CHEMISTRY

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
- 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d...
- Exceptions: Chromium (3d5, 4s1), Copper (3d10, 4s1)
- NB: 4s filled before 3d, but 4s removed before 3d
- Isotopic vs. Isoelectronic

PERIODIC TABLE AND PERIODICITY

IONIZATION ENERGY
- Increased number of shells Increased shielding effect, Increased distance
from nucleus Increased IE
- Increased number of sub-shells Increased shielding effect Increased IE
- Unpaired to paired electrons Increased repulsion Reduced IE
- Stability of filled noble-gas shells and half p sub-shells
IONIC AND ATOMIC RADIUS
- Radius decreases across period
- Radius increases down group
- Amongst isoelectronic atoms, one with largest number of protons is smallest
- Amongst isotopic ions, one with fewest electrons is smallest

BONDING AND STRUCTURE

LEWIS STRUCTURE
A Handy Method
1.Determine if ionic or covalent.
2.(If covalent) Add the total number of valence electrons in the atoms ground
state.
3.Add the charge of the molecule.
4.Add the total number of electrons the atoms should have based on the duet
and octet rules.
5.Subtract (1) from (3).
6.Divide (4) by 2 to derive the number of bonds in the molecule.
7.Draw a skeletal structure.
8.Place electrons around outside atoms, then the central atom.
9.Draw resonance structures, if any.
10.
Write legend.

Formal Charge
- FC(atom) = eV - eN - eB/2
- FC(molecule) = FC(atom)
- Minimize formal charge in each molecule
Other Useful Notes
- Central atom typically has lowest electronegativity (i.e. mentioned first in
molecule name.)
- Electron deficient atoms have too few electrons to form an octet (e.g. BeCl3,
BCl3); they are highly reactive, forming dative bonds (e.g. BF3 + NH3)
- Octets expanded into the d orbital can only occur in the 3rd period and below
(e.g. PF5, SF4, SF6, H2SO4); the central atoms tend to be bonded to small,
electronegative elements (e.g. F, Cl, O)
- Free radicals contain an odd number of electrons and thus an unpaired
valence electron (e.g. NO, NO2); they are highly reactive (NO + halogens,
oxygens, other free radicals)

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES, STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES

Metal
General

Ionic

Simple Covalent

Giant Covalent

> 2.0
electronegativity
difference

- Polar covalent: 0.5 to 2.0

electronegativity difference
- Non-polar covalent: < 0.5
electronegativity difference

Forces

Electrostatic
force of
attraction
between
positivelycharged ions
and a sea of
delocalized
valence
electrons

Electrostatic
force of
attraction
between
positively and
negatively
charged ions

Electrostatic forces of attraction

between positively charged nuclei
and a pair of shared electrons

Physical
Appearan
ce

- Mostly silver
- Ag, Cu
(Bronze)

- Mostly colorless
- CuSO4: White
- CuSO4 5H2O:
Blue
- CoCl2: Blue
- CoCl2 6H2O:
Pink
- CuCl2 2H2O:
Blue/green

- Organic mostly
colorless
- Cl:
green/yellow
- I2: purple
- NO2: brown
- N2O4, H2:
colorless

Physical
Properties

- Vary in
- Hard
physical
- Brittle
properties
- Mostly
malleable
- Strong (Cu, Fe,
Pt)
- Less dense
(than water: Li,
K, Na)
- Hard (Cr, steel)

Electrical - Conduct
- Conducts
Conductivi electricity
electricity when
ty
when solid &
in solution &
liquid
molten
- Metalloid (Si,
- Does NOT
Ge):
conduct
semiconductor
electricity when
, dependent on
solid
impurities

- 3D: Hard (e.g.

diamond)
- Layers: Soft,
can slide over
(e.g. graphite)

Does not
conduct
electricity

- Does not
conduct
electricity
- Exception:
graphite with
delocalized sp2
between layers

Metal
Boiling &
Melting
Point

- High melting
point (1000 4000 C)
- Na (100 C), K
(60 C), Mg (-40
C), Pb (330 C),
Zn (420 C)

Reactivity

- Reactive: K,
Na, Ca, Mg, Al
- Middle: (C),
Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb,
(H)
- Not reactive:
Cu, Hg, Ag, Au,
Pt

Solubility

Insoluble in ALL
solvents

Ionic

Simple Covalent

Giant Covalent

- High melting
point (1000 C)
- High boiling
point (1000 2000+ C)

Low melting and

boiling points
within RTP

- High melting
point (3000+
C)
- High boiling
point (5000 C)

Generally
soluble in polar
solvents

Only polar
molecules
soluble in polar
solvent

Insoluble in ALL
solvents

INTER-MOLECULAR FORCES
- Strength dependent on molecular size
- Strength dependent on molecular geometry (e.g. spherical vs. chain)
- Non-polar: Induced dipole-Instantaneous dipole
- Polar: Permanent dipole-Permanent dipole
- Hydrogen Bond
- Stronger intermolecular forces lead to higher melting and boiling points

ACIDS AND BASES

DEFINITIONS
Acids
- Dissociate in water to form H+ ions
- Proton donor
- Electron-pair acceptor
Bases
- Dissociate in water to form OH- ions
- Proton acceptor
- Electron-pair donor
ACID-BASE REACTIONS
- Dilute acid + Reactive metal Salt + H2
- Acid + Base Salt + H2O
- Acid + Carbonate Salt + CO2 + H2O

STRONG AND WEAK

- Strong: dissociate completely in water
- Acids: HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, HBr, HI, HF, HClO4
- Bases: Alkali hydroxides
- Weak: Partially dissociate
- Acids: H3PO4, H2CO3, organic
- Bases: NH3, organic amines
- NB: weak acids may not be bases, and vice versa

USES
Acids

Bases

HCl - stomach acid

NaOH - soap

HNO3 - fertilizer, explosives

MgOH - antacid

H3PO4, H2CO3 - carbonated drinks

KOH - alkaline batteries

Ascorbic - vitamin C

NaHCO3 - baking soda

TYPES OF INDICATORS
Indicator

pH change

Acid color

Base color

Thymol Blue

1.2 - 2.8, 8.0 - 9.6

Red Yellow

Blue

Litmus paper

4.5 - 8.3

Red Yellow

Blue

Phenolphthalein

8.2 - 10

Colorless

Pink

Screened Methyl
Orange

3.2 - 4.2

Pink

Green

SALTS AND PRECIPITATION REACTIONS

SOLUBILITY RULES
Soluble

Insoluble

All alkali salts

All ammonium salts
All halide salts, except

All silver halides and all lead halides

All nitrate salts

All sulfate salts, except

Calcium sulfate, barium sulfate and

lead sulfate; silver sulfate is partially
soluble

Soluble

Insoluble

Ammonium carbonate and all alkali

carbonates

All carbonate salts, except

All alkali oxides & hydroxides and

some alkali earth oxides &
hydroxides (Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra)

All oxide and hydroxide salts, except

WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION
SALT PREPARATION METHODS
Precipitation Method (for insoluble salts with soluble starting materials)
1.Mix aqueous solutions of two salt solutions; they contain the cation and anion
respectively.
2.Insoluble salt is produced as precipitate.
3.Filtrate the solution.
4.Wash the residue with distilled water.
5.Dry damp residue in an oven or between sheets of filter paper.
Reaction with Acids (for soluble salts with insoluble starting materials)
- Dilute acid + Metal Salt + H2
- Acid + Base Salt + H2O
- Acid + Carbonate Salt + CO2 + H2O
- Only moderately reactive metals (Mg, Al, Zn, Fe). Reactive metals (Na, K, Ca)
react violently; why would anyone attempt to react non-reactive metals (Pb,
Cu)?
- Non-acid reactant is used in excess; ensures all acid is used and does not
contaminate the salt.
1.Add metal, base or carbonate to a fixed volume of acid.
2.Stir mixture to ensure that all acid has reacted.
3.Filter excess solid metal, base or carbonate from the mixture. The filtrate
contains salt solution, while the reside is excess metal.
4.Crystallize salt solution.
a.Heat filtrate in evaporating dish to saturate the solution.
b.Dip glass rod into solution; if crystals form on surface, solution is
saturated.
c. Cool solution; salt crystallizes as solubility decreases with decreasing
temperature.
d.Filter mixture to separate crystals from the salt solution.
e.Do NOT wash with DI as salt is soluble.
Titration Method (for soluble salts with soluble starting materials)
1.Find acid needed to neutralize alkali (indicator titration endpoint).
2.Add the volume of acid needed to neutralize to the alkali.
3.Crystallize the salt solution.
4.Do NOT wash with DI as salt is soluble.

Salt Colors
Acidic and Basic Oxides
Na2O

MgO

Al2O3

SiO2

Ionic

Ionic with Giant

partial
molecula
covalent r
character

Basic

Amphote
ric

P4O6 or
P4O10

SO2 or
SO3

Cl2O or
Cl2O7

Simple Molecular

Acidic

Other Neutral
- NO, N2O
- CO
- H2O

Ionic Equations
- Write balanced chemical equation.
- Break aqueous molecules into respective cations and anions; solid,
liquid and gas molecules remain untouched ;)
- Kill all the spectator ions.