Lecture 1

Slide 1

Statistics
What is Statistics? - Statistic vs. Statistics? Why Statistics?

Slide 2

Basic Concepts of Statistics

Dang Quoc Tuan, Ph.D School of Biotechnology International University

- Almost all fields of study benefit from the

application of statistical methods How to learn Statistics? - Common sense vs. mathematical expertise

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Biostatistics

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1
Goals of the lecture:
- Statistic vs. Statistics - Descriptive and inferential statistics - Population vs. sample - Parameter vs. statistic - Variable, random variable, random number - Data, types of data - Observation, event, measurement - Experiment, treatment, replication - Sampling, types of sampling, sampling error
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Slide 3

Biostatistics
and presentation of numerical information.

Slide 4

To introduce fundamental concepts and definitions in Statistics:

Statistics is the collection, processing, interpretation

Biostatistics is the application of statistics to questions about living systems.

Biostatistics is an umbrella term that encompasses statistical research in several subject matter areas. These areas include pharmacology, medicine, biology, genetics, biotechnology, food technology and public health.

Biostatistics

Slide 5

Introduction to Statistics
1. 2. 3. 4. Population and Data Types of Data Critical Thinking Design of Experiments

Slide 6

Statistics is critical in analyzing patterns of genomic variation within populations, and in relating this variation to disease states or other phenotypes - Genomes differ from the reference copy (single nucleotide polymorphisms, structural variants) - Gene mapping by linkage and association methods

Statistics supports analyses to determine the function of genes/transcripts/proteins

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Biostatistics

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Overview

Slide 7

Overview

Slide 8

A common goal of surveys and other data collecting tools is to collect data from a smaller part of a larger group so we can learn something about the larger group.

Statistics
Two Meanings Specific numbers

Field of study Method of analysis (a way of thinking)

In this section we will look at some of ways to describe data.

Method of analysis

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Biostatistics

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Overview
Specific number
numerical measurement determined by a set of data

Slide 9

Definitions
Statistics=method of analysis

Slide 10

Example:
- 23% of people polled believed that there are too many polls. - Average age of Vietnamese men in 2000 is 68. - Price index in December increased by 1% compared to that in November
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a collection of methods for planning experiments, obtaining data, and then organizing, summarizing, presenting, analyzing, interpreting, and drawing conclusions based on the data. = drawing of inferences (generalization) about the large groups (population) on the basis of observations made on smaller ones (sample)

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Definitions
Population

Slide 11

Definitions
Census
the collection of data from every member of the population

Slide 12

the complete collection of all elements (scores, people, measurements, and so on) to be studied. The collection is complete in the sense that it includes all individual items or units which are the subject of investigation. Unit = an individual of the population
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Sample
a sub-collection of elements drawn from a population

Sample size
number of units in the sample (or % of units from the population)

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Definitions
Variable

Slide 13

Example:
of Biotechnology Unit: a student Variable: score in a math final exam

Slide 14

Population: All 1st year students in the School

Characteristics of a population which differ from unit to unit

Data
Observations on the variable (such as measurements, degrees, orders, properties, outcome, results) that have been measured and collected

Observation (data): points of the score (60, 71, 95 , etc..) Sample: a group of 30 student Sample size: 30

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Biostatistics

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4
Random sampling and random numbers
Slide 15

Random sampling and random numbers

Slide 16

Sample data must be collected in an appropriate way, such as through a process of random selection (each unit in a population must have an equal chance of being drawn) If sample data are not collected in an appropriate way, the data may be so completely useless, information may not be properly extrapolated to the population
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Random number Select units to be measured by reference to random number The way to avoid bias Random number table (in any statistical book) Computer: MINITAB, Excel, SAS, StatGraphic, SPSS, etc. Calculator (some versions)
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Random Sampling
selection so that each has an equal chance of being selected

Slide 17

Table of random numbers

Slide 18

In Excel: RANDBETWEEN (a, b)

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Biostatistics

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5
Descriptive and inferential statistics Descriptive Statistics
summarize or describe the important characteristics of a known set of population data
Slide 19 Slide 20

Types of Data Processing Data

Inferential Statistics
use sample data to make inferences (or generalizations) about a population
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Definitions Parameter

Slide 21

Definitions Statistic

Slide 22

a numerical measurement describing some characteristic of a population

a numerical measurement describing some characteristic of a sample

population parameter
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sample statistic

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Definitions
Quantitative data

Slide 23

Definitions
Qualitative (or categorical or attribute) data

Slide 24

Numbers representing counts or measurements Example: weights, lengths, ages, pressure, temperature

can be separated into different categories that are distinguished by some non-numeric characteristics. Example: genders (male/female), colors (blue, red, ) marital status levels of satisfaction

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Biostatistics

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Working with Quantitative Data Quantitative data:

- Measure of quantity - Can compare one to others (more or less) - Can calculate an average

Slide 25

Definitions
Discrete
data result when the number of possible values is either a finite number or a countable number of possible values 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .

Slide 26

Quantitative data can further be distinguished between discrete and continuous types
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Example: The number of eggs that hens lay

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Definitions
Continuous

Slide 27

Slide 28

Levels of Measurement
Another way to classify data is to use levels of measurement. Four of these levels are discussed in the following slides

(numerical) data result from infinitely many possible values that correspond to some continuous scale that covers a range of values without gaps, interruptions, or jumps
2 3

Example: The amount of milk that a cow produces; e.g. 2.343115 gallons per day

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Biostatistics

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Definitions
nominal level of measurement

Slide 29

Definitions
ordinal level of measurement

Slide 30

characterized by data that consist of names, labels, or categories only. The data cannot be arranged in an ordering scheme (such as low to high)

involves data that may be arranged in some order, but differences between data values either cannot be determined or are meaningless. It is used to indicate rank order, but nothing more
Examples: Course grades A, B, C, D, or F

Example: - Survey responses: yes, no, undecided - Marital status: single, married, divorced, widows

Score given to answer such as how often you use a bus service?: - very often: 5 - Often: 4 - Occasionally: 3 - Rarely: - Never: 2 1

It gives a bit more information than nominal, but still cant calculate the average
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8
interval level of measurement
like the ordinal level, with the additional property that the difference between any two data values is meaningful. However, there is no natural zero starting point (where

Definitions

Slide 31

Definitions
ratio level of measurement

Slide 32

the interval level modified to include the natural zero starting point (where zero indicates that none of the quantity is present). For values at this level, differences and ratios are meaningful. It incorporate the properties of the interval, ordinal and nominal levels Example: - Prices of college textbooks ($0 represents no cost) - Measurement of mass and length

none of the quantity is present).

- The interval can be added or subtracted but not divided (the ratio makes no sense) Date is a very widely used interval scale. Example: - Years 1000, 2000, 1776, and 1492 - Temperature: 5oC, 10oC, 20oC - 1st , 5th, 10th day in a month
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Summary Levels of Measurement

Slide 33

Summary Levels of Measurement

Data Qualitative Quantitative

Slide 34

Nominal - categories only Ordinal - categories with some order Interval - differences but no natural
starting point Nominal Ordinal

Interval

Ratio

Ratio - differences and a natural starting

point

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Biostatistics

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Recap
Slide 35 Slide 36

In the previous sections we have looked at: Basic definitions and terms describing data Parameters versus statistics Types of data (quantitative and qualitative) Levels of measurement

Critical Thinking

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Slide 37

Slide 38

Success in Statistics
Success

in the introductory statistics course typically requires more common sense than mathematical expertise section is designed to illustrate how common sense is used when we think critically about data and statistics

Limitations of Statistics:
-Not to proof anything, just to show the chance of occurring of some event -May lead to some misuse

This

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10 10
Slide 39 Slide 40

Abuses (or misuses) of Statistics

Bad Samples

Abuses of Statistics
Bad Samples Small Samples Loaded Questions Misleading Graphs

self-selected survey
(or voluntary response sample)
one in which the respondents themselves decide whether to be included In this case, valid conclusions can be made only about the specific group of people who agree to participate.

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Slide 41 Figure. Salaries of People with Bachelors Degrees and with High School Diplomas

Slide 42

Misleading Graphs We should analyze the numerical information given in the graph instead of being mislead by its general shape

$40,500 $40,000 $40,000

$40,500

35,000

30,000

$24,400

30,000 25,000 20,000

Bachelor High School Degree Diploma

20,000 $24,400 10,000 0

(a)
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Bachelor High School Degree Diploma

(b)

International University

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11 11

Misuses of Statistics
Bad Samples Small Samples Misleading Graphs Pictographs Distorted Percentages Loaded Questions Order of Questions Refusals Correlation & Causality Self Interest Study Precise Numbers Partial Pictures Deliberate Distortions

Slide 43

Slide 44

Design of Experiments

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Designing an Experiment
Identify your objective Collect sample data

Slide 45

Definitions
Observational Study

Slide 46

observing and measuring specific characteristics without attempting to modify the subjects being studied

Use a random procedure that avoids bias Analyze the data and form conclusions

Confounding
occurs in an experiment when the effects from two or more variables cannot be distinguished from each other

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Biostatistics

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12 12

Definitions
Experiment

Slide 47

Slide 48

Definitions
Replication
used when an experiment is repeated on a sample of subjects that is large enough so that we can see the true nature of any effects (instead of being misled by erratic behavior of samples that are too small)

apply some treatment and then observe its effects on the subjects Example: Treatment = microbial growth at a certain temperature 3 levels of temperatures = 3 treatments

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Biostatistics

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Sample Size

Slide 49

Definitions
Random Sample

Slide 50

Sample Size
use a sample size that is large enough to see the true nature of any effects and obtain that sample using an appropriate method, such as one based on randomness

members of the population are selected in such a way that each individual member has an equal chance of being selected

Simple Random Sample (of size n)

subjects selected in such a way that every possible sample of the same size n has the same chance of being chosen

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13 13
Random sample Randomness
why randomness is important in statistics?
Slide 51

Random Sampling - selection so that

each has an equal chance of being selected

Slide 52

Random sample = representative sample

-The best way to get a representative sample = choose a proportion of a population at random -Every possible experimental unit having equal chance of being selected, without bias
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Systematic Sampling - Select some

starting point and then select every k-th element in the population

Slide 53

Stratified Sampling

Slide 54

subdivide the population into at least two different subgroups that share the same characteristics, then draw a sample from each subgroup (or stratum)

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Biostatistics

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14 14
Cluster Sampling - divide the population
Slide 55

Major Points
If sample data are not collected in an appropriate way, the data may be so completely useless. Randomness typically plays a critical role in determining which data to collect.

Slide 56

into sections (or clusters); randomly select some of those clusters; choose all members from selected clusters

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Biostatistics

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Methods of Sampling
Random Systematic Stratified Cluster

Slide 57

Definitions
Sampling Error

Slide 58

the difference between a sample result and the true population result; such an error results from chance sample fluctuations

Nonsampling Error

sample data that are incorrectly collected, recorded, or analyzed (such as by selecting a biased sample, using a defective instrument, or copying the data incorrectly)

Precision

vs. Accuracy?

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Biostatistics

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15 15

Recap
In this section we have looked at: Types of studies and experiments Controlling the effects of variables (replication and sample size) Randomization Types of sampling Sampling errors

Slide 59

HOMEWORK
Chernick: Introductory Biostatistics for the
Health Sciences

Slide 60

2.1; 2.2; 2.8; 2.14 3.1

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Biostatistics

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