing agricultural technologies are used as verification assets instead, a winwin solution can be achieved by enhancing long-term development and community resilience. Within this context and upon these considerations, the LOCOSTRA project4 started in November 2009. The project, currently near its end (May 2011), is aimed at developing a low-cost machine based on a small fourwheel drive tractor to perform Technical Survey with an overall cost of 50,000 ($69,795).1 The tractor has a 79hp Deutz diesel engine and a hydrostatic transmission. It has a double-steering system, is reversible, has a power takeoff and a standard three-point linkage system able to lift up to 1,800 kg advanced shredding technologies, a ground-processing cultivating tool, a sweeping tool (developed by the University of Melbourne) and a large loop detector (provided by Ebinger).

Figure 3. Test phases.

Test Method

The test aim was to compare the four designs and assess which wheel was better at: Resisting physical damage Significantly reducing the energy transferred to the tractor To measure the energy transferred, two sensors were employed: a rotary encoder and a tri-axial accelerometer. The incremental encoder, which was produced by Stegmann Inc., has a sensitivity of less than one-tenth of a degree. It was mounted on a ballistic pendulum (Figure 2 above), designed to hold the wheels while they were subject to blast testing. The pendulum was designed to have one degree of freedom with the pendulum arm free to rotate around a joint sensorized with the encoder, which is able to measure its angular displacement. The weight the pendulum exerted on the wheel was adjusted by adding counterweights at the back of the pendulum. Each wheel was held firmly on the pendulum hub using bolts of the same diameter as those used on the LOCOSTRA. Between the wheel and the pendulum hub a sensorized flange allowed for measurement of the hubs acceleration.

The encoder allowed the measurement of the energy transferred by each wheel by recording the pendulum arms rotational displacement and, in particular, the maximum height reached by the arm during each explosion. The height reached is directly proportional to the energy transferred because when the pendulum stops for an instant at the highest position, all its energy is in the form of potential energy. The tri-axial accelerometer placed inside the flange was used to record hub acceleration. It was used on the pendulum as well as on the real tractor hub during the tests final phase, when the wheels that performed better on the pendulum were mounted on the tractor and tested in realistic conditions. Acceleration is directly proportional to the force exerted on the hub by the blast wave. As the structure reacted, vibrating from the blast wave impulse, the recorded acceleration was oscillatory. In order to compare the wheels, data was processed to obtain the root mean square values of acceleration (a sort of average value of the acceleration over time), a value that measures the power of the blast wave passing through the wheel. The accelerometer has sensitivity of 0.05mV/(m/s2) and measurement range of 98,000m/s2. The frequency range is 310,000Hz. It is tri-axial, and therefore allowed measurement of the acceleration components on the wheel plane and on the axis perpendicular to the plane. A high-speed camera recorded a maximum of 20,000 fps in good lighting conditions and recorded the whole event, cross-checking the data obtained with other sensors. The other three cameras were traditional and recorded the explosions from different positions. The test was divided in three phases (Figure 3 on page 68). During Phase 1, each wheel was mounted on the pendulum weighing 250kg (as wheels had slightly different weights, different counterweights were

used to achieve the desired weight) and tested against 120g of Goma2Eco plastic explosive. During this first phase, the weight was kept to a low value to ensure an appreciable rotational displacement. This allowed researchers to compare wheel performance based on the amount of potential energy transferred. The encoder also recorded the pendulum arms rotational displacements in subsequent tests, when the weight on the pendulum was increased to a realistic value (approximately one-fourth of the tractor weight). During Phase 2, each wheel was mounted on the pendulum weighing 500kg (again, counterweights were employed) and tested first against 120g of TNT and later against 240g of TNT. During Phase 3, only the two wheels that performed best in previous phases were mounted on the tractor and tested, one against 240g of TNT and the other against 120g of Goma2Eco. Only one wheel was supposed to be tested on the tractor during Phase 3; in the field, however, two wheels performed well, and it was decided to investigate both further. Before mounting the wheels on the tractor, the same sensorized flange hosting the tri-axial accelerometer used on the pendulum was mounted on the tractor hub. Charges (Figure 4) were prepared in the field by filling plastic containers ranging 35mm90mm in diameter with the explosive required by the test phase. No covers were used, but, in the case of TNT, when containers were filled with TNT powder, Duct tape was used to secure some fabric firmly on top of the pressed powder. In order to increase reproducibility, a hole was dug under the pendulum arm, and a thermalite block (Figure 5 above) filled in the hole above and around the charge, closing the gap between the wheel and the charge. After each test, the thermalite block was replaced with a new one. Two small wood pieces held the wheel on the thermalite block at the required distance of 20mm from the top of the explosive. Charges were actuated by an electric detonator initiated remotely. After each explosion, each wheel was rotated in order to face the charge with a different part not yet deformed by previous explosions.
Results

Mechanical integrity. Wheels were evaluated primarily on the basis of their ability to retain mechanical integrity after three consecutive blasts, with 120g of Goma2Eco, 120g of TNT and 240g of TNT respectively. Mechanical integrity was assessed in terms of: Loss of any wheel parts (including tread) Splitting or separation of material between welds Cracking or separation of welds Permanent deformation of steel parts Damage to rubber parts

68

research and development | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | research and development

69

Figure 6. Resultsmechanical integrity.

Figure 7. Resultspotential energy transferred.

As similar damage could be identified for each wheel, we assigned points to each particular impact and scored wheels on the basis of the sum of marks obtained. Wheels scoring fewer points were considered the best (Figure 6 above). For a clearer picture, Figure 6 sums up points scored by each wheel in all the three tests. In the case of a wheel also tested on the tractor, we took the worst point obtained between the pendulum and the tractor. Two wheels passed Phase 2 and therefore were also tested on the tractor during Phase 3. These are EPR and Genoa. EPR was tested twice morefirst against 120g of TNT and then against 240g of TNT. Genoa was tested only once more against the remaining charge, containing 120g of Goma2Eco plastic explosive. From the point of view of deformation, EPR would be the best if it would not ovalize. The ovalization is particularly bad, because it cannot be fixed in a workshop. Therefore, the best wheel turns out to be All Steel, as it is less deformed. Next comes Genoa and then Florida, which is the only wheel presenting separation of material. It has to be considered that EPR is 10mm thick while all the others are 4mm thick. All wheels survived at least three explosions without compromising their ability to turn. One survived two more explosions, becoming very ovalized, and one survived one more explosion but retained its ability to turn. Therefore, from the point of view of retaining mechanical integrity, all designs are promising and are worth investigating further. Energy transferred. The second criterion used to evaluate wheel performance was the energy transferred. Energy was measured by two different means: by the encoder placed in the revolute joint between the pendulum arm and the pendulum basis, and by the accelerometer placed within a flange mounted between the wheel and the hub on the pendulum as well as on the tractor. The encoder measured the potential energy transferred from each wheel to the pendulum by measuring the pendulum arms maximum rotational displacement. Figure 7 (above, right) reports the maximum rotational displacement per wheel per explosion. To have a clearer and more global picture, Figure 7 sums up the maximum encoder values scored by each wheel in all the three tests. From this analysis, it can be said that Genoa transmits less potential energy than the other wheels. Acceleration of a body is always proportional to the force applied to it. Therefore, by looking at the acceleration of the flange between the

Figure 8. Resultstotal RMS value of acceleration.

Figure 9. Components of RMS values of acceleration along in x,y plane and z axis.

wheel and the pendulum or the tractor hub, wheels could be compared on the basis of their ability to reduce force transmitted to the tractor. By processing data recorded by the accelerometer filtered at 500Hz (because frequencies higher than this value are not considered to cause mechanical vibrations), the root mean square values of acceleration (a sort of average value of the acceleration over time) for each wheel and for each explosive type and quantity was obtained (Figure 8 above). To have a clearer picture, the RMS values of acceleration for the same wheel in each of the three explosions, except for the explosions on the tractor, were summed up. By examining the wheels behavior in each of the three explosions, it can be said that in the case of 120g of Goma2Eco, EPR transmits less

acceleration than the other wheels, the total RMS value of Genoa is 2% more, of Florida is 23% more and of All Steel 46% more. In the case of 120g of TNT, Florida performs best, with the total RMS value of EPR being 5% more, of Genoa 15% more and of All Steel almost 600% more. In the case of 240g of TNT, Genoa performs best, with EPRs total RMS value being 10% more, of Florida 31% and of All Steel 88% more. Generally, Genoa transmits less acceleration than the other wheel, although the total RMS value is very similar to that of EPR. Additional results. By observing the encoder values, All Steel wheel performs quite well at transmitting little potential energy to the pendulum, being the second best wheel after Genoa. Because the design of All Steel maximizes venting to the detriment of shock

dumping, a first general result learned is that ventilation helps reduce potential energy transfer. When examining the total RMS acceleration values, Genoa performs better against higher quantities of explosive. As Genoa embeds a solid rubber tire, it dissipates energy by hysteresis cycles of the rubber, and a higher quantity of explosive actuates more rubber. Therefore, a second general result is that, in the case of a blast-resistant wheel embedding a solid rubber tire, the more and the softer the rubber, the better. Moreover, when looking at the total RMS acceleration values obtained during the tests on the tractor (available only for EPR and Genoa), while the two values of RMS for Genoa on the tractor and on the pendulum are comparable, they are very different for EPR, with the result on the tractor worse than on the pendulum. This disparity might be because EPRs large inflatable tire works as a set of radial springs connecting the wheels hub to the outer rim; this helps absorb acceleration on the vertical plane but cannot help absorb acceleration on the horizontal plane. When the wheel is mounted on the tractor and it is constrained to no longer move vertically along the wheel plane like in the pendulum but in a more complex way sideways and upwards, its capability to absorb acceleration is even more reduced on the horizontal plane. Due to the rubbers viscosity inside, Genoa works better at absorbing acceleration along the horizontal plane. Figure 9 (left) offers confirmation of this, showing RMS values divided in two components: acceleration in the vertical plane (x, y) and acceleration in the horizontal plane (z). The accelerations z component recorded by the accelerometer when an inflatable wheel was tested is much higher than the vertical-plane component. However, when Genoa was tested, the z component is comparable with the vertical-plane component. When tested on the tractor, the difference between the z component and planar acceleration components increases in the case of EPR with the inflatable tire. In the case of Genoa, the z component reduces to a value lower than the component on the vertical plane. Therefore, a third general result is that, as blast-resistant wheels must be mounted on a vehicle, wheels embedding solid rubber tires work better at dissipating energy associated with an explosion than wheels embedding inflatable tires. Figure 9 illustrates another important fact: the presence in all cases of a very high acceleration component along the accelerometers z-axis. This is unexpected since, when thinking about wheel design, focus on acceleration occurring along the x,y plane is common, even though, according to our study, the highest acceleration often occurs along the wheel axis. This result can be understood by examining the area of the surfaces exposed to explosions (Figure 10, next page). In the case of the x and y axes, the area exposed to explosions, the wheel plane and the surface perpendicular to it (highlighted in blue in Figure 10), is small, limited to the wheel footprint on the soil over the landmine. Therefore, as the acceleration is proportional to the force and the force to the surface it is applied to, multiplied by the pressure, the smaller the surface, the less the acceleration. Instead, looking at the wheel sideways (perpendicularly to the z-axis), the surface of the wheel is large (highlighted in red in Figure 10). Because this surface is large and because the geometry of the wheel and the relative position of the landmine and the wheel are never symmetrical, the acceleration on the z-axis is high. Therefore, a fourth general result is that, when developing wheels to dissipate the shock wave associated with an explosion, it is worth concentrating on acceleration dissipation along the z-axis, i.e., the wheel axis.
Conclusion

The main reason for this test was to choose which wheel out of four proposed designs was the best to mount on the LOCOSTRA. A large amount of data was recorded during the test, allowing for much analyzing and deep study.

70

research and development | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | research and development

71

Figure 10. Wheel surfaces hit by the blast wave. Blue is the surface perpendicular to x, y plane, red is the surface perpendicular to z axis.

Figure 11. Genoa wheel after the fourth explosion. Only this last test was done on the tractor.

Figure 12. Frames taken by the high speed camera during the explosion of 120g of TNT under Florida wheel. The upper part of the wheel moved 73mm upwards in 1/50s while the axis did not move.

After a long data processing period, analysis and ordering to achieve consistent results, the Genoa wheel was adopted (Figure 11, previous page). The main reason behind this choice is the wheels behavior when tested on the tractor. In fact, although when tested on the pendulum, EPRs performance is comparable to that of Genoa; when tested on the tractor, EPRs capability to dump the negative effects of blast waves generally decreases. Some important general considerations can be drawn from the tests and could be used in the future to approach new research into blast-resistant wheels. 1. Predictably, the wheel entirely made of steel has little deformation and transmits little potential energy (probably due to good venting), but transmits very high accelerations. 2. Some means of dumping the force transmitted by the wheel along the z axis should be considered. 3. Inflatable inner wheels work well to absorb acceleration when they are free to move upward and downward (Figure 12, previous page); their ability to absorb acceleration worsens significantly when their movement is constrained differently, i.e., when they are mounted on a four-wheel vehicle with a central torsional joint. 4. All wheels are made out of tank heads, drilled and adapted to host the inner wheel. It would be more sustainable to use flat surfaces, i.e., standard steel profiles, which are widely available. 5. Using an inflatable 4WD vehicle tire as the inner wheel for the EPR is a sound idea, because these tires are widely available. 6. The best blast-resistant wheel, on the basis of this tests experience, is a wheel with a large, soft, rubber inner wheel, embedded into an outer rigid structure made of steel presenting the maximum possible number of holes to allow venting. In order to profit from lessons learned from the tests, the Genoa wheels design will be slightly modified by employing flat surfaces instead of tank heads. Moreover using slightly thicker steel6mm instead of 4mmwill allow fewer deformations. By keeping the same principle of having the solid rubber inner wheel and the steel outer part, similar results are expected. A test on the same pendulum used on the first wheel produced will confirm that the new wheel design has the same behavior as the original Genoa design. The new test will take place in November 2010. See endnotes page 82

Acknowledgments: These tests could have not taken place without the funding made available by the Italian Ministry of Economic Development, the Italian Institute of Foreign Trade and the Department of Mechanics and Machine Design of the University of Genoa, nor without the presence of every person who decided to join us and give us their time, not only in the quarry during the testing, but also at later events: Andy Vian Smith, Ed Pennington Ridge, Chris Chellingsworth, Danilo Coppe, Cristina Pomponi, Maresciallo Bello Fiorello, Gianni Polentes, Andreina Polentes, Gil Emantaev, Francesca Bagnoli and Paolone Barigelli Calcari. For their technical contributions, we would like to particularly thank Andy Vian Smith, Ed Pennington Ridge and Gil Emantaev.

Matteo Zoppi is a researcher in the Department Mechanics and Machine Design at the University of Genoa, PMARlab Robotics Group. He researches development, design, fabrication, and testing of mechatronics and robotics systems for industrial and service applications, application-oriented synthesis and design, and methods for analysisin particular kinematics and singularity analysis, and design of micro-electrical mechanical systems. Matteo Zoppi, Ph.D. Researcher PMAR Lab, DIMEC, University of Genova Via allOpera Pia 15/A 16145 Genova / Italy Tel: + 0039 010 353 2837 Fax: + 0039 010 353 2298 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.dimec.unige.it/pmar/

Emanuela Elisa Cepolina completed her doctorate in mechanical engineering in 2008. She has been researching technologies for humanitarian demining since 2003first at the University of Genova, and recently as president of the nonprofit association Snail AidTechnology for Development. Emanuela Elisa Cepolina, Ph.D. President Snail Aid Technology for Development Via Cabella 10/12 16122 Genova / Italy Tel: + 0039 333 165 5089 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.snailaid.org

Vittorio Belotti is a technical researcher in the Department Mechanics and Machine Design of the University of Genoa, PMARlab Robotics Group. He researches design and development of measuring systems and instrumentation with a focus on field applications, special machine automation, signal processing and embedded and distributed measuring and automation systems. Vittorio Belotti, Ph.D. Technical Researcher PMAR Lab, DIMEC, University of Genova Via allOpera Pia 15/A 16145 Genova / Italy Tel: + 0039 010 353 2235 Fax: + 0039 010 353 2834 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.dimec.unige.it/pmar/

72

research and development | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | research and development

73

SCAMP Anti-personnel Mine Roller Performance Testing

Humanistic Robotics Inc, a U.S.-based designer and manufacturer of mechanical demining machines and roboticsupport equipment, hypothesized that a well-designed roller utilized in the appropriate environments would be an important part of the mechanical demining toolkit. To test this hypothesis, HRI designed, developed and tested a novel anti-personnel mine rollerthe Specialized Compact Automated Mechanical Clearance Platform Roller. This article highlights the SCAMP Rollers unique design features, describes two testing events performed to evaluate effectiveness and discusses the test findings.
Image 2. SCAMP Roller with Bobcat T-250 prime mover. by Erik de Brun and Scott Poff [ Consultants to Humanistic Robotics Inc. ]

he use of mechanical demining equipment has greatly benefited humanitarian-demining operations worldwide. One machine type, the mine roller, has several key advantages when compared to other mechanical demining equipment. Because rollers are simple to operate, easy to maintain and have few consumable parts, they have low initial costs and operating expenses. Despite their advantages in humanitarian-demining operations, rollers are not as widely used as other mechanical equipment, such as flails and tillers. Because roller testing is, to date, either ad hoc or limited mostly to surface-buried mines, the capabilities and limitations of rollers are not widely known.1 This has led to a generally held belief in the humanitarian community that roller performance is suboptimal; consequently, roller development, testing and use has remained stagnant and limited. Because of the advantages mine rollers offer and the variety of conditions in which demining operations occur (many of which are appropriate for rollers), HRI developed a novel AP mine rollerthe Specialized Compact Automated Mechanical Clearance Platform Roller. As part of the development process, HRI studied existing mine rollers and researched the key characteristics governing mine-roller effectiveness. To properly evaluate the SCAMP Rollers clearance performance, a series of formal tests were conducted at the Keweenaw Research Center in Houghton, Michigan (U.S.) and the Swedish EOD and Demining Centre (SWEDEC) near Eksj, Sweden. The key parameters evaluated were mine type, soil conditions, compaction level above and around the mine, and roller speed.

the mine was then compacted to the desired level. During each test run, a prime mover pushed the roller down the test lane at a predetermined constant speed. After the roller was clear of the lane, the mine detonation results were recorded. If one-time test mines were used, they were carefully dug up and inspected to check detonation status. The test lane was then reconditioned prior to reburying any of the test mines.
KRC Testing Effort

Test mines. Inert reproductions of the Chinese Type 72A, Russian PMN-1 and PMN-2 were utilized for testing. The Type 72A and PMN-1 contain internal trigger mechanisms that change state when a detonation occurs; they needed resetting after each test run. KRC provided the PMN-2 simulant (SIM) test mines. The SIMs measure pressure plate deflection in real time, which allows for multiple test runs without needing to reset targets or recondition the test lane. Conditions. One of the main goals of performance testing is determining how a machine will perform in real-world environments. Since mines are found in a variety of conditions (different soil types and surrounding compaction level), testing needs to account for this. To accomplish this, SCAMP Roller testing was conducted in various representative soils, and the compaction level above and around the mine was varied to simulate both recently emplaced and legacy mine conditions. Soil types. Three different test lanes, with dimensions 4.88-meters wide by 35-meters long, were utilized, each containing a different type of soil. The soil types were based on the standard test soils described in the CEN Workshop Agreement 15044:2004. 2 The soil types used were: screened topsoil (similar consistency to planting soil), silt/gravel mixture (a low-moisture, silt-gravel soil) and 22A road gravel (common gravel used for road construction).

Test equipment. A 2-meters wide version of the SCAMP Roller pushed by a Bobcat T-250 skid steer loader was utilized for the majority of testing. For the high-speed testing, a high-mobility multipurpose wheeled vehicle prime mover was utilized.

Image 1. HRIs SCAMP Roller.

All photos courtesy of the authors.

two rows with a specifically set overlap between the front and rear roller wheels to ensure that the ground-force profile is constant across the rollers width. The modular, bolted construction of the SCAMP Roller frame also provides a level of flexibility in applying the tool to different mined environments. The roller width and/or target ground force can be set to best suit the mission based on user observations of mine type, soil conditions, mine depth, etc.
Materials and Methods

Image 6. KRC test lanes.

SCAMP Roller Description

Roller systems detonate landmines by applying enough force to the ground to trigger the mine. To be an effective tool, a roller must ensure that this force is applied evenly across its full width and is always above a predetermined threshold that is dependent on mine type, depth and ground conditions. To maintain an evenly distributed threshold ground force, the SCAMP Roller has a variable ballast system fixed above a set of independently suspended roller wheels. Each suspension element uses a purpose-built coil spring with a starting force and spring constant specifically tailored to provide relatively constant ground force throughout each roller wheels vertical travel range. This ensures a minimum ground-force threshold is maintained for each roller wheel during all operations. The roller wheels themselves are aggressively textured paddle-wheel type rollers that effectively transmit force to the ground while maximizing blast ventilation. The roller wheel width, paddle spacing and contact surface area ensure that force is translated to even the smallest AP-mine trigger mechanisms. The roller wheels are arranged in

During the clearance performance testing at KRC and SWEDEC, the SCAMP Roller was driven at 1.7, 4.0, 7.7 and 15.0 km/hr over a number of test mines (Type 72A, PMN-1, PMN-2 and M/49) buried at multiple depths (surface, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10.0 cm). Multiple soil conditions (topsoil, gravel and silt/gravel mix), as defined by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) Workshop Agreement 15044:2004 were tested.2 For the topsoil and silt/gravel mix conditions, the compaction level of the soil surrounding each mine was varied.
Test Procedure

A test lane was set aside in each soil condition by marking the outside edges and centerline. Each lane was conditioned by tilling the soil, adding moisture if necessary, and compacting until the desired level was achieved. The lane was divided into equal sections along its lengthone section for each test mine. The mines were buried in the lane at the desired depth, and if they were placed below surface level, they were covered with overburden. The mines depth was measured from the top of the pressure plate to ground level. If required, the soil above and around

Mine-emplacement technique. During the development of the SCAMP Roller, it became clear that the compaction level of the soil surrounding a mine had a significant effect on the performance of mechanical demining machines. The soil above and around the mine can be either loosely packed (simulating a recent emplacement), hard compacted (simulating a legacy condition where a mine was left in the ground for a long period of time) or something in between (see Figure 7 on page 76). The compaction level is particularly important when evaluating roller performance because roller mine neutralization is based on transferring force/deflection to a mine pressure plate through the soil. To simulate recent emplacement, mines were buried in accordance with the mineemplacement guidelines in the U.S. Armys FM20-32 Field Manual. 3 To simulate legacy conditions, the test mines were buried in large holes (23 times the mine body diameter), and the soil above and around the mine was aggressively compacted until the compaction level matched the rest of the test lane.
Test Points

Gravel lane: 4 different speeds (1.7, 4.0, 7.7 and 15.0 km/hr) and 2 Topsoil lane: 3 different speeds (1.1, 7.7 and 15.0 km/hr), 3 depths (5.0,
7.5 and 10.0 cm) and 2 mine compaction levels (recent and legacy) depths (2.5 and 5.0 cm)

Image 3 (top). Inert Type 72A test mine. Image 4 (middle). Inert PMN-1 test mine. Image 5 (bottom). KRC PMN-2 SIM test mine.

74

research and development | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | research and development

75

Gravel Lane, Nominal Speed (<7.7 Km/hr)

PMN-2-SIM Depth(cm) 5.0 7.5
Image 9. SWEDEC m/49 test mine.

PMN-1 Hits/Targets 27/27 18/18 Hit% 100 100

Type 72A Hits/Targets 34/37 12/12 Hit% 92 100

Hits/Targets 196/196 160/160

Hit% 100 100

Topsoil Lane, Nominal Speed (<7.7 Km/hr)

PMN-2-SIM Depth(cm) 5.0 7.5 Hits/Targets 180/180 40/40 32/32 Hit% 100 100 100 PMN-1 Hits/Targets 18/18 5/5 3/4 Hit% 100 100 75 Type 72A Hits/Targets 21/21 6/6 5/5 Hit% 100 100 100

Image 7. Simulated recent (top) and legacy (bottom) conditions.

10.0

Silt/Gravel Mix Lane, Nominal Speed (<7.7 Km/hr)

PMN-2-SIM Depth(cm) 5.0
Image 10. SWEDEC test lanes.

PMN-1 Hits/Targets 18/18 5/5 4/4 Hit% 100 100 100

Type 72A Hits/Targets 22/22 6/6 4/5 Hit% 100 100 80

Hits/Targets 170/170 49/49 50/50

Hit% 100 100 100

7.5 10.0

Image 8. SCAMP Roller with a Bobcat T-200 prime mover.

Silt/gravel mix lane: 2 different speeds (1.7 and 7.7 km/hr), 3

depths (5.0, 7.5 and 10.0 cm) and 2 mine compaction levels (recent and legacy)

SWEDEC Testing Effort

Test equipment. A 2-meters-wide version of the SCAMP Roller was pushed by a Bobcat T-200 skid steer loader during the SWEDEC testing event. Test mines. The test targets used in this trial were standard SWEDEC performance test mines. The test mines had live fuzes from the M/49 AP mine installed in inert, plaster-filled plastic bodies. These targets closely replicate many typical, small AP mines. Because the trigger mechanism is extremely small (representative of the smallest common AP-mine triggers) a roller must have complete coverage across its width to contact every mine in the lane.
Conditions

Soil types. Two test lanes, one containing topsoil and the other gravel, based on the standard test soils described in the CEN Workshop Agreement 15044:2004, were used for testing. 2 Mine emplacement technique. All test mines were surface-buried as shown in Image 9 above. Test Points. Gravel and topsoil lanes: speed of approximately 7.7 km/ hr with all mines surface-buried (0.0 cm).
Results

The results from KRC and SWEDEC testing are presented in the tables on page 77. Clearance performance is measured as a percentage of success-

ful detonations versus available targets. For the PMN-2 SIMs, a successful detonation is denoted by any measureable pressure-plate deflection. Results are analyzed for each mine type in the following categories: Performance versus soil type and mine depth Performance versus speed Performance versus mine-emplacement technique Clearance PerformanceVariable Soil Conditions [KRC]. Table 1 shows clearance-performance results for gravel-lane testing. All data from the PMN-2 SIMs indicated successful triggering at the 5.0 cm and 7.5 cm depths (a total of 356 test mines). The same was true for the PMN-1 test mines (a total of 45). For the Type 72As, 34 of 37 targets were triggered at the 5.0 cm depth, while 12 of 12 were triggered at the 7.5 cm depth. For the topsoil lane the results were similar (Table 2). Again, all data from the PMN-2 SIMs indicated successful triggering at each depth (5.0 cm, 7.5 cm and 10.0 cm). A total of 252 PMN-2 SIMs were tested in this lane. All 23 PMN-1 test mines were triggered at the 5.0 and 7.5 cm depths, but only 3 of 4 were triggered at the 10.0 cm depth. With the Type 72As, all test mines were triggered at each depth (5.0, 7.5 and 10.0 cm). A total of 32 Type 72A test mines were used in the topsoil lane. In the silt/gravel mix lane (see Table 3), all PMN-2 SIM data indicated successful triggering at each depth (5.0, 7.5 and 10.0 cm). A total of 269 test mines were used. For the PMN-1s, all 27 mines were triggered. For the Type 72As, all test mines at the 5.0 and 7.5 cm depths were triggered, but only 4 of 5 test mines were triggered at the 10.0 cm depth. When comparing average PMN-2 SIM pressure-plate deflection at different depths for topsoil and silt/gravel mix conditions (see Table 4), the data shows that deflection decreases as the depth increases. To summarize, the roller triggered 100% of the PMN-2 SIMs over all conditions (gravel, topsoil and silt/gravel mix) and depths (5.0, 7.5 and 10.0 cm) for a total of 877 test mines. The roller triggered 100 of 101 PMN1 test mines (99%) over all conditions and depths with one mine at a depth of 10.0 cm in the topsoil lane not triggered. For the Type-72As, the roller

Table 1 (top). Clearance performance (depth versus mine type). Table 2 (middle). Clearance performance (depth versus mine type). Table 3. bottom) Clearance performance (depth versus mine type).

Topsoil & Silt/Gravel Mix Lanes, Nominal Speed (<7.7 Km/hr), Ave PMN-2 Pressure Plate Deection
5.0 cm depth Soil Type Topsoil Silt/Gravel Mix Deection (cm) 0.14 0.11 7.5 cm depth Deection (cm) 0.09 0.07 10.0 cm depth Deection (cm) 0.08 0.06

Topsoil and Gravel, Nominal Speed (<7.7 Km/hr)

M/49 AP mine sim (live fuse) Soil Type Gravel Topsoil Depth (cm) 0.0 0.0 Hits/Targets 48/50 50/50 Hit% 96 100

Table 4. Clearance performance versus depth.

Table 5. Clearance performance: surface-buried mines.

triggered 110 of 114 test mines (96%) over all conditions and depths. The roller failed to trigger three test mines at 5.0 cm depth in the gravel lane, and one test mine buried at 10.0 cm in the silt/gravel mix lane. Clearance PerformanceSurface-Buried Mines [SWEDEC]. During the testing at SWEDEC, the rollers clearance performance was evaluated against surface-buried M/49 mine simulants with live fuzes. As shown in Table 5, in the gravel lane, the roller detonated 48 of 50 test mines. In the topsoil lane, it detonated 50 of 50 test mines. Roller Speed Effects [KRC]. Clearance performance of the roller was measured at multiple speeds (1.7, 7.7 and 15.0 km/hr) in the gravel and topsoil lanes with the test mine depth held constant at 5.0 cm. In the gravel lane (Table 6 on page 78), test-mine trigger percentage was lower at the higher speed for the PMN-2 SIMs (100 triggered out of 110 versus 160 out of 160 at the slower speed) and the Type 72As (6 of 8 triggered versus 12 of 12 at the slower speed). In the topsoil lane (Table 7 on page 78), the results were similar with fewer PMN-2 SIMs and Type 72As triggered at the faster speed. For the PMN-2 SIMs, 88 of 90 test mines were triggered at the faster speed, where as 160 of 160 were triggered at the slow speed. For the Type 72As,

9 of 11 test mines were triggered at the faster speed, and 21 of 21 targets were triggered at the slow speed. As indicated in Table 8 on page 78, in the gravel and topsoil lanes, the average PMN-2 pressure-plate deflection decreases as roller speed increases. Mine-Emplacement Effects [KRC]. In addition to clearance performance, the effect of mine-emplacement technique was also evaluated during the KRC testing effort. Because the PMN-2 SIMs provided continuous output of pressure-plate deflection, it allowed for multiple roller passes at each test condition. Image 11 on page 78 shows the average PMN-2 SIM pressure-plate deflection for test mines in topsoil and silt/gravel mix at a depth of 5.0 cm versus roller pass. This shows that during the initial pass, when the condition is a true recent emplacement, the deflection is greatest. Over the first four roller passes the average deflection decreases by 30% and then levels off for the last four roller passes. To compare a fresh recent emplacement and a heavily compacted legacy emplacement, additional testing was performed at 7.5 and 10.0 cm mine depth in the topsoil and silt/gravel mix (Table on page 78). At

76

research and development | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | research and development

77

Gravel Lane, 5.0 cm Mine Depth

PMN-2-SIM Speed(Km/hr) <7.7 15.0 Hits/Targets 196/196 100/110 Hit% 100 91 PMN-1 Hits/Targets 18/18 7/7 Hit% 100 100 Type 72A Hits/Targets 12/12 6/8 Hit% 100 75

Table 6. Clearance performance versus speed.

Topsoil Lane, 5.0 cm Mine Depth

PMN-2-SIM Speed(Km/hr) <7.7 15.0 Hits/Targets 160/160 88/90 Hit% 100 98 PMN-1 Hits/Targets 18/18 9/9 Hit% 100 100 Type 72A Hits/Targets 21/21 9/11 Hit% 100 82

Table 7. Clearance performance versus speed.

Gravel & Topsoil Lanes, 5.0 cm Mine Depth, Ave PMN-2 Pressure Plate Deection
1.1Km/hr Soil Type Gravel Topsoil Deection(cm) 0.20 0.15 7.7 Km/hr Deection(cm) 0.14 0.15 15.0 Km/hr Deection(cm) 0.07 0.10

Topsoil & Silt/Gravel Mix Lanes, Nominal Speed (<7.7Km/hr), Ave PMN-2 Pressure Plate Deection.
7.5 cm depth Soil Type Topsoil Emplacement Recent Legacy Silt/Gravel Mix Recent Legacy Deection (cm) 0.088 0.039 0.063 0.047 10.0 cm depth Deection (cm) 0.080 0.022 0.071 0.051

page 78 indicates that the average PMN-2 pressure-plate deflection decreases as the roller compacts the soil above and around a mine (emplacement condition moves from recent to legacy). This data confirms that for a given soil, neutralization of legacy-emplaced mines is more challenging than neutralization of recently emplaced mines, and comprehensive roller-performance testing needs to account for legacy simulation. Compaction of the soil surrounding a mine makes it harder for the soil directly above the mine pressure plate to move relative to the surrounding soil. Therefore, higher loads are required to achieve the same deflection. HRIs SCAMP Roller design and subsequent testing efforts have shown that a well-designed roller used in the appropriate environments can consistently detonate recently and legacy-emplaced simulated mines up to a depth of 10.0 cm. If proper evaluation of roller-clearance effectiveness is performed (formal testing that includes legacy mine emplacement), then data can and should be compared with performance of other mechanical demining equipment. See endnotes page 82

Erik de Brun is Principal Engineer and Cofounder of Ripple Design. He is involved in the design, development, testing, and manufacturing of mechanical demining equipment as well as the management of demining operations. Ripple Design served as consultants to HRI in the testing of the SCAMP Roller. Prior to founding Ripple Design, de Brun worked on the development and testing of groundand air-based military systems. He holds an M.S. in mechanical engineering from the University of Pennsylvania and a B.S. in mechanical and aerospace engineering from Princeton University. Erik de Brun Principle Engineer and Co-founder Ripple Design 444 N. 4th Street Philadelphia, PA 19123 / U.S.A. Tel:+1 267 872 5768 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.rippledesign.com/index.php

Scott Poff is Senior Engineer and Program Manager at Ripple Design. He is involved in the design, development, testing, and manufacturing of mechanical demining equipment and management of demining operations. Prior to joining Ripple Design, Poff worked at Westinghouse Nuclear where he supervised critical reactor component removal and replacement efforts at nuclear power sites around the world. He holds a B.S. in mechanical engineering from Carnegie Mellon University. Scott Poff Senior Engineer Ripple Design E-mail: [email protected]

Table 8. Clearance performance versus speed.

Table 9. Clearance performance versus mine-emplacement technique.

Image 11. Average pressure-plage deflection (cm) versus roller pass.

7.5 cm in the topsoil, the average pressure-plate deflection decreased by approximately 55% from the recent to legacy-emplacement condition. At 10.0 cm in the topsoil lane, the decrease was approximately 73%. In the silt/gravel mix, the decrease at 7.5 cm was approximately 25%, and at 10.0 cm it was approximately 28%.
Discussion

Clearance performance. The data collected at KRC and SWEDEC shows that in a variety of soil conditions (topsoil, gravel and silt/gravel mix), the SCAMP Roller can consistently trigger different mine types down to a depth of 10.0 cm. When comparing performance between the different soil conditions, no individual condition appears more challenging than any other. Looking at the mine types tested, the Type 72As and the M/49s were the most difficult targets to trigger. This is not surprising due to the fact that they have very small pressure plates, and large force/deflection is required for activation. The Type 72A in particular was chosen as a test mine because of these characteristics. Even

though the Type 72As and the M/49s are difficult mines to trigger, the data shows that across all depths and soil conditions the SCAMP Roller triggers these mines 97% of the time, thereby demonstrating its precise coverage and ability to transfer high forces deep into the ground. One clear trend is that as mine depth increases, force transfer and average pressure-plate deflection decreases. Table 4 on page 77 clearly shows where the PMN-2 pressure-plate deflection is noticeably lower at the deeper test-mine depths. Further testing in other conditions and at increased mine depths would round out the rollers performance specifications. Speed effects. The majority of testing was performed with the roller speed at or below the nominal 7.7 km/hr. In practice, one would expect the roller to be operated well below this nominal speed. It was desirable to conduct testing at the highest speed where good performance was repeatable to allow for the calculation of a theoretical maximum efficiency of square meters of area cleared per hour. It was also important to test the hypothesis that as speed increases, the clearance performance will drop off. This is illustrated in Table 6 and Table 7 above. where the trigger percentage for the PMN-2 SIMs and the Type 72As drops off at high speed. Table 8 above also shows where the average PMN-2 pressure-plate deflection decreases as the roller speed increases. Emplacement effects. As seen in Table 9 above, the PMN-2 pressure plates average deflection is lower (in some cases significantly) when mine emplacement is set up to match a legacy condition. Image 11 on

The SCAMP Roller development and testing was conducted as part of a contract with the U.S. Army Armaments Research, Development and Engineering Center. Special thanks to all involved in the testing efforts: Geoff Gwaltney and everyone at Michigan Tech KRC, Patrik Blomander, Joakim Engblom and Curt Larsson from SWEDEC, Rich Vanaman and his team from the ARDEC, and Pehr Lodhammar from the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining. Thanks also to Samuel Reeves, Josh Koplin and Justin Dodd from HRI.

Clearing Cluster Bombs on the Ho Chi Minh Trail Video Wins CNN Award

CNN
ted in 2010.

announced

the

video

Clearing Cluster Bombs

on the Ho Chi Minh Trail as winner of the CNN iReport Community Choice Award on 15 March 2011 for best iReport submit-

The four-minute news report compiled by reporter Samantha Bolton and the Cluster Munition Coalition, with help from an independent video-production team, was released in November 2010 at the First Meeting of States Parties to the Convention on Cluster Munitions. Covering Lao PDRs history of contamination, the video provides personal glimpses into the lives of people injured, maimed and affected economically by cluster bombs. Additionally, it highlights the clearance initiatives of governments and international organizations, while addressing the slow demining progress caused by a lack of financial resources and aid needed to remove Laos estimated 80 million remaining unexploded bomblets. To view the video report, visit http://bit.ly/f3wIio. ~Megan Sarian, CISR Staff

78

research and development | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | research and development

79

We Can Only Be Mine-Safe When We Are Mine-Free, Gabelnick [ from page 5 ] 1. ABC Radio Australia, Landmines Unearthed by Floods in Sri Lanka, http://tinyurl.com/64jlpkt. Accessed 27 May 2011. 2. Mine Ban Treaty, Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-personnel Mines and on Their Destruction, http://tinyurl.com/y7w4um. Accessed 27 May 2011. The document was opened for signature in Ottawa, Canada, 3 December 1997, and thus is commonly known as the Ottawa Convention. 3. Statement of Croatia to the Standing Committee on Mine Clearance, Mine Risk Education and Mine Action Technologies, http://tinyurl.com/6zjnfto. Accessed 27 May 2011. 4. Des experts mettent en garde contre le dplacement de mines, http://tinyurl.com/6caaf89. Accessed 27 May 2011. 5. The Guardian, South Korea: Man Dies as Floods Sweep Landmines South, http://tinyurl.com/4867s6y. Accessed 27 May 2011. 6. The Sydney Morning Herald, Pakistan Floods Increase Landmine Risk, http://tinyurl.com/3zycjzj. Accessed 27 May 2011. 7. International Campaign to Ban Landmines, Statement to the Standing Committee on Mine Clearance, Mine Risk Education and Mine Action Technologies, http://tinyurl.com/3nmzl5q. Accessed 27 May 2011. 8. E-mail from the U.K. Ministry of Defence to Richard Moyes, Action on Armed Conflict, 16 February 2009. Request for information under the U.K. Freedom of Information Act 2000. 9. AP Mine Ban Convention, Geneva Progress Report: 7th Meeting of the States Parties to the Antipersonnel Mine Ban Convention, http://tinyurl.com/6ldfhr3. Accessed 27 May 2011. 10. Cartagena Summit, Review of the Operation and Status of the Convention 20052009, http://tinyurl.com/3okrcxx. Accessed 27 May 2011. 11. International Campaign to Ban Landmines, Landmine Monitor Report 2009: Toward a Mine-Free World, http://tinyurl. com/4czxges. Accessed 27 May 2011. Paved with Good Intentions: The Realities of Safe Versus Free, Hess [ from page 8 ] 1. Scoping Study on the Effects of Aging on Landmines. 2009. Center for International Stabilization and Recovery. http://bit.ly/mrodCx. Accessed 20 May 2011. Survivor Heroes Heal Lives and Landscapes Throughout the World, Rutherford [ from page 13 ] 1. A note on vocabulary: The word victim refers to someone who is the object of abuse, and as such implies helplessness. It is correct to use victim when discussing someone who is injured by a landmine, but not someone who is in the process of recovering, since we do not consider that person to be helpless. I have made appropriate corrections in this article, but you should make note of this in the future. Victim assistance is a standard term that also refers to survivor assistance. 2. Peer support has been shown to promote psychological recovery. It is cost-effective and requires little training. It is also a good option for survivors living in a resource-scarce setting, such as a conflict-affected community. Finally, peer support benefits both the giver and the receiver. 3. For further information regarding the positive effects of peer support, please see the article: Peer Support and Recovery from Limb Loss in Post-Conflict Settings by Cameron Macauley, Marcia Townsend and Brent Maxwell in this issue of The Journal of ERW and Mine Action (Issue 15.2, Summer 2011). 4. Email conversation with Adnan Al Aboudi. 16 March 2011. 5. Email conversation with Nguyen Thi Kim Hoa. 17 March 2011. 6. Email conversation with Jess Martnez. 18 March 2011.
80 endnotes | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

Peer Support and Recovery from Limb Loss in Post-conflict Settings, Macauley, Townsend, Freeman and Maxwell [ from page 17 ] 1. This data was selected from a presentation by Melissa Freeman at the American Public Health Association 136th Annual Conference, 8 November 2010, titled: Effectiveness of Peer Support on Limb-Loss Survivor Recovery and Empowerment in Post-Conflict Settings. American Public Health Association. http://bit.ly/ hEimgq. Accessed 13 January 2011. Melissa Freeman and Brent Maxwell prepared all charts and graphs. 2. McHorney, C.A., J.E. Ware Jr. and A.E. Raczek. "The MOS 36Item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36): II. Psychometric and clinical tests of validity in measuring physical and mental health constructs." Medical Care 31(3): 247-63. PubMed.gov. http://bit.ly/ gbLaWY. Accessed 13 January 2011. 3. Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-personnel Mines and on Their Destruction, Oslo, Norway. 18 September 1997. See: http://bit.ly/17Dh9M. Article 6 of the Convention requires that each State Party in a position to do so shall provide assistance for the care and rehabilitation, and social and economic reintegration of mine victims... See also Mine Action: Lessons and Challenges. Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining, 2005. http://bit.ly/ dEu54l. Accessed 13 January 2011. 4. Tolliver, Whitney. Landmine Survivors Network Victim Assistance Programs. Journal of Mine Action, Issue 6.3 (December 2002: 43). http://bit.ly/dTH6tq. Accessed 13 January 2011. 5. Richie, Beth Sperber, Ph.D., Angela Ferguson, Ph.D., Zahabia Adamaly, Dalia El-Khoury and Maria Gomez, Ph.D. Paths to Recovery: Coordinated and Comprehensive Care for Landmine Survivors. Journal of Mine Action, Issue 6.3 (December 2002: 6669). http://bit.ly/hJkD3J. Accessed 13 January 2011. 6. Richie, Beth Sperber, Ph.D., Angela Ferguson, Ph.D., Zahabia Adamaly, Dalia El-Khoury and Maria Gomez, Ph.D. Resilience in Survivors of Traumatic Limb Loss. Disability Studies Quarterly, Volume 23 (Spring 2003, No.2). http://bit.ly/ej3QCZ. Accessed 13 January 2011. 7. Ferguson, A.D., B.S. Richie and M.J. Gomez Psychological factors after traumatic amputation in landmine survivors: The bridge between physical healing and full recovery. Disability & Rehabilitation, 2004; 26(14), p. 934. http://bit.ly/dEaJWW. Accessed 21 January 2011. 8. The Role of Mine Action in Victim Assistance. Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining, Geneva: 2002, p. 60. 9. Williams, Jody, Stephen D. Goose and Mary Wareham. Banning Landmines: Disarmament, Citizen Diplomacy, and Human Security: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 20 March 2008, p. 153. Gambling Life and Limb: Humanitarian Hazards, Williamson [ from page 26 ] 1. My Friend, Joao Silva, Best War Photographer in the World. The Daily Maverick. 25 October 2010. http://bit.ly/a0m2Z1. Accessed 3 April 2011. 2. Gall, Carlotta. Original Headline: A Footstep, Then an Explosion and an Urgent Call: Medic! International News Safety Institute. 1 December 2010. http://bit.ly/fZ2efM. Accessed 3 April 2011. 3. Dunlap, David W. Jao Silvas First Steps to Recovery. The New York Times, Lens. 8 February 2011. Accessed 7 July 2011. http:// nyti.ms/gbeY3F. 4. Filkins, Dexter. Times Photographer Wounded by an Afghan Mine. The New York Times. 23 October 2010. http://nyti. ms/91IOBU. Accessed 3 April 2011. 5. The book was later turned into a movie of the same name directed by Steven Silver that debuted in 2010 at the Toronto International Film Festival.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

20. 21. 22. 23.

Marinovich, Greg. Joao Silva. 24 October 2010. http://bit.ly/ diobOr. Accessed 3 April 2011. Jivers, C. J. British Photographer Is Wounded in Afghanistan. The New York Times. 11 February 2011. http://nyti.ms/hlcuOH. Accessed 6 April 2011. Quinn, Ben. British Photographer Giles Duley Injured in Afghanistan. Guardian.co.uk. 11 February 2011. http://bit.ly/ gQDYy8. Accessed 6 April 2011. Photographers Pledge to Return to Work After Triple Amputation. Hastings Observer. 28 June 2011. http://bit.ly/m6Djpy. Accessed 28 June 2011. Chivers, C.J. Restrepo Director and a Photographer Are Killed in Libya. The New York Times. 20 April 2011. http://nyti.ms/ffmTWq. Accessed 25 April 2011. Libyan Government Sad About Photographer Deaths. BBC. 21 April 2011. http://bbc.in/hGTXRO. Accessed 25 April 2011. Ali Hassan al-Jaber. Committee to Protect Journalists. 13 March 2011. http://bit.ly/dEBqaR. Accessed 25 April 2011. Mohammad al-Nabbous. Committee to Protect Journalists. 19 March 2011. http://bit.ly/fn62bh. Accessed 25 April 2011. Afghanistan Aid Worker Danger. WIBW. 20 October 2010. http://bit.ly/i2pyNB. Accessed 3 April 2011. Norton-Taylor, Richard. Military Priorities Distorted Aid Efforts. Dawn.com. 11 February 2011. http://bit.ly/i7MlJh. Accessed 3 April 2011. Dangerous Aid in Afghanistan. Medecins Sans Frontieres. 12 January 2011. http://bit.ly/fjZkdT. Accessed 3 April 2011. Somerville, Heather. Aid Workers Pay High Price for USAID Policy in Afghanistan. Security Zone. 15 August 2010. http://bit. ly/ih9GUD. Accessed 3 April 2011. Nordland, Rod. Gunmen Kill Medical Aid Workers in Afghanistan. The New York Times. 7 August 2010. http://nyti.ms/b3SAch. Accessed 11 April 2011. McShane, Larry. Mission of Mercy Turns into Slaughter as 10 Aid Workers Shot and Killed for Spying on Taliban. NY Daily News. 7 August 2010. http://bit.ly/dLUMSI. Accessed 11 April 2011. Fick, Maggie. Humanitarian Workers Targeted by Soldiers in Southern Sudan. Huffington Impact. 31 August 2010. http://huff. to/a84Jvl. Accessed 11 April 2011. Sudan: Top UN Humanitarian Official Deplores Harassment of Aid Workers in South. UN News Centre. 5 November 2010. http://bit.ly/g5wCci. Accessed 11 April 2011. "Journalists and Humanitarian Workers at Risk in War-Ravaged Somalia. Amnesty International. 6 January 2009. http://bit.ly/ fWHd9e. Accessed 11 April 2011. AFGHANISTAN: Deminers in the Firing Line. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis. 18 January 2011. http://bit.ly/hsTGYl. Accessed 15 April 2011.

5. 6. 7.

on one mine and falling onto another. A frequent example is the inclusion in accident reports of photographs showing expatriate supervisors inside the mined area while work is being conducted who are not wearing the required PPE. There are also several examples of recent expatriate fatalities in which PPE was not used and the group's SOPs were being broken DDAS Accident Report. DDAS Online. http://bit.ly/jtUdoE. Accessed 18 May 2011. The definition of cheap PPE is a cost of less than US$500 for body protection and less than $100 for full-face visors. Technical Note 10.10/02 Safety Notes General. IMAS. http://bit. ly/gVyhpm. Accessed 22 April 2011.

Land-release Information Management: Advocating for a Collaborative Approach, Martinez and Ericksson [ from page 36 ] 1. Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining. A Guide to Land Release: Technical Methods. 2011. http://bit.ly/ jwILl7. Accessed 21 June 2011. 2. This might include additional survey planning for each sector. 3. Person, Ron. Balanced Scorecards & Operational Dashboards with Microsoft Excel. Wiley Publishing, Inc., 2009, p. xxi. 4. The configuration includes data-entry form creation, cartography and country gazetteer, map representation of items, and report templates. Additional changes can be incorporated at any time. However, it is advisable that the main structure be defined as early as possible, then tested and adjusted if necessary. References 1. International Mine Action Standards 8.20 Land Release 2. International Mine Action Standards 8.21 Non Technical survey 3. International Mine Action Standards 8.22 Technical survey 4. A Guide to Land Release: non-technical methods, GICHD, 2008. 5. Performance Dashboards: Measuring, Monitoring, and Managing Your Business, Wayne W. Eckerson, Wiley Publishing, Inc., 2005. 6. Clearing Areas Right: Clearing the Right Areas. Bach, Hvard. Journal of Mine Action, Issue 13.2, August 2009. News Brief, Yancheva [ from page 40 ] 1. Chivers, C.J. Gaddafi Troops Fire Cluster Bombs into Civilian Areas. The New York Times, 15 April 2011. http://nyti.ms/ ewonJ0. Accessed 17 June 2011. 2. Human Rights Watch. Libya: Cluster Munitions Strike Misrata. 17 June 2011. http://bit.ly/eLKOJA. Accessed 18 April 2011. 3. Sherwood, Harriet. Libya: Gaddafi forces using cluster bombs in Misrata. 15 April 2011. http://bit.ly/hxQLg8. Accessed 17 June 2011. The Bosnia and Herzegovina Mine Action Information System, Grujic [ from page 41 ] 1. Annex 1A: Agreement on the Military Aspects of the Peace Settlement, U.S. Department of State. United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina. http://1.usa.gov/fWIyhQ. Accessed 21 March 2011. 2. 42 Engineer Regiment. Ministry of Defense. http://bit.ly/gj1fcr. Accessed 22 April 2011. 3. Bosnia and Herzegovina, UNMIBH Mandate. United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina. http://bit.ly/i7H3hQ. Accessed 21 March 2011. 4. Bosnia and Herzegovina Mine Action Center. http://bit.ly/gABDXJ. Accessed 24 March 2011. Study of ERW Accidents in Quang Tri Province, Vietnam, Phung and Nam, [ from page 50 ] 1. Contamination situation, Technology Centre for Bomb & Mine
15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | endnotes 81

The Database of Demining Accidents: A Driving Force in HMA, Smith [ from page 30 ] 1. The Database of Demining Accidents: A Driving Force in HMA IMAS 08.20 Land Release. IMAS. http://bit.ly/fcklqi. Accessed 22 April 2011. 2. Technical Note 10.20-02/09 Field Risk Assessment (FRA). IMAS. http://bit.ly/gQRtVs. Accessed 22 April 2011. 3. MIT Design for Demining Spring 2007. http://bit.ly/hRYCAF. Accessed 28 Feb 2011. 4. Evidence of this recurs within the database records when basic rules of minefield safety are not applied despite the presence of an expatriate on site. For example, in accident DDAS468 no interior mined-area marking was used to delineate the division between cleared and uncleared areas in a dense minefield: A deminer was killed when inadvertently entering the uncleared area, stepping

2. 3. 4.

Disposal, http://bit.ly/iiqd83. Accessed 20 April 2011. Poverty and inequality in Vietnam: Spatial patterns and geographic determinants, International Food Policy Research Institute, 2003. http://bit.ly/fzKqwu. Accessed 20 April 2011. Phung, T.K. Research on Activities of Prehospital Trauma Care, Journal of Medical Research, Volume 67, No. 2, Hanoi Medical University 4/2010. Vietnam Development Report 2004, World Bank, 2004. http://bit. ly/eViwcr. Accessed 20 April 2011.

Directory of Online-only Articles Focus:

VA for Mine/ERW Victims and PWDs in Sudan by Boutros Hobeika New Prosthetics Offer Hope in Sudan by Mohammed Ismail Victim Assistance in Peru by Theresa Kane Landmine Survivor: Daniel Yuval by Julia Mitchell Victim Assistance and Inclusive Livelihoods by Wanda Munoz Landmine Victim or Landmine Survivor: What is in a Name? by Melanie Reimer and Teresa Broers

Community Safety in Somalia, Jakobsen [ from page 54 ] 1. 2011 UNHCR country operations profile: Somalia. The UN Refugee Agency. http://tinyurl.com/2eef3uz. Accessed 11 April 2011. Land Rights in Mine-affected Countries, Unruh, Chaizy and Naidoo [ from page 57 ] 1. Landmines and Land Rights in Conflict Affected Contexts. GICHD, December 2010. This article is based on GICHDs policy brief on landmines and land rights in conflict-affected contexts, which was drafted by Professor Jon Unruh, land-tenure expert from McGill University (Canada) with assistance from Alexandre Corriveau-Bourque, McGill University and GICHDs Strategic Management Section. http://bit.ly/i48Z4Y. Accessed 2 March 2011. 2. Landmines and Land Rights in Southern Sudan.GICHD. November 2010. Accessed 27 June 2011. http://bit.ly/meezGo. 3. Landmines and Land Rights in Sri Lanka.GICHD. August 2010. Accessed 27 June 2011. http://bit.ly/jvAPQJ. 4. Landmines and Land Rights in Conflict Affected Contexts. GICHD. December 2010. Accessed 27 June 2011. http://bit.ly/jLggEn 5. Organizations, such as the International Organisation for Migration, the Norwegian Refugee Council, UN-HABITAT, the World Bank, the Centre on Housing Rights and Eviction, and others, work on land-related matters. See the following link for contact information: Landmines and Land Rights in Conflict-Affected Contexts: List of organizations to contact. GICHD. http://bit.ly/ f4wzLV. Accessed 2 March 2011. Toward LOCOSTRA: Blast-Resistant Wheels Test, Cepolina, Zoppi and Belotti [ from page 67 ] 1. Conversion as of 21 March 2011. 2. Africas smallholder farmers, African Smallholder Farmers Group (ASFG), 7 July 2010. 3. Cepolina, E.E. and M. Zoppi, Could Agricultural Machines Make a Country Impact Free by 2010? Journal of ERW and Mine Action. Issue 13.2, pp. 4752. August 2009. 4. Snail Aid: Technology for Development. Snail Aid. Posted 30 December 2008. http://bit.ly/g2mSbn. Accessed 13 January 2011. SCAMP Anti-Personnel Mine Roller Performance Testing, de Brun Poff [ from page 74 ] 1. Institute for Defense Analyses (2005). MANTIS Proof of Perfor-

Feature:
Security Threats to Afghan Deminers by Meghan Wallace

Special Report
Strategic Planning and Information Management in Angola by Charles Downs Information Management Activities at GICHD by Daniel Eriksson Information Quality Management in Mine Action by Armen Harutyunyan Mapping Populations at Risk of ERW by Pierre Lacroix, Jonas Herzog, and Daniel Eriksson

Advantage
The Center for International Stabilization and Recoverys specialists want to help you whenever you need post-conict training. As leading training providers to the global humanitarian community, we plan, develop, facilitate and deliver custom mine-action and postconflict training in the United States and abroad. We bring together subject-matter experts from around the world and James Madison Universitys internationally recognized professors to deliver specialized training to fit your needs. Working with global partners like the the U.N., GICHD, ITF, the OAS and other organizations, and supported by the U.S. Departments of State and Defense and the U.N., CISR delivers outstanding custom training courses of various lengths and class sizes. With more than a decade of experience delivering high-quality management training, bringing trainees together with thought leaders and practitioners from around the globe, CISR stands ready to work with you on your training needs.

Get the

Notes from the Field

Tucker's Story: DCA's Trustworthy Man in the Field by Tamar Szeps-Znaider Online at http://cisr.jmu.edu/journal/15.2/index.htm

2.

3.

mance Test Report. (pg. 13). http://www.itep.ws/pdf/MANTISreport.pdf. Accessed 27 May 2011. European Committee for Standardization (2004). CEN Workshop Agreement, CWA 15044:2004, Test and evaluation of demining machines. (Section 2.2, pg. 10). http://bit.ly/klyPNx. Accessed 22 June 2011. Department of the Army (2002). US Army Field Manual: FM 2032 C3 Mine/Countermine Operations. (Appendix A).

CISR Will Give You the Advantage!

Kenneth R. Rutherford, Ph.D., Director Center for International Stabilization and Recovery 800 South Main Street, MSC 4902 Harrisonburg, VA 22807 / USA E-mail: [email protected] Telephone: +1 540 568 2718 On the Web: http://cisr.jmu.edu or http://maic.jmu.edu

For a glossary of common terms used in many of our articles, please view The Journals Common Terms and Definitions list at http://tinyurl.com/JournalTerms.

82

endnotes | the journal of ERW and mine action | summer 2011 | 15.2

15.2 | summer 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | endnotes

83

Call For Papers

Issue 16.1 | Deadline: October 2011 | Publication: Winter 2012
Focus: Food/Water Security and Health Issues Feature: The Impact of Aging and Excess Conventional Munitions on the Environment and Terrorism PRINT & ONLINE

Issue 16.2 | Deadline: February 2012 | Publication: Summer 2012

Focus: How SA/LW Affect Security Feature: Mine-action Disability Issues and Rights of Persons With Disabilities ONLINE ONLY

Issue 16.3 | Deadline: July 2012 | Publication: Fall 2012

Focus: Mine/ERW Risk Education Feature: ERW Challenges in Africa PRINT & ONLINE

Photos courtesy of The Halo Trust (top), U.N./Martine Perret (middle) and CISR (bottom).

READ THIS:
The Journal Editorial Staff reserves the right to reject submissions that include text copied from other sources in part or as a whole. Works published previously and for which the author retains publishing rights may be submitted, but The Journal requires the author provide notification of this when submitting the article and give contact information for the original publisher so that reprint permission may be verified. Reprint submissions for which this information is not provided up front may be rejected. Please note that The Journal reserves all rights to content published and requires notification and written approval before content is used again by another source or publication. Authors who submit articles to The Journal are expected to do so in good faith and are solely responsible for the content therein, including the accuracy of all information and correct attribution for quotations and citations.
Issue 15.2 | printed August 2012

MORE INFORMATION: For complete CFP's, please visit: http://cisr.jmu.edu/journal/index/callforpapers.htm For complete submission guidelines, please visit: http://maic.jmu.edu/journal/index/guidelines.htm. Submit all materials to: Editor-in-Chief, The Journal of ERW & Mine Action Center for International Stabilization & Recovery James Madison University, 800 S. Main Street, MSC 4902 Harrisonburg, VA 22807 / USA Phone: +1 540 568 2503 / Fax: +1 540 568 8176 E-mail: [email protected] / Website: http://cisr.jmu.edu

To subscribe to The Journal, visit

http://www.maic.jmu.edu/journal/index/subscribe/subscribe.asp