Ch18 2010/7/27 16:17 page 211 #1

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18
Reentry Dynamics
18.1 Reentry Dynamics of Lifting Vehicles
Reentry dynamics analysis and control of lifting ight vehicles such as the
Space Shuttle are considerably more complex than the motion of a conventional
aircraft at steady level ight along a straight line trajectory. Having examined the
dynamics of a conventional take of and landing (CTOL) aircraft in the preceding
chapter, we will now consider more complicated motions of a ight vehicle. In
this chapter, we will rst consider some issues of a general nature dealing with the
reentry of a space vehicle into the Earths atmosphere. Then we will address the
case of a Shuttle-type vehicle reentering the atmosphere along a general reentry
trajectory (Fig. 18.1). Such a reentry could occur from an orbit around the Earth
or by a vehicle returning from an interplanetary mission. The initial velocity of
an orbital vehicle entering the atmosphere is around 26,000 ft/s, while it is even
higher (about 36,000 ft/s, or more) for a vehicle returning from interplanetary
travel. The Mach number on these ights could be about or in excess of 30. The
reentry is initiated by ring a retro-rocket to reduce the ight velocity. The vehicle
travels towards the earth along two basic trajectories (Fig. 18.2).
The ballistic trajectory is a free-fall trajectory with no lift and under the
inuence of gravity and aerodynamic drag (landing at point a in Fig. 18.2).
In the glide trajectory, vehicle experiences aerodynamic lift and drag and
is typically own by a lifting vehicle such as the Space Shuttle (landing at
point b in Fig. 18.2).
Another type of trajectory that is possible but not used is a skip trajectory, along
which a small amount of lift is generated and the vehicle is allowed to y in and
out of the atmosphere until it slows down enough to be able to land (at point c
in Fig. 18.2). However, this generates an excessive amount of aerodynamic heat,
which precludes its use.
There are essentiallytwotypes of constraints inthe choice of a reentrytrajectory.
One is to keep the maximum deceleration within allowable limits (about 10g for
a manned vehicle). The other is to limit the aerodynamic heating to stay within
tolerable values. Therefore, there is a reentry corridor within which the vehicle is
allowed to operate (Fig. 18.3).
The ballistic case is the basis of most preliminary calculations dealing with
ballistic missiles and in the design of the reentry corridor. Using an exponential
211
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212 MULTIPLE SCALES THEORY & AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
Reentry
Orbit
Boost
phase
Earth
Launch
Fig. 18.1 Reentry from Earth orbit.
isothermal atmosphere and neglecting gravity in comparison with aerodynamic
drag along a ballistic trajectory, the maximum deceleration can be shown to be [1]
|

V|
max
V
2
E
sin (18.1)
where V is the velocity, V
E
is the initial entry velocity, and is the constant descent
angle. At high altitudes, the deceleration increases in the early part of the reentry
because of increasing atmospheric density. However, as the reentry progresses,
Fig. 18.2 Reentry paths (ballistic, glide, and skip).
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Ch18 2010/7/27 16:17 page 213 #3
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REENTRY DYNAMICS 213
Fig. 18.3 Reentry corridor.
the velocity decreases rapidly at lower altitudes and therefore, the deceleration
decreases. Thus, the deceleration goes through a maximum.
On the other hand, it can be shown [1] that the aerodynamic heating rate dQ/dt
is proportional to V
3
. Therefore, the reentry corridor at high velocities is governed
more by aerodynamic heating than by maximum deceleration. In the initial part of
the reentry, the aerodynamic heating rate increases because of the increasing atmo-
spheric density. Later on, it decreases as the velocity keeps decreasing. Therefore,
it also goes through a maximum.
18.2 Longitudinal Dynamics of a Lifting Vehicle
We will nowconsider a ight vehicle such as the Space Shuttle as it ies along a
reentry path. In particular, we will investigate the angle-of-attack variations along
the ight path. First, we assume that the center of mass of the vehicle travels along
an optimal trajectory that minimizes the weight of the thermal protection system.
Such a trajectory is usually determined by a trajectory optimization program. The
problem is to determine the vehicle dynamics as it ies along this trajectory. This
is the so-called limited problem, in which the trajectory inuences the dynamics,
but the dynamics do not affect the trajectory.
Much of the early work in this area was done in connection with ballistic
missiles in the 1950s. Work by Allen [2] and Friedrich and Dore [3] considered a
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Ch18 2010/7/27 16:17 page 214 #4
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214 MULTIPLE SCALES THEORY & AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
ballistic trajectory. Allen showed that, under certain conditions, the angle-of-attack
oscillations can be described by Bessel functions of zeroth order. In related work, it
was shown that, for a straight-line, descending path, altitude is the preferred inde-
pendent variable. However, for a shallow gliding entry, the preferred independent
variable is the mean anomaly along the average ight path. Vinh and Laitone [4]
used the distance traversed by the vehicle as the independent variable. This vari-
able is equivalent to the altitude for a steep straight-line path and is proportional
to the mean anomaly for a shallow path. This can be described as follows.
18.2.1 Equations of Motion
Based on a spherical Earth and an axis system (Fig. 18.4) that rotates about
the center of mass of the vehicle such that the x axis is always tangential to the
instantaneous ight path, the longitudinal drag, lift, and moment equations are
given by
dV
dt
=
SC
D
V
2
2m
g sin (18.2)
V
d
dt
=
SC
L
V
2
2m

_
g
V
2
r
_
cos (18.3)
dq
dt
=
SLC
m
V
2
2B

3g
2r
_
A C
B
_
sin 2 (18.4)
with the kinematic relations
d
dt
= q +
V
r
cos (18.5)
Fig. 18.4 Axis system.
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Ch18 2010/7/27 16:17 page 215 #5
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REENTRY DYNAMICS 215
dr
dt
= V sin (18.6)
= + (18.7)
Now, consider a useful transformation of the independent variable from t to a
distance variable (i.e., distance along the reference trajectory) according to
L

(t) = V(t) (18.8)

(18.12)
C
L
= C
L
0
+C
L

(18.13)
C
m
= C
m

+C
m

_
L
V
_
+C
m
q
_
L
V
_
( + ) (18.14)
Vinh and Laitone [4] derived a universal equation for the perturbation angle of
attack
d
2

d
2
+
1
()
d
d
+
0
() = f () (18.15)
where

1
() = [C
L

(C
m

+C
m
q
)] +
V

V
(18.16)

0
() =
_
C
m

+
gL
V
2
C
D

cos
_
+

C
L

+
V

V
C
L

2
[C
L

(C
m
q
+C
D
0
) +C
L
0
+C
D

] +
3L
r
gL
V
2
cos 2( +
0
)
(18.17)
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Ch18 2010/7/27 16:17 page 216 #6
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216 MULTIPLE SCALES THEORY & AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
f () =
gL
V
2
_
C
D
0
C
m
q
_
1
V
2
gr
__
cos

C
L
0
+
2
C
L
0
(C
D
0
+C
m
q
)
gL
V
2
__
3L
r

gL
V
2
_
sin 2
+
3L
2r
sin 2( +
0
)
_
(18.18)
Note that Eq. (18.15) is a linear differential equation with coefcients
0
and
1
that vary as functions of . If we know the trajectory along which the vehicles
center of mass travels, then the coefcients are known. However, exact solutions
of the equation cannot be found in general. In some special cases, for specic
variations of the coefcients, it is possible to nd exact mathematical solutions.
There is a great wealth of mathematical results available on such equations. An
interesting case is that of a steep, ballistic reentry trajectory, for which is equiva-
lent to the altitude variable y. Assuming an isothermal atmosphere and the density
variation
=
s
e
y
(18.19)
and under certain conditions consistent with those made by Allen [2], Vinh and
Laitone [4] showed that the angle-of-attack equation can be solved in terms of
Bessel functions J
0
and Y
0
in the form
( y) = exp(k
1
e
y
)
_
c
1
J
0
_
2
_
k
1
+k
2
e
y/2
_
+c
2
Y
0
_
2
_
k
1
+k
2
e
y/2
__
(18.20)
where c
1
, c
2
are arbitrary constants, is the atmospheric density decay rate, and
k
1
, k
2
are constants depending on the vehicle parameters. J
0
and Y
0
are zeroth-
order Bessel functions of the rst and second kinds, respectively. However, when
the conditions required for the above approximation are not fully satised, they
showed that a more general equation describes the angle-of-attack variations. Thus,
dening the nondimensional altitude as
Y = y (18.21)
the dependent and the independent variables and y are transformed according to
the relations
= exp[k
1
(1 k
4
)e
Y
]u(z) (18.22)
z = 2k
1
k
4
e
Y
(18.23)
where
k
2
4
=
k
2
1
k
3
k
2
1
(18.24)
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REENTRY DYNAMICS 217
Using these, the angle-of-attack equation can be written as
z
d
2
u
dz
2
+(b z)
du
dz
au = 0 (18.25)
where b = 1. Equation (18.25) is known as the conuent hypergeometric (or Kum-
mers equation), whose solutions are known as conuent hypergeometric functions
[5] and denoted by M(a, b, z) and U(a, b, z). It is known that, for a , the
solution M(a, b, z) has the asymptotic behavior
M(a, b, z) e
1
2
z
J
0
(2

az)
_
1 +O
_
1

a
__
(18.26)
For a solid-nose-cone body considered byAllen [2], a is indeed large and the above
approximation is valid. However, for cases when a is not large, a more accurate
solution is given by using M(a, b, z).
The canonical form of Eq. (18.25) is obtained by means of the transformation
u = e
1
2
z
z

1
2
W(z) (18.27)
as
d
2
W
dz
2
+
_

1
4
+
1 2a
2z
+
1
4z
2
_
W = 0 (18.28)
From the stability theory of linear differential equations, it is known that, when
the coefcient of W in Eq. (18.28) is strictly positive, the solution is stable [6].
This can be written as the condition
z
2
4kz 1 < 0 (18.29)
where k =
1
2
a. The above inequality Eq. (18.29) leads to the relation z 4k.
This results in an upper limit on z = 2k
1
k
4
e
y
, from which we have
y
c
>
1

ln
k
1
+k
2
4k
2
(18.30)
This is the critical altitude below which the angle-of-attack oscillations may be
unstable.
Note that the above approach is interesting, but works only for steep ballistic
entry. In realistic situations, the vehicle can y along several different kinds of
trajectories. In such cases, the above approach does not lead to useful solutions.
We can treat these cases accurately by means of the generalized multiple scales
(GMS) approach, as will be presented next. The presentation follows [7].
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218 MULTIPLE SCALES THEORY & AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
18.3 Multiple Scales Analysis
The dynamics of the vehicle canbe analyzeddirectlyfromgoverningdifferential
Eq. (18.15) by means of the GMS asymptotic solutions developed in Chapter 9
[see Eqs. (9.75)(9.81)]. We assume that the coefcients
1
and
0
vary slowly
along the reentry trajectory. Therefore, they may be considered to vary as functions
of . The GMS solution is given as
()
fast

slow
(18.31)
where
fast
is given by

fast
= exp
_
1
2
_

0
_

2
1
4
0
_
d
_
(18.32)
and
slow
is given by

slow
= (
2
1
4
0
)

1
4
(18.33)
Even more accurate approximations can be obtained by considering () and
further by including slower scales and perturbations of .
The validity and accuracy of the GMS approximation are illustrated by an
application to the Space Shuttle, whose center of mass travels along an optimal
trajectory designed to minimize the weight of the thermal protection system [8].
The trajectory characteristics are shown in Fig. 18.5.
Fig. 18.5 Trajectory characteristics.
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REENTRY DYNAMICS 219
Fig. 18.6 Clock function variation.
The variation of the clocks (which are complex conjugates) as the vehicle enters
and penetrates the atmosphere is shown in Fig. 18.6.
Next, the GMS approximations are depicted in Figs. 18.7 and 18.8. First, we see
that the homogeneous solution, which represents the transient part, shows that the
oscillations increase in frequency as the Shuttle travels deeper into the atmosphere
of increasing density. The fast solution
fast
describes the variable frequency very
well, as indicated by the zero-crossings of the fast-scale solution and the exact
solution obtained by numerical integration. However, the variation in amplitude,
which occurs on a slower scale, naturally shows a little error, as predicted by the
fast-scale solution, as it primarily represents the frequency variation. The slow-
scale solution corrects the amplitude error precisely by the required amounts and
at the precise instants without altering the fast behavior. By combining the fast
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220 MULTIPLE SCALES THEORY & AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
Fig. 18.7 Variations of during reentry: transient dynamics.
and slow behaviors, the approximation becomes much more accurate. In fact, the
resulting approximation is so accurate that it is virtually indistinguishable from
the numerical solution.
An interesting comparison is that of the frozen approximation, which is obtained
by freezing the coefcients at some operating point and analyzing the constant
Fig. 18.8 Variations of during reentry: response to input.
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Ch18 2010/7/27 16:17 page 221 #11
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REENTRY DYNAMICS 221
coefcient system at that point. The system is then allowed to vary and is frozen
at another operating point (see Chapter 12). This process is repeated a number
of times, and each time the analysis is carried out on the constant system. This
approach is common in the engineering analysis of time-varying systems. It is
seen that the initially frozen approximation misrepresents the true behavior as
early as the second quarter-cycle of the oscillation. In contrast, the GMS solution
provides a uniform and accurate representation of the dynamics. Even in response
to the input f , the GMS solution accurately represents the true behavior uniformly
throughout the reentry.
For purposes of comparison, Figs. 18.7 and 18.8 show numerical, fast-scale
GMS, slow- and fast-scale GMS, and frozen solutions, all satisfying the same
initial conditions. Further, repeating the process of GMS approximation for other
linearly independent conditions shows the same high accuracy and uniformvalidity
during the reentry.
References
[1] Anderson, J.D., Introduction to Flight, McGraw-Hill, NewYork, 1989.
[2] Allen, H.J., Motion of a Ballistic Missile Angularly Misaligned with the Flight
Path Upon Entering the Atmosphere and its Effect Upon Aerodynamic Heating,
Aerodynamic Loads, and Miss Distance, NACA TN 4048, Oct. 1957.
[3] Friedrich, H.R., and Dore, F.J., The Dynamic Motion of a Missile Descending
Through the Atmosphere, Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 22, No. 9,
1955, pp. 628632.
[4] Vinh, N.X., and Laitone, E.V., Longitudinal Dynamic Stability of a Shuttle Vehicle,
Journal of Astronautical Sciences, Vol. 19, No. 5, 1972, pp. 337363.
[5] Abramowitz, M., and Stegun, I.A., Handbook of Mathematical Functions, National
Bureau of Standards, U.S. Dept of Commerce, Washington, DC, 1964.
[6] Bellman, R., Stability Theory of Differential Equations, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1953.
[7] Ramnath, R.V., DynamicsAnalysis of HypersonicVehicles, Vimanic Systems Rept.,
Lexington, MA, 1994. Prepared for NASA Dryden Flight Research Facility, Edwards
AFB, CA.
[8] Ramnath, R.V., Minimal and Subminimal Simplication, AIAAJournal of Guidance
Control, and Dynamics, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1980, pp. 8689.
Bibliography
Ramnath, R.V., and Sandri, G., A Generalized Multiple Scales Approach to a Class of
Linear Differential Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Applications,
Vol. 28, No. 2, 1969, pp. 339364.
Ramnath, R.V., and Sinha, P., Dynamics of the Space Shuttle During Entry into Earths
Atmosphere, AIAA Journal, Vol. 13, No. 3, 1975, pp. 337342.
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