Physics 1501 - Intro Mechanics

Laboratory Instruction Manual

* * * [ Instructor Edition ] * * *
University of Connecticut Physics Teaching Labs
Spring 2013
ii
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
Contents
About this Manual v
Introduction to the Labs vii
Activity 1 Pre-Assignment xi
Activities
1 Basics of Measurement 1
2 Kinematics 17
3 Projectile Motion 31
4 Centripetal Force 53
5 Momentum 67
6 Springs 83
7 Energy: Conversion and Conservation 97
8 Moment of Inertia, Torque, and Rotational Energy 117
9 Parallel Axis Theorem 127
10 Waves on a String 141
11 Specic heat 153
12 Refereeing the Work of Others 159
iv CONTENTS
Appendices
A Templates 163
B Derivatives and Error Propagation 165
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
About this Manual
This manual is a product of the University of Connecticut Department of Physics.
The rst edition of this manual was written by:
H. Osborne, D. Goodman, A. Quackenbush, C. Sanborn, J. Wells
The authors would like to acknowledge the help and assistance of Dr. Thomas
Bogue and Mr. Michael Rapposch, who helped us designand test the experiments
and assisted us in writing and revising these activities. Some of the experiments
were inspired by the problem-solving labs at the University of Minnesota.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-
ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ or send a letter to Creative
Commons, 444 Castro Street, Suite 900, Mountain View, California, 94041, USA.
vi CHAPTER 0. ABOUT THIS MANUAL
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
Introduction to the Labs
Classroomexpectations
This section outlines expectations unique to this laboratory class. These include:
Stay safe: Some of these experiments could result in physical harm if im-
properly performed. Adhere to the written instructions in the manual and
the verbal instructions of your teaching assistant at all times. Failure to fol-
low proper procedure will result in dismissal from the lab room. All infrac-
tions will be reported to the Manager of Laboratory Services. Additional
disciplinary action may be taken.
Collaborate: Most laboratory classes require collaborationwithina labgroup.
In this class, your own group is also encouraged to collaborate with other
groups in the class. At certain points, you will be instructed to exchange
results, compare methods, or critique each others reasoning. You are also
encouraged to exchange ideas without a direct prompt. All students should
demonstrate respect for the time and effort of others. In addition, if you
received a helpful suggestion, you should give credit to your collaborator in
your write-up. Note that no collaborationis permittedfor formal labreports
or for pre-lab work. Formal lab reports and pre-lab activities are individual
bodies of work.
Use outside resources: This manual will not provide you with all the in-
formation you need to perform the experiment, analyze the results, and
produce a rst-class lab report. You are expected to use the resources at
your disposal to nd some material on your own. These resources include,
but are not limited to: your textbook; your colleagues; software Help les;
reliable sources on the Internet; your teaching assistant; and the Physics
Learning Resource Center. In keeping with this policy, your teaching as-
sistant may assist you by suggesting a resource to examine, rather than by
answering a question directly.
Rotate tasks: Each week, you will be asked to perform a variety of hands-on
and computer-based tasks. Each member of a lab team should perform a
different type of task each week. This will allow each member to build the
experimental skills necessary to perform an activity in the absence of their
partners, and the analysis skills and software familiarity necessary to pro-
duce a good-quality formal lab report. Your teaching assistant may or may
not establish a method of tracking your rotation, but it is your responsibility
to rotate tasks regularly, regardless of supervision.
viii CHAPTER 0. INTRODUCTIONTOTHE LABS
Product expectations
This section outlines your teaching assistants expectations for your work.
Pre-lab work: Each activity begins with a Pre-lab section. These sections
must be completed outside of class. Each pre-lab includes several ques-
tions, which may be answered in one of the following forms: mathematical
computations showing all the work; descriptive responses in complete sen-
tence form; graphical responses in the form of clearly labeled sketches or
properly designed graphs. Some pre-lab work will be based on computer
simulations which can not be run in the lab rooms. The pre-lab activities
are designed to be short, but they will take more than ve minutes before
class to complete. Pre-lab work will be turned in at the start of class. The
responses to pre-lab work are considered individual work.
In-class work: In-class work will be done in groups. At the end of the activ-
ity, each group will hand in complete answers to all questions and a mini-
report. The formats of the questions and mini-reports are discussed more
completely below. If a group leaves the lab room without turning in their
completed questions and mini-report, they will be counted as absent for
the day.
Formal lab reports: These reports are essentially expanded versions of the
mini-reports. If you have rotated tasks honestly each week, you will nd
that you have the analysis skills and software familiarity necessary to pro-
duce a good lab report with a much smaller investment of time than those
who failed to participate in all aspects of the weekly activities. Your teach-
ing assistant will provide you with explicit guidelines for your formal lab
reports. You will write two reports a semester, and you will be expected to
produce one revision of each report after seeing your teaching assistants
feedback. Thus, you will hand in four assignments: Report 1, Revision of
report 1, Report 2, Revision of report 2.
Think-abouts, Questions, and Instructions
This lab manual has several features that may be new to you. Below, the expecta-
tions associated with each environment are presented:
[0.1] Think-About-It: This is the think-about-it environment. The ques-
tions in this environment are intended to provoke group discussion. You
are not expected to produce written answers to the questions posed in this
environment. However, the responses to these questions may aect your
procedure, your analysis, and your nal report. Therefore, it is in your best
interest to attempt to answer each of these questions honestly.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
ix
[0.2] Question: This is the question environment. Questions may have
multiple parts, and each part must be answered. All items in the question
environment must be answered in writing. Answers may take the form of
mathematical computations showing all the work; descriptive responses in
complete sentence form; or graphical responses in the form of clearly labeled
sketches or properly designed graphs. Your responses will be collected before
you leave the lab room each week. These responses will form part of your
weekly lab grade.
[0.3] Action-Item: This is the action environment. It delineates the ac-
tivities you must perform as part of the activity. These may be hands-on
experiments, steps in data analysis, etc. Actions do not always have a di-
rect written product but the results of these actions will be required for your
nal written products.
Mini-reports
Each week, you will produce a mini-report as part of your weekly lab product.
These will be created using standard software packages (Excel, Word) and printed
in the lab room or provided to your teaching assistant in a digital form. Mini-
reports will be collected before you leave the lab room each week and will form
part of your weekly lab grade. Mini-reports will be constructed as a group activity.
Each group will hand in only one mini-report each week.
In general, mini-reports will include the following sections:
Introduction: The introduction should include the goal of the experimental
sequence and a description of the applicable theory.
Procedure: The procedure should describe the steps taken by your group
for each experiment performed that week. Any design decisions made by
the group must be included. The goal of the procedure section is to allow
another individual to walk in to the lab room and exactly reproduce your
experiment without the benet of the lab manual. At some point in the
semester, you will be asked to do exactly that: take another groups proce-
dure and reproduce their results without a manual. Keep this in mind when
writing your procedure.
Data: This section contains your experimental results. It may include ta-
bles, graphs, or lists of values.
Analysis: This section includes any mathematical manipulation performed
on your data and all your error analysis. Enough detail should be provided
to allow an independent group of researchers to reproduce your analysis
without the benet of the lab manual. In published scientic papers, the
analysis section often includes some initial commentary on precision and
accuracy.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
x CHAPTER 0. INTRODUCTIONTOTHE LABS
Conclusion: The conclusion should not contain any new information. You
should summarize your ndings and comment on the validity of your re-
sults.
In the rst few weeks of the semester, you will nd clear instructions on what to
include ineachof these sections, including a roughgauge of sectionlength. As the
semester proceeds, you will be prompted less directly. Your mini-report should
include each of these sections every week, even when you were not specically
prompted to include them.
As an example of a less direct prompt, you may nd a think-about section that
pertains to data analysis, but contains no further instructions. It is up to you to
realize that these points are important to address in your report, and it is your
responsibility to determine which of the points raised should be included in your
data analysis. If youare ever uncertainwhat toinclude ina mini-report or a formal
report, use your resources.
Tips for Success
Read the entire activity before coming to class. You will be in the lab room
the full three hours on most weeks. Reading the activity in advance will
shorten the time you spend in the lab room.
Complete every pre-lab. The pre-labactivities provide essential background
for the activities. Failing to complete them, or doing a careless job, usually
results in staying longer in the lab room.
Do not skip ahead in an activity. The questions, Think-abouts, and ac-
tions are designed to be performed inthe order inwhich they are presented.
Skipping ahead to get out faster usually results in staying even longer.
Check your data. Dont take all the data you need at once without stopping
to determine whether the values make sense. Taking your data all at once
to get out faster usually results in staying even longer.
Check your formatting. Graphs and tables have several required features,
whichare demonstratedinthe Appendix. Without these features, your mini-
report grades and formal report grades will suffer.
Rotate duties honestly. The experience you gain in the different jobs will
serve you well when you begin your rst formal report, or when you walk in
to the lab room and discover that your lab partners are absent.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
Activity 1 Pre-Assignment
This laboratory course requires you to be comfortable using Excel. To help you
refresh your memory, this pre-lab asks you to spend some time creating and ma-
nipulating graphs. This pre-lab work must be completed before entering the lab
room on your rst week.
Tables 1 and 2 were taken from the from the list of Kepler Conrmed Exoplanets,
accessed from the Barbara A. Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes at http://
archive.stsci.edu/kepler/confirmed_planets/search.php in November,
2012. They include the Kepler-assigned planet name, the period of the planets
orbit in units of Earth days, and the estimated length of the semi-major axis of
the planets orbit in units of astronomical units (AU). To save needless typing,
this table has been reproduced at http://www.phys.uconn.edu/academics/
undergraduate-programs/physics-teaching-labs/orbital-data/. Note that
these planets are orbiting a multitude of different stars.
You will use these data to create a graph in Excel. For some of you, this may
be a very familiar exercise. If you are unsure how to proceed, there are numer-
ous resources on using Excel. For example, the UConn library system maintains
a page on Excel resources at: http://classguides.lib.uconn.edu/content.
php?pid=297065&sid=2438769. This page includes links to tutorials, video tuto-
rials, and e-books available through UConn.
A template for the graphs you will create in this class can be found in Appendix A.
[0.4] Action-Item:
a. Import the data into Excel.
b. Create a scatter-plot graph of period (Y-axis) versus semi-major axis (X-
axis). Make sure that the data points are not connected by a line.
c. Add X-error bars. Use Fixed percentage: 3%. This value is not repre-
sentative of the true error of these data. It was selected to provide visible
error bars.
d. Add Y-error bars. Use Custom values of +7 and -8 for the entire series.
Again, these values are not representative of the true error. They are
selected for visibility.
e. Give your graph the title Graph 1: Period versus semi-major axis for some
conrmed exoplanets and label the legend and axes. Include units in your
labels.
xii CHAPTER 0. ACTIVITY 1 PRE-ASSIGNMENT
Planet name Period (Earth days) Semi-major axis (AU)
KEPLER-10 b 0.837 0.017
KEPLER-17 b 1.486 0.026
KEPLER-9 d 1.593 0.027
KEPLER-41 b 1.856 0.029
KEPLER-2 b 2.205 0.039
KEPLER-45 b 2.455 0.03
KEPLER-1 b 2.471 0.036
KEPLER-43 b 3.024 0.044
KEPLER-4 b 3.214 0.044
KEPLER-6 b 3.235 0.045
KEPLER-44 b 3.247 0.04
KEPLER-18 b 3.505 0.044
KEPLER-8 b 3.522 0.047
KEPLER-5 b 3.548 0.052
KEPLER-12 b 4.438 0.056
KEPLER-48 b 4.778 0.053
KEPLER-7 b 4.885 0.061
KEPLER-3 b 4.888 0.052
KEPLER-15 b 4.943 0.059
KEPLER-28 b 5.912 0.058
KEPLER-25 b 6.239 0.07
KEPLER-14 b 6.79 0.078
KEPLER-40 b 6.873 0.073
KEPLER-23 b 7.107 0.073
Table 1 Orbital characteristics for some of the conrmed exoplanets from
the Kepler mission
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
xiii
Planet name Period (Earth days) Semi-major axis (AU)
KEPLER-18 c 7.642 0.075
KEPLER-28 c 8.986 0.077
KEPLER-19 b 9.287 0.084
KEPLER-48 c 9.674 0.085
KEPLER-11 b 10.304 0.092
KEPLER-29 b 10.338 0.091
KEPLER-56 b 10.503 0.104
KEPLER-23 c 10.742 0.096
KEPLER-25 c 12.72 0.113
KEPLER-11 c 13.025 0.108
KEPLER-29 c 13.29 0.107
KEPLER-18 d 14.859 0.116
KEPLER-36 c 16.231 0.129
KEPLER-9 b 19.274 0.143
KEPLER-39 b 21.087 0.15
KEPLER-56 c 21.405 0.167
KEPLER-11 d 22.687 0.156
KEPLER-30 b 29.164 0.184
KEPLER-11 e 31.996 0.196
KEPLER-9 c 38.907 0.229
KEPLER-10 c 45.294 0.241
KEPLER-11 f 46.687 0.252
KEPLER-30 c 60.323 0.298
KEPLER-11 g 118.364 0.469
KEPLER-30 d 143.213 0.53
KEPLER-22 b 289.862 0.805
Table 2 Orbital characteristics for some of the conrmed exoplanets from
the Kepler mission
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
xiv CHAPTER 0. ACTIVITY 1 PRE-ASSIGNMENT
Figure 1 This graph was created using the data provided to the students.
[0.5] Question:
a. Describe how to create a scatter-plot using Excel.
b. Describe how to add Y- and X-error bars to a graph in Excel. Address
any dierences between adding xed values and custom values.
c. Describe how to add a title and legend and axes labels to a graph in Excel.
d. How do you change the color and shape of the data point markers in
Excel?
e. How do you change the background color of a graph in Excel?
f. Arrange the answers to this question in a word processor. Add a copy of
your nished graph to the page. Print out these answers and fasten the
pages to your manual for reference throughout the semester. Print out a
second copy to hand in at the beginning of class.
Instructor Notes:
Please familiarize yourself with the particular version of Excel provided in the
lab rooms so that you can answer student questions. In particular, adding
error bars in Excel 2007 is more difcult than in previous versions.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
Activities
Chapter 1
Basics of Measurement
1.1 What is a Measurement?
Figure 1.1 How Tall is
this Person?
What is a measurement? It seems like a silly question with a simple answera
measurement is just the quantity you record when you measure somethingbut
in this chapter we will provide a deeper and more rigorous denition of scientic
measurement and what it really means to measure something.
[1.1] Question: How far is it from here to the Student Union? This simple
question can be interpreted and answered in a variety of ways. What are
some of the dierent ways this question can be answered? Discuss with your
group and make a list.
Measurements have several parts
When you measure something, like the length of a table or the height of a person,
you have to do more than just state the value of the measurement. You must also
state something called the uncertainty. This is in addition to the actual measured
value, which we will call the nominal measurement. And there is also a third
necessary item, a very important annotation you must provide, which is the units
of measure.
A properly-structured measurement, when written down on paper, looks like this:
_
nominal
_

_
uncertainty
_
[units] (1.1)
Uncertainty provides an estimate of how inexact your measurement is. To give
anexample withreal numbers, lets say youmeasure the height of your labpartner
and get a value of 172 centimeters. And lets say you believe your measurement
is correct to within one centimeter of your lab partners actual, exact height. You
would write that measurement as:
1721 cm (1.2)
That measurement contains: the nominal measurement, (172), the uncertainty,
(1), and the units, (cm for centimeters). The symbol means plus or mi-
nus, and it tells the reader that the real value is somewhere between 171 cm and
2 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF MEASUREMENT
173 cm. This range of values is important, because no measurement process can
ever be exact. Limitations in the measuring device or ambiguities in the process
will always result in some amount of uncertainty in your measurements.
[1.2] Question: Lets say you want to know how much you weigh, so you
step on the bathroom scale and read the display.
a. List as many factors as you can think of that make this measurement
inexact.
b. Are there ways to correct for some of these factors? If so, list the possible
corrections.
One way to think of uncertainty in a measurement is as a minimum resolvable
difference, or, the smallest amount that the thing you are measuring could be dif-
ferent such that you could condently detect that difference with your measuring
device and your measuring procedure. Both the equipment you use and the pro-
cess you follow will affect this uncertainty. In fact, we can categorize sources of
uncertainty based on which aspects of the measurement are limiting the quality
of the measurement. We have touched here on two categories, which we might
call device-limits and process-limits, but there are other categories as well.
Sources of Uncertainty:
The uncertainty in your measurement comes from
inherent limitations of both:
The device you use, and,
The process you follow,
along with other factors, (to be discussed below and
in future labs), all of which affect the quality of your
measurement.
The device-limitation uncertainty of a measurement comes from limitations in [ device uncertainty ]
the device you are using. For a device like a measuring stick, the uncertainty is
usually taken to be the distance between adjacent hatch marks. Thus for a typical
meter stick, the device uncertainty would be one millimeter, since this is the usual
distance between hatch marks on a meter stick.
The process-limitation uncertainty of a measurement arises fromthe procedure [ process uncertainty ]
you follow, and can often be much greater than the device-limit uncertainty. To
understand this, consider a scenario where you are handed a bowling ball and a
meter stick and you are asked to measure the diameter of the bowling ball. The
meter stick, of course, is a fairly precise instrument, with a device uncertainty of
only one millimeter. But your chances of making a one-millimeter-accurate mea-
surement with just that meter stick are really quite slim, since there is no way you
can line up the meter stick along the diameter. Instead, you will end up making a
very rough measurement, most likely by holding the meter stick up to the edge of
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
1.1. WHAT IS A MEASUREMENT? 3
the bowling ball and eyeballing the diameter. In this case, the process uncertainty
is easily a few centimeters or more.
[1.3] Think-About-It: If you were not limited to using just a meter stick,
can you think of a way to make a less-limited measurement of the balls
diameter? What additional tools could you use? What would the procedure
be? What would the total uncertainty of your measurement be with that
process?
Instructor Notes:
Another limit might be called, maybe, the object limit, denitional limit,
or something similar. Think of this as the stability of the object being mea-
sured. An example I saw on the internet somewhere was: imagine trying to
measure the length of an ice cube in a warm room. Another example I could
think of would be trying to measure the volume of a song on the radiothe
problem is it is not necessarily a stable quantity. This kinda ventures into
denition of measurement questions though, which are the subject of the
next subsection. Other examples: Length of a string whose ends are frayed,
duration of a headache whose onset is gradual, anything with unclear bound-
aries.
The total uncertainty that you quote in your measurement must be constructed
from all known sources of uncertainty that affect your measurement, and should
include consideration of both device and process limitations. The proper way to
add up uncertainties will be discussed later, but there is a general rule-of-thumb
that will often come in handy for us: If one category of uncertainty is much larger
than the other, it is usually sufcient to just consider the larger uncertainty. In
the bowling ball example, if the process uncertainty is 2 cm, for example, we can
safely ignore the 1 mm device uncertainty, and just cite 2 cm as our total uncer-
tainty.
This brings us to another important rule-of-thumb: The uncertainty you quote [ signicant digits in
uncertainties ] in your measurements should almost always be rounded to just one signicant
digit. Furthermore, the least-signicant digit of your nominal value should be of
the same order-of-magnitude as the uncertainty. To illustrate this by example, the
following measurements follow this rule:
245 1 cm, 6.2 .1 cm, 520 10 cm (1.3)
whereas a measurement like the following does not follow this rule:
121.23 20 cm (1.4)
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
4 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF MEASUREMENT
[1.4] Think-About-It: Why would it be nonsensical to write a measurement
like the one in Eq. (1.4)?
Measurements are more than just numbers
Lets get really particular. If I want to record a measurement, (lets say Im mak-
ing measurements as part of a scientic experiment, so Ill be writing down these
measurements in a journal or lab notebook), then I need to do more than sim-
ply write measurements on a piece of paper. I need to write down detailed sup-
porting informationsomething sufciently detailed that another scientist, years
from now, can pick up my lab notebook and understand exactly what I measured
and how I measured it. This adds two new components to the measurement: a
denition of the measurement, and a description of the measurement process.
Dening the Measurement
Lets say you want to test whether engineers, on average, are taller than biologists.
To test for this, you decide to measure the heights of a random sampling from
each group. In your lab notebook, you write, Heights of the Engineers, and then
a set of measurements; and thenyouwrite Heights of the Biologists, and another
set of measurements.
Is this a sufcient level of annotation that a future scientist could replicate your
experiment? For that matter, do you even have a sufcient idea of what you are
measuring? Or how you are measuring it?
Stop for a moment and think about what it means to make this measurement, and
then discuss with your group. Chances are, you will all have different ideas about
the best way to proceed. One of you might say, Oh its simple: just stand them
against a wall, and measure fromthe tip of their head to the oor. Another might
say, But wait a minuteif they are standing, then their spine is compressed, and
they might slouch. It would be better to have the person lie on the oor, and then
measure. Yet another group member might speak up and ask, Hey guys, when
we say height, do we mean with their shoes on? Or should we ask the person to
take their shoes off?
All of these observations lead to important questions about what exactly it means
to measure someones height. Now, there isnt necessarily a single correct way
to answer these questions, but it is very important that they be resolved before
measuring, so you can be certain that every measurement is made in the same
way. When you have done thiswhen you have pinned down the denition of the
thing you are measuring and the process you are followingrecord it, because it
is an important part of the measurement.
[1.5] Think-About-It: Look at the drawing of the person in gure 1.1.
What questions need to be answered before you will have a rm denition of
what height means?
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
1.1. WHAT IS A MEASUREMENT? 5
Measurement A complete and proper measurement should
consist of the following components:
1. The actual measurement as read off the measurement
device, called the nominal measurement
2. The wiggle-room of that measurement, called the
uncertainty
3. A precise denition of the the thing being measured
4. A description of the process followed to make a
measurement
Write it up:
Instructor Notes:
This section reads as if the students should ll in the provided template. Do
not allowthemto ll in the template. Establish the proper mini-report format
in the rst week by asking your students to write their report as a group using
Word. The template is just that: an example document whose format they
can imitate.
At the end of this chapter there is a worksheet template for a mini lab report. We
will complete a mini lab report each and every week. These are streamlined ver-
sions of the formal lab reports that you will be assigned later in the semester for
only a few selected lab activities. The lab reports consist of several sections, each
serving a different purpose. The introduction section should contain, among
other things, background information about the thing(s) you are measuring or
testing. For this weeks activity, you will use the introduction section to record the
denition of your measurement.
[1.6] Action-Item: Your activity this week will be to measure the height of
each member of your group. Discuss with your group the factors that will
aect this measurement, and come to a consensus on how you will dene
height. In a sentence or two, record that denition in the introduction
section of your mini-report.
The procedure section of a lab report should contain detailed information about
how a measurement was carried out. This is where you will describe your mea-
surement process.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
6 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF MEASUREMENT
You will probably want to pilot your measurement process before making a nal
decision on it. This means doing a few trial measurements, for which you dont
intend to keep the data, solely for the purpose of testing your procedure. Doing
this will help you make informed decisions about which procedures work best,
and will help your understanding of the factors contributing to measurement un-
certainty.
[1.7] Action-Item: Pilot your measurement and decide on a measurement
process. Also make an estimate of your total uncertainty. Using a few sen-
tences, describe that process and your uncertainty estimate in the procedure
section of your mini-report. Be sure to capture any important details that
a future scientist would need in order to reproduce your measurements, and
also list the factors you believe contribute to the uncertainty.
1.2 What is an experiment?
Whena measurement is made inordinary life it is usually for some practical purpose
cutting a board to the right length for a woodworking project, for examplebut
when a measurement is made in science, it is usually to test a hypothesis.
A hypothesis is a form of prediction, usually made by the application of a theory.
In physics, a theory is usually an attempt to explain some natural phenomenon
by a mathematical equation. In all sciences, a theory is something to be tested,
rened, and thentested again until the theory is sufciently complete that it func-
tions as a good model of real life.
Theory A theory is a supposed explanation for, or a conceptual
model of, a physical phenomenon. Theories often take the
form of mathematical equations. By applying the theory, one
can make predictions of physical events. If you intend to test
one of those predictions via an experiment, that prediction is
called a hypothesis.
A theory is tested by conducting an experiment. An experiment, then, is some-
thing scientists do to the test the validity of theories, and the general process is
to compare measurements (data) to predictions (hypotheses), and to use some-
thing called error analysis to determine whether the measurements and the pre-
dictions agree with each other. If they do, then scientists gain condence that the
theory is a good model for real life. If they dont, then the theory is in need of
revision.
[1.8] Think-About-It: Can you think of any theories that you used to have
about the natural world that have proven to be false? What did you replace
them with?
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
1.2. WHAT IS ANEXPERIMENT? 7
Record your data:
Now turn your attention to the data section of the mini-report at the end of this
chapter. Note that there is an empty table thereready for you to ll in your data.
Note that the table has three columns. The rst column, Participant, simply
records the names of each of your group members. The next two columns are for
their heights. Why are there two columns? The rst column is for measurements
(the data that you will collect), and the second column is to record your predic-
tions of how tall your group members are. How will we make these predictions?
Well, we are not going to invoke any fancy theories here by which we can pre-
dict height, but we will instead construct a pretend theoryjust for todaythat
supposes that the various state agencies that issue drivers licenses are good at
making height measurements. Do you have a drivers license in your pocket? (If
not, dont worry.) Most drivers licenses and state IDs list the drivers height on
them alongside various other information. We will take as our hypothesis that
the height listed on each group members ID will be the true height of the group
member. We can record this value in the Predicted Height column of the table.
[1.9] Action-Item: If you have your drivers license with you today, look
at it to see what your height is listed as. Record this height in the Pre-
dicted Height column of your table. Note that you will probably need to
convert feet-and-inches to centimeters for this. Use your resources to nd
the conversion factor.
(If you dont have a drivers license with you today, ask a member of a dierent
group, or your instructor, to estimate your height, and use that instead.)
What about the uncertainty of the predicted height? Your drivers license (prob-
ably) doesnt list an uncertainty, but when writing numbers we often speak of an
implied uncertainty, which is related to the concept of signicant gures.
When a number referring to a physical quantity is stated without an uncertainty,
we often take it as implied that the uncertainty in the quantity is one-half of the
least signicant gure. In the case of your drivers license, which species height
to the inch, the implied uncertainty would be half of an inch, connoting an expec-
tation that your true height should fall somewhere between 0.5 inches below and
0.5 inches above the height stated on the license.
[1.10] Action-Item: Calculate how many centimeters are in 0.5 inches and
record this as the uncertainty of your height predictions.
Now that we have our predicted heights listed in the table, we want to collect our
data. Follow the measurement procedure you developed previously to measure
the heights of each group member.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
8 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF MEASUREMENT
[1.11] Action-Item: Fill-in the Measured Height column with the mea-
surements of your group members. Remember to specify the uncertainties
in your measurements.
[1.12] Action-Item: At this point, everyone should swap groups. Measure
the heights of your new group members. Once you are done, switch groups
one nal time and repeat measurements. Specify all uncertainties, and label
all measurements with the names of the individuals.
[1.13] Action-Item: Each individual has been measured three times. Com-
pile the measurements for at least six individuals, so that every student in
the room has a table of data which includes three measurements (with un-
certainties) for each of at least six persons.
Instructor Notes:
The point of accumulating several measurements of a single individuals
height is to have enough measurements to facilitate a discussion of accuracy
and precision later in the lab.
Great! Now that you have lled-in your table with measured values and predicted
values, we can see how well those values agree with each other using the tools of
error analysis!
1.3 Basic Introduction to Error Analysis
Error analysis is the process of comparing measured values to predicted values.
The predicted value might come from a variety of placesperhaps it is a the-
oretical prediction (hypothesis) calculated from a mathematical formula, or per-
haps it is an accepted value that comes from some authoritative sourceBut
in the end, most experiments come down to a very simple set of steps:
1. Predict a value for something
2. Conduct a measurement of that something
3. Compare the predicted and measured values to see if
they agree.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
1.3. BASIC INTRODUCTIONTOERROR ANALYSIS 9
The concept of agreement here has a very specic denition: two values agree
with each other if they are equal to each other within their uncertainties. What
this means is that two values do not have to be exactly equal in order to agree with
each other, but in order to agree, their uncertainty ranges have to overlap.
Error Analysis Error analysis is the process of comparing
measured values to predicted values.
Agreement Two values agree with each other if their
uncertainty ranges overlap
To give an example of this, lets say you make a measurement of the acceleration
due to gravity in this room, and you come up with,
g
measured
=9.60.3 m/s
2
and then lets say you look up the accepted value of g in a textbook and you nd,
g
accepted
=9.80 m/s
2
Does your measurement agree with the accepted value of g? It does!because
9.80 m/s
2
ts within the uncertainty range of 9.3 to 9.9 m/s
2
specied by your
measurement.
[1.14] Question: Consider a situation in which you used sub-par equipment
to make a measurement of the acceleration due to gravity, and you came up
with a value of
g
measured
=74 m/s
2
Does this measurement agree with the predicted/accepted value?
Instructor Notes:
Yes.
Lets provide some clear denitions of the words accurate and precise, as these
terms will be very useful to us throughout this semester, and it is important not to
confuse the two terms.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
10 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF MEASUREMENT
Accuracy This refers to the correctness of a measurement, and is used in situ-
ations where there is some reference value that is taken to be the correct
value. A measurement is considered accurate if it agrees with this refer-
ence value.
Precision This refers to the narrowness or broadness of the uncertainty range
of a measurement. A precise measurement is one which has a narrow
uncertainty range. An imprecise measurement is one which has a wide
uncertainty range.
[1.15] Question:Go back to the sub-par measurement of g.
a. Is this measurement accurate?
b. Is this measurement precise?
Instructor Notes:
Accurate but not precise
Measures of Accuracy and Precision
We canmake the denitions of accuracy andprecisionmore quantitative by den-
ing some measures of accuracy and precision. These are denitions or formulas
that let us pin a number on how accurate or precise something is.
The rst measure we will dene is discrepancy. Discrepancy is simply the differ-
ence between a nominal measurement and the reference value we are comparing
it to.
Discrepancy This is the difference between a nominal measurement and
the reference value we are comparing it to. For example, if we mea-
sure the length of some object to be L
measured
=L
0
L, where L
0
is
the nominal measurement and L is the uncertainty,
a
and lets say
we believe the correct length is L
reference
, then the discrepancy,
L, is given by
L =L
0
L
reference
a
Note: you may have noticed that I didnt include units in this measurement, in seeming violation of my insistence that units
always be included in a proper measurement. Good for you for noticing this! However, here is the explanation: since I wrote the
measurement symbolically, i.e, with variables, then the assumption is that the variables have the same meaning irrespective of units
(i.e., the length is the same whether I measure in meters or in feet), and so the units arent specied because they are considered to be
part of the variable.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
1.3. BASIC INTRODUCTIONTOERROR ANALYSIS 11
The second measure we will dene is percent error, or sometimes it is also called,
percent dierence. Like discrepancy, percent error tells you how far the mea-
sured value is from the reference value, but it expresses that difference as a per-
centage of the reference value, rather than as a simple difference.
Percent Difference This quantity expresses the discrepancy as a percent-
age of the reference value. Example: for a measured value L
0
L
and a reference value L
reference
, the percent difference is given by
%Difference =
L
L
reference
100% (1.5)
In a similar way, we can also quantify uncertainty as a percentage. This is per-
haps somewhat uncommon, but there are some situations where it makes sense
to specify uncertainties this way. But in essence, a percent uncertainty is the
uncertainty specied as a percentage of the nominal measurement.
Percent Uncertainty This is the uncertainty expressed as a percentage of
the nominal measurement. Example, for a measured value L
0
L,
the percent uncertainty is given by
%Uncertainty =
L
L
0
100% (1.6)
To give a simple example of what measurements would look like in this way, lets
assume we make a length measurement of 50 meters with an uncertainty of 1
meter. Expressed in absolute-uncertainty form, this would look like:
L
measured
=501 m
and expressed in percent-uncertainty form, this would look like:
L
measured
=50m (2%)
[1.16] Question: You have an instrument whose precision is listed as 10%.
You use this tool to measure the distance to object X at 150 meters. What
is the device uncertainty in meters?
Instructor Notes:
15 m
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
12 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF MEASUREMENT
What is Error Anyway?
Error is, probably, one of the most poorly dened and inconsistently used terms
in the discipline of error analysis. This might seem paradoxical, but it is true.
When scientists say error, they can mean many things by it. Sometimes when
they say error they mean uncertainty. Sometimes they mean discrepancy.
Sometimes they mean mistakes that cause you to get wrong numbers. (These
are neither uncertainties nor discrepancies!) And sometimes they mean the myr-
iad of factors that contribute legitimately to your measurement uncertainty. The
take-away message here is, in your own language, try to be as precise as possible.
If you mean uncertainty, dont say error. Say uncertainty. And likewise if you
mean discrepancy, etc.
So what, really, is Error Analysis?
Well, as we saidearlier, error analysis is the process of comparing measuredvalues
to reference values. But here is a little tidbit to help you understand what the point
of this comparison is: When we compare a measured value to a reference value,
what we are really doing is asking whether the uncertainty is sufcient to explain
the discrepancy. If it is, then the measurement you made can be taken as evidence
that the reference value is correct. If it is not, then there are two possibilities:
either you have made a bad measurement in which you have made mistakes or
else failed to account for all sources of measurement uncertainty, or, you have
discovered that the reference value is wrong.
The fundamental question of error analysis: Is your uncertainty sufcient
explanation for your discrepancy?
If the reference value is wrongi.e., if you are quite certain that your measure-
ment is mistake-free, and yet it disagrees with the reference valuethen this is
actually a very exciting situation to be in. You could be standing at the beginning
of a new scientic discovery. You may have discovered new physics!
Instructor Notes:
Here is an example that may be useful in class, written as if you were pre-
senting it to the students: Lets say you just sat through a physics lecture and
learned that the acceleration of gravity is g =9.8m/s
2
. You decide to test this
in the lab by predicting the time T
drop
that it should take an object to fall one
meter. You then drop a tennis ball from a one meter height and measure the
time. Your measurement agrees! Good. But then you drop a feather, and
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
1.3. BASIC INTRODUCTIONTOERROR ANALYSIS 13
the duration of that fall measures twice as long as expected. Was your mea-
surement wrong? You check your equipment and procedures, but you con-
clude that your measurement is not wrong. In this case it was the prediction
that was wrong, and the reason is that there is a physical phenomenonair
resistancethat you did not account for in your prediction. You have discov-
ered something new! After learning howair resistance works, you make a new
prediction, and it agrees. Congratulations! This is how science works.
So when you do your own error analysis, you should follow this basic procedure:
1. Compare your uncertainty to your discrepancy.
2. If the discrepancy is less than the uncertainty, then you can conclude that
your measurement supports the reference value, and gives credibility to
the claim that the reference value is correct.
3. If the discrepancy is greater than the uncertainty, then you must go on a
hunt for the cause of the discrepancy. Did you make any mistakes? Did you
forget any sources of uncertainty? If so, correct the mistakes or uncertain-
ties and try again.
4. If there are no mistakes and the discrepancy is still greater than the uncer-
tainty, then make a list of all physical phenomena that you know about that
could (reasonably) explain why the reference value you are using might be
inaccurate. Try to estimate how much of the excess discrepancy might be
explained by these phenomena, and whether these phenomena might be
sufcient to explain all of it. If you think they are sufcient, then cite them
as possible causes for the discrepancy, and suggest improvements to your
experiment that might account for these phenomena. If you think they are
not sufcient, then you just might be on the verge of a scientic break-
through.
[1.17] Question: Select one individuals measurements from your compiled
table.
a. Do all the measurements of that individual agree? Make a note of each
pair that agrees in the "Analysis" section.
b. Were these measurements precise? Explain your answer.
c. If two values of measured height do not agree with each other, identify
the source of the disagreement. Repeat for each pair of values which
disagree and include your answers in "Analysis". Support your answer
with evidence.
d. Categorize each source of disgreement as "device uncertainty" or "process
uncertainty".
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
14 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF MEASUREMENT
Instructor Notes:
Youmay have to make it clear that humanerror unacceptable inthis course.
Do not bring up the term yourself but watch for student use; if you hear any
student using it, correct them. Also, you may need to encourage the students
to go back to the different denitions of measuring height as a source of dis-
agreement between measured heights. It is appropriate to allow discussion
between groups to facilitate this discussion.
[1.18] Question: Select a dierent individual and compare each measured
height to the predicted height of that individual.
a. Do all the measured heights agree with the predicted height? Make a
note of each pair that agrees in the "Analysis" section.
b. Were these measurements accurate? Explain your answer.
c. If the values of the measured and predicted heights do not overlap, iden-
tify the disagreement. Repeat this for each pair of values that do not
overlap, and include your answers in "Analysis". Support your answer
with evidence.
d. Categorize each source of disagreement as "device uncertainty" or "pro-
cess uncertainty".
[1.19] Action-Item: Finally, summarize your ndings in the Conclusions
section. Start with the provided prompt. List the most frequently occurring
sources of error. Finish with a short description of one improvement you
could make to your experiment if you were to repeat it.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
Addendum: Report Template for Measuring Heights
Measuring Heights
Abstract
We present precise measurements of the head-to-heal heights of each of our group members.
The measurements are thencompared to predicted heights derived fromthe heights indicated
on the group members drivers licenses, or other sources. We nd our measurements to be in
(good | poor) agreement with the predicted values.
Introduction
(Dene the height of a group member.)
Procedure
(Describe your measurement process.)
Data
Participant Measured Height (cm) Predicted Height (cm)
John Q. Husky (Example) 172 1 171 2
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
Table 1.1 Height measurements of group members
Analysis
(Compare your measurements with the predicted values.)
Conclusion
We measured the heights of each of our group members and then compared the measured heights against the heights
as specied on the group members drivers licenses. We found that the measurements (did | did not) agree to within the
uncertainties.
16 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF MEASUREMENT
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
Chapter 2
Kinematics
2.1 Pre-lab work
As a follow-up to last weeks work with graphs, this weeks pre-lab asks you to
spend some time manipulating data and performing repetitive calculations us-
ing Excel. Table 2.1 is reproduced at http://www.phys.uconn.edu/academics/
undergraduate-programs/physics-teaching-labs/kepler-11-planetary-
data/.
In this activity sequence, you dont have the opportunity to work with orbital mo-
tion. However, it happens that Keplers third lawis an excellent platformfor work-
ing with repetitive calculations. Therefore, you will have a brief opportunity to
work with orbital motion now. Table 2.1 provides a list of the periods (the time
it takes the planet to orbit the parent star) and semi-major axes (distance from
planet to parent star in terms of ellipsoidal geometry) of a series of planets orbit-
ing a single parent star. Keplers third law states that
T
2
= J a
3
where T is the period, a is the semi-major axis, and J is a constant which depends
on the mass of the star.
Planet Name Period Semi-major Axis
KEPLER-11 b 10.304 0.092
KEPLER-11 c 13.025 0.108
KEPLER-11 d 22.687 0.156
KEPLER-11 e 31.996 0.196
KEPLER-11 f 46.687 0.252
KEPLER-11 g 118.364 0.469
Table 2.1 Orbital characteristics of the conrmed exoplanets in orbit around
the star system Kepler-11
18 CHAPTER 2. KINEMATICS
[2.1] Action-Item:
a. Import the data.
b. For each planet, nd the square of the period. Use Excel to create a
formula to nd the square of the period. Put the calculations in a new
column of the spreadsheet.
c. Find the square of the period of two planets using your calculator. Check
that your results match Excels calculation.
d. For each planet, create another formula to nd the cube of the semi-major
axis. Use the formula to calculate the cube of the semi-major axis for each
planet.
e. Again, use your calculator to check two values.
f. Create a graph of the period squared (Y) versus the semi-major axis cubed
(X) for each planet. Add a title and legend and axes labels.
[2.2] Question:
1. How do you create a formula in Excel?
2. When would using an Excel formula be most useful?
Your data should fall along a line. This makes sense because Eq. (2.1) has the
mathematical form of a line, y =mx +b. Now, just as you did last week, you will
construct a model to graph with your data.
Your colleague provides you with a value for the slope of 136149
Earth days
2
AU
3
(note:
these are not proper scientic units).
[2.3] Action-Item:
1. You have m and x. For your data, the intercept (b) is zero. Create an
Excel formula to calculate y for each x.
2. On the same graph as your data, plot y versus x.
3. You have a few discrete experimental values. In contrast, your model
is valid over a continuous range of x. Therefore, your model should be
plotted as a line, not discrete points. On your graph, replace the discrete
markers that represent your model with a line. Dont forget to add a
legend label for your model.
[2.4] Question:
1. How did you add an additional data series to your original graph?
2. How did you replace the discrete markers with a line in Excel?
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
2.1. PRE-LAB WORK 19
Figure 2.1 Keplers third law as demonstrated by the star system Kepler-11.
The model was created using the slope provided to the students. This graph
is formatted to match the standards of the lab sequence.
As you did last week, print a copy of your answers to Questions 2.2 and 2.4 and
fasten them into your lab manual for reference. Print a second copy to hand in
to your TA, along with a copy of your nal graph and the answers to Question 2.6
below.
Instructor Notes:
At this point, if students fail to properly construct a graph, or persist in us-
ing their calculators to perform calculations for which Excel would be better
suited, you can refer them back to the pre-labs for Activities 2 and 3. Hope-
fully, these exercises reduce the amount of in-class time you have to spend
explaining simple Excel procedures.
The second part of the pre-lab this week involves a simulation. Many simulations
that we will assign you in pre-labs will need Adobe Flash or Java to run. If you try
to run the simulations and are notied that you need one of these, or if something
wacky happens, here are some troubleshooting tips:
Flash: You can nd a troubleshooting guide for installing a Flash player at http:
//phet.colorado.edu/en/troubleshooting/flash. Abuttononthat page will
take you to Adobes website for installation or updating. Most modern browsers
have Flash built in (such as Chrome).
Java: You can nd a troubleshooting guide for installing Java at http://phet.
colorado.edu/en/troubleshooting/java. A button on that page will take you
the website that will guide you to installing or updating Java. Most modern Op-
erating Systems automatically keep Java updated. One common problem when
running Java simulations is that your browser might require your permission to
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
20 CHAPTER 2. KINEMATICS
run. You should click "Always run on this site." You might have to refresh the
page.
[2.5] Action-Item: Go to http://homework.uoregon.edu/pub/class/
ph101/cow.html. Set the initial velocity to a value between 1
m
s
and 20
m
s
. Leave the initial acceleration set to 0
m
s
2
. Watch the motion of the
cow. Re-run the simulation with a new value of velocity. Then set the initial
acceleration to a value between 1
m
s
2
and 20
m
s
2
and re-start the simulation.
Repeat with a second acceleration.
Answer the following:
[2.6] Question:
a. Looking only at the velocity versus time graph, describe how to decide
whether the motion of an object has an acceleration of zero or non-zero.
b. For reference during the activity, sketch one position versus time graph
and the matching velocity versus time graph for the motion of an object
under non-zero acceleration.
Instructor Notes:
a: If the velocity is changing with time, then the acceleration is non-zero; b.:
check the sketches for internal consistency
You should have a copy of your sketches from 2.6 to reference during the activity,
and a separate copy to hand in to the TA at the start of this weeks activity.
2.2 Introduction
This week, you will use a model of one-dimensional motion under constant ac-
celeration to investigate the motion of a wheeled cart on a smooth track.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
2.3. APPARATUS ANDTHEORY 21
Figure 2.2 A sketch of the apparatus, showing the basic components (la-
beled)
Instructor Notes:
Please derive Eq. (2.2) from the free-body diagrams of the cart and hanging
mass and the kinematic equations as part of your introduction. It is too early
inthe semester to be sure that students will be comfortable doing this ontheir
own, but you may be able to get them to do a great deal of the work by asking
them plenty of questions as you proceed. However you choose to proceed,
please provide the complete correct derivation on the board for the class.
2.3 Apparatus and Theory
Apparatus
The apparatus consists of a wheeled cart placed on a smooth metal track. A string
connects the cart to a locking mass pan. The string passes over a pulley at one
end of the track. On the end of the cart opposite the pulley is a motion sensor. A
sketch of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 2.2.
The values of the masses and the uncertainties in the masses of the cart, disk
masses and mass hangers will be provided by your TA. In the beginning of the
experiment, all the mass disks will be placed in the cart. The locking mass pan
will be suspended from the pulley and allowed to fall under the force of gravity,
dragging the cart. The motion sensor will record the position and velocity of the
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
22 CHAPTER 2. KINEMATICS
cart as a function of time. Next, a single disk mass will be moved onto the locking
mass pan and the experiment will be repeated.
For simplicity, two pieces of jargon will be used: driving mass and cart mass. The
mass of the locking mass pan, together with all the disks that are on it at a given
time, will be the driving mass. The mass of the cart, together with all of the disks
that are on it at a given time, will be the cart mass.
The motion sensor is controlled with PASCO software. Your TA will demonstrate
the software.
Instructor Notes:
When demonstrating the software, be sure to explicitly demonstrate the Help
function and encourage the students to use it. Consider creating a worksheet
of activities students should try with the software. Students appreciate writ-
ten instruction, and supervising use of a worksheet is easier than supervising
free-form activities.
[2.7] Action-Item: Generate a graph of position versus time with the
PASCO software. Use your hand, a book or the cart to generate the motion.
Do not remove the motion sensor from the end of the track while performing
this exercise. Using the software, try the following:
1. Expand the X and Y axes
2. Highlight some data
3. Fit the data using a t of your choice. Try to nd a t that seems to
match your data.
4. Swap to a velocity versus time graph. Highlight and t some of the data.
5. Select and delete a bad data point. If all your data look good, delete a
random point.
6. Use the co-ordinate tool to read o the value of one of the data points.
Record that value with the appropriate units.
Theory
The theory of Newtonian dynamics governs the motion of objects under most
Earth-like conditions. The motions of magma, air particles, springs, boomerangs,
and water waves can be explained using Newtonian dynamics. For such broad
theories, a scientist may choose to select pieces of the theory which will allow
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
2.3. APPARATUS ANDTHEORY 23
him or her to represent a specic situation, leaving out the unnecessary material.
In such a case, the scientist is said to be developing a model.
Model:
A representation of a specic system, including only phe-
nomena relevant to the system.
In this activity, you have a specic case: a rigid, wheeled cart moving in one di-
mension along a smooth track under constant acceleration. A mathematical rep-
resentation of a model that expresses the motion of this cart is
v =v
0
+a t (2.1)
where x is the position of the cart, x
0
is the initial position of the cart, v
0
is the
initial velocity of the cart, a is the acceleration of the cart, and t is the time.
This model is taken from the theory of Newtonian dynamics. It ignores the re-
maining two dimensions of space, oscillations, rotations, etc., leaving a simple
system. From Eq. (2.1) and an examination of the forces on this system, it can be
shown that
a =
m
h
g
m
c
+m
h
(2.2)
where m
h
is the mass of the driving mass, m
c
is the cart mass (including any disks
on the cart), and g is the magnitude of the acceleration of an object that is falling
freely under the inuence of gravity near the surface of the Earth (9.8
m
s
2
). Your TA
will show you how this equation was derived.
[2.8] Question:
a. In the limit as m
h
m
c
, what happens to the acceleration? Note:
means "much greater than".
b. In the limit as m
c
m
h
, what happens to the acceleration?
c. What happens to the acceleration if m
c
is negative?
d. Does a negative mass make any sense?
Instructor Notes:
a: acceleration approaches g; b.: acceleration slows to zero; c. Mathemati-
cally, assuming that |m
c
>m
h
| the acceleration would be negative. d. No, it
doesnt make sense
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
24 CHAPTER 2. KINEMATICS
This model includes several simplifying assumptions:
1. The track is level and horizontal
2. The cart is a sliding frictionless object (wheels are neglected)
3. The force of friction on the pulley is negligible
4. The force of friction on the cart and on the falling mass from air (air resis-
tance) is negligible
5. The acceleration of the cart is the same as the acceleration of the falling
mass, which is true if the string does not stretch
6. The mass of the string is so small compared to m
c
and m
h
that it can be
neglected
7. The mass of the pulley is so small compared to m
c
and m
h
that it can be
neglected
8. The magnitude of g is constant
9. The cart and the falling mass are each constrained to move in one dimen-
sion (the cart isnt sliding sideways and the falling mass does not swing)
If all of these conditions are fullled, then the acceleration calculated from this
model will match the acceleration found by experiment. Otherwise, the model
and experimental accelerations will not match.
[2.9] Question:
a. Devise at least two ways to change the experimental apparatus so that
your results would no longer match the model
b. Which assumptions seem the most likely to be incorrect? Discuss this
question with your partners and write your consensus.
Instructor Notes:
a: Note that students should not try any of these: tilt the track, remove the
track so that the cart can run in 2D, add a sail to the cart so that air resistance
must be included, use an elastic for a string, use a heavy cord instead of a
string, gum up the wheels, gum up the pulley, use a large metal pulley, set the
falling mass swinging before dropping it; b.: In many cases, the lab tables are
not level so the track tilts fairly easily; the falling mass does have a tendency
to swing.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
2.3. APPARATUS ANDTHEORY 25
In this experiment, g is a constant. In addition, the experiment was designed so
that the sum of the driving and cart masses, m
c
+m
h
, is a constant. The driving
mass, m
h
, will change. The reason for this deliberate design choice will appear
shortly.
[2.10] Action-Item: Using Excel, calculate the acceleration of the cart
for each of the six driving masses. Then create a graph of acceleration
versus driving mass and plot each of the six points on the graph. Note that
scientists observe a convention when describing graphs: graphs are described
as Y versus X, where Y is the dependent variable, and X is the independent
variable. You are creating a graph from a model, and thus, the results should
be plotted as a curve, not discrete points. A graph template is provided in
Appendix A. Your answers from Pre-lab and 2.1 may be helpful.
[2.11] Question: Look at the graph you created.
a. What is the independent variable? What are the units of the independent
variable?
b. What is the dependent variable? What are the units of the dependent
variable?
c. What shape do the data take?
d. What is the equation for that shape? Use any resources you have available
to nd it.
e. Find the portion of Eq. (2.2) that corresponds to the slope of that shape.
f. Based on your graph, what are the units of the slope?
g. Check your answer to part e. and describe how you conrmed it.
Instructor Notes:
a.Driving mass, kg; b. Acceleration,
m
s
2
; c. line; d. y =mx+b; e.
g
m
c
+m
h
; f.
m
kgs
2
Our design choices allowed the data to take the form of a particular curve that is
very easy to analyze.
Note: As you read in the introduction to this manual, written answers must be
provided to all questions. These must be handed in to the TA in at the end of
class.
This model contains an assumption that we have not discussed: we assumed that
the values we are using to nd the model accelerations have no uncertainty. In re-
ality, the nominal values of m
c
, m
h
, and g have associatederrors. Thus, our model
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
26 CHAPTER 2. KINEMATICS
contains errors. For the rest of this activity, we assume that the uncertainties in
m
c
, m
h
, and g are negligibly small. You should be aware that as the semester pro-
ceeds, you will be asked to consider errors in your model as well as in your data.
In the Theory section of your mini-report, include the equation for the accelera-
tion of the cart. List the assumptions that your group agreed could be incorrect.
2.4 Experiment
You will use a motion sensor and a PASCO software package to determine the
acceleration of a cart driven by a hanging mass. The cart is initially supplied
with ballast in the form of several disk masses. By shifting mass from the cart
to the driving mass, you will obtain a series of accelerations for a set of six driving
masses.
[2.12] Action-Item: To pilot your measurement process, take 5 trials using
the bare mass hanger as the driving mass. Use the PASCO software to record
the position and velocity as a function of time for each trial.
Look at the velocity versus time graph for one trial. Expand the X and Y axes as
necessary to nd the portion of the graph that resembles your pre-lab sketch of
velocity versus time under non-zero acceleration. Check your selection with your
TA before proceeding.
[2.13] Action-Item: Select ve consecutive points from this region of your
graph. Plot these points accurately on the graph paper provided. Choose
your scale so that you use the full length and breadth of the graph paper.
These data points represent nominal values of velocity and time. Last week, you
learned that all nominal values of measurements have an associated uncertainty.
In this case, take the uncertainty of these ve measurements of velocity to be
0.01
m
s
(note that this value is not realistic for your experiment). The device un-
certainty for time is small enough to neglect in this exercise.
[2.14] Action-Item: Go back to your graph paper. Shift the rst point
either upward or downward by an amount which is no more than 0.01
m
s
.
Shift the second point by a dierent amount in either direction. Repeat this
procedure for each data point, mixing the upward and downward directions
and varying the amount of the shift. Be sure your shifted points are clearly
distinguishable from the original points (dierent color or style).
[2.15] Question: Looking at your graph:
a. Can you draw a single straight line that goes through all ve points?
b. Can you draw a single straight line that comes close to all ve points?
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
2.4. EXPERIMENT 27
Instructor Notes:
a. No; b. Yes
Based on your answers, draw a line and compare your results to your partners
results. Check with your TA before proceeding.
Instructor Notes:
Figure 2.3 provides an example graph (Instructor version only). The origi-
nal points are shown as diamonds. Each of these points was shifted either
upward or downward by an amount no greater than 0.01 m/s. The triangles
mark the shifted points, and the thin line is an example best-t line for the
shifted data.
The process of nding the straight line that comes closest to all the data points of
a selected set is called a linear t. From this time forward, PASCO software will
t the data for you. However, you must select the data to use in the t, and your
partners, classmates, or TA may ask you to justify your choice.
[2.16] Action-Item: Proceed with the experiment. You already took ve
trials using the bare hanger as the driving mass. Now, move a single disk to
the hanger and take another ve trials with this new driving mass. Continue
the experiment by moving the disks from the cart to the hanger one at a
time and taking at least ve trials for each new driving mass. Do not remove
any disks from the hanger as you proceed. In the end, you will have obtained
data for a set of six driving masses. For each individual trial (about 30 trials),
expand the velocity versus time graph to nd the portion that matches the
motion of the cart as it accelerates down the track. Highlight the data
that seem appropriate and select a linear t to that portion. The t will be
displayed on the graph. The slope of the graph is the acceleration. Record
these accelerations in your Excel workbook.
This experiment is vulnerable to error. One assumption made in Eq. (2.2) is that
the track is level. The constant rattling of the cart against the end stop may cause
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
28 CHAPTER 2. KINEMATICS
Figure 2.3 Example scatter graph, showing original and shifted points and
best-t line
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
2.5. DATA ANALYSIS 29
the track to tilt. In addition, the motion sensor may be jostled out of place. This
would also introduce error into your experiment.
In the Procedure section of your mini-report, describe your procedure in a brief
paragraph. Explicitly describe the methods you used to avoid incurring errors,
including your leveling procedure. Go back to your list of possibly-incorrect as-
sumptions. Address each of these points in the Procedure section. Describe how
your procedure minimizes the risk of each potential problem.
2.5 Data Analysis
At this point, you have a graph of acceleration versus driving mass generated by
your model. You also have a list of ve accelerations for each driving mass, the
results of your experiment.
[2.17] Action-Item: Use Excel to take the average of the acceleration of
each driving mass. Plot the average acceleration for each driving mass on the
same graph as the model accelerations. In this case, because you are plotting
experimental data, you should plot the results as discrete points. Thus, you
will have one line and one set of discrete points on the same graph. You may
use any resource at your disposal to learn how to do this.
The next step to consider is the uncertainty of each of your six points. In future
activities, the determination of uncertainty in a nal result will be shown to be a
highly mathematical process, stemming from the errors in the measurable quan-
tities. For now, we will take a less precise approach. You measured at least ve
values of acceleration for each driving mass. Assuming there is no physical rea-
son for the values to differ (e.g., a tilted track), the range of the values will provide
you with a rough estimate of your uncertainty.
[2.18] Action-Item: For each driving mass, you will have ve values of
acceleration. For each driving mass, take (MAX MI N) in Excel for these
ve accelerations (your largest acceleration minus your smallest acceleration).
Divide this value by 2. This value will represent your uncertainty for each
average acceleration. Thus, you will report six accelerations in the form:
a
avg

1
2
(MAX MI N). This uncertainty also represents the Y-error bar for
your measured acceleration. Go into the graph and set the upper and lower
Y-error bars to the value
1
2
(MAX MI N) for each of your six values.
[2.19] Think-About-It: What about the error in the independent variable?
Should that be considered? If so, how will you determine the value of the
uncertainty for each point?
In fact, this uncertainty is an overestimate of the true uncertainty of your mea-
surements. You will learn better methods for determining uncertainties as the
semester proceeds.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
30 CHAPTER 2. KINEMATICS
Figure 2.4 This graph is in Instructor version only. Actual results obtained by
one of the authors for this experiment. The Y-error bars are determined using
the process outlined in this lab (
1
2
(MAX MI N)) from a set of 10 trials per
driving mass. To improve the clarity of the model, the model is extended to a
driving mass lower than the rst driving mass used by the author. Students do
not need to extend their own graph.
[2.20] Action-Item: Examine your graph. In the Analysis section of your
mini-report, address the following points:
a. Is the discrepancy between the model and your experimental results ex-
plained by the uncertainty in the experimental results? Another way of
asking this is, do the discrete points a
avg

1
2
(MAX MI N) overlap the
model values?
b. If the discrepancy is not explained by the uncertainty in your experimental
results, what might have caused the "extra" discrepancy? Provide an
explanation of the process error or model assumption which could have
contributed to the discrepancy. Provide evidence to support your answer.
2.6 Conclusion
Instructor Notes:
Remind your students to bring their safety glasses next week. Remind your
students that next weeks pre-lab work is computer-based, and thus can not
be done in the ve minutes before class starts.
In the Conclusion section of your mini-report, summarize your ndings. Com-
ment specically on whether you agree that the simple model provided was a
good representation of your physical reality. If not, mention how you would re-
ne your model based on your ndings.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
Chapter 3
Projectile Motion
3.1 Safety Note
This activity requires eye protection. If you do not bring your eye protection, you
shall be dismissed fromthe lab roomand shall receive a zero for the day. You shall
not be permitted to re-enter this lab section. You must make up the activity in
another section later in the week.
Instructor Notes:
Please readaloudthe safety tips inSection3.4 at the beginning of lab. Remove
all projectiles from the tables before the beginning of lab. Provide a group
with a projectile only after they have reached Section 3.5and arranged their
apparatus in a manner consistent with safety.
3.2 Pre-lab
If you are measuring a block, the uncertainty in the length of the block would be
dominated by the device uncertainty (see Activity 1). The device uncertainty is
related to the smallest increment on your measuring device. Not all measured
values are dominated by device uncertainty. The sources of uncertainty may be
unknown or not easily measured. One of the easiest ways to provide a numerical
estimate of uncertainty in these cases is to use the standard deviation.
32 CHAPTER 3. PROJECTILE MOTION
Standard deviation:
1. Qualitatively, a measure of how far off a data point is ex-
pected to be from the average value of the set of data
2. Quantitatively, the square root of the average of the square
of the differences between the data points and their mean
Mathematically, the formof standarddeviationyouwill use most oftenis the stan-
dard deviation of the mean, represented:

1
=
_
1
N 1

i
(x
i
x)
2
(3.1)

N
=

1

N
(3.2)
where
1
is the standard deviation of the sample,
N
is the standard deviation of
the mean, N is the sample size (i.e., the number of measurements), x
i
represents
the value of an individual measurement, and x is the value of the average of the
sample.
To understand these terms, take a specic example. Consider the following set of
values: 1.108 s, 1.113 s, 1.115 s, 1.118 s, 1.115 s, 1.114 s. The average of the values,
x, is 1.114 s. The sample size, N, is 6. The standard deviation is:

1
=
_
1
5
[(1.1081.114)
2
+(1.1131.114)
2
+(1.1151.114)
2
+(1.1181.114)
2
+(1.1151.114)
2
+(1.1141.114)
2
]
which is
1
= 0.00331 s, according to the calculator. When rounded properly as
described in Chapter 1,
1
= 0.003 s. While units were not explicitly included in
the formula, you can see that the unit of
1
is seconds.
The standard deviation of the mean is
N
=0.00135 s, according to the calculator;
when rounded properly,
N
= 0.001 s. So, in this specic example, we can quote
the value of our measurement as 1.1140.001 s.
[3.1] Question:
a. Look at Eq. (3.2). If N doubles, what happens to
N
?
b. If N quadruples, what happens to
N
?
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
3.2. PRE-LAB 33
Instructor Notes:
a. If N doubles,
N
shrinks by a factor of 1.4; b.
N
shrinks by a factor of 2
The standard deviation of the mean is a quantitative measure of the error in a
measured value. Standard deviation of the mean is used:
when a measurement is expected to yield the same result each time and
when a statistically signicant number of measurements are taken
Both of these conditions must be met for the standard deviation of the mean to
be a meaningful number. A statistically signicant number of measurements is
a vague term. As a rule-of-thumb, 3 measurements is too few, 20 is sufcient. A
number of measurements between these two could be sufcient, depending on
circumstances. Taking twenty measurements of a single quantity often takes too
much time to be practical in a single three-hour lab period, so we frequently use
a sample size of 10 or even fewer.
[3.2] Question:
1. Would the standard deviation of the mean of the heights of all the students
from the table compiled in Action-Item 1.13 be a meaningful number?
Explain your answer.
2. Would the standard deviation of the mean of the heights of a single
student from the table compiled in Action-Item 1.13 be a meaningful
number? Explain your answer.
3. Would the standard deviation of the mean for 10 values of the acceleration
of a cart driven by a single driving mass (see Activity 2) be a meaningful
number? Explain your answer.
Instructor Notes:
a. No, because the measurements were not expected to yield the same result
each time; b. The measurements were expected to yield the same result each
time but 3 is a small number of measurements, so the best answer is still No;
c. Yes
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
34 CHAPTER 3. PROJECTILE MOTION
[3.3] Question:
a. Using your calculator, nd the average, standard deviation, and standard
deviation of the mean of the following data: 0.902, 0.897, 0.906, 0.907,
0.907, 0.898. Show all your work. Round properly.
b. Using Excel, nd the average, standard deviation, and standard deviation
of the mean of the same data. Round and record your answers.
c. Compare your answers. Reconcile any discrepancies.
d. Find
1
2
(MAXMI N) for these data. Compare this estimate of uncertainty
to the standard deviation of the mean. Which is smaller?
Instructor Notes:
a. Average=0.903; STDEV=0.0045 which must be rounded to either 0.004 or
0.005 depending on the convention you favor; STDEV_avg=0.002. d. The
value of
1
2
the spread is 0.005. The point to drive home when checking an-
swers is that the uncertainty computed from
1
2
the spread is an overestimate
of the actual uncertainty.
The pre-lab will nish with a brief examination of projectile motion.
[3.4] Action-Item: Go to http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/
projectile-motion/projectile-motion_en.html and try out the
applet. Find a combination of launch angle and initial speed that allows you
to hit the target. Please dont move the target; try to hit it where it lies.
[3.5] Question:
a. Based on this simulation, is a measurement of range repeatable?
b. Based on this simulation, would you say that the range of a projectile can
be predicted?
Instructor Notes:
Based on the simulation, students should be able to conclude that measure-
ments of range are both repeatable and predictable.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
3.3. INTRODUCTION 35
3.3 Introduction
This week, you will use a commercial projectile launcher to study motion in two
dimensions. Ideal projectile motion refers to the motion of an object launched
withsome initial velocity andproceeding only under the inuence of gravity. More
detailed studies of projectile motion include phenomena such as air resistance,
wind speed, and spin. Common examples of projectile motion include baseballs,
tennis balls, cannon balls, and angry birds.
The eventual goal of this activity is to predict accurately the range of a projectile
redat a particular angle whichwill be selectedby the TA. To accomplishthis goal,
you will need to develop an experimental procedure for measuring the range of a
projectile, conrm the accuracy of the procedure, and obtain enough data to give
you a sense of the error in your results. Then you will make your nal prediction
of range including an estimate of error, and nally, test that prediction.
Instructor Notes:
Please derive the range equation for the students; once again, they are not
necessarily sufciently advanced to do this on their own, but you should
make this interactiveget them talking, get them helping you.
3.4 Apparatus and Theory
Apparatus
The apparatus consists of: a mini-launcher clamped to a table, a steel projectile,
a plunger to load the launcher, a cardboard box (backboard), a landing platform,
carbon paper, plain paper, and measuring tools.
The TA will demonstrate safe use of the mini-launcher. Please follow these safety
regulations when performing your experiment:
1. Always wear your eye protection
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
36 CHAPTER 3. PROJECTILE MOTION
2. Do not remove the launcher from the frame
3. Never look down the barrel of the launcher
4. Only re the launcher when the backboard is in place
5. Never adjust the launcher once it is loaded
6. Only touch the string when you intend to re
7. Always use the plunger to load the launcher
8. Always remove the plunger from the launcher before ring
9. Only use the launcher on the "short-range" setting
10. Provide a verbal warning before ring
11. Be sure your group members, classmates, and the TAare out of range before
ring
12. Do not leave the launcher loaded
Failure to comply with these regulations will result in dismissal fromthe lab room
for the day. Serious infractions of these regulations will result in dismissal without
the option to make up the activity. Serious infractions will be documented for
further disciplinary action consistent with University policy.
Instructor Notes:
You may decide when to dismiss a group for failure to obey the safety regula-
tions and when to provide a verbal warning. Serious infractions must result
in instant dismissal without option to make up. Please inform the laboratory
staff immediately of any serious infractions. You will be asked to document
serious infractions in writing.
As you discovered during the pre-lab exercise, the initial speed of the projectile
directly affects its range. You do not have the equipment to determine the initial
speed of your projectile yourself. However, a collaborator has already done the
work and published the result: the initial speed of the projectile was determined
to be 3.30.2
m
s
over the 20

70

range.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
3.4. APPARATUS ANDTHEORY 37
Figure 3.1 A sketch of projectile motion labeled with launch angle, , and
initial velocity, v
0
.
Instructor Notes:
To obtain the initial acceleration, a pair of photogates was mounted to the
photogate bracket supplied with the launchers. This assembly was then xed
to the underside of a launcher and used to measure the time of travel of the
projectile. The resulting initial velocity was then corrected for the effect of
gravity on the projectile: v
cor r
=v
meas
+g si n()(l +dx/2)t /dx where l was
the distance between the launch point and the rst photogate, and dx was
the distance between the two photogates. Six launchers were tested using the
same photogate-bracket assembly. Each launcher was tested at the following
three angles: 20

, 45

, 70

. At least 30 runs were taken for each launcher at

each angle. At least one tested launcher had been well-used previously, and
at least one was brand-new. The initial velocity presented to the students has
an uncertainty large enough to account for the variation in initial velocity as
a function of angle, as well as some degree of wear in the launcher spring.
Theory
Your goal is to study the range of the projectile, which is dened as the horizontal
distance traveled by the projectile from a launch point x
0
, y
0
to a point x, y
0
. Note
that starting and ending heights are identical.
Figure 1 is a sketch of a typical projectile motion scenario.
Last week, you used a model generated from the theory of Newtonian dynam-
ics. This model described the motion of a wheeled cart moving under a non-zero
acceleration. This week, you will use another model developed from the theory
of Newtonian dynamics. As before, your TA will show you the derivation for this
equation. The point of interest is the range of the projectile. One mathematical
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
38 CHAPTER 3. PROJECTILE MOTION
representation which describes the range of a projectile is
R =
v
2
0
g
sin(2) (3.3)
where R is the range of the projectile measured from the launch point, v
0
is the
initial speed of the projectile, g is the magnitude of the acceleration due to grav-
ity at the surface of the Earth and is the launch angle. The model of projectile
motion used to generate that equation contains the following assumptions:
1. The force exerted on the projectile by air resistance is negligible
2. The acceleration due to gravity is constant throughout the motion of the
projectile
3. The system is constrained to two dimensions
In this case, the range should be measured fromthe point marked Launch point
on the launcher.
[3.6] Question: Given the assumptions listed above, suggest three scenarios
in which Eq. (3.3) is not valid.
Instructor Notes:
A few possible scenarios: the projectiles path takes it far enough away from
the surface of the Earth that the change in the magnitude of g must be con-
sidered; the projectile is launched off a cliff; the projectile is a cotton ball or
other object for which air resistance is not negligible.
Equation (3.3) describes the range as a function of initial speed and launch angle.
Within the limitations of the model, this equation is a complete description of the
situation. However, the information contained within this representation is more
accessible in a graphical format.
[3.7] Action-Item: In this model, R is the dependent variable, and is the
independent variable. Using Excel, create a graphical representation of R as a
function of sin(2). The range of should be 0

to 90

. When graphing the

model, choose angles that span the full range of . This is a representation
of a model, and thus, the results should be plotted as a solid curve.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
3.4. APPARATUS ANDTHEORY 39
[3.8] Question:
a. What are the units of the independent variable?
b. What are the units of the dependent variable?
c. What was the eect of graphing sin(2) instead of ? Plot R versus in
Excel if necessary to help you answer the question.
d. What are the units of the slope in this model?
e. What is the physical meaning of the y-intercept in this model?
f. What are the units of the y-intercept?
Instructor Notes:
a. Unitless; b. meters; c. The important point is that using sin(2) linearized
the equation; d. The slope has units of
1
m
; e. The y-intercept is the range of
the projectile if the angle were 0

; f. meters
[3.9] Think-About-It: Spend some time examining your graph. What angle
corresponds to the maximum range? Are there any two angles that will
produce the same range? In the experiment you are about to perform, you
will use a block of wood as a landing pad. What eect would forgetting the
landing pad have on the predicted range?
Instructor Notes:
Students may not recognize that two angles can produce the same range. If
they havent graphed R versus , suggest it. If they are having trouble working
out what the effect of forgetting the landing pad will be, encourage them to
produce a side-view sketch of the path of the projectile from the launcher to
the landing pad, and then have them continue the path of the projectile as if
the landing pad were not present.
In Activity 2, your model was represented by a single solid line. In that activity,
the only error in the model was due to the uncertainty in the measurement of
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
40 CHAPTER 3. PROJECTILE MOTION
the masses. You were told that this uncertainty was small enough to neglect. In
effect, you were able to treat your model as an error-free model. This week, you
will include the error in your model due to the uncertainty in the initial velocity.
In last weeks activity, you marked the upper and lower bounds of your data with
error bars. This week, you will mark the upper and lower bounds of your model
using twosolidlines. One solidline will represent the upper boundonyour model,
and the second line will represent the lower bound on your model. To view an ex-
ample, see the graph template in Appendix I.
The error in the model comes from the error in the initial velocity. One can deter-
mine the error in R due to v
0
using standard error propagation techniques. Next
week, you will be introduced to some of these techniques. For now, the results will
be presented without explanation.
Instructor Notes:
The explanation is provided in the pre-lab to Chapter 4.
The upper bound of Eq. (3.3) due to the uncertainty in v
0
is represented by
R =
v
2
0
g
sin(2) +
2v
0
v
0
g
sin(2) (3.4)
where v
0
represents the uncertainty in the initial velocity. The lower bound is
represented by
R =
v
2
0
g
sin(2)
2v
0
v
0
g
sin(2) (3.5)
[3.10] Action-Item: You will use this information to modify your Excel
model. Use Eq. (3.4) and Eq. (3.5) to plot the upper and lower bounds on
your model as a function of sin(2). Remember to plot your models as solid
lines. Remove the solid line representing the original model from your graph.
Consider these concepts whenwriting the Introductionsectionof your mini-report.
3.5 Experiment
Your graphical representation gives you a sense of what to expect from this ex-
periment. The next step is to develop an experimental procedure to measure the
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
3.5. EXPERIMENT 41
range of a projectile. These experiments are not intended to conrmthe theory.
Centuries of physicists, engineers, naval gunners and lacrosse teams have already
conrmed this theoryand much more complex versionsthrough innumerable
experiments. The question to be answered in this segment of the activity is, Can
you develop an experimental procedure which produces results that match the
model?
It is highly recommended that you read this section and Sec. 3.6 before beginning
your experiment.
In this activity, you will measure the distance traveled by the projectile over the
20

-70

range of angles. Angles lower than 20

and higher than 70

are susceptible
to mechanical error in the launcher (not related to the physics), so you will avoid
those ranges. Your graphical representation should give you a sense of the range
of the projectile over the desired range of angles.
[3.11] Action-Item: Pilot your measurement procedure by ring a few prac-
tice shots at dierent angles. Follow all safety regulations. Do not re your
rst shot until the TA has approved your setup.
Instructor Notes:
To give you one example procedure, we include a description of the proce-
dure used to obtain the data provided to you at the end of this activity. A
measuring tape was laid down on the table with 0 m lined up with the launch
point. The measuring tape was xed to the table at a few points with mask-
ing tape. The launcher was adjusted by eye, accounting for parallax, and the
launch angle was checked periodically. A piece of carbon paper as wide as
the wooden landing platform was taped smoothly onto the wooden platform
with white paper underneath. One or two test shots were used to position the
landing platform before adding the paper. The platform was lined up with
some clear mark on the measuring tape and its position was checked after ev-
ery few shots. Ten shots were taken in a row. Then, without moving the plat-
form, a straightedge was lined up on top of the platform and gauged against
the measuring tape (accounting for parallax). A stylus (automatic pencil with
lead retracted) was used with the straightedge to mark the location of two po-
sitions on the white paper (e.g., 90 cm, 92 cm). Then the white paper could
be removed and each dot measured against the reference marks, and the top
of the carbon paper was clean enough to reuse (not covered in potentially
confusing numbers and lines). One piece of carbon paper was sufcient for
at least two hundred measurements. Each piece of white paper was used at
least twice (front and back). The backdrop was used to stop the projectile af-
ter it bounced off the platform. Properly angled, the backdrop allowed the
projectile to roll along the table back toward the user at low speeds.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
42 CHAPTER 3. PROJECTILE MOTION
Instructor Notes:
Do not allowthe students to take measurements using the carbonpaper with-
out placing white paper underneath! These wooden blocks were made to
match the height of the launch point and can not be sanded down to remove
carbon-paper marks.
The goal of this section of the activity is to develop an experimental method that
yields accurate, repeatable measurements of the range of a projectile.
[3.12] Action-Item: Pick at least 5 angles which span the entire 20

-70

range. Take 10 measurements of the range at each angle.

[3.13] Think-About-It: As you take measurements, ask yourself a few
questions about your procedure. How precisely can you read the angle of the
launcher? Is the launcher shifting in any direction? How about the landing
pad? What is your exact procedure for measuring angle? How do you think
your choices of measuring instrument aect your accuracy?
Instructor Notes:
The initial velocity of the launcher may change with time as the launchers
are used. The uncertainty in initial velocity is intended to be large enough to
compensate for this. If you nd that your students results show a systematic
deviation consistent with a noticeably different initial velocity, please save
your students data and bring this point to the attention of an author.
[3.14] Action-Item: As you proceed with the experiment, record all your
data in Excel. Plot R versus sin(2) for each angle you selected. Plot the
results on the same graph as your models.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
3.6. DATA ANALYSIS 43
[3.15] Think-About-It: You are measuring 10 values of the range per angle.
Do you expect the values of range for a single angle to be approximately equal
or very dierent? For a single angle, what value of range do you think you
should you plot on your graph?
If you nd that your data, including error bars (see below) are falling outside the
theoretical range, you must adjust your procedure and take more measurements.
It is obviously a good idea to plot your data as you proceed, rather than waiting
until the end of the experiment to plot everything.
Feel free to talk to other groups and exchange ideasjust make sure to give that
group credit in your mini-report. The teaching assistant is another good resource,
particularly if you have specic questions and can explain your points with evi-
dence.
The goal of this section of the activity is to develop an experimental method that
you trust to provide good results. In order to be condent in your results, you
must determine the uncertainty in your measurements. Its a good idea to take
all the measurements for two angles only. Then pause and analyze your data to
check your method (see below), rather than completing the entire experiment.
Otherwise, you may nd that you have to go back and rene your procedure.
Experimental procedures are written to allow other individuals to repeat your ex-
periment exactly as you performed it. In peer-reviewed publications, you must
explain, and sometimes defend, your choices to your peers. Write your Procedure
section with these facts in mind. It is recommended that you wait until you are
condent that your methods are valid before writing up the procedure.
3.6 Data analysis
You have experimentally determined a set of nominal measurements of range at
a set of nominal measurements of angle. Of course, nominal measurements are
not useful without their error bars. The error in both angle and range must be
considered.
[3.16] Question: How precisely were you able to measure the angle? Identify
the type of uncertainty, provide a value for the uncertainty, and describe the
reasoning that justies your result.
Instructor Notes:
Device error; expected response is 0.5

.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
44 CHAPTER 3. PROJECTILE MOTION
Finding the error in the sin(2) is not straightforward. In general if your answer to
Question 3.16 was 1

, you may neglect the error in sin(2) . If your uncertainty

is larger than this value, you are advised to rene your procedure to decrease the
error in launch angle.
Instructor Notes:
If students are interested, you may allowthemto work out the error in sin(2)
quantitatively, using sin(2 +) and sin(2 ) to nd the uncertainty in
sin(2) for each angle.
Quantifying the error in R will take more time. First, examine the data: the actual
marks of the projectile from which you measured the range. Look at the patterns
made by the different trials.
[3.17] Action-Item: For one angle, draw a circle that encompasses all the
measured range values. If your procedure did not include a graphical record
of range (or if all trials for one angle were not graphically recorded on a
single paper), then create a graphical record for one set of values. Next,
compute the average value of range for that angle and mark the average
range on your graphical record. Be sure that the mark indicating the average
is distinguishable from the measured values.
Instructor Notes:
Just to clarify, the sentence, If your procedure did not include a graphical
record of range...then create a graphical record for one set of values is not
intended to mean go back and create an entirely new procedure. Students
can create a graphical record using a piece of paper, a ruler, and their mea-
surements, or using Excels scatter-plot function, for one set of values. The
point is for themto be able to see the scatter in a data set. Students only need
1D information to do the activity, but 2D graphical information is useful for
this section. If a group needs to create a new graphical record, and they ne-
glect the second dimension, prompt themwith a question like, Does it make
sense that the measurements would be laid out in a perfectly straight line?
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
3.6. DATA ANALYSIS 45
[3.18] Question: How does the center of the circle you drew compare to
the position of the average range?
Instructor Notes:
Hopefully, they matchpretty well; this was the case for the authors data. Skew
would indicate systematic results; prompt the students to consider sources,
adjust their procedure, and take more measurements.
[3.19] Action-Item: For this angle, select three measurements of range at
random from your original 10 trials. Find
1
2
(MAX MI N) for R for only these
three values. Mark a distance of length
1
2
(MAX MI N) to either side of the
point representing the average. Next, nd
1
2
(MAX MI N) for R for the
entire set of 10 values. Mark a distance of length
1
2
(MAX MI N) to either
side of the point representing the average. Make these marks distinguishable
from rst pair of
1
2
(MAX MI N) lines. Finally, select ve measurements at
random and compute
1
2
(MAX MI N) for those ve values. Do not mark
that last set on your paper (its probably dicult enough to distinguish marks
already).
[3.20] Question:
a. Was
1
2
(MAX MI N) for all 10 values larger, smaller or the same size as
1
2
(MAX MI N) for 3 values?
b. Was
1
2
(MAX MI N) for all 10 values larger, smaller or the same size as
1
2
(MAX MI N) for 5 values?
c. If you took 20 values, would you expect the
1
2
(MAX MI N) for 20 values
to be larger, smaller, or the same size as for 10?
Instructor Notes:
In general, the students should nd that
1
2
the spread increases with an in-
creasing number of data points [statistically speaking, if your data are well-
represented by a Gaussian, then the more measurements you take, the higher
your maximum and lower your minimum will become. If the student can ar-
ticulate that, then they are clearly over-prepared for this course]. Students
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
46 CHAPTER 3. PROJECTILE MOTION
should recognize that an increase in uncertainty with increasing sample size
is a problem.
The spreadinyour results canchange depending onthe exact values used to com-
pute it. One disadvantage to using
1
2
(MAX MI N) as a measurement of uncer-
tainty is that the spread is strongly dependent on the number of measurements.
Fortunately, uncertainty can be quantied in ways that are more robust. The pre-
lab to this activity introduced the standard deviation of the mean. The standard
deviation of the mean does not increase with increasing sample size. In fact, the
value of the standard deviation of the mean decreases with sample size. Therefore,
if you represent the uncertainty in a measurement by the standard deviation of
the mean, then the more times you repeat a measurement, the more accurate
your measurement becomes.
Instructor Notes:
Now the students see a formulation for uncertainty that decreases with in-
creasing sample size. This is the primary motivator for using the standard
deviation of the mean in class, so please check their understanding of this
point.
Standard deviation should only be used when you expect that your data are ran-
domly distributed about the average. That assumption will hold for most of the
experiments youperformthis semester. The standarddeviationof the meanclearly
demonstrates the experimental principle that your condence inyour results should
increase with an increasing sample size. Therefore, you will use the standard de-
viation of the mean to compute the uncertainty in various measured quantities
for many of your future activities.
From this point forward, you will not use
1
2
(MAX MI N) to quantify any uncer-
tainty. As the pre-lab and the above discussion has demonstrated, the standard
deviation of the mean will provide more accurate answers.
[3.21] Action-Item: For each angle you studied, compute the standard
deviation of the mean of the range for that angle. Remember, Excel will
compute the standard deviation of a sample, but not the standard deviation
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
3.6. DATA ANALYSIS 47
of the mean. You must manually multiply the standard deviation by
1

N
for
each angle.
Check your answers with your partners. You performed the same experiment as
a group, and used the same results, so your estimates of errors should be similar.
If they arent, try to come to a consensus. If necessary, the TA may be able to help
resolve your debate, but each side must have a clear, cogent argument to present.
[3.22] Action-Item: Once you have convinced each other that your methods
of determining uncertainty are correct, plot the range as a function of angle
on the same graph as the model. Use the standard deviation of the mean as
the basis of the Y-error bars for your experimental results.
If you have some unexplained discrepancy in your results (i.e., the [nominal value
uncertainty] does not t within or overlap the model range), you may need to
rene your experimental method and re-take your measurements. You should
rst consider whether the source of error appears to be random or systematic.
All your error analysis to date has focused on the random errors of your system.
Randomerror: Conceptually, the effect of chaos on measure-
ment. Random error would be present even in a purely
classical world. Random error is a form of boxed chaos:
the measurements will fall within a denable rangethe
box. The spread and the standard deviation are two ways
of characterizing the size of the box.
An experiment may also exhibit systematic errors.
Systematic error: Conceptually, a bias in the measurement.
Flaws in an experimental process can result in systematic error. For example, in
Activity 2, you studied the acceleration of a cart down a track. If the track were
tilted, the results wouldbe containsystematic error. The angle of the tilt wouldde-
termine the specic bias. If the track were tilted downward toward the pulley, all
the measured accelerations would be higher than the model accelerations. Data
analysis procedures themselves can also result in systematic error. Systematic er-
ror is most easily diagnosed when the results of measurements are compared to
a model. This is one important reason for developing a model before performing
an experiment.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
48 CHAPTER 3. PROJECTILE MOTION
[3.23] Question: Suppose you are standing at the corner, timing the arrival
of the next bus. List at least one source of systematic error and at least one
source of random error that could aect your measurement.
Instructor Notes:
Examples of systematic error: accident, trafc jam, weather, Murphys law.
Examples of random error: sequence of stoplights, driver irregularities
[3.24] Think-About-It: Compare the results of your experiment to the
model. Do the discrepancies appear to be due to random or systematic
error? What evidence do you have to support your choice?
In the end, after you have rened your method, taken all your measurements,
determined all your uncertainties and plotted all your results, you should have
a graph consisting of a set of discrete points with error bars which fall within or
overlap your model range.
[3.25] Action-Item: Once you have reached this point, turn to another
group (dont interrupt a group which is still taking measurements). Convince
this group of independent researchers that your results are valid, citing your
evidence. Write up this part of your analysis and check with the TA before
proceeding.
Instructor Notes:
The point of checking with the TA is to give you an opportunity to ensure
that the students have actually done the work and obtained some reasonable
values. This also gives you a chance to conscate the groups projectile and
provide them with a test angle, as outlined below.
3.7 Experiment 2
All of this work has been done to develop an experimental procedure and to check
that procedure against some known results. This is a process followed by every
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
3.7. EXPERIMENT 2 49
scientist. Whether the scientist is studying the light curve of a new stellar sys-
tem, developing a new form of passive tracking, altering the genetic pattern of
a chicken (see http://www.livescience.com/17642-chickenosaurus-jack-
horner-create-dinosaur.html ) or developing a general circulation model of
a planetary atmosphere, the scientist checks his or her methods/models/math
against known results before branching into unknown territory.
You have now successfully checked your methods against known results. Now it
is time for the unknown territory.
[3.26] Action-Item: Your TA will take your projectile and assign you a new
angle. Using your model and your previous results, predict the range at that
angle and the uncertainty in your measurement. Draw a target whose size is
based on your uncertainty. Place your target at the predicted range and signal
your TA. In the presence of your TA, re ve shots at your target. Analyze
the measurements from those shots. Plot the result as another point on your
graph. Make sure this new point is distinguishable from the rest (dierent
color/symbol).
Instructor Notes:
Here are alternatives for students who appear to be doing everything correctly
and still can not get the data to match the model. First, groups with system-
atic errors can work out the shift between their model and their results. Then,
they can reverse the procedure to determine what experimental range would
correspond to the range predicted by their model. A group who completes
this alternate activity should receive full credit.
For groups with more complicated errors, suggest to the students that per-
haps the model is too simple. Tell them to use their data and the resources
at their disposal to suggest a renement to the model. They must present
you with their suggested renement and explain why this particular change
would alter the model range in the right way (qualitatively in the right direc-
tion). This renement and explanation should appear in their data analysis
section and be reected in their conclusions. A group who completes this
alternate activity should receive full credit.
Inthe Conclusionsectionof your mini-report, summarize your ndings and com-
ment on the validity of your prediction.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
50 CHAPTER 3. PROJECTILE MOTION
Figure 3.2 Range as a function of si n()
Instructor Notes:
Remind your students to bring their safety glasses next week. Remind your
students that next weeks pre-lab work is computer-based, and thus can not
be done in the ve minutes before class starts.
Instructor Notes:
As a reference, actual data are presented in graphical form. Note that the X-
axis in Fig. is stretched to allow a better view of the data.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
3.7. EXPERIMENT 2 51
Figure 3.3 Range as a function of
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
52 CHAPTER 3. PROJECTILE MOTION
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
Chapter 4
Centripetal Force
4.1 Safety Note
This lab requires eye protection. If you do not bring your eye protection, you will
be dismissed from lab.
You must wear eye protection during the entire class period.
All people and equipment must be greater than one arms length away from
the person holding the spinning apparatus.
Instructor Notes:
Read the safety note out loud before starting class.
4.2 Pre-lab work
In the previous activities youve mainly been concerned with the uncertainty in
directly measured quantities. For example, in activity 2 you overestimated the un-
certainty in the measured net acceleration of the cart-driving mass system. The
true acceleration was estimated to be somewhere in between the largest mea-
sured value and the smallest measured value. However, what happens if you use
a measured result in a formula? If the measurement has uncertainty then the cal-
culated result derived from that measurement must have uncertainty too, this is
called error propagation. In other words, the uncertainty in your measurement
propagates through any calculation that uses that measurement. The next few
paragraphs will discuss some tricks for calculating the propagated uncertainty for
different types of mathematical operations.
54 CHAPTER 4. CENTRIPETAL FORCE
First, lets consider a simple formula. The force due to gravity exerted on the driv-
ing mass in activity 2 was F =m
d
g. If you measure the driving mass m
d
as having
uncertainty m
d
then the propagated uncertainty in the force will be F m
d
g.
You have assumed that g 0 and can therefore be considered an exact constant.
You could think of this result as saying if m
d
can exist in the range m
d
m
d
, then
the force must also be in the range F (m
d
m
d
) g =F F. As a general rule,
if f = cX where X has uncertainty and c can be approximated as exact (c 0),
then the uncertainty in f is
f |c|X. (4.1)
Second, lets consider the denominator in Eq. (2.2), which is a sum of the cart
mass m
c
and the driving mass m
d
. An upper limit on the uncertainty in the total
mass m
t
can be approximated as m
t
m
c
+m
d
. Again, if the range of each
mass is m
c
m
c
and m
d
m
d
, you would expect the total mass maximumto be
m
t ,max
=(m
c
+m
c
) +(m
d
+m
d
) and the minimum to be m
t ,min
=(m
c
m
c
) +
(m
d
m
d
). Therefore, if you take half of the range of possible values for the total
mass you get back
m
t ,max
m
t ,min
2
=m
c
+m
d
=m
t
. As a general rule, if f = X Y
where X and Y each have uncertainty, you can overestimate the uncertainty in
the sum or difference as
f X +Y. (4.2)
Third, in activity 1 you discussed the concept of expressing your uncertainty as
a percentage of your nominal value and it was called percent-uncertainty [as de-
ned in Eq. (1.6)]. The concept of percent-uncertainty is useful in three ways:
it allows you to quickly estimate the uncertainty of products and quotients, it can
be used to check whether the stated uncertainty is reasonable, and it can help you
determine if the percent difference between measurement and theory [as dened
in Eq. (1.5)] shows reasonable agreement.
In activity 3 the slope associated with the plot of Eq. (3.3) was sl ope =
v
2
0
g
. It turns
out that the propagated percent uncertainty in
v
2
0
v
2
0
= (v
0
v
0
) =
v
0
v
0
+
v
0
v
0
=
2v
0
v
0
.
In other words, the propagated percent uncertainty in the product of v
0
v
0
is
equal to the sum of the percent uncertainties of each term in the product. Using
the previous result and a little algebra you can see that the absolute uncertainty
is v
2
0
= 2v
0
v
0
. You could then use Eq.(4.1) to show that the uncertainty in the
slope is sl ope =
2v
0
v
0
g
where you have again assumed that g 0. As a general
rule, you can say that if f =
X
Y
or f = XY then you can overestimate the percent
uncertainty as
100%
f
| f |
100%
_
X
|X|
+
Y
|Y |
_
, (4.3)
while the absolute uncertainty would be
f | f |
_
X
|X|
+
Y
|Y |
_
. (4.4)
Since raising a variable to a power is the same as multiplication, as you saw with
the activity 3 example, you can also write a general rule for the uncertainty in a
function f = X
P
as
f | f P|
X
|X|
=|P||X|
P1
X. (4.5)
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
4.2. PRE-LAB WORK 55
Nowyou are able to estimate the propagated uncertainty for formulas that involve
multiplication, division, addition, or subtraction of quantities that contain uncer-
tainty. The formulas described here are actually overestimates of the propagated
uncertainty. This is because you have assumed that the error in two indepen-
dent variables are simultaneously at the extremes of their possible range of values,
which is highly improbable. For an advanced discussion of error analysis, which
includes a universal formula for error propagation (that is not an overestimate),
see Appendix B.
[4.1] Question:
a. Show that Eq. (4.1) is just a special case of Eq. (4.4) where Y =0.
b. If the driving mass from activity 2 equals 251g, what is the uncertainty
in the force due to gravity acting on the driving mass near the earths
surface?
c. What is the sum of two masses, each having 75.20.3 kg of mass?
d. If A =31 K, write A in percent-uncertainty form.
e. If B =7.0 (5%) kg, write B in absolute-uncertainty form (dont forget to
round correctly).
f. If I measure a car traveling 40 (5%) m in 200(10%) s, use Eq. (4.3)
to calculate the cars approximate average speed (written in percent-
uncertainty form).
g. If I had told you that each measurement (distance and time) of the travel-
ing car had an uncertainty of 1% and that the average speed =0.200.05
[or 0.2(25%)], does this statement make sense? Why or why not?
h. The percent dierence between a measured value and a predicted value
is 10%. The percent uncertainty in that measurement is 1%. Is the
measurement precise? Does the percent dierence suggest an accurate
measurement? Why or why not?
Instructor Notes:
a. 25010 mN
b. 150.40.6 kg
c. A =3(33%) K
d. B =7.00.4 kg
e. 0.2(15%)
m
s
f. The statement is missing units and since you can overestimate the uncer-
tainty to be 2%, 25% is too high.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
56 CHAPTER 4. CENTRIPETAL FORCE
g. No, the percent difference the percent uncertainty. The result is not very
accurate compared to the high precision of the measurement.
4.3 Introduction
This week you will model the motion of a spinning object on the end of a string
using the concept of centripetal force.
What is Centripetal Force?
According to Newtons rst law, a body moving at a constant velocity will continue
to undergo straight line motion at a constant speed unless acted upon by a net
force. Should a net force act parallel to the bodys straight line motion, the body
will accelerate along that same line. For example, in activity 2 the driving mass
experienced two external forces, tension pulling the mass up and gravity pulling
the mass down. Since the gravitational force was greater than the tension force
and the mass was constrained to only move in one dimension (vertical), the net
force pointed down and the driving mass accelerated in a straight line toward the
center of the earth. As a result, the driving masss speed changed with time (i.e.,
accelerated), but it did not deviate from a straight line path. However, in activity
3 the projectile took a curved path. Again, there was a net external force (due to
gravity), which always pointed fromthe projectile to the center of the earth. What
was different for the projectile was that it could(anddid) move intwo dimensions.
In doing so, the projectile had a velocity that was not parallel to the net force, and
therefore exhibited a curved trajectory.
Whenever a body experiences a net force that is not parallel to its velocity, the
body will undergo curved motion. The component of that net force pointing from
the body toward a xed center of curvature can be identied as the centripetal
force

F
c
and has a corresponding net acceleration called the centripetal accelera-
tion a
c
. In the projectile example, the xed center of curvature was the center of
the earth and the net force or centripetal force was caused by earths gravitational
pull. For the special case wherein the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is
constant (and theres no additional tangential acceleration component), the body
will undergo uniform circular motion.
[4.2] Question: During uniform circular motion the bodys angular speed
(and therefore tangential speed) is constant. Given that fact, what aspect of
the bodys velocity is changing with time and therefore resulting in acceler-
ation?
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
4.3. INTRODUCTION 57
Instructor Notes:
The direction of the the velocity changes with time.
A common misconception is that the centripetal force is itself an additional exter-
nal force included within the sum of forces acting on a body. For example, when
a car turns on a banked road the sum (of the relevant components) of the static
frictional force

F
static
and the normal force

F
normal
(from the road on the car) pro-
duces a net centripetal acceleration. Inother words, the net force causes the car to
turn and is therefore identied as the centripetal force

F
static
+

F
normal
=

F
net
=

F
c
.
There is not an additional centripetal force working with static friction and the
normal force causing the cars circular path, i.e.,

F
static
+

F
normal
+

F
c
=

F
net
.
[4.3] Question: Name the individual external forces that cause a net cen-
tripetal acceleration in each scenario:
a. The moon orbiting the earth
b. A pendulum held with a string
c. A car turning on a at road
d. An astronaut walking inside an articial gravity (spinning) space station
e. A hydrogen atoms electron orbiting the hydrogen atom nucleus.
Instructor Notes:
a. Gravity
b. Gravity and Tension
c. Static Friction
d. Normal force
e. Electrical (Coulomb) force
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
58 CHAPTER 4. CENTRIPETAL FORCE
[4.4] Question: When youre a passenger in a car that is turning, you get
the sensation of being pushed to the outside of the turn. The push you feel is
from a ctitious force felt in the cars non-inertial reference frame. As viewed
from an inertial reference frame, can you explain why the car passenger feels
pushed to the outside of the turn?
Instructor Notes:
Your students may have trouble with terms like inertial and non-inertial ref-
erence frame, so be prepared to discuss the denitions of those terms.
Even as the car turns, your body is always trying to take a straight line path.
However, the car keeps interrupting that straight line path by applying a nor-
mal force pushing you toward the inside of the turn. What you perceive as
a force pushing you to the outside of the turn is really the car continuously
interrupting your straight line motion. In other words the car is running into
you, youre not accelerating toward it.
Centripetal Force A net force that is radial and central seeking causing
curved motion may be described as

F =

F
net
=m a
c
=
mv
2
t
R
r (4.6)
where

F =

F
net
(Newtons second law) describes the sum of the
external forces acting on a body with mass m in the radial direction
r . The minus sign signies that the centripetal force must point
radially inward. The net acceleration is identied as a centripetal
acceleration a
c
. The centripetal acceleration is shown (without
proof ) to be a function of the bodys tangential speed v
t
and the
bodys curved trajectory radius R (see Fig. 4.1).
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
4.4. APPARATUS ANDTHEORY 59
Figure 4.1 (a) Free body diagram with two external forces acting on a body
with mass m resulting in a net force that causes curved motion. (b) Diagram
of the bodys circular trajectory (dashed) of radius R, tangential speed v
t
and
centripetal acceleration a
c
.
4.4 Apparatus and Theory
Purpose and Apparatus
The purpose of this experiment is to derive a mathematical model describing the
dynamics of an apparatus containing a spinning body, as depicted in Fig. 4.2, and
to test the accuracy of that model. The apparatus consists of a rubber stopper
that is attached to one end of a string using an eye bolt, where the mass of the
stopper-bolt body is m
sb
. The string passes through a plastic tube and is attached
to a hanging weight with mass m
H
on the other end of the string.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
60 CHAPTER 4. CENTRIPETAL FORCE
Figure 4.2 Diagram of apparatus showing each body (m
sb
and m
H
), the
string with a marked segment (thicker segment near top of pipe) a distance
L from m
sb
s center of mass, and the pipe (gray). The angle of the turning
string segment is below the horizontal.
[4.5] Action-Item: you must wear eye protection at all times
Weigh the stopper-bolt body to determine m
sb
. Assemble the apparatus as
depicted in Fig. 4.2. Always choose your hanging mass such that m
H
>m
sb
!
To test spinning the stopper, hold the tube in one hand and the hanging mass
with the other. Spin the stopper until the marked string segment equilibrates
at the top of the tube. The marked string segment should now represent
the stoppers center of rotation. Release m
H
once you feel youve reached
the correct angular speed to keep the center of rotation xed on the marked
segment.
Instructor Notes:
The TA should check before class that each station has the proper equip-
ment and that the string used has a mark on it. If not, add the mark to the
string (with a Sharpie or something like that) before class. Make sure that you
mark the string in such a place that the person spinning the stopper wont get
whacked in the face.
[4.6] Think-About-It: Why is it necessary for m
H
>m
sb
?
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
4.4. APPARATUS ANDTHEORY 61
Instructor Notes:
From Eq. (4.6)
m
sb
v
2
t
R
= F
T
x
=
_
(F
T
)
2

_
F
T
y
_
2
=
_
_
m
H
g
_
2

_
m
sb
g
_
2
, so if
m
H
< m
sb
then the magnitude of the centripetal force is imaginary. In other
words, it makes no sense to have the Y component of the tensiongreater than
the total magnitude of the tension. When the system is not spinning (setup
looks like an Atwood machine), it must accelerate toward the hanging mass
and not the stopper-bolt mass. This is because the net acceleration toward
the hanging mass is the centripetal acceleration once the system is spinning
and must point radially inward. If m
H
<m
sb
, the acceleration would be radi-
ally outward.
[4.7] Question: Which way does the marked segment on the string move if
you spin the stopper faster? Slower? Try it and explain why using Eq. (4.6).
Instructor Notes:
Since the masses will not change, the magnitude of the centripetal force will
remain constant F
c
= F
T
x
=
_
(F
T
)
2

_
F
T
y
_
2
=
_
_
m
H
g
_
2

_
m
sb
g
_
2
. If you
increase the tangential speed in Eq. (4.6) you must also increase the radius to
keep the right hand side constant. Therefore, the marked segment will move
radially out if the stopper is spun faster.
Theory
You must develop a mathematical model describing the dynamics of the appara-
tus. The model will be derived using Eq. (4.6) and should be written as a function
of directly measurable quantities.
[4.8] Question: Using the variable names shown in Fig. 4.2 derive the
relationship between the period of rotation and the mass ratio M
m
sb
m
H
by
doing the following:
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
62 CHAPTER 4. CENTRIPETAL FORCE
a. Draw a free body diagram for each mass.
b. Use your free body diagrams and Newtons second law to determine the
X and Y components of the net force acting on each mass.
c. Consider the force on m
sb
, what happens if M <1? Can you explain the
reasoning behind Think-About-It 4.6?
d. Since measuring tangential speed is dicult, instead write the centripetal
acceleration as a function of the orbital period T rather than v
t
(if you
cant remember the relationship try to derive it using unit analysis).
e. Use Eq. (4.6) to relate the horizontal component of the string tension F
T
x
to the centripetal force.
f. Use your previous results to arrive at
T
2
=
_
4
2
L
g
_
M (4.7)
where g is the acceleration due to gravity and L is the length of string
between the center of rotation and stopper-bolt bodys center-of-mass.
g. Show that the units on the right hand side and left hand side of Eq. (4.7)
match.
h. Using Eq. (4.7), name the independent and dependent variables for a
linear plot whose sl ope =
_
4
2
L
g
_
. What are the units of this slope? What
is the Y intercept, explain your answer?
i. What assumptions were made within this model? Think about the kind
of assumptions considered within the previous activities.
Check with your TA before proceeding to the next section.
Instructor Notes:
Youll want to make sure each group has the correct theory (model) before
they start performing the experiment.
For m
sb
, Newtons second law tells us F
net
y
= 0 F
T
y
= m
sb
g and F
net
x
=
m
sb
v
2
t
R
= F
T
x
= F
T
cos(). You can rewrite R and v
t
as Lcos() and
2Lcos()
T
,
respectively. Therefore, one can write F
net
x
as m
sb
L
_
2
T
_
2
=F
T
. For m
H
, New-
tons second law tells us F
net
y
= 0 F
T
= m
H
g. Clearly, substituting F
T
into
the previous results and solving for T
2
gives you Eq. (4.7).
Given the relationship in Eq. (4.7) the students task will be to measure the
orbital period for different mass ratios at a xed L. They can make a linear
plot of T
2
vs. M. Since you are changing M and measuring T, it makes sense
to call T
2
the dependent variable and M the independent variable. However,
since the question tells you the exact form of the slope, there can be no other
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
4.5. EXPERIMENT 63
answer. If students are confused, try writing the equation of a line in slope
intercept form underneath Eq. (4.7). Ask them to identify or match which
parts of Eq. (4.7) correspond to the variables in the equation of a line.
Some of the assumptions within this model are the following: the mass of the
string is negligible, the string does not stretch, there is no friction between the
string and the pipe, and there is negligible air drag on the spinning mass.
4.5 Experiment
[4.9] Action-Item:
Given your answer to Question [4.8] part (h), your task will be to measure
the dependent variable for six dierent values of the independent variable.
Once youve completed your measurements, make a scatter plot of your
results.
Your plot should include the following: experimental data points and
both X & Y error bars on the experimental data (calculation of error bars
discussed below).
This week, you will draw two (solid) theoretical curves derived from
Eq. (4.7). First, you must independently measure L with a ruler and
determine its uncertainty L. You can assume the term
4
2
g
has negligible
uncertainty. Second, using Eq. (4.1) establish the uncertainty in the theo-
retical curves slope sl ope
theory
. The theoretical slope is an example of a
quantity that must be calculated with a measured quantity (L). Because
L has uncertainty, the calculated slope must have propagated uncertainty.
Third, draw two curves, one using sl ope
theory
+sl ope
theory
and one us-
ing sl ope
theory
sl ope
theory
on the same plot as the experimental data
points.
[4.10] Question: Is L due to device uncertainty and/or process uncer-
tainty? What is the precision of the instrument? If you could, how would
you determine its accuracy?
[4.11] Question: What does the region between the two theoretical curves
signify?
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
64 CHAPTER 4. CENTRIPETAL FORCE
Instructor Notes:
The region between the two curves represents the range of values predicted
by the theory. The theory must predict a range of values because the input
used to calculate the theoretical predictioncontains uncertainty, which prop-
agates through the calculation. Using Eq. (4.1) sl ope
theory
=
4
2
L
ruler
g
. The
ruler has a precision of 1 mm due to device uncertainty. To determine the
accuracy of the ruler youd need to test the ruler against a more accurate refer-
ence. One has to estimate the bolt-stopper systems center-of-mass. You also
must leave wiggle roomfor the marked segment of the string to move around.
Last, the pipe has a nite radius so the marked string length is systematically
shorter than what the model predicts. Considering all these factors I overes-
timated L =10 mm and sl ope
theory
=0.04s
2
.
Figure 4.3 An example of an actual data set showing good agreement be-
tween theory and experiment. The equation and dashed line correspond to
a line of best t. The students are not required to include this line in their
reports.
[4.12] Action-Item: Using a stopwatch, you could directly measure the
stopper-bolts orbital period by measuring the duration of a single orbit.
Why is it advantageous to measure the total duration t of several orbits and
divide by the number of orbits N, whereT =
t
N
? Are you improving device
uncertainty or process uncertainty?
The answer has to do with reducing the uncertainty T
t
N
, which de-
pends on your reaction time t
1
.
Devise a separate procedure to determine your reaction time, discuss this
procedure with your TA before moving forward.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
4.5. EXPERIMENT 65
Is there such a thing as too large an N? Think about the potential process
uncertainty.
How will you estimate the uncertainty in the directly measured quantities
m
sb
and m
H
? Is this uncertainty random or systematic?
Explain your answers in the mini report procedure section. Once you are
satised with your procedure, perform the experiment. Remember, it is
advantageous to rst make an Excel spreadsheet with all the variables you
need to keep track of and their respective uncertainty before starting your
data collection.
[4.13] Action-Item: Use what you know about percent uncertainty [see
Eq. (4.4)] to go from the uncertainty T to the propagated absolute un-
certainty in T
2
, which youll need for your plots error bars. You can also
use the masses percent uncertainty to determine the mass ratios absolute
uncertainty M M
_
m
sb
m
sb
+
m
H
m
H
_
, which youll also need for your plots error
bars
2
. Write out the formula for T
2
(which you must calculate) and M
(which has already been given to you) in your analysis section of your mini
report.
Instructor Notes:
When measuring the stoppers orbital period one should measure the total
time t of multiple periods and then divide by the number of periods mea-
sured N. If the periodis T =
t
N
, thenthe uncertainty inthe periodT =
t
N
(as-
suming N =0) where t is the uncertainty in your reaction time. Therefore,
as N increases (a larger number of periods are measured) the uncertainty in
the periodT decreases. You are not improving the stopwatch, rather you are
addressing a procedural concern, therefore you have improve process uncer-
tainty. Using the percent uncertainty discussion in the pre-lab work, the stu-
dents should be able to calculate
T
2
exp
T
2
exp
=
2t
t
T
2
exp
=
2t t
N
2
. You should have
your students also realize that if N is too large the systemmay change insome
way during the measurement, e.g., the stoppers spinning axis becomes tilted.
The longer you take the measurement the harder it is to keep the apparatus
repeating the same motion.
Your students could estimate their reaction time by trying to start and stop
the timer as fast as they can. Another way is to have one person drop a meter
stick and have the timer (the person doing the timing) catch the stick. Since
the stick will accelerate at g, the students reaction time t =
_
2x
g
where x is
the distance the stick dropped before it was caught by the timer.
1
The formula T =
t
N
was derived using Eq. (4.1).
2
The formula M =M
_
m
sb
m
sb
+
m
H
m
H
_
was derived using Eq. (4.4).
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
66 CHAPTER 4. CENTRIPETAL FORCE
The mass will be measured using the balance scale. The scale must be cal-
ibrated using a set screw that displaces a small amount of weight so as to
center the balance needle. There is some potential for systematic error in this
calibration that should be estimated. Additionally the scale has 0.1 g preci-
sion. For the data shown in Fig. 4.3 I have assumed a constant net uncertainty
of 1% for each mass and therefore approximately 2% for the mass ratio.
[4.14] Think-About-It: Does your plot have all the necessary information?
Do your results make sense?
[4.15] Action-Item: How can you use your plot to test the accuracy of your
model? Think about the variables and results that can be used for compar-
isons to support or contradict the model. For example, are the experimental
data actually linear? Do the data t within the theoretically predicted region?
If not, is the disagreement random or systematic? If there is a systematic
disagreement, can you trace the source of the error? Discuss your answers
in the analysis section of your mini report.
[4.16] Action-Item: In your conclusion section of your mini report discuss
changes to the procedure that could improve process uncertainty.
Instructor Notes:
Figure 4.3 shows a very linear result. All the data points show agreement with
the region of theory. There seems to be slight systematic trend toward the
lower theoretical curve. Should students also nd a systematic trend, they
should speculate as to why this occurred. However, one can reasonably con-
clude that the model makes accurate predictions within the precision of the
measurements.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
Chapter 5
Momentum
5.1 Pre-lab
You will begin with a short exercise to give you practice moving between verbal,
mathematical, and graphical representations. The topic discussed is not one that
you are expected to know in advance. An understanding of helicity is not neces-
sary to complete this exercise.
All particles spin. Helicity is the term that describes the spin of a given particle.
Photons (particles of light) spin in one of two directions: in the direction of their
motion, or exactly opposite the direction of their motion. The law of conserva-
tion of helicity states that for an isolated system, the total helicity of the system is
constant.
An isolated system (as dened in Subsection 5.3) is a set of objects that does not
interact with the rest of the Universe. For now, consider a set of ve photons and
assume that they do not interact with the rest of the Universe.
[5.1] Question:The only informational resource you should use to answer
the pre-lab questions is your lab manual.
a. Pick a variable to represent the helicity of a single photon.
b. Consider the ve photons as a single system. Develop a mathematical
representation of the total helicity of the system; i.e., write the sum of
the helicities.
c. Develop a formula for the helicity of the system at some point in time.
Call that the initial helicity.
d. Develop a formula for the helicity of the system at a later point in time.
Call that the nal helicity.
e. Using those two formulae, develop a mathematical representation for the
law of conservation of helicity.
68 CHAPTER 5. MOMENTUM
Instructor Notes:
a. Anything; Ill use H. b.

i =1. . . 5
H
i
c. H
t ot
i ni t i al
= H
1
i ni t i al
+ H
2
i ni t i al
+
H
3
i ni t i al
+H
4
i ni t i al
+H
5
i ni t i al
d. Same, but for H
f i nal
e. H
t ot
i ni t i al
= H
t ot
f i nal
The point here is to give the students some practice with the style of thought
we want them to use in the activity without cluttering up the problem with
conceptual questions. Helicity was chosen because this is a true statement
and it is highly unlikely that any student will have any experience with it. Re-
view this at the start of the lab.
5.2 Introduction
This week, you will use the theory of conservation of momentum to develop your
own model of conservation of momentum and test your model against some ex-
perimental results. You will analyze your model using a graph of nal momentum
versus initial momentum. This is a challenging lab. Developing and using your
own models are difcult skills that are improved throughout an experimentalists
working career. In the professional world, scientists seek out more experienced
colleagues to offer advice on difcult problems. In the lab room, your teaching
assistant is your more experienced colleague and a valuable source of advice.
5.3 Apparatus and Theory
Apparatus
The apparatus consists of a dynamics track, two motion sensors, two carts, and
cart masses. One end of each cart contains a small pair of magnets. The opposite
ends of each pair of carts have matching Velcro tabs. At this point, you have used
all of these components with the PASCO software. Look at the experiments from
the previous weeks to refresh your memory. Your teaching assistant will provide
the values of the various masses.
Theory
System
To understand conservation of momentum properly, you must rst understand
the meaning physicists attach to the word system.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
5.3. APPARATUS ANDTHEORY 69
System Aset of objects withanimaginary boundary betweenthat set and
the rest of the Universe.
Isolated system A system which does not interact with the rest of the
Universe on any level.
Physicists have yet to nd a single example of a true isolated system. All the mat-
ter in the Universe is affected by at least one of the fundamental forces: gravity,
electromagnetism, and the strong and weak nuclear forces. All systems exchange
energy with the rest of the Universe. However, many accurate and precise results
can be produced by modeling systems as isolated systems. The primary motiva-
tion for treating systems as isolated is that the analysis of the physics affecting the
system becomes much simpler.
In order to determine whether a system can be treated as an isolated system, you
must ask: what forces are exerted on the objects in the system by the rest of the
Universe? What forces are exerted on the rest of the Universe by the objects in the
system? It may be more useful to consider: what energy enters the system from
the rest of the Universe, and what energy enters the rest of the Universe from the
system? The framework of forces and the framework of energy are equally valid,
but one set of questions may be easier to answer than another.
For example, consider a system consisting of a ceramic mug and the hot coffee it
contains. It is true that the molecules on the surface of the coffee exert a normal
force on surrounding air molecules. It is also true that thermal energy leaves this
system and enters the surrounding air, and this explanation is easier for many
people to understand. If you are interested in the change of temperature of the
coffee as a function of time, the unequal exchange of thermal energy with the sur-
rounding air will be important, and the system can not be considered isolated.
[5.2] Question: A cart rolls along a smooth horizontal surface, i.e., it is not
acted on by any external force as it rolls. Dene the system as the cart. You
are interested in the acceleration of the cart as it rolls. Can this situation be
modeled as an isolated system?
Instructor Notes:
Yes.
Note that in an ideal world, an isolated system would be any system which
has no external inuences. That is not possible. However, systems can be
considered isolated for certain purposes. Thus, the answers to the following
questions depend on their context. In these questions, the context is indi-
cated by the phrase You are interested in....
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
70 CHAPTER 5. MOMENTUM
[5.3] Question: A cart rolls along a smooth horizontal surface. The cart
then hits a wall. Dene the system as the cart. You are interested in the
acceleration of the cart during the collision. Can this situation be modeled
as an isolated system?
Instructor Notes:
No, external force exerted on system was signicant.
[5.4] Question: A ball rolls at constant velocity along a table to the edge
and falls to the oor. Dene the system as the ball.
a. Consider the ball during the time that it is on the table. You are interested
in the acceleration of the ball as it rolls. Can it be modeled as an isolated
system?
b. Consider the ball during the time that it is falling. You are interested in
the acceleration of the ball as it falls. Can it be modeled as an isolated
system?
Instructor Notes:
a. Yes; b. No
[5.5] Question: The cue ball collides with the 10-ball in a game of eight-ball.
a. Consider the cue ball alone. You are interested in the velocity of the cue
ball after the collision. Can the cue ball be modeled as an isolated system?
b. Consider the cue ball and the 10-ball together. You are interested in the
velocity of the cue ball after the collision. Can the pair be modeled as an
isolated system?
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
5.3. APPARATUS ANDTHEORY 71
Instructor Notes:
a. No; b. Yes
Question 5.5 illustrates an important point. Given a system which can not be
modeled as isolated, you can sometimes adjust the choice of system in a way that
allows the new system to be modeled as isolated. This is usually done by adding
an object to the system.
When performing an experiment, deciding whether you can model a system as
isolated also depends on your measurements. A system can be considered iso-
lated if the net external force is not signicant. One way to determine signif-
icance is to look at the precision of your measurements or desired results. If the
net external force exerted on your systemis on the same order as (or smaller than)
the uncertainty of your measurements, than for your experiment, the system can
be considered an isolated system.
[5.6] Think-About-It: You have a system consisting of the planet Earth and
a freely-falling ball. You measured the acceleration of the freely-falling ball
with an uncertainty of 0.1
m
s
2
. If the force of air resistance acting on the ball
caused the acceleration to change by 0.03
m
s
2
, could you consider the Earth-
ball system to be an isolated system? If the force of air resistance acting on
the ball caused the acceleration to change by 0.2
m
s
2
, could you consider the
Earth-ball system to be an isolated system? If the answer to either of these
was No, how might you adjust your choice of system?
Momentum
Descriptively, momentum is a measure of how much motion is present in an ob-
ject or system. Mathematically, momentum is a vector quantity dened as
p =mv (5.1)
where m is the mass of an object, v is its velocity, and p represents momentum.
The momentum of a system is the sum of the momenta of all the objects in the
system. Momentum is a vector quantity, and therefore, the direction of each mo-
mentum must be accounted for in the sum.
[5.7] Question: A Toyota AE86 Trueno has a mass of 101190 kg and is
moving with a velocity of 1503
km
h
north. What is the cars momentum
in SI units, including the absolute uncertainty? Look back at Eq. (4.3) to
refresh your memory on nding the uncertainty of a product.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
72 CHAPTER 5. MOMENTUM
Instructor Notes:
The magnitude of v is 41.7 0.8
m
s
(assuming no uncertainty in the
conversion); p = 42 10
3
4 10
3
kg
m
s
. Students may need to be reminded
to round their answer properly.
The momentumof anobject canbe determinedat any instant intime. Frequently,
physicists are also interested in the change in momentum experienced by an ob-
ject.
[5.8] Question: Rank the magnitude of the change in momentum of a ball
from largest to smallest for the following situations:
a. The ball is moving with constant velocity, hits a wall, and stops moving.
b. The ball is moving with constant velocity, hits a wall and bounces back
with its original speed.
c. The ball is moving with constant velocity, misses the wall and continues
onward, changing neither speed nor direction.
Instructor Notes:
b.,a.,c.
Recall that in physics, a theory is an explanation of a physical phenomenon, usu-
ally an explanation that is backed by substantial experimental evidence. A law
is a component of a theory. It is a concise formulation, usually mathematical, of
a physical phenomenon described by the theory. As part of a theory, a physical
lawis always backed by substantial experimental evidence. This week, you will be
using a law known as the law of conservation of momentum.
Conservation of momentum In any isolated system, the total momen-
tum of that system will be conserved. The total quantity of mo-
mentum in a given isolated system will remain constant.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
5.3. APPARATUS ANDTHEORY 73
The law of conservation of momentum is most frequently invoked in situations
involving collisions. During a real-world collision, forces are exerted in compli-
cated ways. Even a collision between a hard rubber ball and the oor involves
forces of varying magnitude and direction exerted over a sizable portion of the
balls surface. In contrast, the law of conservation of momentum allows you to
avoid the details of the collision entirely. Instead, you focus on a moment be-
fore the collision and a moment after the collision, and extract useful information
about the system from that inspection. Details of the collision itself will remain
obscure. Thus, experimentation in collisions is extremely important.
[5.9] Think-About-It: In light of this information, what contributions do the
National Highway Trac Safety Administration and the Insurance Institute
for Highway Safety make to our society?
[5.10] Action-Item: You have had some practice using mathematical mod-
els developed from theories. Now, take the verbal statement of the law of
conservation of momentum, and develop a mathematical representation that
contains the same information. If you have already worked with momentum
in class, this will be a trivial exercise. If not, this is your chance to practice
your skill at moving between dierent representations of information.
Introductory physics classes present two models for collisions, dubbed elastic
and inelastic.
Elastic collision A collision in which momentum and kinetic energy are
each conserved. Informally, a totally elastic collision is as bouncy
as a collision could be.
Inelastic collision A collision in which kinetic energy is not conserved.
Informally, a totally inelastic collision is a collision in which the col-
liding objects end by sticking rmly together.
Most real-world collisions are neither totally elastic nor totally inelastic. They are
dubbed partially inelastic collisions. The degree to which objects bounce off
each other in a collision indicates the degree of elasticity in the collision.
Instructor Notes:
Technically, collisions using stored energy can be bouncier than perfectly
elastic. Feel free to bring this up if desired, but it was thought better to keep it
out of the lab.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
74 CHAPTER 5. MOMENTUM
[5.11] Think-About-It: You have a system consisting of two masses, m
A
and m
B
. They slide toward each other on a frictionless surface and collide.
If the collision is totally inelastic, how does the velocity of m
A
after collision
compare to the velocity of m
B
after collision?
Instructor Notes:
This think-about-it is intended to drive home the following point: Given two
bodies that collide in a totally inelastic collision, the two bodies can be con-
sidered a single unit of mass m
A
+m
B
and velocity v
f
after the collision.
The law of conservation of momentum is only valid for an isolated system. You
must decide whether the system can be considered isolated. Therefore, you must
look at the collision qualitatively to determine whether or not the systemis signif-
icantly affected by the rest of the Universe. The answer will depend on the degree
of precision you need in your response. A two-car collision with both cars braking
is not an isolated system. However, such a collision can be modeled as an isolated
system for many purposes because the energy lost by the cars in collision far ex-
ceeds the loss of energy as heat to the pavement, the loss of energy as sound to
the air, etc. (see Think-about-it 5.6). If you decide the system can be modeled
as an isolated system, you can ignore the collision itself and focus on the simple
physics that governs the situation before and after.
[5.12] Think-About-It: Think about an inelastic collision you have wit-
nessed. Was it totally inelastic or partially inelastic? What was the outcome?
What could have been done to make it elastic?
[5.13] Action-Item: Use your mathematical representation of the law of
conservation of momentum to create a model of a totally inelastic collision
between two objects. Do not use your resources to develop this model.
Consider your answer to Think-about 5.11 when developing this model.
[5.14] Think-About-It: Pick a variable that appears in your model. What
happens to your model if the value of that variable is very large? What
happens to your model if the value of that variable is very small? Do these
answers make sense, given your life experience? Feel free to perform small
experiments to help you answer these questions. If you pick a dierent
variable, do the answers still make sense?
Considering what happens at the extremes is a good way to conrm that a math-
ematical model makes sense.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
5.3. APPARATUS ANDTHEORY 75
Another good habit of an experimentalist is to make sure that your work lines up
with your goal.
[5.15] Think-About-It:Remember that you will be asked to graph nal
momentum versus initial momentum at the end of the lab. Does your current
model give you what you need to make this graph? Based on your model,
what do you expect this graph to look like?
Check with your TA before proceeding with the lab.
Instructor Notes:
Students may know the answer in advance from lecture, but if they dont al-
ready know it, dont let them use any resources to nd itmake them work
it out. At the TA check, if students have developed models which are consis-
tent with their mathematical representation of the lawof conservation of mo-
mentum, they should be allowed to proceed. Elastic collisions were avoided
for reasons explained below. If students develop a type of model other than
mathematical, and they can use it to compare against their experimental re-
sults at the desired level of accuracy, allow them to proceed.
[5.16] Question: Once you have developed your model, list all the assump-
tions in your model. Look back at previous labs for prompts. Do not use any
other resource.
[5.17] Think-About-It: Of all the assumptions on your list, which single
assumption do you think is least reliable?
Identifying the least reliable assumption is the rst step to determining the un-
certainty in your model. The next step is to determine the amount of uncertainty
contributed by that factor. This process is repeated for all assumptions that are
identied as non-negligible.
Identifying the contribution of uncertainty to a model or experiment is a skill that
only comes with experience in the eld. In this case, your TA will assess your
selection, and then provide you with an appropriate model uncertainty based on
your model. Your TA will rst ask you for the evidence you used in selecting your
least reliable assumption, so have your answer ready.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
76 CHAPTER 5. MOMENTUM
Instructor Notes:
Do ask for their evidence, but dont push itthis may be over their heads
and could cause stress. This is the type of question that is nearly impos-
sible to answer in advance. However, assuming that the students come up
with the standard m
A
v
A0
+m
B
v
B0
=(m
A
+m
B
)v
f
for a model, the least reli-
able assumption is that friction is non-negligible and the model uncertainty
is 0.03
m
s
2
(t
f i t
) where t
f i t
is the time over which they perform a linear t on
the distance versus time curve to determine their velocities. The 0.03
m
s
2
came
frommeasurements of a cart rolling along under what should have been con-
stant velocity. Its acceleration appeared to be about 0.03
m
s
2
. Suggestions for
providing a simpler model uncertainty would be gratefully received. You can
ask your students to performthe sub-experiment of determining the effect of
friction by modeling a cart rolling along themselves, but the impression we
have is that cognitive load is probably high enough already.
5.4 Experiment
Design
You used your mathematical representationof the lawof conservationof momen-
tum to develop a mathematical model of a basic type of collision. Now, you will
test your model against experimental results. The goal of this subsection is to cre-
ate a repeatable series of inelastic collisions.
[5.18] Action-Item: Work with the supplied equipment until you are familiar
with the conditions necessary to create an inelastic collision. Continue until
you are able to reliably repeat an inelastic collision.
Instructor Notes:
We could ask them to perform elastic collisions as well. The drawback is the
magnetic repulsion on the carts, which causes elastic collisions to happen
over a longer period of time. If students are not extremely careful to choose
data before and after this longer and more subtle collision, they will not get
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
5.4. EXPERIMENT 77
good results. And over the short track distances, there arent many measure-
ments in the clearly before and clearly after stage. If your students have
time at the end of lab, encourage themto try it and let us knowwhat happens.
The next step is to determine the variables you should study in this experiment.
[5.19] Think-About-It: The goal of this experiment is to produce results
that you can test against your mathematical model. Look back at your
mathematical model. What variables appear in your model that you can
measure with the supplied equipment? Are there any variables in your model
that you could measure indirectly? You may use your resources to nd an
appropriate relationship between a measurable and a quantity in your model.
Instructor Notes:
At this point, you have already had a chance to conrm that they created a
model on their own, so allowing them to use their resources will not injure
the pedagogical impact of the experiment.
For each quantity you identied in Think-About 5.19, pilot all necessary measure-
ments. Adjust your procedure as necessary to take your measurements. Notice
that the track has a nite length. Most experiments will include multiple colli-
sions as the objects bounce off the end stops. Adjust either your procedure or
your analysis to include only one collision per experiment.
[5.20] Question: Look at a graph of position versus time.
a. Can you identify the moment of collision?
b. How should the moment of collision look in a graph of velocity versus
time?
Note that the signs of the velocities of the two sensors are not consistent. Youneed
to correct for that by establishing one coordinate systemfor the entire experiment
and enforce your own directions on that basis.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
78 CHAPTER 5. MOMENTUM
Instructor Notes:
This section is necessarily vague. The details will depend on the individual
groups model. Prompts such as, What does the motion sensor measure? Do
any of those appear in your model? may be helpful. If they cant remember
what the equipment does, encourage themto look back at previous labs, read
the software Help, or just play around with the sensor. One drawback of this
less-controlled environment is that students are apt to become frustrated. Do
intervene and supply more information if students appear to be reaching the
point where they are no longer capable of learning due to emotional inter-
ference. We found that taking the slope of the position versus time curve to
obtain the initial and nal velocities of each cart worked very well. The po-
sition versus time graph can clearly expose problems, such as bumps in the
track, as pictured in the results supplied at the end of this lab for TA use.
[5.21] Think-About-It: Remember, your model was constructed on the
basis of an isolated system. For each collision you design, you must dene
your system and convince yourself that the system can be modeled as an
isolated system. It may be helpful to consider the following questions: Under
what conditions would gravity count as an external force? How could you
tell if friction was aecting your experiment? How could you tell if there was
a bump in the track? Are there other external forces or energies that could
aect your experiment? Consider your answer to Think-about-it 5.6 when
thinking about these questions.
Instructor Notes:
If this were a cookbook lab, we would direct the students to level the track,
make sure the motion sensor was snug against the end of the track, check
the wheels of the cart, and watch for anomalous changes in the slope of the
position versus time graph. Now we are explicitly and deliberately avoiding
saying those things, but thats what we want them to do. Keep an eye on their
data. If you see a problem in their data, point it out. Ask them, What is that
feature? and dont let themavoid dealing with it. By the way, bumps are fairly
easy to deal with if they use position versus time graph: adjust the procedure
so that the collision happens enough on one side or the other to allow you to
take at least 3 points after avoiding it or before hitting it.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
5.5. ANALYSIS 79
Make as many notes as you need to reproduce each type of collision and take all
necessary measurements.
Measurement
Nowthat you canreliably reproduce certaincollisions and take all necessary mea-
surements, it is time to run your experiment.
[5.22] Think-About-It: How many measurements should you take? Can
you average the measurements from multiple experiments? If not, why not?
What can you do to provide evidence that your data are reliable?
Instructor Notes:
The initial impulse is probably not repeatable (cant exactly repeat the
strength of a push). Thus, averaging is out. However, they can still take a
number of runs and look at the number of runs out of the total that were suc-
cessful. More runs will still lead to higher reliability.
[5.23] Action-Item: Run your experiment and record all data.
Instructor Notes:
A key concern here is that the students save their data in a form that allows
them to analyze the uncertainty in their measurements.
5.5 Analysis
The goal of this section is to determine whether your experimental results agree
with your interpretation of the theory. To answer this question, you must rst
understand the uncertainty in your model and your experiment. First, consider
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
80 CHAPTER 5. MOMENTUM
your experiment. You measured a number of quantities. For some of these quan-
tities, the uncertainty will be a xed valuefor example, the cart mass has a xed
uncertainty. The uncertainty in other quantities will depend on your procedure.
[5.24] Action-Item: Prepare a concise statement which includes each quan-
tity you measured and the procedure you used to measure it. Present this
to your TA. Your TA will help you determine a process for nding the un-
certainty in each measured quantity. Write down the procedures suggested
by the TA so that you can include it in your report and refer to it in future
weeks. Each group must go through this step, so please be patient!
Instructor Notes:
The students do not have the experience to do this on their own as yet. The
uncertainty in mass is a known. Here is a suggested process for the uncer-
tainty in velocity, as determined from a position versus time t. Again, this is
sketched out as you would say it to a student: Such a measurement has two
contributions to actual uncertainty: randomand process (which exact points
are chosen for the t). Random error can be read off PASCOs linear t to a
position versus time graph. Fitting one more or one fewer point will give a
new value of velocity. The difference between the original and new velocity
values, if larger than the original PASCO-provided uncertainty, should itself
be taken as the uncertainty. This indicates that the uncertainty in this quan-
tity is process-dominated. If your students models are different from our
assumption, we can only wish you good luck at this point.
[5.25] Action-Item: Following the procedure provided by your TA, nd the
uncertainty in each measured quantity.
[5.26] Question: For your measured quantities:
a. What type of uncertainty is associated with each quantity?
b. What measurement has the largest uncertainty?
c. Is there any measurement with an uncertainty so small that you feel it
can be neglected?
d. If you answered "Yes" to Part C, what evidence can you provide to support
your statement?
e. How could you identify a systematic error?
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
5.6. CONCLUSION 81
Instructor Notes:
One easy way to identify a systematic error in this case is to have groups com-
pare results with each other.
You will not compare each measured quantity to your model. Most likely, you are
combining measured quantities using some relationship. It is that resulting value
which you are comparing to a value that you extracted from your model.
[5.27] Action-Item:Use the error propagation rules provided in Chapter 4
to nd the error in each resulting value.
[5.28] Action-Item: Earlier in the activity, your TA gave you a value or a
process for determining your model uncertainty. Use that value or follow that
process to nd the uncertainty in your model. Unlike previous weeks, you
may need to determine a new model uncertainty for each run, depending on
the procedure you used to determine your experimental results.
[5.29] Action-Item: Compare your model to your experimental results. Use
a graph of nal momentum versus initial momentum to compare your model
to your experimental results. Be sure to include all uncertainties. When
drawing conclusions from your comparison, consider the number of runs for
which you found agreement and the total number of runs you recorded.
5.6 Conclusion
[5.30] Think-About-It: Do your experimental results support your mathe-
matical model? What evidence do you have for your response? If your model
was not supported by your results, do you think the experimental procedure,
equipment, model or analysis was at fault? Why? What follow-up work
would you suggest to another researcher?
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
82 CHAPTER 5. MOMENTUM
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
Chapter 6
Springs
6.1 Pre-lab
This weeks activity deals with springs.
[6.1] Question:
a. What is the function of a bed spring?
b. What is the function of the spring inside the projectile launcher from
Activity 3?
c. Based on your previous life experience, why not use a rubber band in the
projectile launcher?
Instructor Notes:
a. Support; b. provide initial kinetic energy to the system; c. Some
disadvantages of rubber bands: the elasticity of a rubber band changes
as it ages; it is less compact and more likely to break; a rubber band
obeys Hookes law only under certain conditions (for example, see the dis-
cussion at http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2012/08/do-rubber-
bands-act-like-springs/). Everyday experience with rubber bands
should allow the students to provide at least one of these answers.
Most springs are kept xed at one end, while the other end is free to move. When
no force is exerted on a spring, the free end will be at a particular point in space
known as the equilibrium position. If the free end of the spring is moved away
from the equilibrium position, the spring will begin exerting a force that opposes
that motion. The force exerted by the spring will tend to restore the spring to its
equilibrium position. Therefore, this type of force is called a restoring force.
84 CHAPTER 6. SPRINGS
Consider a system consisting of a spring hanging vertically in space. One end of
the spring is xed to the ceiling and can not move. The other end is attached to a
hanging mass, and can move. The mathematical model for the force exerted by a
spring on the hanging mass is
F
s
=k x, (6.1)
where k is the spring constant, which depends on the material properties of the
spring, and x is the displacement of the hanging mass from equilibrium,
x =x x
0
, (6.2)
where x is the position of the mass on the end of the spring at a particular mo-
ment in time, and x
0
is the equilibrium position of the mass on the spring. The
displacement is a useful way to describe the position of the mass at any given
moment.
Equation (6.1) is usually known as Hookes law, but it is more accurate to state that
it is a mathematical model of a real-world situation, rather than a physical law.
[6.2] Question:
a. Under what conditions is the force exerted by a spring on the hanging
mass equal to zero?
b. When is the force exerted by the spring on the mass positive?
c. When is the force exerted by the spring on the mass negative?
Instructor Notes:
F=0 if the displacement or spring constant is zero; F is positive (negative) if
the displacement is negative (positive). Encourage your students to be pre-
cise in their notation: the signs are different if one is discussing the force ex-
erted ON a spring.
6.2 Introduction
In this activity, you will use DataStudio and a motion sensor to record the motion
of a mass on a hanging spring as a function of time. You will use a computational
model of the motion to determine the spring constant of the spring. You will then
determine the damping co-efcient of the spring and quantify the energy lost due
to friction in a system consisting of a spring, a hanging mass, and the Earth.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
6.3. APPARATUS ANDTHEORY 85
6.3 Apparatus and Theory
Apparatus
The apparatus this week consists of the PASCOmotionsensor, twotypes of springs,
locking mass pans and some mass disks. The motion sensors have been carefully
aligned. Thus, please do not move the motion sensors.
A spring will be hung vertically from a stand. A locking mass pan will hang off
the free end of the spring. When using the locking mass pan, keep at least 50 g of
mass on the pan. This will provide a broader target for the motion sensor and will
keep the spring motion smooth. Never hang more than 200 g of mass (including
the mass of the locking mass pan) on either of the two types of springs.
Your TA will provide you with any necessary values.
Theory
The concept of energy is critical to the elds of physics, biology, chemistry, astron-
omy, geology, and climatology. Energy can be transferred by mechanical waves,
electromagnetic radiation, electrical transmission or matter transfer. Energy can
be transferred into or out of a system using any of these methods. Also, energy is
subdivided into types, including: chemical potential energy, gravitational poten-
tial energy, translational kinetic energy, and rotational kinetic energy. Energy can
be transformed from one type to another. Different mathematical models and
physical concepts are associated with each of these energy transfers and transfor-
mations.
The simplifying factor in all this complexity is based in the law of conservation
of energy. The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be
created nor destroyed. It can be transferred from one system to another, or from
one object within a systemto another. It can also be transformed fromone type of
energy into another. For a truly isolated system, the sumof all the energies within
the system will remain a constant.
Part of your apparatus this week consists of a spring hanging vertically with one
end xed on a post and the free end attached to a hanging mass.
[6.3] Action-Item: Lift the mass a short distance so that the spring is
slightly relaxed. Release the spring and observe the motion for at least ten
seconds.
[6.4] Question: Describe the motion of the mass on the spring using a
verbal, mathematical or graphical representation.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
86 CHAPTER 6. SPRINGS
The motion of the mass on the end of the spring is repeatable. Over time, the
position of the mass on the end of the spring moves from some maximum value,
to some minimum value, and back again. The time it takes for the mass to move
from one maximum of position to the next maximum of position is called the
period.
You have provided a qualitative description of the motion of an object under the
inuence of Hookes law. For the curious, the mathematical representation of the
motion of a spring governed by Hookes law is provided in Activity 10, Eq. (10.4).
At any given instant in time, the net force on the mass on the end of the spring
is a sum of the force exerted by gravity on the mass at that instant and the force
exerted by the spring on the mass at that instant; but the values of these forces
change every instant. Springs, like many other physical systems, are easier to an-
alyze if you look at the energy in the system instead of the forces.
The kinetic energy of a mass on the end of a spring is
K =
1
2
mv
2
, (6.3)
where v is the speed of the mass on the spring at a given instant in time.
[6.5] Question: Either from your observations of the motion of a spring at
this time, or from your previous knowledge, qualitatively describe the velocity
of a spring over one period.
Instructor Notes:
The point to drive home is that the velocity is zero at the maximum and
minimum displacements and reaches a maximum value as the mass passes
through the equilibrium position.
A spring is also capable of storing energy. The potential energy of a spring is
termed elastic potential energy. The mathematical model for the elastic poten-
tial energy of a spring is here presented without derivation:
U
s
=
1
2
k (x)
2
, (6.4)
where k is the spring constant and x is the displacement of the spring. Both the
kinetic and potential energy of a mass on the end of a spring vary with the motion
of the mass on the end of the spring. Thus, it does not immediately appear that
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
6.3. APPARATUS ANDTHEORY 87
considering energy has provided an advantage. Either way, you have to analyze a
system with values that change every instant in time.
However, recall the law of conservation of energy: the total energy of an isolated
system can not be created or destroyed. In this case, the total energy may be con-
verted fromelastic potential energy to kinetic energy and back again, but the sum
E =K +U =
1
2
mv
2
+
1
2
k (x)
2
(6.5)
will be a constant value throughout the motion of the mass, provided that the
mass-spring-Earth system is an isolated system and energy is not transformed
into another form within the system.
[6.6] Action-Item: Lift the mass a short distance so that the spring is
slightly relaxed. Release the spring and observe the motion for at least one
minute.
[6.7] Think-About-It: What happens to the motion of the mass during this
minute? What is happening to the kinetic energy of the Earth-mass-spring
system? Do you think that energy is being transformed, transmitted, or both
in this situation?
Instructor Notes:
The mass is moving through a smaller displacement at the end of the minute;
the kinetic energy is decreasing. Example answers for the third part: energy
is transformed into heat of the spring; energy is transmitted to the air.
The Earth-mass-spring system can be modeled as an isolated system, but energy
is being transformed into another form within the system. Some energy is trans-
formed into heat within the spring. The force responsible for this energy transfor-
mation can be characterized as a damping force. The role of the damping force in
the motion of a spring is to weaken (dampen) the motion until the mass comes to
a complete stop. One mathematical representation of the damping force is
F
damp
=b v (6.6)
where v is the velocity of the mass, and b is the damping co-efcient, a measure
of the energy transformed frommechanical kinetic energy into heat of the spring.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
88 CHAPTER 6. SPRINGS
[6.8] Think-About-It: The damping force is responsible for the transfor-
mation of mechanical kinetic energy into heat within the spring. How will
the temperature of the spring change over time, then?
Developing a mathematical representation for the total energy in a system con-
sisting of a spring, a hanging mass and the Earth which accounts for the damping
force at any given point in time would be challenging. Over one period, as you
know, the kinetic energy takes a range of values between 0 and some maximum
K
max
=
1
2
mv
2
max
. At the point of maximum displacement,K =0 and the equation
for the total energy in the system simplies to:
E
t ot
=U +K =
1
2
kx
2
+0 =
1
2
k x
2
0
e

b
m
t
, (6.7)
where x
0
is the initial displacement of the mass, m is the mass of the hanging mass
(including the locking mass pan), k is the spring constant, and b is the damping
co-efcient. Equation (6.7) is valid for each and every maximum of displacement
in the motion of a mass on the end of the spring.
[6.9] Question:
a. If the only forms of energy in the Earth-spring-mass system were elastic
potential energy and mechanical kinetic energy, write an expression for
the total energy.
b. Re-write the answer to part a. for the instant in time when the position
of the mass is at maximum displacement.
c. Now look at Eq. (6.7). If b =0, what would the value of e

b
m
t
be?
d. If b =0, re-write the expression for the total energy.
e. Compare your answers to parts b. and d. and reconcile any dierences.
Instructor Notes:
a. E
t ot
=K +U is valid, as is E
t ot
=
1
2
mv
2
+
1
2
kx
2
; b. E
t ot
=U =
1
2
kx
2
max
; c. 1; d.
E
t ot
=
1
2
k x
2
0
; e. As long as x
max
= x
0
, they are equal, and of course, without
a dissipative energy term, they would be.
The mass of the hanging mass is a known value. The motion sensor can provide
you with a measurement of x
0
. If you knewk and b , you could determine the total
energy in the systemat any instant in time. Determining the damping co-efcient
can be an experimental challenge. You will use a computational model to do part
of the work.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
6.4. EXPERIMENT 89
6.4 Experiment
Before beginning the formal experiments, take a moment to familiarize yourself
with the equipment.
[6.10] Action-Item: Set up the apparatus to take position and velocity data
for a moving spring. Provide the spring with at least 75 g of mass, including
the mass of the locking mass pan. Do not use more than 200 g of total mass.
Pilot your measurements with a single run of data for a moving spring.
[6.11] Think-About-It: Did the spring oscillate smoothly? Were the oscil-
lations completely vertical, or did the spring swing side-to-side? Does it seem
that the motion sensor was able to read the position of the spring accurately
over the entire range of motion? Is it likely that your hand obstructed the
motion sensor at any point?
[6.12] Action-Item: Rene your measurement procedure as necessary. For
each type of spring, record the motion of the spring at least two times. Label
your runs clearly so that you can dierentiate between the two types of spring.
Be sure that at least one run lasts at least 2 minutes for each type of spring.
[6.13] Question: Now examine the results of one run.
a. Look at a graph of position versus time. Sketch the shape. On your
sketch, indicate a single period with brackets.
b. Mark a point of maximum displacement. Use a line to indicate the equi-
librium position of the hanging mass.
c. Using dierent colors or types of marking, mark at least two points where
v = 0. Mark at least two points where v = v
max
. Feel free to use the
other graphs provided by DataStudio to help you answer this question.
Check with your TA before proceeding.
Instructor Notes:
This gives you an opportunity to conrm that the students properly under-
stand what is meant by one period, that they knowwhere equilibriumis, what
maximum displacement means, and what is happening to the velocity as a
function of time.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
90 CHAPTER 6. SPRINGS
[6.14] Question: Look at one of the two-minute runs.
a. Sketch the shape of the position versus time graph. Trace out the shape
taken by the maximum displacements as a function of time.
b. Identify the shape taken by the maximum displacements as a function of
time.
[6.15] Think-About-It: Look back at Eq. (6.7). Does the answer to
Question 6.14 help you make sense of the equation?
[6.16] Action-Item: Use the position versus time measurements recorded
by DataStudio to determine the period of the oscillation for each of your
trials. Use the method of standard deviation to determine the uncertainty
in your value of the period. Record the value and the uncertainty in your
mini-report.
[6.17] Question: For a given type of spring, you should have at least two
sets of data. Thus, you should have at least two measurements of the period
of oscillation for each type of spring.
a. For a single type of spring, do the uncertainties in your values of the
period account for any discrepancy between those values?
b. How does the period of one type of spring compare to the period of the
second type of spring?
c. Given your measured uncertainties, can you determine whether the period
of one type of spring is denitely dierent from the period of the other
type of spring?
6.5 Data Analysis
You could use DataStudio and Excel to analyze the motion of each type of spring
quantitatively. It is possible, through a straightforward experiment and some sim-
ple analysis, to determine the spring constant of each of your springs. With more
labor-intensive analysis, youcanevendetermine the damping co-efcient for this
system and quantify the energy lost from the system due to the internal friction
of the spring.
As a change of pace (and because it is less labor-intensive), you are going to use a
computational model instead.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
6.5. DATA ANALYSIS 91
[6.18] Action-Item: You will only model one spring. Choose the spring you
want to model. Support your choice with evidence in your mini-report. From
this point on, use only the data from that spring.
Your TAwill showyouhowtostart the computational model calleddamped_SHO.ejs
This computational model produces a visual simulation of an oscillating mass.
You can work with the model through the simulations graphical user interface or
by adjusting the parameters of the computational model.
1
Inthis simulation, youcanclick anddrag the mass to displace it fromequilibrium.
[6.19] Think-About-It: At the top-right of the simulation, you see a value
for the systems Energy. Click and drag the mass a short distance. Notice
how the value of Energy changes. What type of energy does this value
represent?
[6.20] Action-Item: Drag the mass a short distance and release it. Observe
the motion of the mass and the graph of position versus time.
[6.21] Think-About-It: How similar is the motion of the simulated mass to
the graph of position versus time generated by DataStudio? Would you say
that the experimental period or the simulated period was larger? Would you
say that the experimental mass or the simulated mass was larger?
Your TA will show you how to open the Ejs model to adjust the parameters.
[6.22] Action-Item: Now you will have an opportunity to revise the model
to match your experiment more closely. Under the Model tab, go to Vari-
ables:Constants. You see a list of constants: k represents the spring constant
in units of
N
m
; b represents the damping co-ecient in units of
N s
m
and m
represents the mass at the end of the spring in units of kilograms. The
damping co-ecient will adjust the eect of friction on your simulated sys-
tem. For now, leave b =0. Adjust the mass to match the mass you used in
your experiment. Over on the right-hand bar, click the green arrow to launch
the simulation with the newly adjusted parameters.
1
Inthe simulation, yousee a mass connectedto two springs. One endof eachspring is connected
to a xed surface. At the start of the simulation, the mass is in its equilibrium position. The visual-
ization of the model is not identical to your apparatus. However, the equations governing the mo-
tion of the mass held by two springs are identical to the equations governing the motion of a mass
suspended by a single spring. The difference arises in the spring constant. If the spring constant
of a mass suspended by a single spring is equal to the effective spring constant of the two-spring
system, then the characteristics of the system (period, displacement, energy) will be identical. For
the two-spring system represented in the computational model, the effective spring constant is
k
e f f
=k
1
+k
2
(6.8)
Inthe computational model, youwill be adjusting the value of the effective spring constant. Thus,
you will not need to consider Eq. (6.8) during the remainder of this activity.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
92 CHAPTER 6. SPRINGS
Start the simulation by dragging back the mass, and observe the motion as a func-
tion of time. Did the simulated period increase or decrease? Note that by clicking
anywhere on the position versus time graph, you can see the co-ordinates of that
position. This allows you to determine the period of the motion by measuring the
peak-to-peak distance.
[6.23] Think-About-It:The simulated period still doesnt match your ex-
perimental period. This is because the spring constant, k, still needs to be
adjusted. Based on Eq. (6.1) and your observations to date, should you
increase or decrease the spring constant?
[6.24] Action-Item: Go back to the model window. Click on the red square
in the right-hand bar to stop the simulation. Now adjust the value of k
based on your response to Think-About-It 6.23. Re-launch the simulation
and re-measure the period. Continue adjusting k until your simulated period
matches the experimental period. Record your simulated period and the
uncertainty in your measurement.
Instructor Notes:
The nominal values of the spring constants are 5 0.5
N
m
and 8 0.8
N
m
, as
quoted by PASCO. The values measured by the authors were 4 0.1
N
m
and
70.1
N
m
, using a linear t to a force versus position graph.
Now you have a functioning model of simple harmonic motion. But you know
from your experiment that in the real world, the kinetic energy of your mass-
spring-Earth systemis changing. By adjusting the b parameter in your model, you
will simulate the loss of energy experienced by your real-world mass-spring-Earth
system.
[6.25] Action-Item: Stop the simulation and go back to the list of constants.
Adjust b =0.02
Ns
m
. Re-launch the simulation and observe the results.
[6.26] Think-About-It: Did adding in the damping co-ecient change the
period? What did change? Given a value of b =0.02
Ns
m
, does your simulation
now match your experiment? If not, should you increase or decrease the
simulated value of b?
To get a good match between simulation and experiment, you need to compare
some measurable or derivable quantity. It would be possible for you to develop
your own metric, but your collaborator has already determined a good test:
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
6.5. DATA ANALYSIS 93
[6.27] Action-Item: Go back to your experimental data. Take a look at
the position versus time graph for the run that lasted at least two minutes.
Measure the initial maximum displacement of the mass as accurately as
possible. Now, determine the time at which the maximum displacement has
dropped to one-half its initial value. Go back to the simulation. Adjust the
damping co-ecient until the maximum displacement of the simulated mass
takes the same amount of time to drop to one-half its initial value.
Instructor Notes:
Students canobtaintheir experimental value for displacement either by sepa-
rately measuring the equilibriumposition and taking x =pos
max
pos
equi l
, or by taking x =
1
2
(pos
max
pos
mi n
). This requirement is hidden and stu-
dents may not pick up on it immediately. The simulation is adjusted so that
the mass oscillates about 0, so the same process is unnecessary.
[6.28] Action-Item: Record the value of the damping co-ecient from your
simulation. Estimate the uncertainty in your result and comment on the
method you used to determine the uncertainty.
Instructor Notes:
For the students, the easiest way to determine the uncertainty is probably
to adjust b a little one way and the other from the value they like, and see
how far they can adjust it before they notice that the half-life has changed.
The authors extracted a long series of maximum displacements and used an
exponential t in Excel to those values to obtain a value for b. For the large-k
spring and 175 g of hanging mass, b =0.0048; for the small-k spring and 75 g
of hanging mass, b = 0.0013. Using these values for b, the authors were able
to obtain simulated values of the half-life (time for displacement to decay to
1
2
initial value) that corresponded to the experimental values of the half-life of
50.2 s and 77.8 s, respectively. Sample results are provided at the end of the
lab.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
94 CHAPTER 6. SPRINGS
Figure 6.1 Sample data from DataStudio for the large-k spring and 175 g of
hanging mass
[6.29] Think-About-It: If you were to compare your results with indepen-
dent groups of researchers, would you need to compare to groups which used
the same type of spring? Would you need to compare results with groups
which used the same amount of mass?
[6.30] Action-Item: Use your values for k and b with Eq. (6.7) to determine
the energy lost in your chosen spring over one minute.
Determining the uncertainty in your value for the total energy of the spring using
error propagation is beyond the scope of this course. However, there is a quick
way to gain a sense of the uncertainty in the value.
[6.31] Action-Item: Take the largest possible values for k and b based on
their values and uncertainties. Plug those values into Eq. (6.7). Now, take
the smallest possible values and plug those into Eq. (6.7). In your mini-
report, comment on the dierences in the three values for the total energy
in your chosen spring after one minute.
Do not use this method of determining uncertainty again unless explicitly in-
structed.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
6.5. DATA ANALYSIS 95
Figure 6.2 Sample results fromExcel, showing extractedmaxima of displace-
ment for the large-k spring and 175 g of hanging mass. The exponential t is
included. Note that the exponent in this t differs fromb by a factor of 2m.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
96 CHAPTER 6. SPRINGS
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
Chapter 7
Energy: Conversion and
Conservation
7.1 Safety Note
This activity requires eye protection. If you do not bring your eye protection, you
will be dismissed from lab.
7.2 Pre-Lab Work
In this experiment you will be measuring the distance that an initially stationary
projectile travels when launched by a collision. The projectile and the colliding
object are steel balls to ensure that the collision is as elastic as possible. Elastic
collisions are dened by the conservation of both kinetic energy and momentum.
By using these two conservation laws, together with our kinematics equations,
you can nd an equation for the range of the projectile.
If you recall the kinematics equations
y = y

+v
y
+
1
2
a
y
t
2
(7.1)
and
x =x

+v
x
t , (7.2)
you can nd the range of a projectile, which is the distance traveled in the x-
direction when the projectile hits the ground. These two equations are linked,
or coupled, through time; the t is the same in each equation. Since it is easier to
work with squared values than square roots, you should start by solving Eq. 7.2
for time, t , and substituting it into Eq. 7.1. It has been done for you below, but
you ought to try to complete it for yourself before looking below. In the follow-
ing equations, a subscript P indicates that the variable is describing the projectile
98 CHAPTER 7. ENERGY: CONVERSIONANDCONSERVATION
and a subscript a indicates that the variable is describing the velocity after the
collision.
x
P
=v
P,a
t
t =
x
P
v
P,a
Now that you have found an expression for t from Eq. 7.2, you can insert this into
Eq. 7.1.
0 =h
P

1
2
g t
2
h
P
=
1
2
g
_
x
P
v
P,a
_
2
x
P
=v
P,a
_
2h
P
g
[7.1] Question: Examine the derivation above.
a. Which balls motion is described by these equations?
b. In the rst line of the time derivation, x

= 0 and in the rst line of the

second part, y

=h
P
. What are the coordinates of the projectiles starting
position?
c. Notice that, in the rst equation of the second part, on the left side of the
equal sign, the position when the projectile hits the table is y =0. How
high o the table does the projectile start?
d. To complete this derivation, v
x
=v
P,a
and v
y
=0. In what direction was
the initial velocity of the projectile?
e. At the end of the experiment, when you substitute the value of g into the
equation, should it be 9.8
m
s
2
or 9.8
m
s
2
?
Instructor Notes:
a. The subscript P indicates that these equations describe the motion of the
projectile.
b. The projectile starts at (x

, y

) =(0, h
P
).
c. The projectile starts h
P
off the table.
d. The initial velocity is completely in the x-direction.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
7.2. PRE-LAB WORK 99
e. Since the term
1
2
g t
2
has a negative signout front, g shouldbe positive 9.8
m
s
2
.
Now you have an equation for the range of the projectile,
x
P
=v
P,a
_
2h
P
g
, (7.3)
in terms of h, g, and v
P,a
. In this experiment, however, you will not be able to
measure v
P,a
directly. You need to nd an expression of v
P,a
in terms of other
quantities that you can experimentally measurement. The two equations from
the conservation laws are
m
L
v
L,b
=m
L
v
L,a
+m
P
v
P,a
(7.4)
and
1
2
m
L
v
2
L,b
=
1
2
m
L
v
2
L,a
+
1
2
m
P
v
2
P,a
. (7.5)
In these equations the mass of the projectile is m
P
, the mass of the launching ball
is m
L
, and the velocities, v, have subscripts P and L signifying that they are either
the velocity of the projectile or the launching ball respectively, as well as having
subscripts b and a, indicating whether they are the velocity before or after the
collision.
[7.2] Question: Notice that there is no term with v
P,b
in it.
1. What is the velocity of the projectile before the collision?
2. There is only one equation for the conservation of momentum. Is this a
1-dimensional, 2-dimensional, or 3-dimensional collision? Does this agree
with your answers to question 7.1?
3. Describe, in complete sentences, the situation before, during, and after
the collision.
Instructor Notes:
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
100 CHAPTER 7. ENERGY: CONVERSIONANDCONSERVATION
1. v
P,b
=0
2. This is a 1D collision. This does agree with correct answers to question 7.1,
because the initial projectile motion was only in the x-direction.
3. Before the collision the projectile is stationary and the launching ball is
moving with a velocity, v
L,b
, in the x-direction. The collision is entirely in
the x-direction, so the centers of mass are aligned in a square collision. Af-
ter the collision, bothballs move off inthe x-direction, the projectile moving
in the same direction as the launching ball moved before the collision. The
direction of the launching ball after the collision is determined by the mass
ratio. If the balls are equal mass, the velocity of the launching ball after the
collision is zero.
[7.3] Question: Consider the launching ball and the projectile as a system.
Where does the momentum of the system after the collision come from?
Where does the energy of the system after the collision come from?
Instructor Notes:
The answer to both is that it comes from the launcher or pendulum. At a
minimum, they need to say that it comes from the launching ball before the
collision.
Since the only velocity that you will be able to determine from your experimental
set up is v
L,b
, you need to nd an equation for v
P,a
in terms of v
L,b
. Then you can
substitute it into Eq. 7.3 and nd a predicted value for the range. Once again, this
derivation will be done for you, but this type of derivation will be seen repeatedly
in this class, and you ought to understand and be able to recreate this derivation
on your own. You should try to accomplish it on your own before looking at the
results below.
In this case, you again have two equations, one with terms that are squared (con-
servationof energy) and one only with linear terms (conservationof momentum).
Since it is always easier to manipulate variables that have beensquaredthanthose
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
7.2. PRE-LAB WORK 101
that have had a square root taken, you should start with the conservation of mo-
mentum equation, Eq. 7.4. Since our nal equation for v
P,a
shouldnt have v
L,a
in
it, that is the variable you will eliminate.
m
L
v
L,b
=m
L
v
L,a
+m
P
v
P,a
v
L,b
=v
L,a
+mv
P,a
v
L,a
=v
L,b
mv
P,a
In the second line, m without a subscript is introduced to make the result simpler
to write; m=
m
P
m
L
. Now that you have this expression for v
L,a
, you can substitute
it into the equation for the conservation of energy, Eq. 7.5.
1
2
m
L
v
2
L,b
=
1
2
m
L
v
2
L,a
+
1
2
m
P
v
2
P,a
v
2
L,b
=v
2
L,a
+mv
2
P,a
v
2
L,b
=
_
v
L,b
mv
P,a
_
2
+mv
2
P,a
v
2
L,b
=v
2
L,b
2mv
P,a
v
L,b
+m
2
v
2
P,a
+mv
2
P,a
2mv
P,a
v
L,b
=(m+1)mv
2
P,a
v
P,a
=
2v
L,b
m+1
[7.4] Question: Look at the nal result for v
P,a
. Assuming that the masses
are constant, how does v
P,a
depend on v
L,b
?
Instructor Notes:
v
P,a
depends linearly and directly on v
L,b
. As v
L,b
increases (decreases), v
P,a
likewise increases (decreases).
[7.5] Question: Assuming that v
L,b
is constant, how does v
P,a
depend on
m
L
? How does it depend on m
P
?
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
102 CHAPTER 7. ENERGY: CONVERSIONANDCONSERVATION
Instructor Notes:
This might be tricky, since the dependence is hidden in m. Since m=
m
P
m
L
, we
can write v
P,a
=
2m
L
m
P
+m
L
v
L,b
. Therefore, v
P,a
increases as m
L
(m
P
) increases
(decreases) and vice versa.
[7.6] Question: What is the sign of the nal velocity of the launching ball,
v
L,a
, if
a. m
L
<m
P
?
b. m
L
>m
P
?
c. m
L
=m
P
?
Hint: Substitute your equation for v
P,a
into the equation for v
L,a
that
you derived from the conservation of momentum. Once youve done that,
consider whether m is greater than, less than or equal to 1 in each of the
three cases that you are being asked about.
Instructor Notes:
Start by doing what the hint says and note that v
L,b
is always positive:
v
L,a
=v
L,b
mv
P,a
v
L,a
=v
L,b

2m
m+1
v
L,b
v
L,a
=(1
2m
m+1
)v
L,b
Another way to write this equation is v
L,a
= (
1m
m+1
)v
L,b
, which may make the
answers more apparent.
1. If m
L
< m
P
, then m > 1 and (1
2m
m+1
) < 0. Therefore, the sign of v
L,a
is
negative.
2. If m
L
> m
P
, then m < 1 and (1
2m
m+1
) > 0. Therefore, the sign of v
L,a
is
positive.
3. If m
L
=m
P
, then m=1 and (1
2m
m+1
) =0. Therefore, v
L,a
=0.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
7.2. PRE-LAB WORK 103
Now that you have found an expression for v
P,a
,
v
P,a
=
2v
L,b
m+1
, (7.6)
you need to substitute it into the range equation, Eq. 7.3. This will give you a
model for the range of a projectile after a collision with a launching ball that de-
pends on the velocity of the launching ball, v
L,b
, the ratio of the mass of the pro-
jectile to the mass of the launching ball, m, the initial height of the projectile, h
P
,
and the acceleration due to gravity near the surface of the Earth, g.
In the experiment, you will not be able to measure v
L,b
directly. Instead, you will
use the conservation of energy to nd an expression for v
L,b
in terms of quantities
that you can measure. In each case, the launching ball starts from a stationary
position, soinitially it has nokinetic energy. We candene our various parameters
so that, at the instance of the collision, the launching ball has only kinetic energy.
In the case of the spring,
1
2
kx
2
=
1
2
m
L
v
2
P,b
, (7.7)
where k is the spring constant and x is the distance that the spring is compressed.
In the case of the pendulum,
m
L
gh
L
=
1
2
m
L
v
2
L,b
, (7.8)
where h
L
is the initial height of the launching ball.
[7.7] Question: For each case, nd an expression for v
L,b
. Why doesnt the
potential energy play a role in the case of the spring? Where do you have to
set the zero for h
L
if you want the launching ball to only have kinetic energy
in the pendulum case?
Instructor Notes:
For the spring: v
L,b
=
_
k
m
L
x For the pendulum: v
L,b
=
_
2gh
L
.
[7.8] Question: Write the equations for the range of the projectile when
launched by a pendulum and when launched by a spring-loaded launcher.
These equations must not include v
L,b
explicitly. This will be your model for
this experiment.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
104 CHAPTER 7. ENERGY: CONVERSIONANDCONSERVATION
Instructor Notes:
For the launcher: r =
2x
m+1
_
2h
L
k
m
L
g
For the pendulum: r =
4
m+1
_
h
L
h
P
7.3 Introduction
The purpose of this lab is to examine whether the source of potential energy af-
fects its conversion into kinetic energy. You will compare the distance traveled
by a ball launched using potential energy stored in a spring and one launched
using gravitational potential energy. Both a theoretical and an experimental un-
certainty will be calculated so that you can determine whether device or process
uncertainty in the dominant source of uncertainty in the experiment.
7.4 Background
In the previous two experiments, you have been looking at the conservation of
mechanical energy in different systems: a collision between two carts and in the
interaction between a cart and a spring.
[7.9] Think-About-It: Was mechanical energy conserved in each of the two
previous labs? What is required for this to be so?
Instructor Notes:
It was not in Activity 5, because the carts stuck together. Would need an elas-
tic collision where the carts bounces off each other. Activity 6 has energy dis-
sipation in the spring, so energy is also not conserved. The idea here is just to
get the students thinking about energy conservation.
Energy Conversion
In the early 19th Century, the prevailing theory of heat was the caloric theory. Sci-
entists believed that heat was a uid that would ow from hotter bodies to colder
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
7.4. BACKGROUND 105
bodies. In 1840, English brewer and scientist James Prescott Joule showed that a
wire connectedtoa battery becomes hotter inproportiontothe energy of reaction
in the battery. In this case, heat couldnt be explained using the model of a uid
owing from a hot body to cold one. What Joule showed, in modern terms, was
that energy could be converted from chemical potential energy to an equivalent
amount of thermal energy. Later, he showed that gravitational potential energy
could also be converted to thermal energy by using a series of pulleys to drive a
water wheel and showed that the temperature increase of the water depended on
the initial potential energy of the pulley.
At the time, Joules measurements were so precise that some of his contempo-
raries believed that he must have been faking them. Instead, it was because he
had become good at physics inthe same way you will, by practice. The techniques
for measuring temperature that he applied everyday as a brewer also helped him
take careful and accurate measurements as a scientist. Joule is memorialized to-
day as one of the great physicists by having the SI unit of energy named after him.
1
We knownowthat energy canbe convertedfromone formtoanequivalent amount
of other forms of energy. In todays lab you will use a test of whether gravitational
potential energy is equivalent to the mechanical energy stored in a spring to prac-
tice experimental techniques so that you may become as talented an experimen-
talist as Joule.
[7.10] Question: Think of three ways that you take advantage of the ability
to convert energy from one form to another. For each conversion, say what
type of energy you are converting from and to.
Instructor Notes:
There are an innite amount of good answers to this, here are three: Laptop
battery - Chemical to Electrical, Underoor heating - Electrical to thermal,
Photosynthesis - Electromagnetic radiation to chemical. Here are 6 types
of energy transfer from John Jewetts Energy and the Confused Student IV:
A Global Approach to Energy. The Physics Teacher, Vol 46, pg 210, 2008:
1. W: work done on the system by external forces whose points of application
move through displacements
2. Q: energy transferred across the boundary of the system by heat due to a
temperature difference between the system and its environment
3. T
MT
: energy transferred across the boundary of the systemby matter trans-
fer (such as transferring a fuel into a tank)
1
You can learn more about Joule at the American Physical Societys This Month in Physics page:
http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200912/physicshistory.cfm
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
106 CHAPTER 7. ENERGY: CONVERSIONANDCONSERVATION
4. T
MW
: energy transferred across the boundary of a system by mechanical
waves such as sound waves or seismic waves
5. T
ER
: energy transferredacross the boundary of a systemby electromagnetic
radiation such as light or microwaves
6. T
ET
: energy transferred across the boundary of a systemby electrical trans-
mission from a battery or other electrical source
Uncertainty
In Activity 1, you were introduced to the concepts of device error and process
error. This experiment will allow you to explore how these concepts relate to the
standard deviation, which you learned about in Activity 3.
Device error is due to the resolution of the instrument that you use to take your
measurements. There is a limit to how precise your instrument can be, known as
the minimum resolvable difference. For instruments with a scale, such as a me-
ter stick, a triple beam balance, or a graduated cylinder, the minimum resolvable
difference is half the smallest gradation. For devices with a digital readout, the
minimum resolvable difference is assumed to be half the smallest decimal place
on the display, unless otherwise stated in the manual.
Process uncertainty is a more nebulous concept. It arises from how you are using
the measurement devices in your experiment. In todays experiment, for exam-
ple, you will need to measure the height of a pendulum bob above a launching
stand. When you draw back the pendulum, the bob moves both vertically and
horizontally in space. This horizontal motion may take the bob over the edge of
the table, and it will be a greater distance off the oor than the length of a meter
stick. How you solve the problem of using the meter stick to measure the height
may cause the uncertainty in your measurement to be greater than the device un-
certainty of the minimum resolvable difference. The process uncertainty could
arise due to the angle between the meter stick and your eye or due to your deni-
tion of the beginning and ending points of the length that you are measuring. It is
often difcult to estimate the value of process uncertainty beforehand.
Neither of these types of uncertainty include applying an incorrect model to a
situation, for example, neglecting air resistance while studying a feather falling in
the earths atmosphere. However, neglecting the small amount of air resistance
that acts on a steel ball falling in air may fall under process uncertainty.
If you are taking a single measurement, such as a length or the mass of an object,
then the uncertainty is simply the device uncertainty. When taking repeated mea-
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
7.5. EXPERIMENT 107
surements, the standard deviation should be used to nd uncertainty. In most ex-
periments, you have needed to combine different measurements to nd a com-
posite value. Error propagationcombines the uncertainties of the individual mea-
surements to nd the uncertainty of the composite value. Both uncertainties due
to device limits and those calculated from standard deviations can be used with
the error propagation techniques that you have learned so far.
One of the benets of nding the uncertainty of a repeated measurement using
standard deviation is that it can take process uncertainty into account. Because
standard deviation uses the results of the measurement to nd the uncertainty in
that measurement, it is affected by both device and process uncertainty. Using
the minimum resolvable difference as the uncertainty for a measurement only
reects device uncertainty. If the contributionto the total uncertainty fromdevice
uncertainty is roughly the same as the contribution fromprocess uncertainty, this
does not matter too much. If process uncertainty is the dominant contribution,
then using the minimum resolvable difference of the measurement device will
underestimate the uncertainty.
Sources of error canalso be classied as randomerror and systematic error. These
concepts were introduced in Activity 3.
Errors are random when they cause discrepancies which are equally likely to be
above or below the true value of the measurement. If you were trying to start a
pendulum from the same height for each trial, it is likely that on some trials you
would be very slightly above your recorded value for the starting height and very
slightly below it on other trials. Over the whole of the experiment, these differ-
ences would average out and using the intended value would not cause a discrep-
ancy in your results. How much you are off from the intended height each time
would inuence the magnitude of the standard deviation, especially for small
numbers of trials.
Systematic errors are those sources of error which cause a discrepancy that is ei-
ther always positive or always negative. For example, friction acting on a block
sliding down a low friction track would cause the velocity of the block to be lower
than expected when using a model which neglects friction. Another common ex-
ample of systematic error is a miscalibrated instrument. If you are using a digital
balance to measure the masses, but forget to set the zero of the scale, then your
measurements will be higher than the true mass.
The methods for calculating uncertainties that you have learned in this class are
only valid for random errors. Systematic errors are trickier to deal with and can
usually be measuredonly by comparisontoa reference, whichcanbe a theoretical
value or the result of another measurement using a different system.
[7.11] Think-About-It: While you are conducting this experiment, think
about what role device and process uncertainty play in your measurements.
7.5 Experiment
This activity includes launching projectiles, therefore youneedtowear your safety
goggles at all times. You have already used the projectile launcher and you should
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
108 CHAPTER 7. ENERGY: CONVERSIONANDCONSERVATION
re-familiarize yourself with the safety rules for using the launcher, reprinted be-
low.
Always wear your eye protection
Never look down the barrel of the launcher
Only re the launcher when the backboard is in place
Do not adjust the launcher once it is loaded
Always use the plunger to load the launcher
Always remove the plunger from the launcher before ring
Only use the launcher on the "short-range" setting
Do not touch the string once the launcher is loaded, except to re the pro-
jectile
Make sure no one is in front of the launcher before ring
In this experiment, you will be measuring the distance a ball travels after a colli-
sion with a second ball, which will be launched using two different methods. In
both cases you will have an initially stationary ball, the projectile ball, that un-
dergoes projectile motion after a collision with a second ball, the colliding ball.
In one case, you will use a spring loaded launcher to launch the colliding ball and
ndthe distance the projectile ball traveled. Youwill also measure the range of the
projectile ball when a pendulum bob is used the colliding ball. The launcher uses
a spring to store the energy that it imparts to the ball, while the potential energy
for the pendulum is stored in the gravitational eld. Your task is to determine
whether the same amount of energy imparted to the projectile by two different
sources causes it to travel the same distance. In both cases, the projectile ball will
be launched via a collision.
When using the spring loaded launcher, the projectile sits on a tee which is at-
tached to the front of the launcher. When a ball is red from the launcher, it will
collide elastically with the ball on the tee, causing it to be launched across the ta-
ble. When using the launcher, you should only use the short range setting: the
ball should only be pushed into the launcher to the rst click.
The other apparatus for launching the ball is a pendulum. Youwill pull the pendu-
lumback and release it so that it collides elastically withthe projectile ball and will
cause it to undergo projectile motion. You will need to pull the pendulum back
so that the same amount of energy is transferred to the projectile as the amount
imparted by the ball that you shoot from the launcher.
[7.12] Question: Compare the range equations that you found in question
7.8 of the pre-lab with the equations found by your group members. Make
sure that they match! Write the equations that your group decides on. Also,
conrm that these equations have the correct units. What should those units
be?
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
7.5. EXPERIMENT 109
Instructor Notes:
The range equations are For the launcher: r =
2x
m+1
_
2h
L
k
m
L
g
For the pendulum:
r =
4
m+1
_
h
L
h
P
. The units are meters.
[7.13] Question: For each variable in each equation, indicate whether the
range of the projectile would increase or decrease if the value of that variable
was increased.
Instructor Notes:
Remember that m=
m
P
m
L
! Launcher:
x: range would increase
h
L
: increase
k: increase
m
L
: increase
m
P
: decrease
Pendulum:
h
L
: increase
h
P
: increase
m
L
: increase
m
P
: decrease
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
110 CHAPTER 7. ENERGY: CONVERSIONANDCONSERVATION
[7.14] Action-Item: Ask your TA to check your equations for the range
of the projectile before you go any further. If your TA is busy, compare
your equations with your surrounding groups while you wait. If you change
your range equations due to these consultations, remember to change your
answers to questions 7.12 & 7.13.
In order to compare the two sources of energy, you will need the collision to be
as one dimensional as possible. This will ensure that the entire amount of energy
goes into the motion of the projectile away from the starting point. The launcher
has a tee that you can set the ball on top of, so that a ball launched from the
launcher will hit it square. For the pendulum, you will need to use a wooden block
as a stand for the target ball.
[7.15] Question: Do you have to start the ball at the same height for both
methods? Which part your range equations could you change account for it?
What would you change?
Instructor Notes:
Since h
2
is explicit in the equations, this is fairly straightforward. The idea is
that you can see that the higher projectile would have more potential energy
from gravity, not from the launch.
Before you begin the experiment, you should take some time to consider how po-
tential sources of error would affect your results. First let us consider the sources
of uncertainty present in the equations.
[7.16] Question: For the case of a projectile launched using a pendulum,
would the measured value of the range be higher or lower than expected if
a. the initial height of the pendulum bob was higher than you recorded?
b. the mass of the launching ball was lower than you recorded?
c. the initial height of the projectile ball was lower than you recorded?
d. the mass of the projectile ball was higher than you recorded?
Instructor Notes:
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
7.5. EXPERIMENT 111
a. Higher
b. Lower
c. Lower
d. Lower
[7.17] Question: For the case of a projectile launched using the spring
loaded launcher, would the measured value of the range be higher or lower
than expected if
a. the spring was compressed a smaller amount than you recorded?
b. the spring constant was greater than you recorded?
c. the mass of the launching ball was higher than you recorded?
d. the initial height of the projectile ball was higher than you recorded?
e. the mass of the projectile ball was lower than you recorded?
Instructor Notes:
a. Lower
b. Higher
c. Higher
d. Higher
e. Higher
In questions 7.16 & 7.17, you looked at variables which are largely determined by
device uncertainty. Sources of process uncertainties can be more difcult to de-
termine. Here is an incomplete list of some likely sources of process uncertainty
for this experiment.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
112 CHAPTER 7. ENERGY: CONVERSIONANDCONSERVATION
a. The pendulum strings are not massless, though our model neglects them.
b. Air resistence dissipates some of the energy of the pendulum.
c. The center of mass of the launching ball might not be lined up with the
center of mass of the projectile ball when they collide.
d. The launcher might have a small angle from the horizontal.
e. There might be some friction between the projectile ball and the surface it
is launched from.
f. The surface that the projectile is launched from might not be level.
g. The table might not be level, so the place where the ball is launched from is
not at the same height where it lands.
h. The ball leaves a smeared mark on the paper, so the place where it rst con-
tacted the table is not clear.
i. The tape might not be able to prevent the paper from sliding when the ball
hits it.
[7.18] Question: Pick 5 sources of error from the above list. For each of
the 5 sources you selected, state whether the error is random or systematic.
If the source is systematic, state whether it would cause the range to be
greater or less than you expect. For each of the 5 sources, suggest a way to
minimize or eliminate the eect of that source of error.
Instructor Notes:
a. Systematic, less
b. Systematic, less
c. Random
d. Systematic, could be either
e. Systematic, less
f. Systematic, could be either
g. Systematic, could be either
h. Random
i. Systematic, could be either
Students may come up with a variety of ideas for correcting these sources of
error, be charitable in judging them.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
7.5. EXPERIMENT 113
To start this experiment, you need to determine how far you expect the projec-
tile ball to travel (by using your range equation) when the launching ball is red
from the launcher at the lowest setting. Then determine how high you must raise
the pendulum bob so that it will have the same amount of potential energy as
the launching ball when it is in the launcher at the rst click. Finally launch the
projectile at least ve times (so that you can nd the uncertainty using standard
deviation) using each method.
[7.19] Action-Item: It can be tricky to get a direct hit on the target ball
using the pendulum. You should each practice using the pendulum to see
which of your group members has the most success getting the pendulum to
hit the ball. It may be wise to take the pendulum data rst, since it will take
longer.
Instructor Notes:
Getting the pendulumto hit the ball in a 1Dcollision can be tricky, but the lab
works extremely well if you can do it. You should practice this ahead of time
and be prepared to demonstrate good technique. For groups that just cannot
make it work at all, you can give them the following data for the distanced
traveled after being propelled by the pendulum:
Distance (cm)
34.70
39.05
36.00
37.40
37.50
If you give themthese data, try to get themto think about what it means if the
standard deviation of the results and the uncertainty that you got through
propagation are different.
You will be given carbon paper, which you can tape onto a blank sheet of printer
paper. When the ball hits the carbon paper, it will transfer a mark onto the white
paper, which will show you exactly where the ball lands.
[7.20] Think-About-It: Using the value of the spring constant, the mass
of the pendulum bob, and the mass of the steel balls given to you by your
TA, you can determine how far the ball should travel. How can you use this
to determine where on the table you should place the carbon paper?
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
114 CHAPTER 7. ENERGY: CONVERSIONANDCONSERVATION
[7.21] Action-Item: Now that you have placed the paper where you think
the ball should land, tape it down, and begin taking your data.
7.6 Analysis
You will have to compare the two methods of launching the projectile to answer
the following questions: does the measured range of the projectile match the pre-
dicted range? And, did the two launching methods cause the projectile to travel
the same distance?
Also, compare the two methods of calculating the uncertainty. Notice that youcan
nd the predicted value for the range using only variables that you can directly
measure or are given by your TA. You can use error propagation to combine the
device uncertainties to nd an uncertainty for you theoretical prediction. Your
experimental uncertainty shouldbe foundby using the standarddeviationof your
measured ranges.
[7.22] Question: Did the theoretical prediction of the range of the projectile
have a smaller uncertainty when calculated using propagation of error for the
pendulum or the launcher? Was the experimental uncertainty calculated
using the standard deviation actually smaller for that method? Relate your
answers to the concept of the precision in measurement.
Instructor Notes:
The answers to the question depend on the experimental results. A smaller
uncertainty indicates a more precise measurement.
[7.23] Question: Did the theoretical uncertainty calculated using propaga-
tion of error match the experimental uncertainty calculated using standard
deviation? Does this mean that device uncertainty or process uncertainty
is dominant, or are they roughly the same? If one type of uncertainty is
dominant, what can you infer about your experiment?
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
7.7. CONCLUSION 115
Instructor Notes:
The answers depend on their experimental results. If the experimental un-
certainty is larger than the theoretical uncertainty, then process uncertainty
is dominant. If they are the same, then the device uncertainty is the major
source of uncertainty.
7.7 Conclusion
[7.24] Think-About-It: What do your ndings tell you about how energy is
converted between forms? What did your ndings tell you about uncertainty?
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
116 CHAPTER 7. ENERGY: CONVERSIONANDCONSERVATION
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
Chapter 8
Moment of Inertia, Torque, and
Rotational Energy
8.1 Prelab
In this prelab you will explore static equilibrium for torque. Recall that torque is
dened as
=r

F =|r ||

F| sin n (8.1)
in whichr is our moment/lever arm,

F is the force applied at that lever arm and
is the angle between the lever arm and force. The units for torque are newton-
meters [N m]. The symbol n tells us the direction of the torque vector found by
the right hand rule. The right hand rule for torque is to put your ngers along the
lever arm and rotate them toward the force vector. Since your ngers will only
bend toward your palm, the force vector is perpendicular to your palm. This can
also be thought of as your ngers sweeping along the direction of rotation. Your
thumb points in the direction of n.
[8.1] Question: A mechanic is working on an engine and needs to tighten
a bolt onto the engine block by using a wrench. Assume a typical threading
(righty tighty, lefty loosey).
a. Identify the lever arm in this scenario
b. How should the mechanic apply his/her force in order to maximize torque?
That is, at what angle to the lever arm will his/her force provide the most
torque?
c. In what direction is the torque applied? Use cartesian xyz coordinates, in
which the bolt is in the x y plane and positive z is the direction toward
space.
d. What are the units of torque?
118 CHAPTER 8. MOMENT OF INERTIA, TORQUE, ANDROTATIONAL ENERGY
Instructor Notes:
a. The length of the wrench
b. =90 degrees
c. n is in the z direction
d. Newton meter
[8.2] Action-Item: Go to http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/
balancing-act. Click Run Now! and save it to your computers desk-
top. Run this program to start the applet Balancing Act. If you are
having trouble, you may want to visit http://phet.colorado.edu/en/
troubleshooting/java. In the Balancing Act applet, go to the 2
nd
tab
marked Balance Lab in the upper left corner. On the right side of the
screen you will see 4 bricks you can place on the beam. The arrows directly
above the bricks scroll through dierent objects that can be placed on the
beam. Notice the last two palettes have mystery objects! To see if your beam
is balanced, click the Remove Supports button below the object menu. Hit
the Reset All button to start over. Play around with the options and objects
to familiarize yourself with the program.
Here we see a very clear visualization of applied torques. If there is a greater
torque on one side of the balance beam, it will rotate accordingly. We can use
our right hand rule to nd the direction of the torque: if the right hand side of
the balance beam has a greater torque applied on it, the balance beam will ro-
tate clockwise (your thumb points into the computer screen). Conversely, if the
left hand side has a greater torque applied, it will rotate counterclockwise (your
thumb points towards you). Rotational static equilibrium is achieved if there is
zero net torque on the system.
[8.3] Question: The last two object palettes show mystery boxes A-H with
unknown masses. Using your knowledge of static equilibrium and the equa-
tion above, experiment with the known masses given to nd the mass of
mystery items A, C, D, F, G, H.
Hints: Use the Level option in the Show menu above the object palette for a
more denitive reading. The Ruler option might help as well once you have
leveled the beam.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
8.2. INTRODUCTION 119
Instructor Notes:
m
a
=20kg
m
c
=15kg
m
d
=10kg
m
f
=52.5kg
m
g
=25kg
m
h
=7.5kg
8.2 Introduction
This week you will investigate how two different objects rotate under a changing
applied force through Newtons second lawfor rotational motion as well as energy
conservation.
Moment of Inertia
In physics we often like to consider simple models in which the object in question
can be considered as a point particle. The point particle is dened to be an object
with negligible internal structure for the scope of the experiment or calculation.
We consideredthe stopper to be a point particle inour centripetal accelerationlab
by ignoring its specic structure. We cannot do so in rotational motion because
the distribution of mass in the geometries of objects become very important.
In linear dynamics we connect the objects mass to the inertia of the object. In
rotational dynamics we connect the objects mass to a dened quantity known as
the moment of inertia. The moment of inertia helps us describe how the mass is
distributed with respect to the objects axis of rotation. The moment of inertia is
dened as
I =

r
2
dm (8.2)
where r is the distance from the axis of rotation to a small bit of mass dm.
[8.4] Action-Item: Pick up one of the meter sticks in the room. Holding
the meter stick on the 0.5 meter mark streched out from your body, rotate
the meter stick slowly. Now hold the meter stick from one end and repeat
the process.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
120 CHAPTER 8. MOMENT OF INERTIA, TORQUE, ANDROTATIONAL ENERGY
[8.5] Question: What changed when you held the meter stick at a dierent
mark? Can you describe how the two scenarios are dierent in their moment
of inertia? More specically, how are the mass distributions with respect to
the meter sticks axis of rotation dierent in each scenario?
On the surface, this seems like a terribly difcult integral to solve because of the
complex relation between r and dm. We can help simplify things by only an-
alyzing objects that can be assumed to have a uniform mass distribution, thus
the density is =
M
V
=const ant . Rearranging, our integration variable becomes
dm = dV , where dV = dxdydz is our innitesimal volume element. For ex-
ample, a 3D cylindrical system has dV = (dr )(rd)(dz). For systems that can
be reduced in dimensionality, dV is reduced accordingly. For instance, If we can
ignore the radial and azimuthal co-ordinate in our cylindrical system, our differ-
ential volume reduces to dz.
Lets run an example to see how this works. Ill consider a 3D solid cylinder spin-
ning about a central axis. This might not be a familiar visualization, so what
it means is that Im nding the moment of inertia of a hot dog with a skewer
through its length (end to end) and not through its middle. If the skewer were
stuck through the middle of the hot dog, it would be call rotation about a central
diameter.
We rst start with I =

r
2
dm=

r
2
dV . is constant, so we can move it outside
of the integral. Since our solid cylinder has a radius R, length L, and has a full
circular cross section, we will set up our bounds on the integral as
I =

R
0

2
0

L/2
L/2
r
2
rdzddr (8.3)
I will integrate (-L/2, L/2) on the z coordinate because I set where the central axis
is as my origin. Since we were clever to select a coordinate system, I can do each
of the integrals individually and then multiply them together
I =
M
V

R
0
r
3
dr

2
0
d

L/2
L/2
dz =
M
LR
2
R
4
4
2L =
1
2
MR
2
(8.4)
[8.6] Question: What is the moment of inertia for a
a. thin hoop of radius r and mass m about its central axis?
(2D - constant radius, but has diering angle and length)
b. thick ring of inner radius a and outer radius b of mass m about its central
axis?
(3D - a diering radius (specic bounds!), and diering angle and length)
Hint: (b
4
a
4
) =(b
2
+a
2
)(b
2
a
2
)
Show all work! Do not use outside resources to answer this question.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
8.2. INTRODUCTION 121
Instructor Notes:
a. Set dV =rd dz, and V =2Lr . Thus, I =mr
2
b. Set dV =rdrd dz, and V =(b
2
a
2
)L. Thus, I =
1
2
M(a
2
+b
2
)
An important note to keep in mind is that the moment of inertia obeys the rules
of superposition. Superposition of inertia means that if an object is a composite
of objects with each their own known moment of inertia, the total moment of
inertia of the composite is the sum of each objects individual inertia. Consider
an experiment in which I take a bagel, cut it in half, spread cream cheese inside,
and then recombine both halves. Superposition tells me that the total moment of
inertia of the cream cheese-bagel system is the sum of the individual moments,
i.e.
I
t ot al
= I
t op hal f
+I
cream cheese
+I
l ower hal f
[8.7] Question: Consider the moment of inertia for a torus (a bagel-shaped
object) about its central axis I = (
3
4
a
2
+c
2
)M, where a is the cross section
radius of the torus and c is the distance from the central axis to the center
of the cross section of the torus.
a. What is the moment of inertia for the top half of the torus?
b. What is the moment of inertia for the bagel-cream cheese system de-
scribed earlier? What basic object does a smear of cream cheese resem-
ble?
Torque
In the prelab, you explored how to set up and evaluate a system for static equilib-
rium. What if the system was not in static equilibrium? You probably saw during
your experimenting that if there was more mass at a greater lever armon one side
of the see-saw, then motion would occur. This means that the net torque was
non-zero. Weve seen this in translational dynamics: if the net force was non-zero,
the system would have linear acceleration. A net torque is what causes angular
acceleration of a system, just as a net force causes translational acceleration.
An interesting example is when we try to open sticky jars. A lot of force is applied
to the rim of the jar, which in turn generates torque. The reason the jar lid doesnt
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
122 CHAPTER 8. MOMENT OF INERTIA, TORQUE, ANDROTATIONAL ENERGY
spin is because the sticky substance provides an equal and opposite force, which
in turn generates an equal and opposite torque. This is a direct consequence of
the fact that only net torques provide angular acceleration.
[8.8] Question: Where do we see net torque in our everyday life? Come up
with 3 examples with your groupmates. Remember, net torques applied to a
body produce rotation!
Instructor Notes:
Some examples: Opening doors, opening screw top beverages, operating
screwdrivers, wrenches, yanking the lawnmower cord to turn the ywheel,
rotations of a pulley, cars, the classic judo hip throw.
[8.9] Question: Consider the door to the lab room. Keep in mind the
torques on the system while answering the following:
a. Why is the handle at the other end of the door from the hinges? If the
handle was at the center of the door would the door be easier or more
dicult to open? Justify your statement with a numerical example.
b. Why are the hinges along a vertical axis to the door? What would be
dierent if the hinges were along the top of the door? What if the hinges
were along the bottom of the door? Be sure to specically describe the
forces acting on the door in these peculiar orientations, as well as describe
the snafus of engineering such a door (think safety, eciency,...)
Instructor Notes:
a. We apply a torque in order to open the door. If the handle was in the
middle of the frame, we would have half the lever arm thus we would have
to provide twice the force to generate an equal torque: =
r
2
(2F)
b. The hinges are along the verticle to negate the force of gravity from creat-
ing a torque on the door. If the hinges were along the top of the door, we
would have a harder time opening the door because gravity would provide
a counter torque, but we would have an easy time closing the door since
gravity would assist us. Conversly, if the hinges were along the bottom of
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
8.3. APPARATUS ANDTHEORY 123
the door, we would have an easy time opening the door while a more dif-
cult time closing it.
So far we have only dealt with torques in terms of their lever arms and the forces
applied to the bodies. What we want to do is describe how the objects rotate in
terms of the torque applied.
[8.10] Question: Starting with = r F, use the deniton of force and the
relations between linear and rotating kinematics to arrive at Newtons second
law for rotation: = I .
Convention and Units
We dene positive torque as that which induces counterclockwise motion, and
negative torque as that which induces clockwise motion. If you have been paying
very ne attention, you would have noticed a curious thing: the units of torque
are the same as the units for work! What is actually going on is that the units for
torque are Joule per Radian. Lets examine: [] = [I ] = [mr
2
]. Here we must
pause and think what is r? The answer is subtle: r =
s

, where s is the arc length.

Thus [] =[Kg
m
2
r adi an
2

r adi an
s
2
] =[
Joul e
r adi an
].
Just as work is dened as a force applied over a displacement, the work due to
torque is dened as the torque applied over the displaced angle. It is encouraged
to keep to the convention of using N m as the units for torque, and Joul e as the
unit for energy. The context of the scenario should prevent confusion.
Rotational Energy
We can also examine the conservation of energy to nd the moment of inertia
of our system. Just like translational motion has kinetic energy
1
2
mv
2
, rotational
motion has kinetic energy
1
2
I
2
, where we have use the rotational analogues to
mass and velocity.
8.3 Apparatus and Theory
Today in lab we will be working with a driving mass connected to a 3-step pulley
systemwith a platter and donut attachment. The systemis connected to DataStu-
dio through a rotary motion sensor. The rotary motion sensor records displaced
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
124 CHAPTER 8. MOMENT OF INERTIA, TORQUE, ANDROTATIONAL ENERGY
angle, angular velocity, and angular acceleration. Make sure to select radians as
your unit measure instead of degrees. Your TA will demonstrate how to operate
the apparatus.
[8.11] Action-Item:
First we will create the theory for the torque experiment
a. Draw an extended free-body diagram (i.e., showing lever arms) of the
system. Make sure to describe all forces acting on the system and the
resulting torques.
b. From Newtons second law for rotations, describe the systems dynamics
using known parameters and measureable parameters.
c. Identify what parameters we can consider independent and dependent.
Create a model to describe the dependent variable.
d. Where there any assumptions in creating your models?
[8.12] Action-Item:
Now we will create the theory behind the energy conservation experiment
a. Write down the energy conservation for your system. Consider what types
of energies your system will include.
b. Identify the parameters we can consider independent and dependent. Cre-
ate a model to describe the dependent variable
c. Where there any assumptions in creating your model?
Instructor Notes:
The students should arrive at =
gr
I
m for the torque experiment and
2
=
2gh
I
m for the conservation of energy experiment.
The biggest assumption is that this is a frictionless apparatus. In reality, there
is a considerable linear friction force associated with the conservation of en-
ergy experiment that gives roughly 15% experimental error.
Instructor Notes:
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
8.4. EXPERIMENT & ANALYSIS 125
Make sure the students have the string leaving the step pulley at 90
o
to the
lever arm. This will help create maximal torque. Another thing to keep an
eye out for is the string to not travel on the driving pulleys wheel as true as
possible. Make sure to swivel the pulley such that the string travels along the
pulleys wheel so that friction is negligible.
8.4 Experiment &Analysis
[8.13] Action-Item: We are interested in investigating the relationship be-
tween angular acceleration and the driving mass as well as how the system
changes by adding the donut. Create a plot for each of the two theory trend-
lines. What are the slopes of your graph in terms of known values? Create an
upper and lower bound for your two models using error propagation. Which
error propagation technique lended itself nicely to repeated measurements?
[8.14] Action-Item: Now lets investigate the relationship between angular
velocity and the driving mass as well as how the system changes by adding
the donut. Create a plot for each of the two theory trendlines. What are the
slopes of your graph in terms of known values? Create an upper and lower
bound for your two models using error propagation. Which error propagation
technique lended itself nicely to repeated measurements?
Check with the TA before proceeding.
[8.15] Action-Item: Now actually perform the four experiments. Remem-
ber to use good experimental techniques! We are actually running two exper-
iments at the same time, so remember to capitalize on this. Once all the data
has been collected, add the experimental data to your theory graphs. Include
X&Y error bars on your experimental data through appropriate means.
Instructor Notes:
Like usual, the acceleration data is useless. I would recommend using the
angular velocity data. We can measure the angular acceleration by putting a
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
126 CHAPTER 8. MOMENT OF INERTIA, TORQUE, ANDROTATIONAL ENERGY
linear t on the segment of data that is recorded as the driving mass falls, and
then we can measure the nal angular velocity with the point selector tool.
Make sure the students create an apparatus that as a constant h each time
they take a measurement. Having the driving mass stop before the string is
fully used proved best in the TA trials. This allowed data collection with zero
torque before the apparatus started wrapping the string back in the opposite
direction.
[8.16] Think-About-It: Does the data t the predicted values? If not,
can you explain why? Would repeating some data runs help create stronger
experimental evidence for your hypotheses? Is there a systematic error preva-
lent in your experiment that needs investigating? What physical phenomena
do we usually ignore that could ll this gap?
8.5 Conclusion
[8.17] Action-Item:
a. What did you learn from changing the driving mass? How does this aect
the torque applied by the driving mass? Try to relate this back to what
you learned about linear acceleration as a function of mass in Activity 2.
b. What did you learn from the experiment in which you added/removed the
optional mass? What value changed? Do the slopes match up? Why or
why not? Justify your answers using your numerical & qualitative results.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
Chapter 9
Parallel Axis Theorem
9.1 Pre-lab
Imagine the following system: a three-step pulley with a string wrapped around
it, connected to a mass which hangs freely. As the hanging mass is released, the
string unwinds, and the pulley spins. This is essentially the systemfromlast week,
without the extra metal disk and ring. Figure 9.1 illustrates this system.
Assume that the string is massless and inextensible. Use R
p
for the radius of the
pulley, m
h
for the mass of the hanging mass, a for the linear acceleration of the
hanging mass, g for the acceleration due to gravity near the surface of the Earth,
and for the angular acceleration of the pulley.
[9.1] Question:
a. Make an extended free-body diagram of the three-step pulley. Make a
free-body diagram of the hanging mass.
b. Using the free-body diagrams and your knowledge of forces, construct an
expression for the net force on the hanging mass in terms of m
h
, g, T,
and a.
c. Develop an expression that relates the torque on the pulley to the tension.
Assume that the angle between the string and the pulley is 90

.
d. Using these two equations, nd an expression for the torque on the pulley
in terms of R
p
, m
h
, g, and .
Figure 9.1 The three-step pulley, pulley shaft, and hanging mass are repre-
sented with solid lines; the string is represented with a dashed line.
128 CHAPTER 9. PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM
Figure 9.2 A sketch of the rod and adjustable masses. C marks the location
of the axis of rotation of the rod. The adjustable masses are represented by the
larger cylinder outlines at either end of the rod.
Instructor Notes:
b. F
net
y
=T mg =ma, c.
net
=r T , d.
net
=R
p
m
h
(g R
p
)
9.2 Introduction
In your studies of linear motion, you learned that the net force on an object de-
pends on the mass of the object and the objects linear acceleration (F
net
=ma).
In your studies of angular motion, you learned that the net torque on an object
depends on the moment of inertia of the object and the objects angular acceler-
ation (
net
= I ). This week, you will examine the effect of a varying moment of
inertia on the angular acceleration of an extended object given a xed torque.
9.3 Apparatus and Theory
Apparatus
You will use the same three-step pulley as last week. Instead of the disk and ring,
you will be using a rod with two adjustable masses. Similar to last week, you will
drive the three-step pulley using the weight of a hanging mass. The rod will be
xed to the three-step pulley so that it spins about an axis which is perpendicular
to the axis of symmetry of the rod. The axis of rotation will be located at the rods
center of mass. The adjustable masses slide along the length of the rod. One mass
should be placed to either side of the axis of rotation. A sketch of the rod and
masses is provided in Fig. 9.2.
For brevity, the axis of rotation located at the center of mass of the rod and per-
pendicular to its axis of symmetry will be referred to as axis C for the rest of the
activity.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
9.3. APPARATUS ANDTHEORY 129
Your TA will provide you with all necessary values. Be sure that the rotary mo-
tion sensor is providing angular position values in terms of radians, and angular
velocity in radians per second.
Instructor Notes:
According to PASCO, the rod has a mass of 27 g and each adjustable rod mass
has a mass of 75 g. As usual, PASCO did not provide tolerances. Measure-
ments with a balance in the lab room were within 1 g of these values, so I
suggest assuming an uncertainty of 1 g.
Theory
In last weeks activity, you learned that the moment of inertia of a system obeys
the rule of superposition. This week, the systemconsists of the following compos-
ite of objects: the three-step pulley, the rod, and each adjustable mass. You will
experimentally determine the moment of inertia of the pulley-rod-mass system.
Then you will compare these experimental results to the mathematical model you
will develop in this section.
[9.2] Question: Take a rod of radius r
r od
, length l
r od
, and mass m
r od
. In
terms of those variables, nd an expression for the moment of inertia of the
rod if it rotates about axis C. Use your resources to answer this question.
Instructor Notes:
1
12
m
r
l
2
r
. I dont want the students to spend time doing more integrals.
This answer is explicitly provided to them in a smartPhysics pre-lecture
on rotational motion. It is also available on HyperPhysics at http://
hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/mi.html and probably written
in their textbook. If a group comes up with an equation that accounts for
the thickness of the rod, let them use it. The thickness of the rod is negligible.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
130 CHAPTER 9. PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM
[9.3] Question: Consider one adjustable mass. It can be described as a
cylinder with a mass m
a
, a radius r
a
, and a length l
a
. Assume that the
adjustable mass is rotating about an axis located at its own center of mass
and perpendicular to its axis of symmetry. Find the moment of inertia of the
adjustable mass in this case. For the purposes of this activity, we assume
that the cylinder is solid (in reality, as you can see, it has a hole in the center
to allow it to t along the rod). Again, use your resources to answer this
question.
Instructor Notes:
1
12
m
a
l
2
a
+
1
4
m
a
r
2
a
. This is also available fromthe same HyperPhysics page, and
I believe froma pre-lecture on smartPhysics (and probably in their textbook).
You may need to explain that the thickness (radius) of the adjustable masses
can not be neglected.
[9.4] Think-About-It: Given the rod and a single adjustable mass, the
adjustable mass can be placed at any point along the rod. Consider the
following two cases:
a. The adjustable mass is placed at the center of mass of the rod.
b. The adjustable mass is placed at the end of the rod.
In each case, assume that the system is spinning about axis C. Based on
previous life experience and your experience with inertia in this class, do you
think that the moment of inertia of the rod-adjustable mass system in case
A is larger, smaller, or the same as the moment of inertia in case B? Do you
think that the moment of inertia of the rod-adjustable mass system in case
A is larger, smaller, or the same as the moment of inertia of the bare rod
spinning about axis C? Short, qualitative experiments with your equipment
may help you to answer these questions.
Instructor Notes:
Allow the students to experiment with the rod and a single mass to answer
this question. The ranking is: I
barer od
< I
r odat c
< I
r odat end
. We are not
looking for quantitative answers, just a qualitative sense.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
9.3. APPARATUS ANDTHEORY 131
In the experiments that follow, the adjustable masses will not be rotating about
their own center of mass. Instead, they will be xed to the rod and rotating with
the rod. That is, they will rotate about axis C. In this case, the axis of rotation of
the rod-adjustable mass systemis parallel to the axis of rotationof eachadjustable
mass about its own center of mass.
Thus, you can invoke the parallel axis theorem.
Parallel axis theorem: Given a system of mass M which is rotat-
ing about an axis parallel to its center-of-mass axis and a
distance d from the center of mass, the moment of inertia
of the system will be equal to the sum of the moment of in-
ertia of the system about the center-of-mass axis plus the
moment of inertia of a point particle of mass M located a
distance d from the axis of rotation. Mathematically, this is
represented as:
I
sys
= I
cm
+Md
2
(9.1)
Given a composite system, the moment of inertia of any portion of a rotating sys-
tem which satises the parallel axis theorem can be calculated in this way.
[9.5] Question: You will use the parallel axis theorem to answer these
questions.
a. Construct an algebraic expression for the moment of inertia of a system
consisting of the rod and one adjustable mass placed at the center of
mass of the rod if the system is spinning about axis C. Your answers to
Questions 9.2 and 9.3 will be useful.
b. Construct an algebraic expression for the moment of inertia of a system
consisting of the rod and one adjustable mass placed an arbitrary distance
d from the center of mass of the rod, if the system is spinning about axis
C.
c. Construct an algebraic expression for the total moment of inertia of a
system consisting of the rod and two adjustable masses, each placed an
arbitrary distance d from the center of mass of the rod.
d. Do your answers match your answers to Think-About-It 9.4? Provide
evidence to support your conclusions. Resolve any inconsistencies.
Instructor Notes:
This question is intended to move in small steps toward a general algebraic
expressionfor the moment of inertia of the rod-adjustable mass system, using
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
132 CHAPTER 9. PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM
the parallel axis theorem. a.)
1
12
m
r
l
2
r
+
1
12
m
a
l
2
a
+
1
4
m
a
r
2
a
; b.)
1
12
m
r
l
2
r
+
1
12
m
a
l
2
a
+
1
4
m
a
r
2
a
+m
a
d
2
, c.)
1
12
m
r
l
2
r
+2(
1
12
m
a
l
2
a
+
1
4
m
a
r
2
a
) +2m
a
d
2
At this point, you have an expression for the moment of inertia of a rod and two
adjustable masses if the adjustable masses are symmetrically or asymmetrically
placed about axis C. To obtaina value for the total moment of inertia of the pulley-
rod-mass system, you must add the moment of inertia of the three-step pulley.
This is not a straightforward calculation. The pulley is a complicated shape, and
part of the construction is hidden by the black box containing the shaft. Thus, you
will determine the moment of inertia of the three-step pulley using experimental
methods.
Before moving to the experiment, there is one more point to consider. Usually,
in this activity sequence, you are asked to graph a mathematical model and plot
your experimental results on the same graph. The mathematical model in this
case is Eq. (9.1).
[9.6] Think-About-It: Identify the dependent and independent variables in
Eq. (9.1). This equation will not generate a straight line. Given a non-linear
formula, physicists frequently look for a way to linearize the equation. Can
you nd a change of variable for Eq. (9.1) that will allow you to plot a straight
line? Some information from Activity 4 may be useful in answering this
question. After you change variables, identify the independent and dependent
variables in the new equation.
[9.7] Question:
1. What are the units of the slope of the new equation?
2. Does the slope have a physical meaning?
The value of the y-intercept of this equation does have a physical meaning. It rep-
resents the value of the moment of inertia of the entire system in the special case
that all of the mass of both adjustable masses was concentrated at the center of
the rod in a cylinder the size and shape of a single adjustable mass. Demonstrat-
ing this is not physically possible, for reasons which should be obvious.
9.4 Experiment
The system under investigation consists of a rod and two adjustable masses. The
goal of this weeks activity is to determine experimentally the moment of inertia
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
9.4. EXPERIMENT 133
of this systemand compare your experimental results to the results of your math-
ematical model. The goal of the rst experiment is to determine the moment of
inertia of the three-step pulley.
[9.8] Think-About-It: When computing the moment of inertia of the three-
step pulley, why is it important to take a set of measurements rather than
taking a single measurement?
Select a single pulley from the three on the spool. You will use this single pulley
throughout the entire activity.
[9.9] Think-About-It: The pulley radius is xed. Which quantity or quan-
tities can you vary? Hint: consider the equations you developed in Section
9.1.
Instructor Notes:
Mass
[9.10] Action-Item: In answering Think-About-It 9.9, you have identied
the independent variable in this experiment. Identify the dependent variable.
Choose an appropriate value or range of values for your independent variable
and pilot your measurement. Based on the results of your pilot experiment,
ne-tune your experiment and take your measurements.
[9.11] Action-Item: Use Excel to compute the moment of inertia of the
pulley using your measurements. You will have a set of values for the moment
of inertia of the three-step pulley.
[9.12] Think-About-It:The next point to consider is the uncertainty of the
moment of inertia of the pulley. Given your chosen experiment, did you
expect your measurements to yield the same value of the moment of inertia
of the pulley each time? If so, you should use the standard deviation of
the mean to determine the uncertainty. If not, talk to your TA about an
appropriate method for quantifying the uncertainty in your results.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
134 CHAPTER 9. PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM
[9.13] Action-Item: Once your partners agree on a single value for the
pulleys moment of inertia and a single value for its uncertainty, compare
results with a group of independent researchers. Make sure the results you
are using for comparison used the same lever arm that you used!
Check with your TA before proceeding.
Instructor Notes:
The value of the moment of inertia of the bare three-step pulley as deter-
mined by the author was 0.000003 0.0000002
Nm
s
2
. Students should obtain
a reasonable value for the moment of inertia of the bare three-step pulley
before proceeding. Students may determine the moment of inertia by pick-
ing a single driving mass and taking a number of measurements (e.g., 10)
of the angular acceleration for that driving mass and pulley radius. In this
case, students should use the average and standard deviation methods. Al-
ternatively, students may generate a range of angular acceleration using a
range of driving masses and compute the moment of inertia from the best-
t line of a graph of torque versus angular acceleration. The uncertainty
in that case can be found using Excel as follows: Highlight a 2x2 box, type
=linest(yrange,xrange,true,true) and hit SHIFT+CTRL+ENTER. Four values
will be generated: the slope and the intercept in row 1, and the uncertainty
in each in row 2. Excel makes certain assumptions when generating these
uncertainties, but for our purposes this is sufcient.
In this second experiment, you will x the rod to the three-step pulley and place
one adjustable mass at each end of the rod. Using a xed driving mass and a
xed lever arm, you will vary the moment of inertia of the system by shifting the
adjustable masses to new positions on the rod.
[9.14] Think-About-It: Should you adjust both masses for each trial?
Should you adjust the masses symmetrically? How far should you move the
mass each time? Should you shift one mass the same distance each time you
move it? Over what total range of distances should you move the masses?
Include practical considerations (e.g., keeping the experiment simple) as well
as physical laws and limitations in your answers.
[9.15] Question: In Think-About-It 9.6, you identied the dependent and
independent variables for the graph you want to create. But you cant mea-
sure the dependent variable directly. You know that
net
= I . Using this
information, identify the measurable quantities that will provide you with
your dependent variable.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
9.5. DATA ANALYSIS 135
Instructor Notes:

net
=R
p
m
h
(g R
p
).
[9.16] Action-Item: Using your answers to Think-About-It 9.6 and 9.14,
design your experiment. Pilot your measurements. You will probably have
to take several test experiments to answer the questions in Think-About-It
9.14. You can use DataStudios estimate of the uncertainty in , so be sure
to record those uncertainties along with the values of .
[9.17] Action-Item: Take your measurements. Think about your error
analysis as you work. How many measurements do you need to obtain reliable
values?
9.5 Data analysis
Determining the moment of inertia of the systemand its error will be a multistage
process. Excels ability to performrepetitive calculations quickly will speed up the
process signicantly.
[9.18] Action-Item:
a. On your spreadsheet, compute the value of the moment of inertia of the
rod. This value will not change.
b. Find the uncertainty in each measured quantity you used to determine the
rods moment of inertia.
c. Record the value and uncertainty of the moment of inertia of your three-
step pulley on your spreadsheet.
d. Compute the moment of inertia of each adjustable mass over an appro-
priate range of distances (i.e., at least as many distances as you used
experimentally).
e. Find the uncertainty in each measured quantity that you used to determine
the adjustable mass moment of inertia.
The formula for the moment of inertia of the rod is
1
12
m
r
l
2
r
. To compute the
uncertainty in the moment of inertia of the rod, then, you would need the uncer-
tainty in l
2
r
. From 9.18 part b, you have a value for the uncertainty in l
r
. You know
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
136 CHAPTER 9. PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM
that l
2
r
can be written as l
r
l
r
, corresponding to f = XY fromActivity 4. However,
you can not use the error propagation rules in Activity 4 to determine the moment
of inertia in the rod. Those equations are only valid if the errors of the individual
components (X and Y ) are uncorrelated. In this case, the error in l
r
is perfectly
correlated with the error in l
r
.
More sophisticatedequations have beendevelopedtodeal withthese cases. Rather
thanrequire youto use these equations to performthe error propagationyourself,
the answers have been provided for you.
The uncertainty in the moment of inertia of the rod is

I
r
=[(
1
12
l
2
r

m
r
)
2
+(
1
6
m
r
l
r

l
r
)
2
]
1
2
. (9.2)
The uncertainty in one adjustable mass is

I
a
=[((
1
12
l
2
a
+
1
4
r
2
a
+d
2
)
m
a
)
2
+(
1
6
m
a
l
a

l
a
)
2
+(
1
2
m
a
r
a

r
a
)
2
+(2m
a
d
d
)
2
]
1
2
. (9.3)
The uncertainty in the entire system, assuming that the parameters of the two
adjustable masses were measured independently, is

I
=[
2
I
r
+
2
I
p
+
2
I
a
1
+
2
I
a
2
]
1
2
. (9.4)
The uncertainty in the entire system, assuming that the parameters of the two
adjustable masses were not measured independently, is

I
=[
2
I
r
+
2
I
p
+(2
I
a
)
2
]
1
2
. (9.5)
.
[9.19] Action-Item: Plug Eqs. (9.2-9.5) into Excel. Using the values of
uncertainty for the measurable quantities which you determined in Action-
Item 9.18, compute the uncertainty in your system.You will use either Eq.
(9.4) or Eq. (9.5), not both. The choice will depend on whether or not you
measured the parameters of the two adjustable masses (e.g., mass, diameter)
independently.
Instructor Notes:
Some groups may have used a formula for the moment of inertia of the rod
that included the thickness of the rod. The uncertainty in the moment of in-
ertia of the rod for that case is not provided. A student could create a formula
which accounts for the thickness of the rod using Eq. (9.3) as a basis. How-
ever, it is kinder to explain that the thickness is negligible. Have the students
compare the values for I
r
with and without the thickness of the rod to con-
vince themselves of this.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
9.5. DATA ANALYSIS 137
[9.20] Question:
a. Which equation, Eq. (9.4) or Eq. (9.5), will yield a smaller uncertainty?
b. For your system, what is the dierence in the system uncertainties com-
puted from Eq. (9.4) and Eq. (9.5)?
c. What assumptions did you make in answering part b?
d. Assume that a 10% change in uncertainty is a "signicant" change in
uncertainty. For your system, is the dierence in the system uncertainties
signicant?
If you answered Yes to Question 9.20 Part d, then adjust your procedure so that
you can properly use the equation that yields the smaller system uncertainty be-
fore proceeding.
[9.21] Action-Item: Plot I +
I
and I
I
as the upper and lower bounds
of your mathematical model, using the values and uncertainties computed
above.
The next step is working with the experimentally-determined moments of inertia.
Using the rules of error propagation from Activity 4, you could nd a formula for
the uncertainty in and the uncertainty in . You could then nd the uncertainty
in I =

. However, and have correlated errors, so the methods you learned in

Activity 4 would be invalid.
[9.22] Action-Item:
a. Find an expression for I using the angular acceleration, the radius of the
pulley, the driving mass, and g. You may need to nd an expression for
using these variables rst.
b. Find the uncertainty in the pulley radius and the uncertainty in the driving
mass. You should already have a list of the uncertainties in (see Action-
Item 9.16).
Instructor Notes:
a. I =
m
h
gR
p

m
h
R
2
p
; to get to this, we used = R
p
m(g R
p
). b.
These should be device uncertainties.
The uncertainty in the square of the distance from the center of the rod can not
be determined using the methods from Activity 4 for the same reasons as the un-
certainty in the square of the length of the rod. The equation for the uncertainty
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
138 CHAPTER 9. PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM
in the square of the distance from the center of the rod is

d
2 =2d
d
(9.6)
where
d
is the uncertainty in the distance from the center of the rod.
The uncertainty in the moment of inertia of the system contains an R
2
p
term,
and thus has a similar problem. Again, using more sophisticated techniques, the
equation for the uncertainty of the moment of inertia of the system is

I
=[((
g R
p

R
2
p
)
m
)
2
+(
m
h
g R
p

)
2
+((
m
h
g

2m
h
R
p
)
R
p
)
2
]
1
2
(9.7)
where
m
,

, and
R
p
are the uncertainties in the hanging mass, the angular ac-
celeration, and the pulley radius, respectively.
[9.23] Action-Item:
a. Plug Eq. (9.6) formula into Excel and nd the uncertainty in your inde-
pendent variable for each of your trials.
b. Using Excels ability to perform repetitive calculations, nd
I
for each of
your trials, plugging in the uncertainties of all your components.
c. Plot your experimentally-determined values for the moment of inertia.
The answers to a. and b. provided you with the X- and Y-error bars for
these data.
[9.24] Question:
a. What are the units of
I
?
b. Take your smallest and largest experimentally-determined values; for these
values,
I
is what percentage of I ?
c. Take your smallest and largest experimentally-determined values; for these
values,
d
2 is what percentage of I ?
d. For this experiment, assume that uncertainties of 1
Instructor Notes:
Students should take a reasonable value for
d
based on device uncertainty
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
9.5. DATA ANALYSIS 139
Figure 9.3 Sample data and models for two different driving masses. Driving
masses of 45 g, 65 g, and 85 g were also tested. Values fell between the 25 g and
105 g values. They were removed from this graph for clarity but the data are
available.
[9.25] Think-About-It: Is the discrepancy between your experimental re-
sults and the model adequately explained by the uncertainties in the experi-
ment and the model? Were the sources of error in this experiment primarily
device or process errors?
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
140 CHAPTER 9. PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
Chapter 10
Waves on a String
10.1 Pre-lab work
Youmay not realize it, but youve solvedseveral differential equations (DE) through
the course of the semester. A DE is an equation that tells you how a function
changes with respect to its variables. That is why DEs have derivatives in them.
For example, Newtons second lawF =ma is a DE. Written another way
F
m
=a =
d
2
x(t )
dt
2
. (10.1)
You can see that the DE tells us how the function x(t ) changes in time. The solu-
tions to Newtons second lawDE is any function x(t ) that satises the relationship
in Eq. (10.1). When the quantity
F
m
is constant, i.e., the acceleration a is constant
in time, you can nd the solution to the DE by integrating twice with respect to
time, and careful consideration of the constants of integration. The solution is
x(t ) =x
0
+v
0
t +
1
2
at
2
(10.2)
which you used in Activity 3. If you directly substitute the projectile motion equa-
tion into Eq. (10.1) youll get back
F
m
=a.
Another DE that you solved was for a Hookes law type force F =kx
F
m
=
kx
m
=
d
2
x(t )
dt
2
. (10.3)
It canbe shownthat a solutiontothis DEwas x(t ) =x
0
cos
__
k
m
t
_
+
v
0

k/m
sin
__
k
m
t
_
.
Again, via direct substitution, you can see that the Hookes law x(t ) satises or
solves Eq. (10.3). You need to compare this equation,
x(t ) =x
0
cos
_
_
_
k
m
t
_
_
+
v
0

k/m
sin
_
_
_
k
m
t
_
_
, (10.4)
to its second derivative. In order to nd the second derivative, rst nd the rst
derivative,
dx(t )
dt
=x
0
_
k
m
sin
_
_
_
k
m
t
_
_
+
v
0

k/m
_
k
m
cos
_
_
_
k
m
t
_
_
.
142 CHAPTER 10. WAVES ONA STRING
To nd a second derivative, you simply take another derivative of the rst deriva-
tive. The second derivative of this function is
d
2
x(t )
dt
2
=x
0
k
m
cos
_
_
_
k
m
t
_
_

v
0

k/m
k
m
sin
_
_
_
k
m
t
_
_
.
Notice that there is a factor of
k
m
in each term of the second derivative. If you use
the distributive property to move that factor out front, you get
d
2
x(t )
dt
2
=
k
m
_
_
x
0
cos
_
_
_
k
m
t
_
_
+
v
0

k/m
sin
_
_
_
k
m
t
_
_
_
_
The expression in the brackets is our expression for x(t ), Eq. (10.4), and it has a
factor of
k
m
in front. This is exactly Hookes Law, Eq. (10.3):
d
2
x(t )
dt
2
=
k
m
x(t ).
Therefore, youhave shownthat Eq. (10.4) is a solutiontothis differential equation.
This week, you will be looking at waves on a string. The differential equation that
describes nearly all wave phenomena (including strings) is called the wave equa-
tion. Because waves depend on two variables time and position in space, their
behavior is described by a partial differential equation (PDE). Partial differential
equations use partial derivatives, which you were introduced to in Activity (7).
You could write a wave equation that describes the light coming froma light bulb.
Since the light travels in three dimensions you would call that a 3D wave equa-
tion. A 2Dwave equation would describe the ripples spreading out on the surface
of a pond when you throwa rock in it. To describe the motion of a wave in a guitar
string, which travels in only one dimension, you would use a 1D wave equation,

2
y(x, t )
t
2
=v
2

2
y(x, t )
x
2
, (10.5)
where v is related to the velocity of the wave. The wave height y(x, t ) is a function
of the horizontal distance x along the wave at a time t . By using Newtons second
lawto analyze the sumof the tensionforces onaninnitesimal segment of waving
string, it can be shown that a waving string obeys Eq. (10.5).
A traveling wave has the solution
y
travel
(x, t ) = Asin(kx t ) = Asin(k[x vt ]) . (10.6)
The traveling wave gets its name because it describes a wave whose phase moves
in the x direction with velocity v. A wave moving in the positive x direction is
described by y
travel
(x, t ) = Asin(k[x vt ]) and a wave moving in the negative x
direction is described by y
travel
(x, t ) = Asin(k[x +|v| t ]).
A standing wave has the solution
y
stand
(x, t ) = Asin(kx) cos(t ) . (10.7)
The standing wave gets its name because it describes a wave that has xed points
along x called nodes whose x and y position are constant in time. The physical
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
10.1. PRE-LAB WORK 143
meaning of A, k, and will be discussed later in Sec. 10.2. For now, just think of
Eq. (10.6) and Eq. (10.7) as mathematical relationships that satisfy Eq. (10.5).
[10.1] Question:
a. By direct substitution, show that the projectile motion equation,
Eq. (10.2), is a solution to Eq. (10.1). If you need a refresher on partial
derivatives, you should refer back to Activity (7).
b. By direct substitution, show that Eq. (10.6) is a solution to Eq. (10.5).
You should nd that the phase velocity v =

k
.
c. By direct substitution, show that Eq. (10.7) is a solution to Eq. (10.5).
d. Show that a standing wave is just a sum of two counter-propagating
traveling waves (one with v and the other with +v). Also, youll nd
the trigonometric relationships sin(a b) = sin(a) cos(b) cos(a) sin(b),
cos() =cos(), and sin() =sin() useful. Hint: Dont be surprised
if the standing wave and the traveling waves that make it up do not have
the same amplitude.
Instructor Notes:
a. x(t ) =x
0
+v
0
t +
1
2
at
2
, x =v
0
+at , x =a
F
m
=a
b. y
travel
(x, t ) = Asin(kx t ), LHS: y
travel
(x, t ) = Acos(kx t ),
y
travel
(x, t ) = A
2
sin(kx t ) =
2
y
travel
. RHS:
y
x
= Ak cos(kx t ),

2
y
x
2
= Ak
2
sin(kx t ) = k
2
y
travel
. IFF v =

k
LHS = v
2
RHS or

2
y(x,t )
t
2
=v
2

2
y(x,t )
x
2
.
c. y
stand
(x, t ) = Asin(kx) cos(t ), LHS: y
stand
(x, t ) = Asin(kx) sin(t ),
y
travel
(x, t ) = A
2
sin(kx) cos(t ) =
2
y
stand
. RHS:
y
x
=
Ak cos(kx) cos(t ),

2
y
x
2
= Ak
2
sin(kx) cos(t ) = k
2
y
stand
. IFF
v =

k
LHS =v
2
RHS or

2
y(x,t )
t
2
=v
2

2
y(x,t )
x
2
.
d. y
travel
(x, t ) = Asin(kx t ) = Asin
_
k[x

k
t ]
_
= Asin(k[x vt ]). y
stand
=
Asin(k[x vt ]) + Asin(k[x +vt ]). Using the sine trig relation, y
st and
=
A[sin(kx) cos(kvt ) +sin(kvt ) cos(kx) +sin(kx) cos(kvt ) +sin(kvt ) cos(kx)].
Using the parity of sine and cosine, you can see that y
st and
=
A[sin(kx) cos(kvt ) sin(kvt ) cos(kx) +sin(kx) cos(kvt ) +sin(kvt ) cos(kx)] =
2A[sin(kx) cos(kvt )] = A

sin(kx) cos(t ).
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
144 CHAPTER 10. WAVES ONA STRING
10.2 Introduction
What are waves? Waves are phenomena whose trajectory can be derived from
some type of wave equation DE, such as Eq. (10.5). Those solutions describe os-
cillations in both time and space that propagate and translate energy along the
propagation direction. Transverse waves have oscillations (waving amplitude) in
a coordinate perpendicular to the direction of travel, like a wave on a string. Lon-
gitudinal waves have the oscillation in a parallel coordinate to the direction of
travel, like a sound wave, see Fig. 10.1.
Figure 10.1 Diagramof a transverse wave (top) anda longitudinal wave (bot-
tom). The transverse wave has its peaks and troughs in the direction perpen-
dicular to the direction of travel, while the the longitudinal wave has its peaks
(black) and troughs (white) in the direction its moving.
Both waves on a string and sound waves are mechanical waves, which are com-
prised of a medium (air and thread, respectively) that oscillates or waves. This
is in contrast with electromagnetic waves or light, which do not need a medium.
Instead, it is the electric and magnetic elds themselves that oscillate. The re-
mainder of our discussionwill focus on1Dwaves ona string, which are transverse
mechanical waves.
As yousawinSec. 10.1, waves ona string canhave traveling wave solutions [Eq. (10.6)
and depicted in Fig. 10.2] or standing wave solutions [Eq. (10.7) and depicted in
Fig. 10.4]. Bothtraveling andstanding waves have oscillationamplitudes A=
y
max
y
mi n
2
and wavelengths . The wave makes repeated oscillations in time at a frequency
f , angular frequency =2f , or time period T =
1
f
. The wave number is dened
as k =
2

.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
10.2. INTRODUCTION 145
Figure 10.2 Diagram of spatial dependence of a traveling wave at two snap-
shots in time, t = 0 (solid curve) and t = T/4 (dashed curve), where T is the
time for one oscillation period.
You can see that as time evolves, the traveling wave moves to the right. The rate
at which the phase changes is called the phase velocity, v. For example, the phase
velocity is the distance between any two points, say the peak of the solid wave at
t = 0 and the peak of the dashed wave at t = T/4, divided by the time difference
T/4. FromQuestion10.1 (a), youknowthat the phase velocity canbe writtenas

k
.
An analysis of the changing sum of the tension forces Y component on a waving
string (via Newtons second law) shows that the phase velocity can be written as
a function of physically measurable quantities v
_
F
T

, where F
T
is the total
tension on the string and is the 1D string density (mass per unit length).
[10.2] Question: Using the above discussion and the equation v =

k

_
F
T

,
write an expression for the frequency f as a function of , F
T
, and .
Instructor Notes:
f =
v

F
T
/

The difference in the two wave solutions (traveling and standing) comes from
solving the DE with different boundary conditions. Boundary conditions dene
certain constraints imposed on the solution of the DE. In the case of a standing
wave, which you will be observing in todays experiment, the solution to the wave
equation must be constrained to have xed points or nodes a distance L away
from one another. In other words, the spatial boundary condition says that any
solutionto the wave equationmust containat least two non-moving points onthe
waving string at two specic locations for all times t . For example, a violin string
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
146 CHAPTER 10. WAVES ONA STRING
exhibits standing waves since the string has two non-moving parts the violins
bridge, and at the point on the violins ngerboard where the violinist places their
nger (see Fig. 10.3). The distance between these points L can change based on
the violinists nger placement.
Figure 10.3 Diagram of a violin.
Figure 10.4 Diagram of the rst three harmonics waveforms. Only certain
wavelengths or harmonics can t within the boundary conditions.
Figure 10.4 shows the three lowest possible (least number of nodes) standing wave
solutions that meet the boundary conditions. Notice that there are always at least
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
10.2. INTRODUCTION 147
two xed points or nodes separated by a distance L. The horizontal positions
where the waves amplitude is at a maximumonce every period T are called antin-
odes. As the number of nodes increase, you see that the effective wavelength that
ts between the outer most nodes becomes smaller by the relation
n
=
2L
n
, where
n = 1, 2, 3, . . . and this is called the nth harmonic. Not all wavelengths are solu-
tions, only the ones that t within the boundary conditions! Therefore, there is
not a continuum of natural frequencies at which the wave vibrates or resonates,
only discrete frequencies associated with each harmonic.
[10.3] Question: Sketch the waveform associated with the next harmonic
n =4.
Instructor Notes:
[10.4] Question: Looking at Fig. 10.4 derive a mathematical relationship
that relates the harmonic to the number of nodes that exist at that harmonic.
Instructor Notes:
N
nodes
=n +1
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
148 CHAPTER 10. WAVES ONA STRING
10.3 Apparatus and Theory
Theory
[10.5] Question: Using your answer to Question 10.2 write f as a function
of L and n, in analogy to
n
, call this f
n
. This expression now describes
the frequency of a standing wave on a string in terms of directly measurable
quantities.
Instructor Notes:
f
n
=

F
T
/

n
=n
_

F
T
/
2L
_
[10.6] Question: The subjective way that humans understand the frequency
of sounds that they hear is called pitch. Higher pitch sounds have higher
frequencies. What happens to the pitch of the note being played when a
violinist places their nger on the neck of the violin farther from the bridge?
What variable in Question 10.5 is the violinist changing?
[10.7] Question: Substitute expressions for k
n
into Eq. (10.7) and show that
the boundary conditions are met. In other words show that y
stand
(0, t ) = 0
and y
stand
(L, t ) =0 at any time t .
Instructor Notes:
If they place their nger farther from the bridge, then they have increased L.
Therefore, according to the result from Question 10.5, the frequency will get
smaller and the pitch will get lower.
Apparatus
The apparatus is depicted in Fig. 10.5. At one end, a speaker attached to a string
oscillates at a driving frequency f
D
and driving amplitude A
D
. On the oppo-
site end, the string is held under tension by a counterweight with mass m. You
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
10.3. APPARATUS ANDTHEORY 149
can control the desired f
D
and A
D
within DataStudios function generator pro-
gram. The software tells the PASCO hardware to output an analog waveform sig-
nal, which is turned into a mechanical oscillation by the speaker. When the driver
is on resonance with any harmonic n, i.e., f
D
= f
n
, you will nd the string sud-
denly and quite dramatically forms a standing wave pattern associated with that
particular harmonic, as depicted in Fig. 10.4.
Figure 10.5 Diagram of apparatus showing the string, speaker, PASCO hard-
ware signal generator, and hanging mass.
[10.8] Question: What frequency does the string oscillate at when f
D
= f
n
?
This is sort of like asking, What avor is a banana milkshake?
Instructor Notes:
The string always oscillates at the frequency at which it is being driven, f
D
,
regardless of whether or not youre on resonance.
[10.9] Question: Qualitatively, describe why a standing wave is a combi-
nation of two counter-propagating traveling waves. Think about how the
apparatus might be described as a traveling wave + the same traveling wave
reected back. Hint: Recall your answer to the Pre-lab Question 10.1.
Instructor Notes:
The answer is in the question. A traveling wave (moving to the right in
Fig. 10.5) is setup by the speaker. That same traveling wave experiences a
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
150 CHAPTER 10. WAVES ONA STRING
reection at the second boundary (the pulley wheel). The reected wave is
exactly out of phase with the incident wave (moving to the left in Fig. 10.5)
and the superposition of the two waves yields a standing wave pattern.
[10.10] Question: Write the string tension F
T
in terms of the hanging mass
m and substitute this formula into your result from Question 10.5 for f
n
.
Instructor Notes:
F
T
=mg and f
n
=n
_

F
T
/
2L
_
=n
_

mg/
2L
_
10.4 Experiment
[10.11] Action-Item:
Consider the equation you derived in Question 10.10. You will be carrying
out three experiments based on this equation.
Using this equation, devise two experiments that involve changing one of
the equations variables (the independent variable), observing the output
of another variable (the dependent variable), while keeping the other pa-
rameters constant. Make sure these two experiments use dierent sets of
independent/dependent variables from each other and from those used in
yet another experiment outlined in the last bullet point.
Devise a procedure for controlling the variables. Your procedure must
involve taking at least four data points per experiment.
Determine the uncertainty in your measurements of all the variables and
include a summary of your reasoning within your procedure section of your
mini report.
For each experiment present the data in a linear plot. To do so, youll want
to choose a slope that is made up of the parameters that remain constant,
and choose independent/dependent variables such that your plot will be
linear (according to your result from Question 10.10). The plot should
include error bars and theoretical slopes, i.e., draw two theory lines with
slope sl ope
theory
+sl ope
theory
and sl ope
theory
sl ope
theory
.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
10.4. EXPERIMENT 151
Since the uncertainty in the slope comes from error propagation youll need
to use Eq. (4.4) and Eq. (4.5) to determine each sl ope
theory
. Include
those uncertainty formulas in the analysis section of your mini report.
For each experiment youll need to determine the error bars. These can
be dierent from the uncertainty in the measurement variable. For ex-
ample, if L =1 mm, and you are plotting
1
L
=0.1 mm, then using error
propagation according to Eq. (4.4)
_
1
L
_
=
L
L
2
= 0.01 mm. Include those
uncertainty formulas in the analysis section of your mini report.
Youll need to measure using your string and a scale, which you can use
in all your theoretical slope predictions. Estimate and explain how you
made this estimate. What kind of error is involved (systematic, device
uncertainty, etc.)?
Carefully consider all of these points and devise a plan. Remember, it
is advantageous to make an Excel spreadsheet in advance with all the
relevant variables, parameters, and their respective uncertainties.
Here is an example experiment that you should perform in addition to the
two that you devise. Vary the driving frequency f
D
and visually identify
when you reach a resonant harmonic frequency f
n
. This will be identiable
by recognizing the sudden formation of a standing wave pattern associated
with a particular harmonic. You could then make a plot of f
n
vs. n whose
slope should equal

mg/
2L
. There is no uncertainty in n, so no need for X
error bars. The uncertainty in f
n
could be estimated as the small spread
or range of driving frequencies f
D
that can yield a single standing wave
pattern. In this case, the precision of the function generator is better than
the precision with which a single mode can be identied. You can gure
out how to determine the uncertainty in the other quantities (L, , m).
Knowing those quantities and using Eq. (4.4) it can be shown that for this
experiment sl ope
theory

mg/
2L
__

m
_
+
_

_
+
_
L
L
__
, using Eq. (4.5)
you can write sl ope
theory

mg/
2L
__
m
2m
_
+
_

2
_
+
_
L
L
__
.
Instructor Notes:
The other two adjustable parameters (independent variables) are the length
of string L and the counterweight mass (or tension) m in the string. For these
tests, they should always just use the rst harmonic. Therefore, the depen-
dent variable will always be the f
1
corresponding to n = 1. If one plots f
1
vs. (1/L) the uncertainty in the slope is approximately

mg/
2
__
m
2m
_
+
_

2
__
,
while for a plot of f
1
vs.

m the uncertainty in the slope is approximately

g/
2L
__

2
_
+
_
L
L
__
.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
152 CHAPTER 10. WAVES ONA STRING
10.5 Analysis
[10.12] Think-About-It: In this Activity, you have performed three experi-
ments and the results of each need to be analyzed. Keep in mind both the
quantitative and qualitative aspects of your data. Did your data match the
expected line within the uncertainty? Are they o in one direction (i.e. all
the data points are below the expected line) or are they spread on both sides
of the expected range? What does this tell you about the types of error your
experiment experienced? Is your error mostly random, systematic, both, or
can you not tell from your graphs?
10.6 Conclusion
[10.13] Think-About-It: It is important to be able to extend your physics
knowledge to relevant new situations. Apply the results of todays experi-
ments to explain how a guitar works. How do these experiments apply in the
case of brass instruments such a trombone or a trumpet? What about to a
set of drums?
[10.14] Think-About-It: Of the three experiments you performed, which
was the most reliable and why?
[10.15] Think-About-It: What changes could be made to the apparatus
that would improve your results and why?
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
Chapter 11
Specic heat
11.1 Safety note
This weeks experiment involves hot water, hot metal, and glass thermometers.
Please use common sense when handling the apparatus. In particular, handle the
metal samples by the strings, do not tip the hot pot, and treat the thermometers
with respect.
11.2 Pre-lab
There is no pre-lab for this weeks activity.
11.3 Introduction
This week, youwill be working witha well-knownmaterial property: specic heat.
Your task will be to identify two samples of metal by determining the specic heat
of each sample.
11.4 Apparatus and Theory
Apparatus
The apparatus consists of a hot pot, a calorimeter, cold water, two thermometers,
and two metal samples.
The hot pot may be used to raise the temperature of a sample to a known value.
A thermometer is suspended from the hot pot to record the temperature of the
water in the hot pot. This thermometer must not touch the bottom or sides of the
hot pot. If the metal sample is placed in the hot pot, the sample must not touch
the bottom or sides of the hot pot. Also, the thermometer and the metal sample
should not touch.
154 CHAPTER 11. SPECIFIC HEAT
[11.1] Think-About-It: Why is it important that the metal sample does
not touch the bottom or sides of the hot pot? Why is it important that the
thermometer not touch the metal sample?
Instructor Notes:
This checks the students understanding of the apparatus
The function of the calorimeter is to provide an isolated system. Recall from Ac-
tivity 5 that an isolated system can be dened as system that does not exchange
energy with the rest of the Universe. The calorimeters in this class are insulated
with Styrofoam. Athermometer slides through a hole in the cover of the calorime-
ter. This thermometer records the temperature of the interior. The calorimeter
also includes a stirring rod (rod with metal loop at the bottom). The stirring rod is
used to homogenize the state of the system as it comes to equilibrium. The sys-
temconsists of the inner cup and the contents of the inner cup. If the inner cup is
properly seated in the ring, and the lid is on properly, very little heat will transfer
in or out of the system. It is a fact that the thermometer will absorb some heat
during the experiment. You may choose to assume that the heat absorbed by the
thermometer is negligible, or you may try to account for it during your analysis.
The rod will also absorb some heat during the experiment. You should account
for that in your calculations.
The stirring rod and inner cup are made of aluminum.
Instructor Notes:
According to the HyperPhysics website (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.
gsu.edu/hbase/mi.html), which references Chapter 19 of Tipler, aluminum
has a specic heat of 0.900
J
gm*K
Theory
The material property under investigation is called specic heat.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
11.4. APPARATUS ANDTHEORY 155
Specic heat: The amount of energy required to raise the tem-
perature of 1 gram of a substance by one degree (Celsius or
Kelvin).
Mathematically, specic heat appears in a common equation of heat:
Q =mc T (11.1)
where Q is the amount of energy transferred by heat, m is the mass of the ob-
ject heated or cooled, c is the specic heat of the object, and T is the change in
temperature of the object (measured in Celsius or Kelvin).
[11.2] Think-About-It: Why can T be measured in units of either Celsius
or Kelvin?
[11.3] Think-About-It: Why is it unwise to stir a pot of soup with a metal
spoon? What can you deduce about the specic heat of metal compared to
water?
This experiment begins with a mass of metal at a known temperature and a mass
of water at a knowntemperature andends witha metal-water systemat a different
known temperature.
[11.4] Action-Item: Using Eq. (11.1):
a. Write a formula for the transfer of energy in the metal.
b. Write a formula for the transfer of energy in the water.
c. Write a formula for the transfer of energy in the inner cup.
d. Write a formula for the transfer of energy in the stirring rod.
e. Write a formula for the transfer of energy in the thermometer, assuming
that it is made entirely of glass.
The law of conservation of energy states that, assuming the system is isolated,
energy can neither be created nor destroyed in the system. As heat is a form of
energy transfer, the law of conservation of energy implies that heat lost from
one portion of the system must be gained by another portion. Heat cannot be
transferred outside the system.
[11.5] Think-About-It: If heat losses balance heat gains, what is the
sum of all these energy exchanges for any isolated system?
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
156 CHAPTER 11. SPECIFIC HEAT
Instructor Notes:
This checks the students understanding of the ideas of balance and iso-
lated system; the sum of all energy exchanges for an isolated system is zero.
[11.6] Action-Item: Using your answers to Action-Item 11.4 and Think-
About 11.5, write a mathematical model that represents the law of conser-
vation of energy in this experiment.
11.5 Experiment
At least two experiments could be designed using the available apparatus: the
sample couldbe heatedto a knownvalue andallowedtocome toequilibriumwith
a known quantity of cold water, or the sample could be cooled to a known value
and allowed to come to equilibrium with a known quantity of hot water. How-
ever, the second experiment poses a greater safety hazard. In particular, it would
involve pouring hot water and nding the mass of a cup of hot water. Therefore,
you will perform the rst experiment.
[11.7] Think-About-It: You should have enough information at this point
to design an experiment to nd the specic heat of a sample of metal. As you
design your experiment, consider the following: how will you ensure that the
metal sample is at the same temperature as the water in the hot pot before
you transfer the sample to the calorimeter? How will you minimize the heat
loss by transfer to the air when you move the sample to the calorimeter?
How will you ensure that the thermometer in the cover of the calorimeter
does not touch the top or sides of the sample? How will you know when
the metal sample-cold water system has reached equilibrium? How will you
obtain the mass of the water in the calorimeter?
[11.8] Action-Item: Design your experiment. Any steps which require man-
ual dexterity should be practiced at this time.
Check with your TA before proceeding.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
11.6. DATA ANALYSIS 157
[11.9] Action-Item: Once your TA has reviewed your procedure, proceed
with your experiment. You will perform the experiment at least twice: once
for each metal sample.
Instructor Notes:
No ice should enter the calorimeter, only cold water. The introduction of a
phase transition would complicate the experiment.
11.6 Data analysis
Using the equation you developed in Action-Item 11.6, compute the specic heat
of each metal sample. Use your resources to nd the specic heat of the inner cup
and stirring rod, and the thermometer, if applicable.
This activity does not involve comparing model values to experimental values.
Rather, youare using a model (lawof conservationof energy as appliedtoa calorime-
ter) on your experimental results to calculate a particular value of interest, the
specic heat. If the model is awed, or the experimental results are inaccurate,
then the specic heat you derive will be inaccurate.
The specic heat you determine must include an uncertainty. Given the experi-
mental methods used this week, the best choice for determining the uncertainty
in the measurement is to use the average and standard deviation.
[11.10] Think-About-It: Without performing the experiment ve or ten
times over yourself, how can you gather enough data to determine the a rea-
sonable value for the average and standard deviation of your measurement?
[11.11] Action-Item:
a. Using the procedure suggested by the answer to Think-about-it 11.10,
nd the average and standard deviation for the specic heat of each metal
sample.
b. Using your resources and your calculated values, identify the most likely
metal for each sample.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
158 CHAPTER 11. SPECIFIC HEAT
Instructor Notes:
The simplest method is for the groups to pool results, yielding 6 values for
each samples specic heat. This is assuming, of course, that each group has
samples of the same two materials as all the others, a conditionthat we intend
to meet.
[11.12] Think-About-It: Once each group has identied their samples, your
TA will provide you with the actual identity of each metal. In the analysis
section of your mini-report, discuss your ndings. How accurately did you de-
termine the specic heat of each sample? What does the standard deviation
of your measurements say about the precision of the measurements? How
could you improve your results? If this experiment were a pilot experiment
designed to test the reliability of your experimental procedure, would you
conclude that your procedure is trustworthy?
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
Chapter 12
Refereeing the Work of Others
12.1 Pre-Lab
There is no pre-lab work this week.
12.2 Introduction
Today you will be using all of the skills that you have learned this semester to
evaluate the work of other scientists.
12.3 Background
Physics is a communal discipline. No physicist works in isolation. A physicist de-
cides on a project to study by reading journals and going to conferences to see
what kinds of questions that other physicists are interested in answering. Then
she comes up with a model for the phenomena that she has decided to study. The
next step is to carry out an experiment that tests how well her model matches re-
ality. Once this is done, she needs to communicate her results to other physicists
by writing a paper and submitting it to journals and conferences.
Once her paper is submitted to a journal, it will be sent to other physicists, known
as referees, for peer review. The job of a referee is to read the paper and decided
if it should be published. They are looking at two main criteria: the quality of the
experiment and how well the experiment is communicated.
The referees look to see if the experiment is well designed by asking questions like,
Does the experiment answer the question that the experimenter thinks it does?
Has the model taken all the necessary physics into account? Are the indepen-
dent variables changed one at a time? Did the experimenter take all the potential
sources of error into account?
If the referees decided that the experiment is of sufcient quality, they then review
how well the paper communicates the experiment. They look to see if the experi-
ment is described well enough for others to understand and replicate it. Also, they
160 CHAPTER 12. REFEREEING THE WORK OF OTHERS
check that everything the experimenter wrote makes sense and there is nothing
important left out.
They can recommend that the paper be published, they can suggest changes to
the experiment or the text that must be made before it can be published, or they
can reject the paper, if they think the experiment is not valid.
Once the paper is accepted, the process of physics can begin again.
So far in this course you have selected problems, devised models and tested them,
and communicated your results. Today you will be serving as referees, using your
knowledge to reproduce and criticize the work of others.
12.4 Experiment
Your TA will give you a mini report written by another group of physicists. You will
use the mini report as a guide to replicate the experiment that it describes.
[12.1] Think-About-It: You will be writing a critique of the mini report
that you have been given, so you should take notes while you are doing the
experiment. Does the experiment it describes work? Could the experiment
be improved in any way? Was there any information that was left out of the
report that would be helpful to replicate the experiment?
[12.2] Action-Item: Using the materials supplied to you, replicate the ex-
periment described in the mini report.
12.5 Analysis
[12.3] Think-About-It: Were you able to replicate their results using the
information the writers of the mini report have given you?
[12.4] Think-About-It: Compare this mini report to the mini reports that
you have written. What does it do well? Does it match the format and
expectations that your TA requires? What grade do you think your TA
would give this mini report? Why?
[12.5] Action-Item: It is your job as referees to decide if the paper should
be accepted, accepted with modications, or rejected. In order to justify
your choice, you should explain the positive aspects of the paper, as well as
pointing out any mistakes or omissions in the mini report. Also, suggest any
corrections or modications to the mini report that you think the authors
should make, if any. This should be the length of a typical mini report.
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
Appendices
Appendix A
Templates
Graph 1 Dependent variable versus Independent variable:
Optional additional description
Data
Theory
D
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t
v
a
r
i
a
b
l
e
[
u
n
i
t
s
]
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Independent variable [units]
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Figure A.1 This is an example of the proper format for a graph in Physics
1501. The discrete points represent individual measurements in an exper-
iment. The solid lines represent a mathematical model of the underlying
physics. The error bars represent the uncertainty in the experimental results.
The spacing between the solid lines represents the uncertainty in the model.
164 APPENDIX A. TEMPLATES
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
Appendix B
Derivatives and Error Propagation
One of the goals of this class is to give you a qualitative and quantitative under-
standing of uncertainty in experiments. The methods of error propagation that
you use in this class are approximations that overestimate the true uncertainty.
This appendix covers the exact equations for error propagation that these approx-
imations are derived from.
B.1 Partial Derivatives
There are two main types of scalar derivatives: total derivatives and partial deriva-
tives. For functions of one variable, these are identical, but for functions that de-
pend on two or more variables, these two types of derivatives are very different.
Recall Eq. 2.2 from Experiment 2:
a =
m
h
g
M
Tot
(B.1)
where M
Tot
= m
h
+m
c
. In that experiment, you measured the acceleration and
graphed it as a function of the mass on the hanger, m
h
. This gave you a line with a
slope of
g
M
Tot
and enabled you to measure g. If you have a linear function and take
a total derivative with respect to the independent variable, it is equal to the slope.
Lets show that by taking following derivative:
a
m
h
=

m
h
m
h
g
M
Tot
=
g
M
Tot
(B.2)
It is the slope as we expected. You might have noticed a couple things about that
derivative that raise some questions. The rst might be, why is the derivative
symbol written using script s? And the second, and more important question,
doesnt M
Tot
depend on m
c
?
The answers to those questions are related to the difference between a total and
a partial derivative. The derivative taken in Eq (B.2) was a partial derivative. We
denote a partial derivative using a script . When we take a partial derivative we
166 APPENDIX B. DERIVATIVES ANDERROR PROPAGATION
only consider the explicit dependence of the function on that variable. We ignore
the interdependence of the variables. A total derivative takes the dependence of
the variables on each other into account.
Partial Derivative A type of derivative that measures how a function of many
variables depends explicitly on one variable, but ignores the dependence
of the other variables on that one variable.
Total Derivative A measurement of how a function and all the variables of that
function depend on one of the variables. This type of derivative is also
called a full derivative.
The total derivative is related to the differential. A differential is how the function
changes in response to a change of any number of its variables. We can write the
differential for Eq (B.1), da, as:
da =
a
m
h
dm
h
+
a
g
dg +
a
M
Tot
dM
Tot
Notice that each term has the units of da. Each of the partial derivatives shows
how the function changes when you change that variable. Then it is multiplied
by a small change in the corresponding variable. This should remind you of a
tangent line, which we will come back to later.
From this equation, we can nd any of the total derivatives of Eq (B.1). For exam-
ple, here is the total derivative with respect to m
h
.
da
dm
h
=
a
m
h
dm
h
dm
h
+
a
g
dg
dm
h
+
a
M
Tot
dM
Tot
dm
h
To calculate this derivative, we need to nd three partial derivatives and three full
derivatives. Weve already found the partial derivative in the rst term and you
should be able to convince yourself that
dm
h
dm
h
=1.
In the second term
a
g
=
m
h
M
Tot
and
dg
dm
h
=0
The total derivative of the acceleration due to gravity with respect to the mass
of the cart is zero, which is a mathematical way of saying that objects near the
surface of the Earth fall with an acceleration independent of their mass.
The last term is a bit trickier. The partial is straightforward:
a
M
Tot
=
m
h
g
M
2
Tot
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
B.1. PARTIAL DERIVATIVES 167
If the cart mass is independent of the hanger mass, the full derivative is
dM
Tot
dm
h
=
d
dm
h
(m
c
+m
h
) =
dm
c
dm
h
+
dm
h
dm
h
=0+1 =1
so
da
dm
h
=
g
M
Tot

m
h
g
M
2
Tot
(B.3)
which doesnt match Eq (B.2) and means that Eq (B.1) is not linear as a function
of m
c
!
[B.1] Think-About-It: What control did we use in our experiment for Lab
2 that caused
dM
Tot
dm
h
=0
Recall that in 2, we kept M
Tot
constant by adding to the hanger mass what we
removed from the cart, and vice versa. That means that
dm
c
dm
h
=
dm
h
dm
h
and
dM
Tot
dm
h
=
d
dm
h
(m
h
+m
c
) =
dm
h
dm
h
+
dm
c
dm
h
=11 =0
Now if we calculate the total derivative of Eq (B.1) with respect to m
h
, we nd
da
dm
h
=
g
M
Tot
This matches the partial derivative from Eq (B.2). This is what we expect, be-
cause we kept both g and M
Tot
constant, the acceleration is a function of one
variable, m
h
. For functions of one variable, partial derivatives and total deriva-
tives are identical.
[B.2] Question: Recall Eq. 4.6 from the Centripetal Force lab: F =m
2
r .
Find all the partial derivatives of this function.
Solution:
F
m
=
2
r
F

=2mr
F
r
=m
2
dF
dm
=
2
r
dF
d
=mr
dF
dr
=m
2
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
168 APPENDIX B. DERIVATIVES ANDERROR PROPAGATION
B.2 Error Propagation
A derivative is the rate of change of a function. It tells you how much the value
of the function changes for a change of 1 unit of the variable. Lets look at an
example, y=x. We can call y the value of the function, the output, or, as we often
do inlab, the dependent variable. That would make x the variable, the input or the
independent variable. This is the equation of a line that goes through the points
(0,0), (1,1), (2,2), etc. and also (-1,-1), (-2,-2), and so forth. You can already see
that if you change x by 1, from 1 to 2, for example, y will also change by 1 (2-1=1).
The derivative of a line is just the slope and the slope in this case is 1.
[B.3] Question: Write an equation that converts cents to dollars, using the
amount of money in units of cents as the input and the value in dollars as
the output. What is the derivative? What are the units of the derivative?
What would the derivative of a function that converts dollars to cents be?
What would the units of that derivative be?
Solution: y =
1
100
x,
dy
dx
=
1
100
, dollars/cent, 100, cents/dollar.
One use of derivatives is to make tangent lines to a function at any point. This
means that you canuse themto calculate the value of a functionfor small changes
in the variables of that function. This is exactly the goal of error propagation,
determining how small changes in your measured values change your calculated
value.
Lets look an example from physics. The position of a soccer ball dropped near
the surface of the earth is given by y =
1
2
g t
2
. If we measure the position at t =3 s
and our time has an uncertainty of t =0.5 s, what position should we report?
The nominal measurement is y =
1
2
(9.8) (3)
2
= 4.9 9 = 44.1 m. The partial
derivative of y with respect to t is
y
t
=
1
2
g 2t =g t =29.4 m/s. Now we can
put this together into a tangent line using the partial derivative as the slope:
f (t ) =mt +b
44.1 =29.43+b
44.1 =88.2+b
b =44.1
f (t ) =29.4t 44.1
This tangent line only tells us the value of the function around t =3.0 s, which is
what were interested in. We can make it a little more explicit if we use the uncer-
tainty in t, what we called t , as the variable in the equation.
f (t t ) =29.4(t t ) 44.1
If we use t=3.0 s as our measured time, we get for our position:
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual
B.2. ERROR PROPAGATION 169
f (3.00.5) =44.129.4t =44.129.40.5 =44.114.7 m
Notice the form of our result:
f (t )
f (t )
t
t
The uncertainty is the partial derivative of the functionwithrespect to the variable
in question, multiplied by the uncertainty in that variable. For functions of one
variable, the correct way to calculate the uncertainty using propagation of error is
f =
f (t )
t
t
For functions of two or more variables, the uncertainty is calculated similarly to
the way you have been handling it so far in lab. Lets assume that g also has an
uncertainty. Now our position with its total uncertainty would be:
f (g, t ) =
1
2
g t
2

_
_
f (g, t )
g
g
_
2
+
_
f (g, t )
t
t
_
2
To combine uncertainties, you simply square the individual uncertainties, sum
them up, and then take the square root. Since these are partial derivatives, this
formula only works if the variables are independent.
[B.4] Question: How do we ensure that the variables in our experiments
are independent of each other? Remember, variables are independent if the
derivative of one with respect to the other is zero.
Solution: We can ensure that the derivative of one variable with respect to the
independent variable is zero by changing only one variable at a time and keeping
the others constant.
In fact, this will work for any number of variables:
f (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
N
) =
_
_
f
x
1
x
1
_
2
+
_
f
x
2
x
2
_
2
+ +
_
f
x
N
x
N
_
2
(B.4)
This is the exact formula for error propagation.
version: -DEVEL- [Fall 2012]
170 APPENDIX B. DERIVATIVES ANDERROR PROPAGATION
[B.5] Question: Use Eq. B.4 to write the equation for nding the uncer-
tainty of two equations: F = m
2
r and a =
m
h
g
M
t ot
. In Activity 4, M
Tot
was
a combination of m
h
and m
c
. However, we kept M
Tot
constant so that
M
Tot
m
h
= 0 and
M
Tot
m
c
= 0. Because of this, we can treat M
Tot
as an inde-
pendent variable. If you nd the propagated uncertainty in terms of M
Tot
and M
Tot
, you can plug in the expressions for M
Tot
and M
Tot
in terms of
m
h
,m
c
, m
h
, and m
c
. This can be a useful method for simplifying error
propagation calculations. If you want to conrm that these two methods will
give the same result, plug the expression for M
Tot
into the equation for a
before you take the partial.
Solution:a =
_
_
a
m
h
m
h
_
2
+
_
a
g
g
_
2
+
_
a
M
Tot
M
Tot
_
2
=
_
_
g
M
Tot
m
h
_
2
+
_
m
h
M
Tot
g
_
2
+
_

m
h
g
M
2
Tot
M
Tot
_
2
Keep in mind that M
Tot
=m
h
+m
c
with M
Tot
=
_
m
2
h
+m
2
c
F =
_
_
F
m
m
_
2
+
_
F

_
2
+
_
F
r
r
_
2
=
_
_

2
r m
_
2
+(2mr )
2
+
_
m
2
r
_
2
PHYS 1501 Laboratory Manual