SHORT-CIRCUIT ANALYSIS -OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. If a positive sequence current passes through a transformer and its phase shift is 30 degrees,
the negative sequence current flowing through the transformer will have a phase shift of
a.
b.
c.

30 deg.
-30deg
120 deg.

Ans: (b)
2.

The zero sequence impedances of an ideal star-delta connected transformer (star-grounded)

a.
b.
c.

looking from star side is zero and looking from delta side is infinite
looking from star side is zero and looking from delta side is also zero
looking from star side is infinite and looking from delta side is zero

Ans: (a)
2.

The positive, negative and zero sequence impedances of a transmission line are 0.5,0.5 and 1.1
pu respectively. The self (Zs) and mutual (Zm) impedances of the line will be given by
(a) Zs = 0.7 pu, Zm =0.2 pu
(b) Zs = 0.5 pu, Zm =0.6 pu
(c)Zs = 1 pu, Zm =0.6 pu
Ans: (a)

3.

Symmetrical component method of analysis is more useful when

a.
b.
c.

system has unsymmetrical fault and the network is otherwise balanced

system has symmetrical fault and the network is otherwise unbalanced
system has unsymmetrical fault and the network is unbalanced.

Ans: (a)
2.

For a line to line fault analysis using symmetrical components,

(a) the positive and negative sequence networks at the fault point are
connected in series
(b) the positive and negative sequence networks at the fault point are
connected in parallel
(c) the positive, negative, and zero sequence networks at the fault point are
connected in parallel
Ans: (b)

3.

The machine reactances used for computation of short circuit current ratings of a circuit
breaker are

a.
b.
c.

synchronous reactance
transient reactance
sub-transient reactance

Ans: (c)
2.
i.
ii.

The load currents in short-circuit calculations are neglected because

short-circuit currents are much lager than load currents
short -circuit currents are greatly out of phase with load currents

The correct alternative is

a.
b.
c.

both (i) and (ii) are wrong

(i) is wrong and (ii) is correct
both (i) and (ii) are correct.

Ans: (c)
2.

The positive sequence network of a sample power system is shown in Fig.2 and the primitive
reactance of each element is marked in ohms. The element Zcc of the bus impedance matrix
Zbus will be

a.
b.
c.

1.0
0.1
0.21

Fig.2
Ans: (c)
2.

Which one of the following statements is not true?

a.
b.
c.

Fault levels in an all a. c system are less than in an a. c system with a D.C. link operating
Large systems may be interconnected with d. c link of small capacity
Limitation on the critical length of underground cables for use in A. C no longer exists if D.C
transmission by cables is used.
Corona loss and radio and TV interference with D.C. transmission is less

d.
Ans. a
2.

Advantage of power system interconnection is

a.
b.
c.

Large size circuit breakers are required because of large short-circuit currents
Machines of one system remain in step with machines of another system
Fewer machines are required as reserve for operation at peak loads

Ans. c
2.

The interenal voltages of a 3-phase synchronous generator correspond to

a.
b.
c.

Positive sequence
Negative sequence
Zero sequence

TOP

Symmetrical components
These were developed to ease the calculations for unbalanced 3-phase systems and as a help to
numerical solution using network analyzers. Even with present day digital computation, the
symmetrical components help in solution of unbalanced systems, besides explaining many phenomena
such as rotor heating in machines, neutral current etc.
The basic concept is to convert a set of three phasors into another set of three phasors with certain
desirable properties. The symmetrical components (introduced by Fortescue) is only one such set, the
other set is the Kimbark/Clarke components.
The unique property of symmetrical components is that they retain the concept of 3-phase system
associated with each component phasor. Thus the positive sequence retains the concept of 3 balanced
phasors having the same phase sequence as the original phasors whereas the negative sequence
component retains the concept of 3 balanced phasors but rotating in opposite direction of rotation. The
zero sequence component is balanced set of 3- coincident phasors but rotating in the same direction as
the original unbalanced phasors.
The basic definition for a set of unbalanced three-phase system in terms of the sequence components is
Ia = I0a + I1a +I2a
Ib = I0b + I1b + I2b + I0 a + a2 I1 a +a I2 a
Ic = I0 c +I1 c +I2 c = I0 a + a I1 a + a 2 I2 a
These equations may be written in matrix form as
I a,b,c = [Ts] I 0,1,2
Where Ts is called the symmetrical component transformation matrix.
I 0,1,2 = [Ts]-1 I a,b,c
Similar transformation may be applied for unbalanced voltages also.
Illustrate these transformations by phasor additions.

Power invariance
If the above transformation Ts is used simultaneously on the voltage and current values of three phase
network elements, then
Spq abc = P pq + j Qpq =[( I pq abc )*]t e pq abc
And
Spq012 = [( I pq012)*]t e pq012
Note that Spqabc is not equal to Spq012.

Spqabc = 3Spq012 since Spq012 refers to only phase "a" power , and similar amount of power is in phases
"b" and "c" also. Thus all three phases of symmetrical components must be used. Often for computer
work, the symmetrical transformation given by
Tsi = (1/ 3) Ts
is use where Tsi*t . Tsi = unity matrix. This is a property of orthogonal matrices. Further since Tsi* = Tsi-1
we can show that Spqabc = Spq012. However, in earlier works, and even now, the originally defined nonpower invariant transformation is being used
Impedance transformation
To solve the network in terms of the sequence components, sequence components of impedance are
required. These are obtained from their corresponding three phase values.
Eabc = Zabc I abc
Or,
Ts E012 = Z abc Ts I 012
Or,
E012 = Tsi-1 Z abc Ts I 012
= Z012 I 012
Thus Z012 = Ts-1 Z abc Ts
0r,
Zabc = Ts Z 012 Ts-1

Forms of Z012 for balanced stationary and rotating elements should be known. Decoupling of sequence
components and its limitations are to be stressed.
Sequence generated voltages in a balanced network are:
E1 = Ea, E2 = 0 , E0 =0
Sequence networks have the advantage since for balanced network there is no mutual coupling
between sequence component elements unlike what happens in balanced 3-phase components. Thus
balanced 3-phase network can be assembled component for component in three separate sequence
networks. Sequence networks of generator, transmission line, transformer, and loads should be known.
Zero sequence networks for different transformer connections should also be known. The ideal earth
and the neutral point should be distinguished. Relative magnitudes of sequence impedances of
generator and transmission lines should be known.

Find Z012 for rotating and non-rotating elements in terms of corresponding phase quantities
Study the measurements of zero sequence impedances of transformer for different connections
Find phase shifts in sequence components in transformation
If the positive, negative and zero sequence impedances of a transmission line are 0.3,0.3, and
0.5 respectively, find the self and mutual impedances between the phases.

Fault analysis
An essential part of the design of a power system is the calculation of currents which flow in the
components and the resulting voltages , when the faults of various type occur. Common faults on a
transmission system are;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

LG
LL
LLG
LLL or LLLG
Open conductor
Simultaneous faults that may be any combination of the above five.

Faults may also occur in switchgear, transformers and machines but their nature may be different than
those in transmission lines.
Causes of system faults
Faults are mostly due to lightning and switching. Most of them are temporary. LG fault is most
common and LLL fault is least common. Relays provided on the system detect these faults and produce
a trip signal for the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty portion form the system. Thus to determine the
circuit breaker and relay operating times, fault currents & voltages have to be calculated and for many
other applications.
Except for the three phase faults ,all other types of faults cause unbalanced operation, an fault currents
& voltages under such conditions are required to be obtained using symmetrical components, or phase
components ( the latter analysis is much more difficult even with digital computers.
The calculation of 3-phase balanced faults is relatively simple but forms the basis of determining the
circuit breaker ratings.
Symmetrical faults
When a sudden short circuit occurs on the electric supply system, the currents & voltages are of
transient nature before they settle down to steady state values.
The fault current at any time consists of
1.

Dc transient , also called the DC offset, arising out of the terms of the type
Ae-Rt/L

2.

Ac transients consisting of the terms of the type

Ae-Rt/L Sin( t + ) where = supply frequency

3.

Steady state value of the type A Sin( t + ).

For a single machine system, the maximum value of the Dc transient could be equal to the peak value
of the total Ac component. Fig.5 shows the symmetrical current in one phase with no DC offset.( Other
phases will have DC offset). The cause of subtransient/transient current could be explained on the basis
of the theorem of constant flux linkages associated with the field winding. The damper winding affects
the initial value of the fault current. The initial value decays faster(region PQ in Fig.5) because of the
very low time constant of this circuit. Later, the closed field circuit effects dominate (region QR). The
region QR may be extended up to the origin as the dotted line bQ.

Definition of reactances
Xd" = 2 .E. /Oa
Xd'= 2 .E. /Ob
Xd= 2 .E. /Oc
What are the typical values of these reactances for turbo and hydro generators?
For the interruption current rating of a circuit breaker (time involved being 2-5 cycles), the subtransient
current is important. The transient current is important for transient stability studies lasting from 1-2
seconds to 10 seconds.
Short circuit volt-amperes = 3. (short-circuit current). [Nominal Voltage (line value)]

System representation during short circuit

Simplifying assumptions
1.
2.
3.
4.

Each machine is represented by a constant voltage behind the machine reactance, subtransient
or transient depending on the situation.
Shunt connections i.e.; loads , line charging etc. are neglected.
All transformers are assumed to be at nominal tap settings.
The above three assumptions do not imply that the system is unloaded before the fault..
However , it is assumed that the network is unloaded and that all the generator voltages are at
1 pu. This assumption is justified because fault currents in the network are much larger than
the load currents.

If assumptions 2-4 are not taken into account, pre-fault currents are added to the fault currents obtained
by using the Thevenin's equivalent of the network.
Thevenin's equivalent
The Thevenin's equivalent of the network at the point of the fault location (either in phase or sequence
components) is obtained for calculating the fault currents. If the network is balanced before the fault,
then at the fault point , Thevenin's sequence voltages become
Ea1= Ea
Ea2= 0
Ea0= 0.
If the network is not balanced , the above voltages may have finite values and the sequence component
approach may not be useful. The performance equation for the balanced network in terms of sequence
components is :
[Vs] = [Eph]- [Zs][Is],
where
[Vs]=[V0a,V1a,V2a]

[Eph] = [0,E1a,0]
[Zs] = diagonal matrix of [Z0,Z1,Z2]
[Is] = [I0a,I1a,I2a]
The network at the fault point F appears as shown in Fig.6 where Z1,Z2 and Z0 are the lumped values
of the Thevenin's impedances between the fault point and the neutral.
Depending upon the type of fault, the sequence components of currents and voltages are constrained
leading to particular connections of sequence network. After the fault currents coming out of the
network at the fault point are determined, the current & voltage distributions inside the network are
found out . If originally, there are load currents , these are restricted to the positive sequence network ,
and they are superposed on the fault currents for accurate results, but this is often not done.

Three-phase fault
Here ,
Ia1 = Ea/(Z1 +ZF)
Ia2 = 0
Ia0= 0
Single-line to ground (SLG)fault
Fault is assumed in phase "a". If it is in any other phase, symmetrical shifting will be required.
The connections at the fault point are given in FIG.7 for various types of faults. The connections of the
sequence networks for SLG fault are given in FIG.8 .
Study the network connections for L-L and DLG faults.

How do you distinguish switching transient currents from sub-transient currents?

Sketch the subtransient/transient current wave-shapes in phase b and c respectively for a
synchronous generator when the current in phase a is symmetrical.
Under what conditions can you expect a negative or zero sequence Thevenin's voltage at the
fault point?

Determine and draw the sequence network connection diagrams for

1.
2.

Single conductor opening at a point

Two conductors opening at a point.