GeoJournal 19.

3 2 6 3 - 2 6 8
1989 by Kluwer Academic Publishers

263

The Definition and Analysis of Hallmark Tourist Events

Hall, Colin Michael, Dr., University of New England, Department of Geography and Planning, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia
ABSTRACT: Hallmark tourist events are major fairs, expositions, cultural and sporting events of international status which are held on either a regular or a one-off basis. A primary function of the hallmark event is to provide the host community with an opportunity to secure high prominence in the tourism market place. However, international or regional prominence may be gained with significant social and environmental costs. Several important features emerge from an examination of the research on hallmark events. First, there is no agreed upon definition of events. Second, major methodological weaknesses emerge in the study of hallmark events. Third, the majority of research is economic in orientation with relatively little attention being paid to the important social and physical impacts of such events. The paper concludes by noting the general neglect of hallmark tourism events by researchers and the urgent need for further theoretical and empirical studies.

Introduction
F e w areas of i n t e r n a t i o n a l t o u r i s m r e s e a r c h have r e c e i v e d as m u c h a t t e n t i o n in r e c e n t years as t h a t being given to t h e impacts of s h o r t - t e r m staged attractions or h a l l m a r k events. H a l l m a r k tourist events, otherwise ref e r r e d to as m e g a (Ritchie and Y a n g z h o u 1987) or special events (Burns et al. 1986) are m a j o r fairs, festivals, expositions, cultural and sporting events which are h e l d on either a r e g u l a r or a one-off basis. H a l l m a r k events have a s s u m e d a k e y role in i n t e r n a t i o n a l , n a t i o n a l and r e g i o n a l t o u r i s m m a r k e t i n g strategies. T h e i r p r i m a r y function is to p r o v i d e the host c o m m u n i t y with an o p p o r tunity to secure high p r o m i n e n c e in the t o u r i s m m a r k e t place ( D e l l a Bitta et al. 1971; Ritchie and Beliveau 1974; B u c k 1977; R i t c h i e 1984). H o w e v e r , the study o f hallm a r k events is fraught with definitional, m e t h o d o l o g i c a l and t h e 0 r e t i c a l p r o b l e m s which p e r h a p s reflect t h e m a n y r e s e a r c h directions that exist within the study of t o u r i s m and its impacts. T h e p u r p o s e of the p r e s e n t p a p e r is to a t t e m p t to clarify the definition and analysis of h a l l m a r k events and suggest ways in which r e s e a r c h on their impacts m a y b e i m p r o v e d .

Major one-time or recurring events of limited duration, developed primarily to enhance the awareness, appeal and profitability of a tourism destination in the short and/or long term. Such events rely for their success on uniqueness, status, or timely significance to create interest and attract attention. A p r i m a r y function of the h a l l m a r k tourist event is to p r o v i d e the host c o m m u n i t y with an o p p o r t u n i t y to secure a p o s i t i o n of p r o m i n e n c e in the t o u r i s m m a r k e t for a short, well defined, p e r i o d of time ( H a l l and Selw o o d 1987). T h e h a l l m a r k event is t h e r e f o r e different in its a p p e a l from the attractions n o r m a l l y p r o m o t e d by the tourist industry as it is not a continuous or seasonal p h e n o m e n o n . I n d e e d , in m a n y cases the h a l l m a r k event is a strategic r e s p o n s e to the p r o b l e m s that seasonal variations in d e m a n d p o s e for the tourist industry (Ritchie and Beliveau 1974). O n e of the m a j o r p r o b l e m s involved in defining, and hence, analysing s h o r t - t e r m staged tourist attractions is that of scale ( D a v i d s o n and Schaffer 1980). Ritchie (1984), u n d e r s t o o d h a l l m a r k events to b e m a j o r events which have an ability to focus n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l a t t e n t i o n on the destination. Similarly, B u r n s a n d Mules (1986) n o t e d the i m p o r t a n c e of scale in special events', ' . . . s o m e t i m e s called a ' H a l l m a r k ' e v e n t . . . ' which are 'events that are e x p e c t e d to g e n e r a t e large e x t e r n a l benefits, or w h e r e the e x t e r n a l benefits are so widely d i s t r i b u t e d and the event costs are so substantial that

Defining Hallmark Events

T h e s t a n d a r d definition of h a l l m a r k events is t h a t p r o v i d e d b y Ritchie (1984) w h o d e f i n e d such events as

264

GeoJournal 19.3/1989

they are funded, either partically or wholly with public monies'. Burns and Mules (1986) identified four key characteristics of special events: 1. The major demand generated by the Special Event is, for the most part, not the demand for the event itself but demand for a range of related services - typically accommodation, food, transport and entertainment. 2. This demand is condensed into a relatively short period of time, from a single day to a few weeks and, as services cannot be produced ahead of time and stored, this leads to the typical 'peaking' problems experienced in the main service industries mentioned. 3. Peaking influences both the level and the distribution of benefits received. 4. The net impact of redirecting local funds towards Special Events is relatively small; the major benefits arise from the attraction of new funds from outside the region by way of the export of goods and services, especially services. Of particular importance in the identification of special events is the large outlay of public monies which may be associated not only with the hosting but also with the bidding for such events. For example, the unsuccessful bid by the City of Brisbane for the 1992 Olympic Games cost the Australian Commonwealth Government A $ 600,000 and a minimum of five million dollars in all (Siracusa 1986). Indeed, almost all hallmark events have substantial government involvement, whether it be a national, state or local level, with the amount of government financial assistance increasing in relation to the size and marketing scale of the event. More recently, Ritchie and Yangzhou (1987) have discussed the nature and impacts of the 'mega-event', a categorisation which corresponds to Ritchie's (1984) earlier definition of hallmark events. However, as indicated at the 1987 Congress of the Association Internationale d'Experts Scientifiques du Tourisme, substantial difficulties in the definition of mega-events still remain (Jafari 1988). Ritchie and Yangzhou (1987) argue that mega-events and mega-attractions pose similar problems for tourism development. However, while they may have certain common characteristics, such as large visitor numbers in relation to the size of the event or attraction, there are also fundamental differences which will have significant implications for the analysis of their impacts. The key difference between an event and a attraction is the period of time over which they impact on the host community or region. Events, by their very definition, are of a transitory nature whereas attractions will generally tend to draw visitors for a far longer period of time. It is the short time frame in which events operate that distinguishes the hallmark event from other tourist attractions and which will therefore demand the appropriate temporal and spatial specifiers in definition and analysis.

All of the above studies have tended to view hallmark events as major, large scale events. However, several studies (Heenan 1978; Shepherd 1982; Getz 1984; Hall 1989a) have identified short-term staged events, such as carnivals, festivals, and fetes, in small towns and villages as hallmark events. Such events may be of significant economic and social importance. Indeed, events may not only serve to attract tourists but may also assist in the development or maintenance of community or regional identity (Getz and Frisby 1987a, b; Hall 1989a, b). The term 'hallmark event' therefore cannot be confined to the large scale events that generally occur within cities and major towns. Community festivals and local celebrations can be described as hallmark events in relation to their regional and local significance. Such an observation is not to re-define the notion of a hallmark event, rather it is to note the importance of the economic, marketing, social and spatial c o n t e x t within which hallmark events take place. Tab 1 attempts to clarify the various definitions of short-term staged events in relation to their target tourist market, level of government financial involvement, and organisation and leadership. The expression 'hallmark event' applies to a range of events which exhibit a broad range of economic, physical and social impacts (Olds 1988; Hall 1989a). However, the terms 'mega-events' and 'special events' have far more specific applications. Mega-events, such as World Fairs (Ley and Olds 1988) or the Olympic Games (Ritchie and Yangzhou 1987), are events which are expressly targeted at the international tourism market. Similarly, Special Events, such as the America's Cup (Hall and Selwood 1987, 1989) or the Adelaide Grand Prix (Burns et al. 1986), are substantially international in their market orientation. Undoubtedly, domestic tourists are attracted to these events in significant numbers. Nevertheless, it is the international dimension in the promotion of these short-term tourist attractions which leads to the large scale impacts which have become associated with the hosting of hallmark events. It is evident from this analysis that the more serious disruptions to host communities occur in relation to the large-scale events which have an international target market. The size of the event appears directly related to the leakage of economic benefits of the event from the host community. Similarly, the degree of cOmmunity involvement in the event's planning and management diminishes in direct relation to the major level of public financial involvement. The amolmt of local involvement and the dominant level of government in the planning of hallmark events would appear to be crucial to deriving the maximum benefit from hosting an event for the host community. The more an event is seen by the impacted public as emerging from the local community, rather than being imposed on them, the greater will be that community's acceptance of the event. However, the international

GeoJournal 19.3/1989

265

Tab I

Characteristics of short-term staged events

dimension of many events will often mean that national and regional governments will assume responsibility for the event's planning. Indeed, because of the interests that impact upon upper levels of government, local concerns may well be lost in the search for the national or regional good with special legislation often being enacted to minimise disturbance to the hosting of an event (Hall 1989b). The loss of local involvement in the planning process is not the only consequence of an increase in the size of an event. The size and duration of the event will tend to correlate with the scale of impact. For instance, the facilities and surrounding infrastructure established for the hosting of special or mega-events will be a major influence on long-term land use, and possibly the social structure, of the core event area. This is especially the case where an event is used to rejuvenate inner-city areas often occupied by lower socio-economic groups, as in the cases of the Vancouver Expo, the 1988 Brisbane Expo and the 1987 America's Cup Defence in Perth (Old 1988; Hall 1988, 1989b). However, the complete range of impacts of hallmark events remains unknown. The next section will examine some of the directions that

have already been taken in the analysis of hallmark events and suggest further avenues for research.

The Analysis of Hallmark Events

Hallmark tourist events are the image builders of modern tourism. Since Cook's tours were established in the mid-nineteenth century, hallmark events have been seen as a primary means by which to place tourism destinations on the international tourist map. However, despite their undoubted significance, relatively little attention has been paid to the impacts of events on host communities. As can be seen from the above discussion, research has been marked by the lack of an agreed framework of analysis. Moreover, as with tourism research in general, the majority of studies which have been conducted are primarily economic in orientation. As Jafari (1988) noted. 'One cannot help but wonder when tourism research will graduate from the bounds of economics and marketing to amplify the subject in its fullest dimensions'. If researchers are to make a valid contribution to

266

GeoJournal 19.3/1989

the study of hallmark events it is vital that they become aware of the widest possible implications of events for host communities. The researcher needs to assist in answering the questions of why, for what, and for whom, are these events held? Governments and private industry generally hold that hallmark events, as with tourism, are 'a good thing', otherwise why would they be held? But as Coppock (1977) observed: Good for whom? . . . Not only is it inevitable that the residents of an area will gain unequally from tourism (if indeed they gain at all) and probable that the interests of some will actually be harmed, but it may well be that a substantial proportion does not wish to see any development of tourism. There are no accepted criteria for the analysis of hallmark events. Perhaps not surprisingly, research on hallmark events has tended to follow established lines of tourism research. For instance, Ritchie's (1984) and Ritchie and Yangzhou's (1987) review of the conceptual and research issues involved in the assessment of the impacts of hallmark events is akin to Getz's (1977) proposals for the study of the impact of tourism on host populations. Similarly, the questions posed in Mathieson and Wall's (1982) review of the economic, physical and social impacts of tourism can be equally applied to hallmark events. Ritchie (1984) proposed a classification of the types of impact which need to be assessed for particular hallmark events. Six types of impact were identified: economic, tourism/commercial, physical, sociocultural, phychological, and political. For each of the types of impact Ritchie (1984) recorded the nature of the variables to be measured and associated problems in data collection and interpretation. Despite the value of his review, Ritchie (1984) noted that it was only a beginning, and concluded that there was a need for a 'more comprehensive' approach 'to the assessment of the impact of hallmark events' than what is currently emplyed in most situations. The study of the 1985 Adelaide Grand Prix by the Centre for South Australian Economic Studies (Burns, Hatch, Mules 1986) represented one of the first attempts to provide a thorough analysis of the impact of a special event. Burns and Mules (1986) argued that a framework of analysis was needed that established the nature of the benefits and costs involved; indicated how they may be measured after the event, using multipliers where appropriate; and, knowing this, allowed reasonable estimates to be made before the event. The Adelaide study went a long way towards achieving these objectives. Nevertheless, the study retained a traditional 'value-free' outlook and ignored important aspects of the political economy of such events. A criticism which may equally well be applied to the positivistic approach of Ritchie (1984; Ritchie and Aitken 1984; Ritchie and Yangzhou 1988) with his emphasis on the quantifiable impacts of the hallmark event (Hall 1989c). Perhaps in response to the excess of economic analysis a number of studies of the social impacts of hallmark

events have emerged in recent years. Of particular interest are the studies of World Fairs and Expositions (Benedict 1983; Rydel 1984; Hall 1988; Ley and Old 1988; Old 1988) and the America's Cup (Cowie 1985; Shaw 1985, 1986; Centre for Applied and Business Research 1987; Hall and Selwood 1987, 1989). Indeed, the America's Cup has probably been one of the most analysed hallmark events to date. However, it is valuable to note that the broad analysis of government financed studies (Centre for Applied and Business Research 1987) produced markedly different conclusions about the benefits of the event to those who specifically examined externalities such as crime and homelessness (Hall and Selwood 1989). Getz and Frisby (1987b) have evaluated management effectiveness as part of a survey of community-run festivals in Ontario (1987a). Related to the community research of Getz and Frisby is the sociological analysis of festivals and cultural performance (Duvignaud 1976; Lavenda 1980; Manning 1983). Anthropological and sociological critiques have provided the basis for several studies of the political dimension of hallmark events (Hall and Selwood 1988; Ley and Old 1988; Hall 1989c). However, this area of study has received only limited attention. Nevertheless, an understanding of the political processes associated with the hosting of event would appear to crucial to their success: In their quest for viability and legitimacy, enlightened investors and community leaders must balance local and outside needs and interests.., if the constructive impact of tourism is to be realized, collaborate approaches between diverse stakeholder groups will be needed. To survive and prosper in the decades ahead, tourism must develop some multiple constituencies (Heenan 1978: 32)

Conclusions The study of hallmark events is a relatively new area of tourism research marked by significant definitional, methodological and theoretical differences between researchers. Nevertheless, the importance attached to events within national and regional tourism marketing strategies emphasises the urgency for research to be conducted before, during, and after the event. Moreover, as commentators such as Heenan (1978) and Jafari (1988) have observed, there is clearly a need to go beyond conventional economic analysis to examine the social and physical impacts of such events. The present work has provided a comparison of the various definitions of staged tourist events and their characteristics. It has noted the relationship between the size of an event, the major level of public financial involvement, organisation and leadership and the economic and social impacts of the event on the host community. In addition, it has highlighted some of the directions which have been taken in the analysis of hallmark events. However, it would be unrealistic to expect that

GeoJournal 19.3/1989

267

r e s e a r c h e r s will r e a c h a c c o r d o n a single f r a m e w o r k for t h e analysis of h a l l m a r k e v e n t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , it m a y b e anticipated that future research on hallmark tourist e v e n t s will p a y as m u c h a t t e n t i o n to t h e i m p a c t s o f e v e n t s o n t h e h o s t c o m m u n i t y as it p r e s e n t l y d o e s to t h e t o u r i s t p r o d u c t a n d its p o t e n t i a l e c o n o m i c b e n e f i t s . H a l l m a r k e v e n t s will c o n t i n u e to b e a m a i n s t a y o f

tourism marketing. The task of event planners and tour i s m r e s e a r c h e r s is to assist in m a x i m i s i n g t h e b e n e f i t s o f h o s t i n g e v e n t s w h i l e m i n i m i s i n g t h e u n d e s i r a b l e costs to t h e h o s t c o m m u n i t y , t h e r e b y e n s u r i n g t h e success o n e of t h e m a j o r r e a s o n s for c o n d u c t i n g h a l l m a r k e v e n t s - t h e c r e a t i o n o f a s u s t a i n e d a n d v i a b l e t o u r i s t i n d u s t r y in t h e host community.

References

Hall, C. M.: Expo 86 and Expo 88: Some Comparisons. Paper presented at the World Expo 88 Seminar, School of Management, Queensland Institute of Technology, Brisbane, October, 1988. Hall, C. M. : Hallmark Tourist Events: Analysis, Definition, Methodology and Review. In: Syme, G. J.; Shaw, B. J.; Fenton, D. M.; Mueller, W. S. (ed.), The Planning and Evaluation of Hallmark Events. Avebury, Aldershot 1989a. Hall, C. M.: Hallmark Events and the Planning Process. In: Syme, G. J.; Shaw, B. J.; Fenton, D. M.; Mueller, W. S. (ed.), The Planning and Evaluation of Hallmark Events. Avebury, Aldershot 1989b. Hall, C. M.: The Politics of Hallmark Events. In: Syme, G. J.; Shaw, B. J.; Fenton, D. M.; Mueller, W. S. (ed.), The Planning and Evaluation of Hallmark Events. Avebury, Alderhot 1989c. Hall, C. M.; Selwood, H. J.: Cup Gained, Paradise Lost? A Case Study of the 1987 America's Cup as a Hallmark Event. In: Le Heron, R.; Roche, M.; Shepherd, M. (ed.), Geography and Society in a Global Context, pp. 267-274. Department of Geography, Massey University, Palmerston North 1987. Hall, C. M. ; Selwood, H. J. : The Political Impact of Hallmark Tourist Events: The Case of the Australian Bicentennial. Paper presented at the Canadian Association of Geographer's Conference, Halifax, June, 1988. Hall, C. M. ; Selwood, H. J. : America's Cup Lost, Paradise Retained? The Dynamics of a Hallmark Tourist Event. In: Syme, G. J.; Shaw, B. J.; Fenton, D. M.; Mueller, W. S. (ed.), The Planning and Evaluation of Hallmark Events. Avebury, Aldershot 1989. Heenan, D.: Tourism and the Community, A Drama in Three Acts. Journal of Travel Research 16, 4, 30-32 (1978) Jafari, J.: Tourism Mega-Events. Annals of Tourism Research 15, 2, 272-273 (1988) Lavenda, R. H.: The Festival of Progress: The Globalizing WorldSystem and the Transformation of the Caracas Carnival. Journal of Popular Culture 14, 3, 465-475 (1980) Ley, D.; Olds, K.: Landscape as spectacle: world's fairs and the culture of heroic consumption. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 6, 191-212 (1988) Manning, F. E. (ed.): The Celebration of Society: Perspectives on Contemporary Cultural Performance. Bowling Green University Popular Press, Bowling Green. OH 1983. Mathieson, A.; Wall, G.: Tourism: economic, physical and social impacts. Longman, London and New York 1982. Olds, K.: Planning for the Housing Impacts of a Hallmark Event: A Case Study of Expo 86. Unpublished M. A. Thesis, School of Community and Regional Planning, University of British Columbia, Vancouver 1988.

Benedict, B. (ed.): The Anthropology of World Fairs. Scolar Press, London 1983. Burns, J. P. A.; Mules, T. L.: A Framework for the Analysis of Major Special Events. In: Burns, J. P. A.; Hatch, J. H.; Mules, T. L. (ed.), The Adelaide Grand Prix: The Impact of a Special Event. pp. 5-38. The Centre for South Australian Economic Studies, Adelaide 1986. Burns, J. P. A.; Hatch, J. H.; Mules, F. J. (ed.): The Adelaide Grand Prix: The Impact of a Special Event. The Centre for South Australian Economic Studies, Adelaide 1986. Buck, R. C.: Making Good Business Better: A Second Look at Staged Tourist Attractions. Journal of Travel Research 15, 3, 30-32 (1977) Centre for Applied and Business Research: America's Cup Defence Series, 1986/87, Impact on the Community. Centre for Applied and Business Research, University of Western Australia, Nedlands 1987. Coppock, J. T. : Tourism as a Tool for Regional Development. In: Duffield, B. S. (ed.), Tourism: A Tool for Regional Development, pp. 1.2-1.15. Tourism and Recreation Research Unit. University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh 1977. Cowie, I. : Housing Policy Options in Relation to the America's Cup. Urban Policy and Research 3, 40-41 (1985) Davidson, L. S.; Schaffer, W. A.: A Discussion of Methods Employed in Analysing the Impact of Short-Term Entertainment Events. Journal of Travel Research 18, 3, 12-16 (1980) Della Betta, A. J.; Loudon, D. L.; Booth, G. G.; Weeks, R. R.: Estimating the Economic Impact of a Short-Term Tourist Event. Journal of Travel Research 16 (Fall), 10-15 (1977) Duvignaud, J.: Festivals: A Sociological Approach. Cultures 3, 15-25 (1976) Getz, D.: The Impact of Tourism on Host Communities a Research Approach. In: Duffield, B. S. (ed.), Tourism: A Tool for Regional Development, pp. 9.1-9.13. Tourism and Recreation Research Unit, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh 1977. Getz, D.: Tourism, Community Organisation and the Social Multiplier. In: Long, J.; Hecock, R. (ed.), Leisure, Tourism and Social Change, pp. 85-I00. Centre for Leisure Research, Dunfermline College of Physical Education 1984. Getz, D.; Frisby, W.: Report on a Survey of Community-Run Festivals in Ontario. Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, University of Waterloo, Waterloo 1987a. Getz, D.; Frisby, W.: Evaluating Management Effectiveness in Community-Run Festivals, submitted to The Journal of Travel Research (1987b)

268

GeoJeumal 19.3/1989

Ritchie, J. B. R.: Assessing the Impact of Hallmark Events: Conceptual and Research Issues. Journal of Travel Research 23, 1, 2 - 1 1 (1984) Ritchie, J. B. R.; Aitken, C. E.: Assessing the Impacts of the 1988 Olympic Winter Games: The Research Program and Initial Results. Journal of Travel Research 22, 3, 17-25 (1984) Ritchie, J. B. R. ; Beliveau, D.: Hallmark Events: An Evaluation of a Strategic Response to Seasonality in the Travel Market. Journal of Travel Research 14 (Fall), 14-20 (1974) Ritchie, J. B. R.; Yangzhou, H.: The Role and Impact of MegaEvents and Attractions on National and Regional Tourism: A Conceptual and Methodological Overview. Paper prepared for presentation at the 37th Annual Congress of the International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism (AIEST), Calgary, Canada, August, 1987.

Rydel, R. W.: All the World's a Fair. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1984. Shaw, B. J.: Fremantle and the America's Cup . . . the Spectre o f Development? Urban Policy and Research 3, 3 8 - 4 0 (1985) Shaw, B. J.: Fremantle W. A. and the America's Cup The Impact of a Hallmark Event. Australian Studies Centre, University of London 1986. Shephard, D.: Community organisations and hallmark events, a case study of the Wellesley Apple Butter and Cheese Festival. Unpublished undergraduate honours research project, Waterloo: Department of Recreation, University of Waterloo, Waterloo 1982. Siracusa, J. : Brisbane Grabs at the '92 games. Times on Sunday, 21 September, 6 (1986)

/Geophysik Consulting GmbH

delineation of

subsurface layer boundaries

detection of

refraction seismics on land with P- and S-wave generation marine reflection seismics geoelectric measurement (sounding and mapping) land and marine magnetics electromagnetic surveys (VLF, radar) oceanographic measurements

groundwater level
magnetic anomalies,

cavities evaluation of
dynamic elastic parameters pipeline surveys marine site and route surveys prospecting for mineral deposits, sand, gravel, clay etc.

Bureau for Applied Geophysics

Marthastra6e 10, D-2300 Kiel 1 Germany Telefon (04 31) 67 24 2 4 /