E N G L I SH IV

RE S O U RC ES

Sentences: - A sentence is an independent self-contained utterance, formed by a noun phrase (names the subject and gives an idea of what youre going to talk about) and a verb phrase (says something about the noun phrase). -What differentiates a sentence from a phrase it the fact that it has a main verb. -Noun: Naming word. Verb: action. -There are 4 kinds of sentences: Affirmative, Negative, Imperative, and Negative. Each one has a punctuation mark (phrases do not have punctuation marks) -Inversion, only used to emphasize predicate. It has no place in good prose. Parts of speech Nouns: Can be: Person (proper nouns), place, object (abstract nouns). -Collective nouns: regarded as singular. Eg: crowd -Common nouns: can be identified by trying to stick a or the. -Latin plural nouns: bacterium, bacteria; oxymoron, oxymora. Adjectives: Qualify or describe nouns. -Descriptive adj: tell how many each one, everyone, this, that. -Possessive adj: his, hers, mine, yours. -Comparative and superlative adj: only for short words, terminations er, -est. For longer words: more, most. -Absolute adj: do not take degrees. Eg: death, unique, perfect. Adverbs: modify a verb telling when, where or how. Also an adjective or another adverb. *adv and adj. can be frequently the same word. Prepositions: Express relationships and are the first words in a phrase. We can end sentences with prepositions in informal speech. Compound prepositions: With to, with regard to, come across. Conjunctions: coordinate, link and connect equal part of the sentences. They can be: word to word (and), phrase to phrase (or), clause to clause (but). -Correlative conjunctions: Eitheror, not only..but also, neither nor. -Subordinate conjunctions: Qualify or modify a main clause. They can also be the object of a verb EG: Max quit his job because he was bored (subordinate adverb clause: reason). Now he has to decide what to do next (noun clause).

Pronouns: have different cases. A word changes according to the case (nominative, objective or possessive). What function the word is getting accomplished in the sentence. -Personal: nominative I, you, he, she, it we, you, they. Objective me, you, him, her, it, us, and, they. -Possessive: my, mine, your, yours, his, hers, our, ours, their, theirs. (answers the question whose?) -Reflexive: reflect any action back to the subject. Yourself, myself, itself, themselves, herself, himself. (*should not be used to avoid personal pronouns). -Relative pronouns: link a relative subordinate clause to the main clause Definite: which, that, who, whom. Indefinite What, which, who, whatever, whomever (Indefinite pronouns dont have an antecedent).

Finite and non-finite verb phrases Non-finite verbs: Infinitives.- Form: -to. May function as: nouns (To walk is healthy), adverbs (The tourists come to enjoy our scenery), adjectives (is there anything to eat in the train?) -Gerunds.- Form.- -ing. May function as nouns (Mowing the lawn is hard work) -Present participles.- Form: -ing. May function as adjectives (Their report was very depressing). -Past participles.- Form: -ed, -en, -d, -t. Adjectives (His tired eyes were blue). Non-finite verb phrases: -Participial phrase.- Form: present participle + phrase. May function as adjectives (we spoke to the man standing at the back). Past participle + phrase. May function as adjectives (Bored by the professor they fell asleep) -Gerundive Phrases.- form: gerund + phrase. May function as nouns (Practicing for 7 hours perfected her skill). -Iinfinitive phrases.- Infinitive + phrase. May function as nouns (to win the game is an unlikely solution). Adjective (There is no money to spare for luxuries), adverbs (we got ready to go to bed.)

Kinds of Clauses. -Simple: one finite verb. -Complex: One main clause + one or more subordinate clause. -Double: two or main clauses + one or more subordinate clause. -Multiple= more than two main clauses + one or more subordinate clause.

Adverb clauses: -Condition: (under what condition?) If, in case, supposing, providing, in condition that.

-Comprehension: Even though, although, even, even if. -Comparison: (compared to what?) As, than, such, such as, so, so as. -Degree/ extent: (to what degree, extent) As, more, much. -Place: (where?) where, wherever, whence, whether. -Manner: (how?) As, like, as if. -Reason: (why?) As, because, since, that. -Purpose: (for what purpose?) In order that, so that Subordinate noun clauses: Can also work as: subject, object, complement, object of the preposition, object of non-finite verbs, opposition.

Steps for the Tabular analysis: 1.- Pick out finite verbs 2.- Pick out all clauses 3.- Identify the main clause, and identify the subordinate clause. 4.- Work out what kind of clauses each clause is, discovering its function, in relation to the entire clause. 5.- Label each subordinate clause with the letter it corresponds to.

T AB UL A R A NA LY S IS

OF

S E N TE N CE S

And after so great a gap in his matrimonial felicity when his death was reckoned certain, his estate settled, his name dismissed from memory, and his wife, long, long ago resigned to her autumnal widowhood he entered the door one evening, quietly, as from a days absence, and became a loving spouse till death. Wakefield by Nathaniel Hawthorne
1. Parts of speech Conjunction And Conjunction When noun name preposition after pronoun his Past participle dismissed adverb so noun death preposition from adjective adjective great verb was article/adj. a noun Gap preposition in Pronoun/adj. his noun estate noun wife Article/adj. adverb long noun adjective matrimonial Past part./adj settled adverb ago adjective noun felicity

Past part. reckoned

adjective/adverb Certain pronoun His verb

pronoun his

pronoun his Past part. resigned noun

noun memory noun

conjunction and pronoun

Preposition

pronoun

To adverb quietly noun spouse

her conjunction as preposition till

autumnal preposition from noun death

widowhood article a

he adj days

Entered noun absence

the

door verb became

one article a

evening adjective loving

conjunction and

2. Word function analysis

he

entered

One evening (time) Quietly (manner) As from a days absence (prep. Pharase. Manner) After so great a gap in his matrimonial felicity (prepositional phrase: time)

door

The

(when) death

his

Was reckoned (passive voice) (was) (was)

Certain (predicative adj.)

(when) state (when) name

Settled (predicative adj.) Dismissed (predicative adj.) From memory (prepositional adverbial phrase) Resigned (predicative adj.) To her autumnal (prepositional adv.) Till death (prepositional phrase: time) Spouse (predicate nominative) A (adj.) Loving (adj.)

(And) wife

his

(was)

(and) [he]

became

3. Clause analysis Clause A: And after so great a gap in his matrimonial felicity () he Kind Main Clause Function __________________ Link __________________________

entered the door one evening quietly, as from a days absence. B: And became a loving spouse till death. Main Clause (coordinates independent clause)

(no function)

(no link)

Coordinate with A

And

a1: when his death was

reckoned certain, his estate settled, his name dismissed from memory, and his wife, long, long ago resigned to her autumnal widowhood

Subordinate Adverb Clause of (time)

Modify verb entered in A

When

Sentence type: compound complex (double)