Eight Approaches to Language Teaching Don Snow, Amity Foundation, Overseas Coordination Office Where there was once

consensus on the right way to teach foreign languages, many teachers now share the belief that a single right way does not e ist! "t is certainly true that no com#arative study has consistently demonstrated the su#eriority of one method over another for all teachers, all students and all settings! $resented here is a summary of eight language teaching methods in #ractice today% the &rammar'(ranslation )ethod, the Direct )ethod, the Audio'*ingual )ethod, the Silent Way, Suggesto#edia, Community *anguage *earning, the (otal $hysical +es#onse )ethod, and the Communicative A##roach! Of course, what is described here is only an abstraction! ,ow a method is manifest in the classroom will de#end heavily on the individual teacher-s inter#retation of its #rinci#les! Some teachers #refer to #ractice one of the methods to the e clusion of others! Other teachers #refer to #ic. and choose in a #rinci#led way among the methodological o#tions that e ist, creating their own uni/ue blend! (he chart inside #rovides a brief listing of the salient features of the eight methods! For more details, readers should consult (echni/ues and $rinci#les in *anguage (eaching by Diane *arsen'Freeman, #ublished in 0123 by O ford 4niversity $ress in 5ew 6or., on which this summary was based! Also see references listed in For Further +eading! &rammar'(ranslation )ethod (he &rammar'(ranslation )ethod focuses on develo#ing students- a##reciation of the target language-s literature as well a teaching the language! Students are #resented with target'language reading #assages and answer /uestions that follow! Other activities include translating literary #assages from one language into the other, memori7ing grammar rules, and memori7ing native'language e/uivalents of target language vocabulary! Class wor. is highly structured, with the teacher controlling all activities! Direct )ethod (he Direct )ethod allows students to #erceive meaning directly through the language because no translation is allowed! 8isual aids and #antomime are used to clarify the meaning of vocabulary items and conce#ts! Students s#ea. a great deal in the target language and communicate as if in real situations! +eading and writing are taught from the beginning, though s#ea.ing and listening s.ills are em#hasi7ed! &rammar is learned inductively! Audio'*ingual )ethod (he Audio'*ingual )ethod is based on the behaviorist belief that language learning is the ac/uisition of a set of correct language habits! (he learner re#eats #atterns until able to #roduce them s#ontaneously! Once a given #attern 9 for e am#le, sub:ect'verb' #re#ositional #hrase 9 is learned, the s#ea.er can substitute words to ma.e novel sentences! (he teacher directs and controls students- behavior, #rovides a model, and reinforces correct res#onses! (he Silent Way (he theoretical basis of &attegno-s Silent Way is the idea that teaching must be subordinated to learning and thus students must develo# their own inner criteria for correctness! All four s.ills 9 reading, writing, s#ea.ing, and listening 9 are taught from

the beginning! Students- errors are e #ected as a normal #art of learning% the teacher-s silence hel#s foster self'reliance and student initiative! (he teacher is active in setting u# situations, while the students do most of the tal.ing and interacting! Suggesto#edia *o7anov-s method see.s to hel# learners eliminate #sychological barriers to learning! (he learning environment is rela ed and subdued, with low lighting and soft music in the bac.ground! Students choose a name and character in the target language and culture, and imagine that #erson! Dialogs are #resented to the accom#animent of music! Students :ust rela and listen to them being read and later #layfully #ractice the language during an activation #hase! Community *anguage *earning "n Curren-s method, teachers consider students as whole #ersons, with intellect, feelings, instincts, #hysical res#onses, and desire to learn! (eachers also recogni7e that learning can be threatening! ;y understanding and acce#ting students- fears, teachers hel# students feel secure and overcome their fears, and thus hel# them harness #ositive energy for learning! (he syllabus used is learner'generated, in that students choose what they want to learn in the target language! (otal $hysical +es#onse )ethod Asher-s a##roach begins by #lacing #rimary im#ortance on listening com#rehension, emulating the early stages of mother tongue ac/uisition, and then moving to s#ea.ing, reading, and writing! Students demonstrate their com#rehension by acting out commands issued by the teacher< teachers #rovide novel and often humorous variations of the commands! Activities are designed to be fun and to allow students to assume active learning roles! Activities eventually include games and s.its! (he Communicative A##roach (he Communicative A##roach stresses the need to teach communicative com#etence as o##osed to linguistic com#etence< thus, functions are em#hasi7ed over forms! Students usually wor. with authentic materials in small grou#s on communicative activities, during which they receive #ractice in negotiating meaning! For Further +eading General ;owen, D!, )adsen, ,!, = ,ilferty, A! >0123? TESOL techniques and procedures. +owley, )A% 5ewbury ,ouse! *arsen'Freeman, D! >0123?! Techniques and principles in language teaching. 5ew 6or.% O ford 4niversity $ress! +ichards, @!, = +odgers, (! >0123?! Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge, )A% Cambridge! On the Grammar-Translation Method Chastain, A! >01B3?! Developing second language skills >Cnd ed!?, Cha#ter D! Chicago% +and')c5ally! Aelly, *!&! >0131?! 25 centuries of language teaching. +owley, )A% 5ewbury ,ouse! On the Direct Method Diller, A!C! >01B2?! (he language teaching controversy! +owley, )A% 5ewbury ,ouse! On the Audio'*ingual )ethod Chastain, A! >01B3?! Developing second language skills >Cnd ed!?, Cha#ter D! +and )c5ally!

+ivers, W! >0132?! Teaching foreign language skills! Cha#ters C'E! Chicago% 4niversity of Chicago $ress! On the Silent Way &attegno, C! >01BC?! Teaching foreign languages in schools" The silent #a$ >Cnd ed!?! 5ew 6or.% Fducational Solutions >1D 4niversity $lace, 5ew 6or., 56 0GGGH?! &attegno, C! >01B3?! The common sense of teaching foreign languages. 5ew 6or.% Fducational Solutions! Stevic., F! >012G?! Teaching languages" A #a$ and #a$s! Cha#ters H'3! +owley, )A% 5ewbury ,ouse! On Suggestopedia *o7anov, &! >012C?! Suggestology and suggesto#edia! "n +!F! ;lair >Fd!?, %nnovative approaches to language teaching. +owley, )A% 5ewbury ,ouse! Stevic., F! >012G?! Teaching languages" A #a$ and #a$s. Cha#ters 02'01! +owley, )A% 5ewbury ,ouse! On Community Language Learning Curran, C!A! >01B3?! &ounseling learning in second language. Fast Dubu/ue, "*% Counseling'*earning $ublications! +ardin, @! >01B3?! A counseling'learning model for second language learning! TESOL 'e#sletter () >C?! Stevic., F! >012G?! Teaching languages" A #a$ and #a$s. Cha#ters B'0B! +owley, )A% 5ewbury ,ouse! On the Total Physical esponse Method Asher, @! >012C? Learning another language through actions. The complete teacher*s guide+ook >Cnd ed!?! *os &atos, CA% S.y Oa.s $roductions! ;lair, +!W!, >Fd!?! >012C?! %nnovative approaches to language teaching. +owley, )A% 5ewbury ,ouse! Arashen, S!, = (errell, (! >012H?! The natural approach. San Francisco, CA% Alemany $ress! On the Communicati!e Approach ;rumfit, C!@!, = @ohnson, A! >Fds!?! >01B1?! The communicative approach to language teaching. O ford% O ford Community $ress! @ohnson, A!, = )orrow, A! >Fds!?! >0120?! &ommunication in the classroom. Fsse , 4A% *ongman! *ittlewood, W! >0120?! &ommunicative language teaching. Cambridge, )A% Cambridge 4niversity $ress! Savignon, S! >012H?! &ommunicative competence" Theor$ and classroom practice. ;oston% Addison'Wesley! Widdowson, ,!&! >01B2?! Teaching language as communication. O ford% O ford 4niversity $ress! Wil.ins, D!A! >01B3?! 'ational s$lla+uses. O ford% O ford 4niversity $ress! Fight A##roaches to *anguage (eaching (he &rammar'(ranslation )ethod Goals (o be able to read literature in target language< learn grammar rules and vocabulary< develo# mental acuity! oles

(eacher has authority< students follow instructions to learn what teacher .nows! (eachingI*earning $rocess Students learn by translating from one language to the other, often translating reading #assages in the target language to the native language! &rammar is usually learned deductively on the basis of grammar rules and e am#les! Students memori7e the rules, then a##ly them to other e am#les! (hey learn #aradigms such as verb con:ugations, and they learn the native language e/uivalents of vocabulary words! "nteraction# Student-Teacher $ STudent-Student )ost interaction is teacher'to'student< student'initiated interaction and student'student interaction is minimal! Dealing %ith &eelings nIa Aspects o' Language the Approach Emphasi(es 8ocabulary< grammar em#hasi7e< reading, writing are #rimary s.ills< #ronunciation and other s#ea.ingIlistening s.ills not em#hasi7ed! ole o' Students) *ati!e Language 5ative language #rovides .ey to meanings in the target language< native language is used freely in class! Means 'or E!aluation (ests re/uire translation from native to target and target to native language< a##lying grammar rules, answering /uestions about foreign culture! esponse to Students) Errors ,eavy em#hasis #laced on correct answers< teacher su##lies correct answers when students cannot! (he Direct )ethod Goals (o communicate in target language< to thin. in target language! oles (eacher directs class activities, but students and teacher are #artners in the teachingIlearning #rocess! Teaching+Learning Process Students are taught to associate meaning and the target language directly! 5ew target language words or #hrases are introduced through the use of realia, #ictures or #antomime, never the native language! Students s#ea. in the target language a great deal and communicate as if in real situations! &rammar rules are learned inductively 9 by generali7ing from e am#les! Students #ractice new vocabulary using words in sentences! "nteraction# Student-Teacher $ Student-Student ;oth teacher and students initiate interaction, though student'initiated interaction with teacher or among each other, is usually teacher'directed! Dealing %ith &eelings nIa ,ie% o' Language- Culture *anguage is #rimary s#o.en, not written! Students study common, everyday s#eech in the target language! As#ects of foreign culture are studied such as history, geogra#hy, daily life! Aspects o' Language the Approach Emphasi(es

8ocabulary em#hasi7ed over grammar< oral communication considered basic, with reading, writing based on oral #ractice< #ronunciation em#hasi7ed from outset! ole o' Students) *ati!e Language 5ot used in the classroom! Means 'or E!aluation Students tested through actual use, such as in oral interviews and assigned written #aragra#hs! esponse to Students) Errors Self'correction encouraged whenever #ossible! (he Audio'*ingual )ethod Goals 4se the target language communicatively, overlearn it, so as to be able to use it automatically by forming new habits in the target language and overcoming native language habits! oles (eacher directs, controls students- language behavior, #rovides good model for imitation< students re#eat, res#ond as /uic.ly and accurately as #ossible! Teaching+Learning Process 5ew vocabulary, structures #resented through dialogs, which are learned through imitation, re#etition! Drills are based on #atterns in dialog! Students- correct res#onses are #ositively reinforced< grammar is induced from models! Cultural information is conte tuali7ed in the dialogs or #resented by the teacher! +eading, writing tas.s are based on oral wor.! "nteraction# Student-Teacher $ Student-Student Students interact during chain drills or when ta.ing roles in dialogs, all at teacher-s direction! )ost interaction is between teacher and student, initiated by teacher! Dealing %ith &eelings nIa ,ie% o' Language- Culture Descri#tive linguistics influence% every language seen as having its own uni/ue system of #honological, mor#hological, and syntactic #atterns! )ethod em#hasi7es everyday s#eech and uses a graded syllabus from sim#le to difficult linguistic structures! Culture com#rises everyday language and behavior! Aspects o' Language the Approach Emphasi(es *anguage structures em#hasi7ed< vocabulary conte tuali7ed in dialogs but is limited because syntactic #atterns are foremost< natural #riority of s.ills 9 listening, s#ea.ing, reading, writing, with em#hasis on first two< #ronunciation taught from beginning, often with language lab wor. and minimal #air drills! ole o' Students) *ati!e Language Students- native language habits are considered as interfering, thus native language is not used in classroom! Contrastive analysis is considered hel#ful for determining #oints of interference! Means 'or E!aluation Discrete'#oint tests in which students distinguish between words or #rovide an a##ro#riate verb for a sentence, etc! esponse to Students) Errors

(eachers strive to #revent student errors by #redicting trouble s#ots and tightly controlling what they teach students to say! (he Silent Way Goals (o use language for self'e #ression% to develo# inde#endence from the teacher, to develo# inner criteria for correctness! oles (eaching should be subordinated to learning! (eachers should give students only what they absolutely need to #romote their learning! *earners are res#onsible for their own learning! Teaching+Learning Process Students begin with sounds, introduced through association of sounds in native language to a sound'color chart! (eacher then sets u# situations, often using Cuisenaire rods, to focus students- attention on structures! Students interact as the situation re/uires! (eachers see students- errors as clues to where the target language is unclear, and they ad:ust instruction accordingly! Students are urged to ta.e res#onsibility for their learning! Additional learning is thought to ta.e #lace during slee#! "nteraction# Student-Teacher $ Student-Student (he teacher is silent much of the time, but very active setting u# situations, listening to students, s#ea.ing only to give clues, not to model s#eech! Student'student interaction is encouraged! Dealing %ith 'eelings (eachers monitor students- feelings and actively try to #revent their feelings from interfering with their learning! Students e #ress their feelings during feedbac. sessions after class! ,ie% o' Language- Culture *anguage and culture are inse#arable, and each language is seen to be uni/ue des#ite similarities in structure with other languages! Aspects o' Language the Approach Emphasi(es All four s.ill areas wor.ed on from beginning >reading, writing, s#ea.ing, listening?< #ronunciation es#ecially, because sounds are basic and carry the melody of the language! Structural #atterns are #racticed in meaningful interactions! Syllabus develo#s according to learning abilities and needs! +eading and writing e ercises reinforce oral learning! ole o' Students) *ati!e Language Although translation is not used at all, the native language is considered a resource because of the overla# that is bound to e ist between the two languages! (he teacher should ta.e into account what the students already .now! Means 'or E!aluation Assessment is continual< but only to determine continually changing learning needs! (eachers observe students- ability to transfer what they have learned to new conte ts! (o encourage the develo#ment of inner criteria, neither #raise nor criticism is offered! Students are e #ected to learn at different rates, and to ma.e #rogress, not necessarily s#ea. #erfectly in the beginning! esponse to Students) Errors Frrors are inevitable, a natural, indis#ensable #art of learning! Suggesto#edia

Goals (o learn, at accelerated #ace, a foreign language for everyday communication by ta##ing mental #owers, overcoming #sychological barriers! oles (eacher has authority, commands trust and res#ect of students< teacher desuggests negative feelings and limits to learning< if teacher succeeds in assuming this role, students assume childli.e role, s#ontaneous and uninhibited! Teaching+Learning Process Students learn in a rela ing environment! (hey choose a new identity >name, occu#ation? in the target language and culture! (hey use te ts of dialogs accom#anied by translations and notes in their native language! Fach dialog is #resented during two musical concerts< once with the teacher matching his or her voice to the rhythm and #itch of the music while students follow along! (he second time, the teacher reads normally and students rela and listen! At night and on wa.ing, the students read it over! (hen students gain facility with the new material through activities such as dramati7ations, games, songs, and /uestion'and'answer sessions! "nteraction# Student-Teacher $ Student-Student At first, teacher initiates all interaction and students res#ond only nonverbally or with a few words in target language that they have #racticed! Fventually, students initiate interaction! Students interact with each other throughout, as directed by teacher! Dealing %ith &eelings &reat im#ortance is #laced on students- feelings, in ma.ing them feel confident and rela ed, in desuggesting their #sychological barriers! ,ie% o' Language- Culture *anguage is one #lane< nonverbal #arts of messages are another! Culture includes everyday life and fine arts! Aspects o' Language the Approach Emphasi(es 8ocabulary em#hasi7ed, some e #licit grammar! Students focus on communicative use rather than form< reading, writing also have #lace! ole o' Students) *ati!e Language (ranslation clarifies dialogs- meaning< teacher uses native language, more at first than later, when necessary! Means 'or E!aluation Students- normal in'class #erformance is evaluated! (here are no tests, which would threaten rela ed environment! esponse to Students) Errors Frrors are not immediately corrected< teacher models correct forms later during class! Community *anguage *earning Goals (o learn language communicatively, to ta.e res#onsibility for learning, to a##roach the tas. nondefensively, never se#arating intellect from feelings! oles (eacher acts as counselor, su##orting students with understanding of their struggle to master language in often threatening new learning situation! Student is at first a de#endent client of the counselor and becomes increasingly inde#endent through five s#ecified stages!

Teaching+Learning Process 5ondefensive learning re/uires si elements% security, aggression >students have o##ortunities to assert, involve themselves?, attention, reflection >students thin. about both the language and their e #erience learning it?, retention, and discrimination >sorting out differences among target language forms?! "nteraction# Student-Teacher $ Student-Student ;oth students and teacher ma.e decisions in the class! Sometimes the teacher directs action, other times the students interact inde#endently! A s#irit of coo#eration is encouraged! Dealing %ith &eelings (eacher routinely #robes for students- feelings about learning and shows understanding, hel#ing them overcome negative feelings! ,ie% o' Language- Culture *anguage is for communication, a medium of inter#ersonal sharing and belonging, and creative thin.ing! Culture is integrated with language! Aspects o' Language the Approach Emphasi(es At first, since students design syllabus, they determine as#ects of language studied< later teacher may bring in #ublished te ts! $articular grammar, #ronunciation #oints are treated, and #articular vocabulary based on students- e #ressed needs! 4nderstanding and s#ea.ing are em#hasi7ed, though reading and writing have a #lace! ole o' Students) *ati!e Language 4se of native language enhances students- security! Students have conversations in their native language< target language translations of these become the te t around which subse/uent activities revolve! Also, instructions and sessions for e #ressing feelings are in native language! (arget language is used #rogressively more! Where students do not share the same native language, the target language is used from the outset, though alternatives such as #antomime are also used! Means 'or E!aluation 5o s#ecific means are recommended, but adherence to #rinci#les is urged! (eacher would hel# students #re#are for any test re/uired by school, integrative tests would be #referred over discrete'#oint tests< self'evaluation would be encouraged, #romoting studentsawareness of their own #rogress! esponse to Students) Errors 5onthreatening style is encouraged< modeling of correct forms! (otal $hysical +es#onse )ethod Goals (o #rovide an en:oyable learning e #erience, having a minimum of the stress that ty#ically accom#anies learning a foreign language! oles At first the teacher gives commands and students follow them! Once students are ready to s#ea., they ta.e on directing roles! Teaching+Learning Process *essons begin with commands by the teacher< students demonstrate their understanding by acting these out< teacher recombines their instructions in novel and often humorous ways< eventually students follow suit! Activities later include games and s.its! "nteraction# Student-Teacher $ Student-Student

(eacher interacts with individual students and with the grou#, starting with the teacher s#ea.ing and the students res#onding nonverbally! *ater this is reversed< students issue commands to teacher as well as to each other! Dealing %ith &eelings (he method was develo#ed #rinci#ally to reduce the stress associated with language learning< students are not forced to s#ea. before they are ready and learning is made as en:oyable as #ossible, stimulating feelings of success and low an iety! ,ie% o' Language- Culture Oral modality is #rimary< culture is the lifestyle of native s#ea.ers of the target language! Aspects o' Language the Approach Emphasi(es &rammatical structures and vocabulary are em#hasi7ed, imbedded in im#eratives! 4nderstanding #recedes #roduction< s#o.en language #recedes the written word! ole o' Students) *ati!e Language )ethod is introduced in students- native language, but rarely used later in course! )eaning is made clear through actions! Means 'or E!aluation (eachers can evaluate students through sim#le observation of their actions! Formal evaluation is achieved by commanding a student to #erform a series of actions! esponse to Students) Errors Students are e #ected to ma.e errors once they begin s#ea.ing! (eachers only correct ma:or error, and do this unobtrusively! Fine'tuning occurs later! (he Communicative A##roach Goals (o become communicatively com#etent, able to use language a##ro#riate for a given social conte t< to manage the #rocess of negotiating meaning with interlocutors! oles (eacher facilitates students- learning by managing classroom activities, setting u# communicative situations! Students are communicators, actively engaged in negotiating meaning! Teaching+Learning Process Activities are communicativeJthey re#resent an information ga# that needs to be filled< s#ea.ers have a choice of what to say and how to say it< they receive feedbac. from the listener that will verify that a #ur#ose has been achieved! Authentic materials are used! Students usually wor. in small grou#s! "nteraction# Student-Teacher $ Student-Student (eacher initiates interactions between students and #artici#ates sometimes! Students interact a great deal with each other in many configurations! Dealing %ith &eelings Fm#hasis is on develo#ing motivation to learn through establishing meaningful, #ur#oseful things to do with the target language! "ndividuality is encouraged, as well as coo#eration with #eers, which both contribute to sense of emotional security with the target language! ,ie% o' Language- Culture *anguage is for communication! *inguistic com#etence must be cou#led with an ability to convey intended meaning a##ro#riately in different social conte ts! Culture is the everyday lifestyle of native s#ea.ers of the target language! 5onverbal behavior is

im#ortant! Aspects o' Language the Approach Emphasi(es Functions are em#hasi7ed over forms, with sim#le forms learned for each function at first, then more com#le forms! Students wor. at discourse level! (hey wor. on s#ea.ing, listening, reading, and writing from the beginning! Consistent focus on negotiated meaning! ole o' Students) *ati!e Language Students- native language usually #lays no role! Means 'or E!aluation "nformal evaluation ta.es #lace when teacher advises or communicates< formal evaluation is by means of an integrative test with a real communicative function! esponse to Students) Errors Frrors of form are considered natural< students with incom#lete .nowledge can still succeed as communicators!