Identification and Management of Sustainability Issues BASF carefully monitors and evaluates emerging sustainability issues on an ongoing basis.

In 2010, we conducted an extensive sta e!older and cor"orate survey toget!er wit! t!e sustainability consultancy Five #inds International. $!e aim was to identify w!ic! issues are most im"ortant for society and most relevant for BASF. $!roug! t!e identification of ey sustainability issues, we develo" solutions to !el" meet future societal needs. $!is a""roac! enables us to minimi%e ris s early as well as develo" new business o""ortunities. News BASF presents collaborative projects that drive sustainable solutions &ov. 1', 201( Read more more press releases )ore t!an (00 "eo"le from around t!e globe "artici"ated in t!e "ro*ect. +xternal sta e!olders from various segments, suc! as business, academia and non,governmental organi%ations, as well as BASF managers were surveyed. Furt!er, t!oug!t leaders, customers and BASF-s Sustainability .ouncil were interviewed. BASF is assessing t!e most im"ortant emerging issues on bot! global and regional levels for &ort! America, +uro"e, Sout! America and Asia. $!e analysis s!ows t!at t!e im"ortance of issues varies among regions. $!e global results for all '' issues are s!own in t!e materiality matrix, w!ic! com"ares t!e im"ortance of eac! issue relative to its im"act on BASF. $!e closer eac! issue is towards t!e to" rig!t !and corner of t!e matrix, t!e more im"ortant it is to sta e!olders and t!e more material it is to BASF-s business. Sustainable management From #i i"edia, t!e free encyclo"edia Sustainable management ta es t!e conce"ts from sustainability and synt!esi%es t!em wit! t!e conce"ts of management. Sustainability !as t!ree branc!es/ t!e environment, t!e needs of "resent and future generations, and t!e economy. 0sing t!ese branc!es, it creates t!e ability to ee" a system running indefinitely wit!out de"leting resources, maintaining economic viability, and also nouris!ing t!e needs of t!e "resent and future generations. From t!is definition, sustainable management !as been created to be defined as t!e a""lication of sustainable "ractices in t!e categories of businesses, agriculture, society, environment, and "ersonal life by managing t!em in a way t!at will benefit current generations and future generations. Sustainable management is needed because it is an im"ortant "art of t!e ability to successfully maintain t!e 1uality of life on our "lanet. Sustainable management can be a""lied to all as"ects of our lives. For exam"le, t!e "ractices of a business s!ould be sustainable if t!ey wis! to stay in businesses, because if t!e business is unsustainable, t!en by t!e definition of sustainability t!ey will cease to be able to be in com"etition. .ommunities are in a need of sustainable management, because if t!e community is to "ros"er, t!en t!e management must be sustainable. Forest andnatural resources need to !ave sustainable management if t!ey are to be able to be continually used by our generation and future generations. 2ur "ersonal lives also need to be managed sustainably. $!is can be by ma ing decisions t!at will !el" sustain our immediate surroundings and environment, or it can be by managing our emotional and

"!ysical well,being. Sustainable management can be a""lied to many t!ings, as it can be a""lied as a literal and an abstract conce"t. )eaning, de"ending on w!at t!ey are a""lied to t!e meaning of w!at it is can c!ange. !ontents 3!ide4
o o

1 5istory 2 )anagement "osition ( Business (.1 Business economics (.2 Service model ' .ommunities 6 7ersonal life 8 Forests 9 Farming:agriculture ; See also < =eferences

"istory#edit$ )anagers> strategies reflect t!e mindset of t!e times. $!is being t!e case, it !as been a "roblem for t!e evolution of sustainable management "ractices for two reasons. $!e first reason is t!at sustainable norms are continually c!anging. For exam"le, t!ings considered unt!in able a few years ago are now standard "ractices. And t!e second reason is t!at in order to "ractice sustainable management, one !as to be forward t!in ing, not only in t!e s!ort term, but also in t!e long term. )anagement be!avior is a reflection of !ow acce"ted conce"tions of be!avior are defined. $!is means t!at forces and beliefs outside of t!e given "rogram "us! along t!e management. $!e manager can ta e some credit for t!e cultural c!anges in !is or !er "rogram, but overall t!e organi%ation-s culture reflects dominant conce"tions of t!e "ublic at t!at time. $!is is exem"lified t!roug! t!e managerial actions ta en during t!e time "eriods t!at lead u" to t!e "resent day. $!ese exam"les are given below/

Industrial environmentalism ?1<80@1<90A314

$!is was a time "eriod in w!ic!, even t!oug! t!ere were outside concerns about t!e environment, t!e industries were able to resist "ressures and ma e t!eir own definitions and regulations.314+nvironmentalists were not viewed as credible sources of information during t!is time and usually discredited.

=egulatory environmentalism ?1<90@1<;2A314

$!e norms or t!is "eriod radically s!ifted wit! t!e creating of t!e 0.S. +nvironmental 7rotection Agency ?+7AA in 1<90. $!e +7A became t!e mediator between t!e environmentalists and t!e industry, alt!oug! t!e two sides never met.314 Buring t!is "eriod, t!e environment for t!e ma*ority of industry and business management teams was only im"ortant in terms of com"liance wit! law.314 In 1<9' a conference board survey found t!at t!e ma*ority of com"anies still treated environmental management as a t!reat.314 $!e survey noted a wides"read tendency in most of industry to treat "ollution control ex"enditures as non,

recoverable investments.314 According to t!e consensus environmental "rotection was considered at best a necessary evil, and at worst a tem"orary nuisance.314

+nvironmentalism as social res"onsibility ?1<;2@1<;;A314

By 1<;2, t!e +7A !ad lost its credibility, but at t!e same time activism became more influential, and t!ere was an increase in t!e funding and members!i"s of ma*or non, governmental organi%ations ?&C2sA.314 Industry gradually became more coo"erative wit! government and new managerial structures were im"lemented to ac!ieve com"liances wit! regulations.314

Strategic environmentalism ?1<;;@1<<(A314

Buring t!is "eriod, industry "rogressed into a "roactive stance on environmental "rotection. 314 #it! t!is attitude, t!e issue became one in w!ic! t!ey felt 1ualified to manage on t!eir own. Alt!oug! t!ere was advancement in organi%ational "ower, t!e concern for t!e environment still e"t being "us!ed down t!e !ierarc!y of im"ortant t!ings to do.314

+nvironmental management as an o""ortunity ?1<<(@"resentA

In 1<<6 5arvard "rofessor )ic!ael 7orter wrote in t!e 5arvard Business =eview t!at environmental "rotection was not a t!reat to t!e cor"orate enter"rise but rat!er an o""ortunity, one t!at could increase com"etitive advantage in t!e mar et"lace.314 Before 2000, com"anies generally regarded green buildings as interesting ex"eriments but unfeasible "ro*ects in t!e real business world.324Since t!en several factors, including t!e ones listed below, !ave caused ma*or s!ifts in t!in ing.324 $!e creation of reliable building rating and "erformance measurement systems for new construction and renovation !as !el"ed c!ange cor"orate "erce"tions about green. In 2000 t!e 0S Creen Building .ouncil in B. launc!ed its rigorous leaders!i" in energy and environmental design ?D++BA "rogram.324 5undreds of 0S and international studies !ave "roven t!e financial advantages of going green/ lower utility costs, !ig!er em"loyee "roductivity.324 Creen building materials, mec!anical systems, and furnis!ings !ave become more widely available, and "rices !ave dro""ed considerably.324 As c!anges are made to t!e norms of w!at is acce"table from a management "ers"ective, more and more it becomes a""arent t!at sustainable management is t!e new norm of t!e future. .urrently, t!ere are many "rograms, organi%ations, communities, and businesses t!at follow sustainable management "lans. $!ese new entities are "ressing forward wit! t!e !el" of c!anging social norms and management initiatives. Management position#edit$ A manager is a "erson t!at is !eld res"onsible for t!e "lanning of t!ings t!at will benefit t!e situation t!at t!ey are controlling. $o be a manager of sustainability, one needs to be a manager t!at can control issues and "lan solutions t!at will be sustainable, so t!at w!at t!ey "ut into "lace will be able to continue for future generations. $!e *ob of a sustainable manager is li e ot!er management "ositions, but additionally t!ey !ave to manage systems so t!at t!ey are able to su""ort and sustain t!emselves. #!et!er it is a "erson t!at is a manager of grou"s, business, family, communities, organi%ations, agriculture, or t!e environment, t!ey can all use sustainable management to im"rove t!eir "roductivity, environment, and atmos"!ere, among ot!er t!ings. Some "ractical s ills t!at are needed to be able "erform t!e *ob include/

Seeing "roblems:issues

Being able to set goals:agendas 7lanning S ills .reating new ways of doing t!ings ?t!in ing outside t!e boxA $a ing action w!en it is needed 2rgani%ational s ills Being able to teac!, ma e aware, and train "eo"le Ability to ma e toug! decisions Eee"ing trac of "rogress $a ing res"onsibility Ability to "ro*ect current issues:ideas:"lans into t!e Future 7ossessing w!ole systems t!in ing3(4

=ecently, t!ere !as even been t!e addition of new "rograms in colleges and universities in order to be able to offer Bac!elors of Science and )asters of Science in Sustainable management. Business#edit$ In business, time and time again, environmentalists are seen facing off against industry, and t!ere is usually very little Fmeeting in t!e middleF or com"romises. #!en t!ese two sides agree to disagree, t!e result is a more "owerful message, and it becomes one t!at allows more "eo"le to understand and embrace. 2rgani%ations need to face t!e fact t!at t!e boundaries of accountability are moving fast. $!e trend towards sustainable management means t!at organi%ations are beginning to im"lement a systems wide a""roac! t!at lin s in t!e various "arts of t!e business wit! t!e greater environment at large. As sustainable management institutions ada"t, it becomes im"erative t!at t!ey include an image of sustainable res"onsibility t!at is "ro*ected for t!e "ublic to see. $!is is because firms are socially based organi%ations. But t!is can be a double edged sword, because sometimes t!ey end u" focusing too muc! on t!eir image rat!er t!an actually focusing on im"lementing w!at t!ey are trying to "ro*ect to t!e "ublicG t!is is called green was!ing. It is im"ortant t!at t!e execution of sustainable management "ractices is not "ut aside w!ile t!e firm tries to a""eal to t!e "ublic wit! t!eir sustainable management H"ractices.I Additionally, com"anies must ma e t!e connection between sustainability as a vision and sustainability as a "ractice. )anagers need to t!in systematically and realistically about t!e a""lication of traditional business "rinci"les to environmental "roblems. By melding t!e two conce"ts toget!er, new ideas of business "rinci"les emerge and can enable some com"anies, t!ose wit! t!e rig!t industry structure, com"etitive "osition, and managerial s ills, to deliver increased value to s!are!olders w!ile ma ing im"rovements in t!eir environmental "erformance.3'4 Any cor"oration can become green on a standard budget.324 By focusing on t!e big "icture, a com"any can generate more savings and better "erformance. By using "lanning, design, and construction based on sustainable values, sustainable management strives to gain D++B "oints by reducing foot"rint of t!e facility by sustainably "lanning t!e site wit! focus on t!ese t!ree core ideas.324 $o com"lete a successful green building, or business, t!e management also a""lies cost benefit analysis in order to allocate funds a""ro"riately.

Business economics#edit$ $!e economic system, li e all systems, is sub*ect to t!e laws of t!ermodynamics, w!ic! define t!e limit at w!ic! t!e +art! can successfully "rocess energy and wastes.364 )anagers need to understand t!at t!eir values are critical factors in t!eir decisions. )any of current business values are based on unrealistic economic assum"tionsG ado"ting new economic models t!at ta e t!e +art! into account in t!e decision,ma ing "rocess is at t!e core of sustainable management.364 $!is new management addresses t!e interrelatedness of t!e ecosystem and t!e economic system.364 $!e strategic vision t!at is based on core values of t!e firm guides t!e firm-s decision,ma ing "rocesses at all levels. $!us, t!e sustainable management re1uires finding out w!at business activities fit into t!e +art!-s carrying ca"acity, and also defining t!e o"timal levels of t!ose activities.364 Sustainability values form t!e basis of t!e strategic management, "rocess t!e costs and benefits of t!e firm-s o"erations, and are measured against t!e survival needs of t!e "lanets sta e!olders.364 Sustainability is t!e core value because it su""orts a strategic vision of firms in t!e long term by integrating economic "rofits wit! t!e res"onsibility to "rotect t!e environment.364 Service model#edit$ .!anging industrial "rocesses so t!at t!ey actually re"lenis! and magnify t!e stoc of natural ca"ital is anot!er com"onent of sustainable management. 2ne way managers !ave figured out !ow to do t!is is by using a service model of business.384 $!is focuses on building relations!i"s wit! customers, instead of focusing on ma ing and selling "roducts.384 $!is ty"e of model re"resents a fundamental c!ange in t!e way businesses be!ave. It allows for managers to be aware of t!e lifecycle of t!eir "roducts by leaving t!e res"onsibility u" to t!e com"any to ta e care of t!e "roduct t!roug!out t!e life cycle.384 $!e service model, because t!e "roduct is t!e res"onsibility of t!e business, creates an avenue in w!ic! t!e managers can see ways in w!ic! t!ey can reduce t!e use of resources t!roug! recycling and "roduct construction. !ommunities#edit$ For communities to be able to im"rove, sustainable management needs to be in "ractice. If a community relies on t!e resources t!at are in t!e surrounding area, t!en t!ey need to be used sustainable to insure t!e indefinite su""ly of t!e resources. A community needs to wor toget!er to be able to be "roductive, and w!en t!ere is a need to get t!ings done, management is needs to ta e t!e lead. If sustainable management is in "ractice in a community, t!en "eo"le will want to stay in t!at community, and ot!er "eo"le will reali%e t!e success, and t!ey will also want to live in a similar environment, as t!eir own unsustainable towns fail. 7art of a sustainable management system in a community is t!e education, t!e coo"eration, and t!e res"onsiveness of t!e "eo"le t!at live in t!e community.394 $!ere are new ideals to !ow a community can be sustainable. $!is can include urban "lanning, w!ic! allow "eo"le to move about a city t!at are more sustainable for t!e environment. If management "lans a community t!at allows for "eo"le to move wit!out cars, it !el"s ma e a community sustainable by increasing mass transit or ot!er modes of trans"ortation. 7eo"le would s"end less time in traffic w!ile im"roving t!e environment, and on an occasions exercise.3;4 Sustainable management "rovides "lans t!at can im"rove multi"le "arts of "eo"le lives, environment, and future generations. If a community sets goals, t!en "eo"le are more li ely to reduce energy, water, and waste, but a community cannot set goals unless t!ey !ave t!e management in "lace to set goals.3<4

A "art of sustainable management for a community is communicating t!e ideals and "lans for an area to t!e "eo"le t!at will be carrying out t!e "lan. It is im"ortant to note t!at sustainable management is not sustainable if t!e "erson t!at is managing a situation is not communicating w!at needs to be im"roved, !ow it s!ould be im"roved, w!y it is im"ortant to t!em, and !ow t!ey are involved it in t!e "rocess. %ersonal life#edit$ For a "erson to be res"onsible for t!eir action is a "art of managing, and t!at is "art of being managed sustainable. $o be able to manage oneself sustainable t!ere are many factors to consider, because to be able to manage oneself a "erson needs to be able to see w!at t!ey are doing unsustainable, and !ow to become sustainable. 0sing "lastic bags at a c!ec out line is unsustainable because it creates "ollutants, but using reusable biodegradable bags can resolve t!e "roblem. $!is is not only environmentally sustainable, but it also im"roves t!e "!ysical and mental sustainability of t!e "erson t!at uses t!e reusable bags. It is "!ysical im"rovement because "eo"le do not !ave to live wit! t!e countless "lastic bags on t!e +art! and t!e "ollution t!at comes wit! it. It is also an im"rovement to mental sustainability, because t!e "erson t!at uses t!e reusable bags !as feeling of accom"lis!ment t!at comes from doing t!e rig!t t!ing. Beciding to buy local food to ma e t!e community stronger t!roug! community sustainable management, can also be emotionally, environmentally, and "!ysically rewarding. Figure 13<4 )c en%ie s!ows !ow a "erson can loo at a be!avior t!at t!ey are doing and determine if it is sustainable or not, and w!at t!ey could re"lace t!e bad be!avior wit!. +ducation of an individual would be t!e first ste" to deciding to ta e a ste" towards managing t!eir lives sustainable. $o manage a "erson life t!e benefits needs to be !ig! and t!e barriers low. Cood managing would come u" wit! a com"eting be!avior t!at !as no barriers to it. $o come u" wit! a .om"eting be!avior t!at does not !ave a barrier to it would involve good "roblem solving. New Behavior !ompeting Behavior & !ompeting Behavior '

7erceived Benefits

7erceived Barriers Figure 23<4 )c en%ie is an exam"le of w!at a "erson mig!t try to c!ange in t!eir life to ma e it more sustainable. #al ing instead of ta ing t!e taxi !el"s t!e environment, but it also loses time s"ent wit! family. $!e bus is in t!e middle of wal ing and ta ing a taxi, but anot!er o"tion t!at is not on t!e list is riding a bi e. Cood sustainable management would include all t!e o"tions t!at are "ossible, and new o"tions t!at were not available before. $!ese figures are tools t!at can be used in !el"ing "eo"le manage t!eir lives sustainably, but t!ere are ot!er ways to t!in about t!eir lives to become more sustainable. New Behavior (al) to (or) !ompeting Behavior & *a)e a !ompeting Behavior ' *a+i *a)e the Bus in (inter

7erceived Benefits

5el"s t!e +nvironment

$ime wit! Family

.!ea"er t!an $axi

7erceived Barriers Forests#edit$

Dose time wit! family

&o alternative:.ostly:Bad for t!e environment

Doses more time wit! family

$!ere are very "ractical needs for sustainable management of forest. Since forests "rovide many resources to t!e "eo"le, and to t!e world, management of t!e forests are critical to ee" t!ose resources available. $o be able to manage a forest, nowledge of !ow t!e natural systems wor is needed. If a manager nows !ow t!e natural system wor s, t!en w!en manager of t!e forest ma es "lans !ow t!e resources are to remove from t!e forest, t!e manager will now !ow t!e resources can be removed wit!out damaging t!e forest. Since many forests are under management of t!e government t!at is in t!e region, t!e forest are not truly functioning !ow t!e ecosystem was naturally develo"ed, and !ow it is meant to be. An exam"le is t!e "ine flatwoods in Florida. $o be able to maintain t!at ecosystem fre1uent burnings of t!e forest needs to !a""en. Fires are a natural "art of t!e ecosystem, but since wild fires can s"read to communities near t!e forest, control of t!e wild fires is re1uested from t!e communities. $o maintain flatwoods forest control burning or "rescribe burning is "art of t!e management to sustain t!e forest.3104 Farming,agriculture#edit$ $o !ave sustainable agriculture, sustainable management of t!e system t!at t!e farmer uses needs to be im"lemented. )anagement "rovides t!e tools, nowledge of t!e "rogress, t!e goals, and organi%ation t!at sustainable agriculture needs to be sustainable. Eee"ing trac of w!at t!e system is "roviding and consuming is im"ortant, so t!at t!e management can im"rove t!e sustainable efforts in t!e system. Sustainable management of agriculture means t!at t!e system t!at is being managed is sustainable in all res"ects. 7roduction s!ould be model after natural systems, instead of using !uman made systems t!at !ave been "us!ed on t!e +art! t!at are not sustainable. In a natural system t!e +art! uses t!e waste of one system, and t!en turns it into t!e consuming "art of anot!er system. $!is is im"ortant to try to model in sustainable management of agriculture, because it would decrease in t!e amount of resources needed, and decrease t!e amount of money s"ent on removing and de"osing of waste. &ot only does an agriculture system need to "rotect t!e resources and environment, but it also needs to be able to com"ete in t!e mar et. Agriculture can model natural systems to "rovide a system t!at is com"etitive in t!e indefinite long run, instead of stri""ing t!e land of its resources and ma ing it unusable in t!e future. Agriculture t!at tries to "roduce its "roduct at t!e maximum yield will stri" soil resources until t!e land is void and unable to "roduce. $!is would be an exam"le of !ow sustainable management is not in "ractice, because t!e system will fail, and because it fails, it would !ave a negative im"act on t!e "eo"le t!at rely on t!at "roduct for wor , food, and local economy. Sustainable management of agriculture s!ould include t!e sustainable management of t!e "eo"le t!at wor on t!e systems. Fair trade is an exam"le of !ow t!e world is trying to "roduce sustainable management of local farmers in t!ird world countries. Slow food is anot!er movement t!at is trying to "romote sustainable management by mar eting t!e "roduction of farms "roducts to t!e "eo"le t!at live locally. Slow food "rovides fres!er, c!ea"er, su"erior, and taster "roducts, because t!ey are sold directly to t!e

"ublic by t!e farmer. $!e farmer saves money by not s"ending it on s!i""ing and trans"ortation of t!eir "roducts. Sustainable management of farms "rovide solutions to "roblems t!at are not sustainable in t!e areas of t!e "eo"le t!at buy t!e "roduct, "eo"le t!at ma e t!e "roduct, and t!e environment.
3114

See also#edit$ Sustainability Factors *able of !ontents J Bisclosure J Ado"tion J $rans"arency J Self,documentation J +xternal de"endencies J Im"act of "atents J $ec!nical "rotection mec!anisms -verview of factors In considering t!e suitability of "articular digital formats for t!e "ur"oses of "reserving digital information as an aut!entic resource for future generations, it is useful to articulate im"ortant factors t!at affect c!oices. $!e seven sustainability factors listed below a""ly across digital formats for all categories of information. $!ese factors influence t!e li ely feasibility and cost of "reserving t!e information content in t!e face of future c!ange in t!e tec!nological environment in w!ic! users and arc!iving institutions o"erate. $!ey are significant w!atever strategy is ado"ted as t!e basis for future "reservation actions/ migration to new formats, emulation of current software on future com"uters, or a !ybrid a""roac!. Additional factors will come into "lay relating to t!e ability to re"resent significant c!aracteristics of t!e content. $!ese factors reflect t!e 1uality and functionality t!at will be ex"ected by future users. $!ese factors will vary by genre or form of ex"ression for content. For exam"le, significant c!aracteristics of sound are different from t!ose of still "ictures, w!et!er digital or not, and not all digital formats for images are a""ro"riate for all genres of still "ictures. $!ese factors are discussed in t!e sections of t!is #eb site devoted to "articular .ontent .ategories. .isclosure Bisclosure refers to t!e degree to w!ic! com"lete s"ecifications and tools for validating tec!nical integrity exist and are accessible to t!ose creating and sustaining digital content. 7reservation of content in a given digital format over t!e long term is not feasible wit!out an understanding of !ow t!e information is re"resented ?encodedA as bits and bytes in digital files. A s"ectrum of disclosure levels can be observed for digital formats. &on,"ro"rietary, o"en standards are usually more fully documented and more li ely to be su""orted by tools for validation t!an "ro"rietary formats. 5owever, w!at is most significant for t!is sustainability factor is not a""roval by a recogni%ed standards body, but t!e existence of com"lete documentation, "referably sub*ect to external ex"ert evaluation. $!e existence of tools from various sources is valuable in its own rig!t and as evidence t!at s"ecifications are ade1uate. $!e existence and ex"loitation of underlying "atents is not necessarily inconsistent wit! full disclosure but may in!ibit t!e ado"tion of a format, as indicated below. In t!e future, de"osit

of full documentation in escrow wit! a trusted arc!ive would "rovide some degree of disclosure to su""ort t!e "reservation of information in "ro"rietary formats for w!ic! documentation is not "ublicly available. Availability, or de"osit in escrow, of source code for associated rendering software, validation tools, and software develo"ment its also contribute to disclosure. Bac to to" Adoption Ado"tion refers to t!e degree to w!ic! t!e format is already used by t!e "rimary creators, disseminators, or users of information resources. $!is includes use as a master format, for delivery to end users, and as a means of interc!ange between systems. If a format is widely ado"ted, it is less li ely to become obsolete ra"idly, and tools for migration and emulation are more li ely to emerge from industry wit!out s"ecific investment by arc!ival institutions. +vidence of wide ado"tion of a digital format includes bundling of tools wit! "ersonal com"uters, native su""ort in #eb browsers or mar et,leading content creation tools, including t!ose intended for "rofessional use, and t!e existence of many com"eting "roducts for creation, mani"ulation, or rendering of digital ob*ects in t!e format. In some cases, t!e existence and ex"loitation of underlying "atents may in!ibit ado"tion, "articularly if license terms include royalties based on content usage. A format t!at !as been reviewed by ot!er arc!ival institutions and acce"ted as a "referred or su""orted arc!ival format also "rovides evidence of ado"tion. Bac to to" *ransparency $rans"arency refers to t!e degree to w!ic! t!e digital re"resentation is o"en to direct analysis wit! basic tools, including !uman readability using a text,only editor. Bigital formats in w!ic! t!e underlying information is re"resented sim"ly and directly will be easier to migrate to new formats and more susce"tible to digital arc!aeologyG develo"ment of rendering software for new tec!nical environments or conversion software based on t!e Funiversal virtual com"uterF conce"t "ro"osed by =aymond Dorie will be sim"ler.1 $rans"arency is en!anced if textual content ?including metadata embedded in files for non, text contentA is encoded in standard c!aracter encodings ?e.g., 0&I.2B+ in t!e 0$F,; encodingA and stored in natural reading order. For "reserving software "rograms, source code is muc! more trans"arent t!an com"iled code. For non,textual information, standard or basic re"resentations are more trans"arent t!an t!ose o"timi%ed for more efficient "rocessing, storage or bandwidt!. +xam"les of direct forms of encoding include, for raster images, an uncom"ressed bit,ma" and for sound, "ulse code modulation wit! linear 1uanti%ation. For numeric data, standard re"resentations exist for signed integers, decimal numbers, and binary floating "oint numbers of different "recisions ?e.g., I+++ 96',1<;6 and ;6',1<;9, currently undergoing revisionA. )any digital formats used for disseminating content em"loy encry"tion or com"ression. +ncry"tion is incom"atible wit! trans"arencyG com"ression in!ibits trans"arency. 5owever, for "ractical reasons, some digital audio, images, and video may never be stored in an uncom"ressed form, even w!en created. Arc!ival re"ositories must certainly acce"t content com"ressed using "ublicly disclosed and widely ado"ted algorit!ms t!at are eit!er lossless or

!ave a degree of lossy com"ression t!at is acce"table to t!e creator, "ublis!er, or "rimary user as a master version. $!e trans"arency factor relates to formats used for arc!ival storage of content. 0se of lossless com"ression or encry"tion for t!e ex"ress "ur"ose of efficient and secure transmission of content ob*ects to or from a re"ository is ex"ected to be routine. Bac to to" Self/documentation Bigital ob*ects t!at are self,documenting are li ely to be easier to sustain over t!e long term and less vulnerable to catastro"!e t!an data ob*ects t!at are stored se"arately from all t!e metadata needed to render t!e data as usable information or understand its context. A digital ob*ect t!at contains basic descri"tive metadata ?t!e analog to t!e title "age of a boo A and incor"orates tec!nical and administrative metadata relating to its creation and early stages of its life cycle will be easier to manage and monitor for integrity and usability and to transfer reliably from one arc!ival system to its successor system. Suc! metadata will also allow sc!olars of t!e future to understand !ow w!at t!ey observe relates to t!e ob*ect as seen and used in its original tec!nical environment. $!e ability of a digital format to !old ?in a trans"arent formA metadata beyond t!at needed for basic rendering of t!e content in today>s tec!nical environment is an advantage for "ur"oses of "reservation. $!e value of ric!er ca"abilities for embedding metadata in digital formats !as been recogni%ed in t!e communities t!at create and exc!ange digital content. $!is is reflected in ca"abilities built in to newer formats and standards ?e.g., $IFF:+7, K7+C2000, and t!e +xtended )etadata 7latform for 7BF 3L)74A and also in t!e emergence of metadata standards and "ractices to su""ort exc!ange of digital content in industries suc! as "ublis!ing, news, and entertainment. Arc!ival institutions s!ould ta e advantage of, and encourage, t!ese develo"ments. $!e Dibrary of .ongress will benefit if t!e digital ob*ect files it receives include metadata t!at identifies and describes t!e content, documents t!e creation of t!e digital ob*ect, and "rovides tec!nical details to su""ort rendering in future tec!nical environments. For o"erational efficiency of a re"ository system used to manage and sustain digital content, some of t!e metadata elements are li ely be extracted into a se"arate metadata store. Some elements will also be extracted for use in t!e Dibrary>s catalog and ot!er systems designed to !el" users find relevant resources. )any of t!e metadata elements t!at will be re1uired to sustain digital ob*ects in t!e face of tec!nological c!ange are not ty"ically recorded in library catalogs or records intended to su""ort discovery. $!e 2AIS =eference )odel for an 2"en Arc!ival Information System recogni%es t!e need for su""orting information ?metadataA in several categories/ re"resentation ?to allow t!e data to be rendered and used as informationAG reference ?to identify and describe t!e contentAG context ?for exam"le, to document t!e "ur"ose for t!e content>s creationAG fixity ?to "ermit c!ec s on t!e integrity of t!e content dataAG and "rovenance ?to document t!e c!ain of custody and any c!anges since t!e content was originally createdA. Bigital formats in w!ic! suc! metadata can be embedded in a trans"arent form wit!out affecting t!e content are li ely to be su"erior for "reservation "ur"oses. Suc! formats will also allow metadata significant to "reservation to be recorded at t!e most a""ro"riate "oint, usually as early as "ossible in t!e content ob*ect>s life cycle. For exam"le, identifying t!at a digital "!otogra"! !as been converted from t!e =CB colors"ace, out"ut by most cameras, to .)ME, t!e colors"ace used by most "rinting "rocesses, is most

a""ro"riately recorded automatically by t!e software a""lication used for t!e transformation. By encouraging use of digital formats t!at are designed to !old relevant metadata, it is more li ely t!at t!is information will be available to t!e Dibrary of .ongress w!en needed. Bac to to" 0+ternal dependencies +xternal de"endencies refers to t!e degree to w!ic! a "articular format de"ends on "articular !ardware, o"erating system, or software for rendering or use and t!e "redicted com"lexity of dealing wit! t!ose de"endencies in future tec!nical environments. Some forms of interactive digital content, alt!oug! not tied to "articular "!ysical media, are designed for use wit! s"ecific !ardware, suc! as a micro"!one or a *oystic . Scientific datasets built from sensor data may be useless wit!out s"eciali%ed software for analysis and visuali%ation, software t!at may itself be very difficult to sustain, even wit! source code available. $!is factor is "rimarily relevant for categories of digital content beyond t!ose considered in more detail in t!is document, for w!ic! static media,inde"endent formats exist. It is !owever wort! including !ere, since dynamic content is li ely to become common"lace as "art of electronic "ublications. $!e c!allenge of sustaining dynamic content wit! suc! de"endencies is more difficult t!an sustaining static content, and will t!erefore be muc! more costly. Bac to to" Impact of patents 7atents related to a digital format may in!ibit t!e ability of arc!ival institutions to sustain content in t!at format. Alt!oug! t!e costs for licenses to decode current formats are often low or nil, t!e existence of "atents may slow t!e develo"ment of o"en source encoders and decoders and "rices for commercial software for transcoding content in obsolescent formats may incor"orate !ig! license fees. #!en license terms include royalties based on use ?e.g., a royalty fee w!en a file is encoded or eac! time it is usedA, costs could be !ig! and un"redictable. It is not t!e existence of "atents t!at is a "otential "roblem, but t!e terms t!at "atent,!olders mig!t c!oose to a""ly. $!e core com"onents of emerging IS2 formats suc! as K7+C2000 and )7+C' are associated wit! F"oolsF t!at offer licensing on be!alf of a number of "atent,!olders. $!e license "ools sim"lify licensing and reduce t!e li eli!ood t!at one "atent associated wit! a format will be ex"loited more aggressively t!an ot!ers. 5owever, t!ere is a "ossibility t!at new "atents will be added to a "ool as t!e format s"ecifications are extended, "resenting t!e ris t!at t!e "ool will continue far longer t!an t!e 20,year life of any "articular "atent it contains. )itigating suc! ris s is t!e fact t!at "atents re1uire a level of disclosure t!at s!ould facilitate t!e develo"ment of tools once t!e relevant "atents !ave ex"ired. $!e im"act of "atents may not be significant enoug! in itself to warrant treatment as an inde"endent factor. 7atents t!at are ex"loited wit! an eye to s!ort,term cas! flow rat!er t!an mar et develo"ment will be li ely to in!ibit adoption. #ides"read ado"tion of a format may be a good indicator t!at t!ere will be no adverse effect on t!e ability of arc!ival institutions to sustain access to t!e content t!roug! migration, dynamic generation of service co"ies, or ot!er tec!ni1ues. Bac to to"

*echnical protection mechanisms $o "reserve digital content and "rovide service to users and designated communities decades !ence, custodians must be able to re"licate t!e content on new media, migrate and normali%e it in t!e face of c!anging tec!nology, and disseminate it to users at a resolution consistent wit! networ bandwidt! constraints. .ontent for w!ic! a trusted re"ository ta es long,term res"onsibility must not be "rotected by tec!nical mec!anisms suc! as encry"tion, im"lemented in ways t!at "revent custodians from ta ing a""ro"riate ste"s to "reserve t!e digital content and ma e it accessible to future generations. &o digital format t!at is inextricably bound to a "articular "!ysical carrier is suitable as a format for long,term "reservationG nor is an im"lementation of a digital format t!at constrains use to a "articular device or "revents t!e establis!ment of bac u" "rocedures and disaster recovery o"erations ex"ected of a trusted re"ository. Some digital content formats !ave embedded ca"abilities to restrict use in order to "rotect t!e intellectual "ro"erty. 0se may be limited, for exam"le, for a time "eriod, to a "articular com"uter or ot!er !ardware device, or re1uire a "assword or active networ connection. In most cases, ex"loitation of t!e tec!nical "rotection mec!anisms is o"tional. 5ence t!is factor a""lies to t!e way a format is used in business contexts for "articular bodies of content rat!er t!an to t!e format. $!e embedding of information into a file t!at does not affect t!e use or 1uality of rendering of t!e wor will not interfere wit! "reservation, e.g., data t!at identifies rig!ts,!olders or t!e "articular issuance of a wor . $!e latter ty"e of data indicates t!at t!is co"y of t!is wor was "roduced for an s"ecific individual or ot!er entity, and can be used to trace t!e movement of t!is co"y if it is "assed to anot!er entity. Factors affecting the sustainability of farming systems Below is "resented t!e inds of decisions a farm !ouse!old can ma e ?FA2, 1<<0A. In farming,systems analysis it is im"ortant to now t!e degree of freedom t!e farm !ouse!old !as in ma ing decisions. #!at factors affect t!e sustainability of farming systemsN And !ow does one find ways to create sustainable farming systems in t!e .++.sN $!is section aims at covering t!ese two 1uestions. All of t!e decisions in $able 1 are made by t!e farm,!ouse!old. It is, t!erefore, im"ortant to consider t!em all w!en deliberating sustainability issues. #!ile identifying factors affecting sustainability, it may be good to recall t!e various dimensions of t!e sustainability conce"t/ sustainability includes not only t!e environmental dimension but also t!e economic and social dimensions. $!is is im"licitly clear from $able 1. 5owever, some 1uantifiable measures are needed to c!ec w!et!er a farming system is sustainable or not. *able &1 #!at decisions farmers !ave to ma e in t!e medium term ?FA2, 1<<0, 22,2(A. %roduction -riented1 #!at to "roduce 5ow to "roduce

5ow muc! to "roduce #!en to "roduce #!ere to "roduce

Resource/2se -riented1 5ow family labour s!ould be used for farm activities, non,farm and off,farm activities 5ow muc! !ired labour is re1uired for farm activities and non,farm activities Ac1uisition of in"uts

=enting in, renting out of land resources

Investment oriented1 #!ere and !ow t!e farmer could invest !is savings safely and "rofitably

Investments in direct means of "roduction

3i4uidity oriented1 5ow muc! cas! is re1uired by t!e farm,!ouse!old for consum"tion, sc!ool fees, taxation, mar eting, etc. #!et!er credit is re1uired and, if so, !ow muc!, for w!at "ur"oses, !ow to obtain it

.as!,management decision

%rocess5 mar)eting oriented1 5ow muc! of w!at "roduction s!ould be "rocessed on t!e farm and mar eted #!en to mar et w!at "roduction, and w!ere

Storage decisions

!ommunity oriented1 7artici"ation in a farmers- organi%ation Increasing status in t!e community

#!at t!e community ex"ects from t!e farm,!ouse!old in terms of "roduction, time, etc

As noted in t!e "receding section, )c.onell and Billon ?FA2, 1<<9A "resented eig!t system "ro"erties and t!e criteria for measurement of "erformance, ma ing a 1uantification on farm level or on farm and social level "ossible. $!e "ro"erties are summari%ed in $able 2. $able 2 could serve as an exam"le for !ow t!e economic and social sustainability factors can be Fo"erationali%edF. =egarding t!e .++.s, it would "robably be "ossible to ma e suc! tables for eac! region concerned. 2ne could add a nint! "ro"erty, e1uitability. $!is would im"ly t!at t!e system is socially acce"table in term of income distribution and owners!i" ?no strong "olari%ationA. $!e e1uality of income distribution can be measured by t!e Cini coefficient or t!e Doren% curve a""lied in general economics. *able '1 System "ro"erties and indicators for measurement of "erformance ?FA2, 1<<9A

7ro"erty I. 7=2B0.$IOI$M

Indicator Mield "er land, animal unit or ot!er unit of resource or t!e value of out"ut "er unit of cost In financial terms or measured sub*ectively as net benefits 1. Cross margin 2. Oarious w!ole,farm "rofitability measures (. Biscount measures

II. 7=2FI$ABIDI$M 1. of activities 2. of w!ole farms (. over time III. S$ABIDI$M IO. BIO+=SI$M 1. of activities 2. of "roducts (. of income O. FD+LIBIDI$M 1. of a single "roduct 2. of all system "roducts OI. $I)+ BIS7+=SI2&

.oefficient of variation Sim"son-s diversity index 1. &umber of activities in system 2. &umber of "roducts of system (. Income diversity ratio &umber of first, second ... degree uses to w!ic! "roducts can be "ut ?sold, consumed, "rocessed, storedA =elative dis"ersion of generation over t!e o"erating "eriod ?usually yearA on a daily:wee ly:mont!ly:1uarterly basis as measured by t!e relative time,dis"ersion index ?=$BA &o single general 1uantitative measure ?see $able (A &o cardinal measure but an ordinal measure could be used, ran ing activities or systems on a scale of !ig!, low, neutral or negative relative to t!eir "!ysical, biological, socioeconomic, cultural and religious environmental friendliness

OII. S0S$AI&ABIDI$M OIII. .2)7D+)+&$A=I$M A&B +&OI=2&)+&$AD .2)7A$IBIDI$M

Sustainable agriculture im"lies t!at yields do not decline over time, w!ile t!e destruction of natural resource ca"ital is avoided. In some cases, t!e increased intensity of agriculture may !ave negative effects on t!e environment. $!e o""osite may also be unsustainable if nutrient de"letion leads to im"overis!ment of t!e soil. In many .++. cases, sustainability may be "revented by an intensity in in"uts t!at is too low, or t!e soil is de"leted from nutrients, "articularly "otassium ?EA ?Andres, 1<<8A. It is also im"ortant to maintain t!e remaining 5&O farming systems, w!ic! are of !ig! environmental and amenity value in t!e .++.s. In

t!e long run, t!ese areas may be very valuable. Some of t!em may ot!erwise be lost in t!e transition "rocess. 5elenius !as "resented a c!ec list for ecological sustainability in t!e use of farmland ?5elenius, 1<<<A, 1<<<BA. 5e !as identified two ey issues/ "rotection of t!e environment and maintenance of t!e resource base. $!e c!ec list is "resented below in tabular form in $able (. *able 61 .!ec list for Fo"erationali%ingF ecological sustainability in agriculture/ a natural science "oint of view, w!ic! on its own is not sufficient for sustainability researc! ?5elenius, 1<<< BA 1. +nvironmental conservation 7rotection of biodiversity 7rotection of cultural landsca"e 7revention of loading and contamination from agriculture 2.'. .limate and atmos"!ere )aintenance of climate )aintenance of atmos"!ere )aintenance of air 1uality 2.6. Biodiversity of "roduction organisms )aintenance of "o"ulations, i.e. s"ecies )aintenance of genetic diversity 2.8. Biodiversity wit!in agroecosystems )aintenance of !abitat diversity )aintenance of s"ecies diversity )aintenance of genetic diversity

2. Sustainable use of natural resources 2.1. +nergy in agriculture =enewal of t!e energy sources 2.2. Agricultural soil and its fertility )aintenance of agricultural landsca"e )aintenance of soil fertility 2.(. #ater for "roduction )aintenance of water availability )aintenance of water 1uality

2.9. Agroecosystem function )aintenance of community "rocesses )aintenance bio,geoc!emistry )aintenance of stabili%ing ecosystem "ro"erties

$!e term, environmental conservation, means t!e saving of biodiversity in terms of t!e genetic ric!ness of "o"ulations, t!e s"ecies ric!ness of communities, and t!e !abitat or ecosystem ric!ness of landsca"es. $!e desired function of "rotecting landsca"es is "artly to maintain t!e !abitats for s"ecies, but also t!e amenity, aest!etic and cultural value of t!e landsca"e. 7reventing t!e loading of nutrients is im"ortant ?5elenius, 1<<<AA. $!e main causes for surface waters being loaded wit! nutrients are "rimarily t!e emissions of "!os"!orus bot! in t!e surface runoff water and attac!ed to t!e sediments from erosion. $!e "!os"!orus ?7A and nitrogen ?&A nutrients derive from slurry, solid and li1uid manure, c!emical fertili%ers and, to a certain extent, natural leac!ing inde"endent of !uman activity. $!e conse1uences of t!is loading may be/ an increased turbidity of t!e water and an accelerated eutro"!ication. $!ese results may subse1uently lead to an increase in undesirable biological "roductivity, c!anges in t!e com"osition of "lant s"ecies and c!anges in t!e fis! s"ecies and t!e stoc of fis!es. As a conse1uence, t!e recreational use of t!e la es affected will diminis!. &itrate leac!ing may increase t!e nitrate content in ground water and drin ing

water. $!is !as been a common "roblem in #estern +uro"e, w!ereas t!e fertili%ing intensity in most of t!e .++.s !as declined during t!e transition "eriod. .onse1uently, nutrient leac!ing is not a "roblem everyw!ere. 5owever, increasing intensity levels in some countries s!ow t!at nutrient leac!ing may increase in some countries. 7oland, t!e .%ec! =e"ublic and =omania !ave "roblems wit! water "ollution in connection wit! agriculture ?FA2, 1<<<AA. Deac!ing is affected by a number of farm management "ractices. $!e sustainable use of natural resources com"rises many "oints. +nergy in agriculture and renewal of energy sources are issues of sustainability. In #est +uro"ean agriculture t!e increased use of non,renewable su""ort energy for cro" "roduction !as decreased energy efficiency. +nergy cro"s !ave been suggested as a "ossible researc! area for alternative energy sources ?5elenius, 1<<< aA. In many of t!e .++.s, agriculture is li ely to be less energy intensive t!an #est +uro"ean agriculture. )ismanagement of agricultural soil and its fertility results in erosion, salini%ation and desertification. Soil can also become contaminated wit! c!emicals. For instance, in 7oland, t!e .%ec! =e"ublic and =omania soil degradation and soil erosion are seen as ma*or environmental "roblems ?FA2, 1<<<AA. Biological diversity in t!e soil is not fully understood yet ?5elenius 1<<<AA. 5eavy metals in t!e soil ?e.g. as a conse1uence of im"urities, li e cadmium, in fertili%ersA will also affect soil sustainability in t!e long run. Sustainable farming systems s!ould ta e t!e effects on t!e atmos"!ere into account. Agriculture !as a double role !ere since it wor s as a sin of carbon dioxide ?.22A, but is an emitter of met!ane ?.5'A and nitrous oxide ?&22A. Oolatili%ation of ammonia is a source of acid rains. +s"ecially !ig! animal stoc ing densities may be a reason of ammonia emissions. Stoc ing density is also significant in determining gra%ing "ressure. Several factors, !owever, must be ta en into account w!en referring to stoc ing densities, suc! as ?aA !ow t!e foraged area is managed and w!at t!e soil ty"e is and ?bA w!et!er t!e gra%ing of unim"roved grass, land is sustainable or not. $!e distribution of livestoc over time is also anot!er im"ortant factor. ?Baldoc and Beaufoy, 1<<(A. $raditional farming systems using trans!umance !ave tried to resolve t!e "ressure by moving t!eir cattle to ot!er areas, for instance, during dry "eriods or during warmer "eriods. Biological diversity in its various forms needs to be "reserved. 5elenius cites an FA2 estimate, according to w!ic! 96 "ercent of t!e genetic diversity in agricultural cro"s !as disa""eared in t!e "ast !undred years ?5elenius, 1<<<AA. $!e loss of !eritage from former eras is considered to be a main environmental "roblem in Datvia ?FA2, 1<<<AA. In summary, t!e above,mentioned factors in farming systems t!at affect ecological sustainability include/

"ollution of surface and ground waters because of a too intense fertili%er utili%ation, wrong management "ractices, or stoc ing densities t!at are too !ig!G !ig! volatili%ation of ammonia from animal !erdsG soil degradation and loss of soilG increased amounts of !eavy metals in soilsG decline in t!e number of "lant and animal s"ecies, including wildlife s"ecies and !abitatsG increased air "ollution affecting agriculture adverselyG effects on t!e visual landsca"e and loss of cultural !eritageG

contamination of t!e environment by "esticides.

2ne could as w!at mig!t be done in order to ma e farming systems sustainable. Doc eret% !as claimed t!at sustainable agriculture is based on t!e following general conce"ts ?Doc eret%, 1<;;A/ Biversity of cro" s"ecies to en!ance t!e farm-s biological and economic stability t!at is created, for exam"le, t!roug! rotations, relay cro""ing and intercro""ingG Selection of cro" varieties and livestoc t!at are well suited to t!e farm-s soil and climate and t!at resist "est and diseaseG 7reference for farm,generated resources over "urc!ased materials, as well as for locally available off,farm in"uts ?w!en re1uiredA over t!ose from remote regionsG $ig!tening of nutrient cycles to minimi%e loss of nutrients off t!e farm, reali%ed, for exam"le, by com"osting livestoc manure or by rotating using legumes to fix nitrogenG Divestoc !oused and gra%ed at low density, wit! a "reference for !ig!,roug!age rations over concentrated feeds for ruminants, and !erd,si%e scaled to t!e farm>s ability to "roduce feeds and use livestoc manure efficientlyG +n!ancement of t!e soil>s ability to ta e u" a""lied nutrients for later release as needed by t!e cro", in contrast to direct u"ta e by t!e cro" at t!e time of a""licationG )aintenance of t!e "rotective cover on t!e soil t!roug!out t!e year, t!roug! tillage t!at leaves cro" residues on t!e surface, and t!roug! cover cro"s and living mulc!esG =otations t!at include dee",rooted cro"s to ta" nutrients reserves in lower strata and t!at control weeds by alternating between cool season and warm season cro"sG 0se of soluble inorganic fertili%ers, if at all, only at a level t!at t!e cro" can use efficiently, and use of t!ese materials only in case livestoc manure and legumes cannot cover nutrient deficitsG +n!ancement of conditions for controlling or su""ressing weeds, insect "ests, and diseasesG if synt!etic insecticides and !erbicides are used at all, t!ey s!ould be used only as a last resort and only w!en t!ere is a clear t!reat to t!e cro". $!e "ractices above certainly !ave many com"onents t!at are beneficial from an environmental "oint of view. 2n a more general level, one could claim t!at sustainable farming ty"ically involves a number of good agricultural "ractices. $!is re"ort offers t!e !y"ot!esis t!at good agricultural "ractices, in t!e long run, will offer a way to create sustainable farming systems in t!e .++.s. By using good agricultural "ractices, negative environmental im"acts of farming systems can be reduced, excessive amounts of leac!ing can be avoided, ammonia volatili%ation can be reduced and "esticide losses can be minimi%ed. #!at are good agricultural "ractices from a sustainability "oint of view de"ends "artly on local conditions. In order to exem"lify suc! "ractices, t!e following list ?a""licable to nort!ern +uro"eA com"iled by Se""Pnen and Eor man et al. is "resented ?Se""Pnen, 1<<<G Eor man et al., 1<<(A/ & !ultivation planning and monitoring An annual, a""ro"riate cultivation "lan for t!e w!ole farm is made. )easures carried out on eac! "arcel are recorded, including nutrient in"uts amounts. =esults from soil

analysis are included in t!e "lan. Fertili7er and pesticide use $!e a""ro"riate amounts of nitrogen, "!os"!orus and "esticides vary greatly de"ending on t!e "roductive "otential of soil. "eadland and filter strips Buffers %ones, filter stri"s and !eadlines are left next to waterways to "revent soil, nutrients and ot!er substances from leac!ing out of arable fields into surface water. ' %lant cover outside the growing season Fields are covered wit! "lants in t!e wintertime to reduce nutrient lea age. 6 Reduced tillage If no "lant cover is used, autumn "loug!ing can be re"laced by direct sowing, stubble cultivation or s"ring "loug!ing. 8 Stoc)ing densities It is somew!at difficult to generali%e w!at s!ould be considered maximum stoc ing densities, de"ending on t!e agroecological system in 1uestion ?for exam"les, see Baldoc and Beaufoy 1<<(, ". (0,(1A. 7or and "oultry "roduction tends to be intensive and less sustainable t!an cattle or s!ee" "roduction. 5owever, good agricultural "ractices re1uire not using livestoc densities above a certain ceiling. In Finland t!is ceiling is defined as 1.6 D0:!a ?7irtti*Prvi et al., 1<<6A. 9 Storage and application of manure )anure must be a""ro"riately stored and "loug!ed into t!e field w!en s"read and alternatively in*ected or "laced under t!e soil in order to avoid ammonia losses. : Nature and landscape management

Biodiversity as well as diversity in t!e landsca"e s!ould be ta en care of, and "ossible valuable !abitats s!ould be "reserved or restored. Factors affecting sustainability of agricultural projects on poverty alleviation in ;auteng %rovince of South Africa Author1 K. Fi ile )o gadi and 2. Idowu 2ladeleQ Received 21 January 2013, accepted 28 April 2013. Abstract In an effort to identify factors t!at affect sustainability of agricultural "ro*ects, data was collected from 180 farmers w!o were selected using random sam"ling tec!ni1ue and was gat!ered t!roug! t!e use of structured 1uestionnaire, analy%ed using fre1uency counts. $!e findings of t!e study s!ow '0R are between age range of 60,6< years, female ?60.8RA, wit! no formal education ?1;.;RA. $!e results indicated t!at 89.6R of t!e !ouse!old are male

!eaded. About 60R of res"ondents generate an annual income of less t!an = 200 000, ?'(.;RA of are cultivating less t!an 10 !a and 90R !ave less t!an 6 years of farming ex"erience. Significant determinants of sustainability of agricultural "ro*ects for "overty alleviation are attitude ?t S ,2.91AG im"act ?t S 6.;8AG farmer "artici"ation ?t S 2.;2A, educational level ?t S2.18AG farming ex"erience ?t S ,2.;',AG farming income ?t S 2.2;AG land tenure system ?t S ,2.6;AG and land ac1uisition met!od ?t S ,(.<;A. .2&.D0SI2&

Based on t!e results of o"erators, t!eir farming systems !ave been classified in t!ree levels of unstable ?1'.(9 "ercentA, relatively stable ?88.; "ercentA and very stable ?1;.98 "ercentA, w!ic! indicates t!at local farmers most are located at an intermediate level of stability. In t!is study, t!e relation of eig!t variables !as been investigated w!ic! are individual, economic, social, ecological, .ommunication, +ducation , agents, sustainable agricultural nowledge and attitude to sustainable agriculture variables. $!e relation between ty"es of cultivation and sustainability is "ositive and significant. $!at is cultivations t!at are accom"anied wit! rotation and follow are more sustainable t!an continuous agriculture. +conomic as"ects are res"onsible for a large "art of ex"laining t!e causes of "!enomena, w!ic! is s!own in t!is study. +conomic variables suc! as income, level of total "roduction, loan sufficiency, suitability and stability of "rices of in"uts !ave "ositive and significant relations!i"G !owever t!e farm wor er variable !as a significant negative correlation wit! stability.

Social status is "ositively associated wit! stability, it can be concluded t!at "eo"le wit! suc! !ig! economic status also en*oy better conditions. $!e use of mass media and "artici"ation in educational , extension "rograms !as a "ositive significant relations!i". $!ose wit! more nowledge in t!e field of sustainable agriculture !ave a more

stable o"eration t!at confirms significant "ositive relations!i" between agricultural nowledge and sustainability.

Sustainability of agricultural "roduction coo"eratives

$otal "roduction Beta S 0.;10 Attitude Beta S0.'90 Enowledge of sustainable agriculture Beta S0.216 Social "artici"ation Beta S0.(;' .!aracteristics of communication Beta S0.2;8 Amount of inta e facilities BetaS 0.'96 Figure 1, Oariables for "redicting t!e stability of "otato cultivation )e!di S!ariat%ade! Koneydi Annals of Biological =esearc!, 2012, ( ?<A/'69;,'6;( TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT TT '6;( Sc!olars =esearc! Dibrary

Anot!er factor t!at influences on sustainability is o"erator-s attitude to t!is issue t!at t!e resources are as a trust in t!eir !ands and because of "ositive and significant relations!i" between t!ese two variables t!eir relations!i" is confirmed.

Based on regression analysis results s!owed ;0.2 "ercent of variables "redicting t!e stability of cultivation are related to t!e six variables of t!e total "roduction, t!e attitude, t!e receiving facility, nowledge of sustainable agriculture, social "artici"ation and communicative c!aracteristics t!at were about (2.< "ercent, 16.; "ercent, 16.2 "ercent, 6.; "ercent, 6.( "ercent and 6.2 "ercent of t!e total variance ex"lained variables affecting t!eir sustainability, and only 1<.; "ercent of t!e residual variance is related to ot!er variables. Accordingly, it is including/

, Bue to t!e "ositive relations!i" between educational , extension activities and stability it is recommended t!at for more stability, volume and 1uality of services of educational , extension activities im"roved. , Civen t!e "ositive relations!i" between attitudes to sustainable agriculture and sustainable cultivation it is recommended for more sustainable agriculture. First, im"rove farmers> attitudes towards sustainable agriculture in collaboration wit! relevant organi%ations to "romote agricultural extension, secondly "ay more attention to t!ose farmers w!o !ave attitudes favorable toward sustainable agriculture. , Enown as t!e most effective variable is t!e total variable "roduction w!ic! em"!asis on better economic status as well as greater land. $!e more "roduction of a farmer t!e better sustainability so it is a good idea to focus on "oorer

and low land farmers to increase t!e stability of cultivation and t!e "rograms and investments to be inclined toward t!ese grou"s. , Inta e facilities from consulting to mar eting services refer to services "rovided to farmers during t!e "rocess of "roduction. Civen t!e im"ortance of t!is variable in stability it is recommended to centrali%e s"eciali%ed centers to "rovide t!ese services. , It is better to "ay more attention to all grou"s of farmers and t!eir association during develo"ing "rograms. As increased "artici"ation of farmers in society, t!ey can better en*oy of in"ut, financing and consulting services.

#!ile an increasing number of universities !ig!lig!t sustainability on cam"us and in t!e curriculum 314, few ?if anyA !ave addressed !ow t!e social arrangements of student life influence t!eir ultimate environmental im"act. 0nderstanding t!e environmental conse1uences of interactions between life in residential !alls and student be!aviors can !el" universities reali%e many innovative and "ractical sustainability goals related to energy consum"tion and water use w!ile simultaneously reducing ex"enses. #ater use is a "articularly im"ortant target of cam"us sustainability initiatives because ty"ical 0S college students, and ot!ers in t!e 19 to 2' year,old age grou", consume more water "er ca"ita for "ersonal use t!an eit!er c!ildren or adults ages 26 and over 324. In fact, t!e effect of age on water consum"tion is about twice t!at of et!nicity or socioeconomic status 324. $!us, wit! t!e aim of !el"ing bot! students and administrators identify targets for water conservation initiatives, we conducted a "ilot study about t!e water consum"tion !abits of students living on t!e $em"e cam"us at Ari%ona State 0niversity. $raditional university students in t!e develo"ed world are "art of t!e Hemerging adult!oodI demogra"!ic. $!is "eriod of develo"ment includes intense identity ex"loration and a relative lac of res"onsibility to ot!ers 3(4. 0nsur"risingly, studies of students residing in on,cam"us residence !alls !ave found t!at "eers !ave a "articularly strong influence on be!aviors li e substance use, diet, exercise !abits, and academic "erformance 3',<4. 5owever, social influence studies on emerging adult be!aviors !ave not addressed environmental be!aviors. Similarly, few environmental be!avior studies !ave even touc!ed u"on t!e effect of "eers on t!e environmental be!aviors of emerging adults. $!us, we !ave little, if any, em"irical data about !ow students or any ot!er emerging adults differ ?or notA from t!e general "o"ulation wit! res"ect to t!e factors t!at motivate t!em to conserve water or any ot!er resource. 2ne notable exce"tion is Ko!n 7eterson-s 2009 study in w!ic! dorm residents com"eted in a conservation com"etition t!at consisted of "roviding t!em wit! conservation information and immediate feedbac about t!eir water and energy consum"tion. 2n average, residents in t!e study reduced electricity consum"tion by about one,t!ird ?and water consum"tion by (RA 3104. 7eterson-s findings !ig!lig!t t!e im"ortance of external factors, li e social "ressure to

conserve and t!ereby win t!e com"etition, as well as internal factors, li e nowledge about conservation and "ersonal usage, in determining some student environmental be!aviors. 2t!er commonly identified influences on be!avior, according to An*a Eolmuss and Kulian Agyeman-s 2002 literature review, include economic and infrastructural forces acting on t!e individual-s ability to conserve or not, gender, years of education, attitudes, "erce"tion of control, values, and ot!er individual c!aracteristics 3114. Anot!er way of understanding t!e influences on environmental be!avior is as a multi,ste" "rocess in w!ic! several influences ?suc! as beliefs, nowledge and:or valuesA informs t!e "ersonal norm or be!avior intent, w!ic! t!en determines t!e environmental be!avior 312,1'4. 0nfortunately, des"ite t!e variety of models develo"ed to "redict environmental be!aviors, none !as a !ig! "redictive value across different environmental be!aviors in different "o"ulations. In fact, even scientists w!o !el"ed develo" t!ese models, suc! as 7... Stern 3124, would li ely agree wit! t!eir colleague Andrea )c)a in-s assessment t!at H+m"irical study, tailored to eac! !ousing situation and "o"ulation, is im"erative for im"roving our understanding of conservation be!aviorI 3164. A Pilot Study 5aving t!us identified a need for em"irical study on t!e water consum"tion of emerging adults, we conducted a "ilot study in w!ic! we surveyed 8< students living on cam"us at AS0 in s"ring of 200;. #e drew a convenience sam"le residents from four floors, eac! in a different building on cam"us. $!oug! not designed as a re"resentative sam"le, "artici"ants roug!ly reflected on,cam"us students at AS0, wit! most res"ondents re"orting t!at t!ey were fres!men, w!ite, and a slig!tly greater number re"orting t!at t!ey were female t!an male. Survey 1uestions addressed t!e res"ondents- "ersonal attitudes and be!aviors as well as t!eir "erce"tion of t!e attitudes and be!aviors of u" to eig!t "eers wit! res"ect to water use and t!e environment, t!e res"ondents- relations!i" to t!e "eers t!at t!ey described, wit! closer relations!i"s exerting greater influence, and res"ondents- demogra"!ic information. #e analy%ed t!e data using a statistical software called S7SS, testing several variables for t!eir im"acts on water use "ractices ?Figure 1A. Civen evidence of strong "eer influence on ot!er student be!aviors 3',<4, we were "articularly interested in understanding its im"act on an environmental be!avior in relation to ot!er commonly identified determinants of be!avior discussed above. 2ur study found t!at student water consum"tioni is about (00 gallons "er "erson "er wee for s!owers and laundry alone. Bes"ite !ig! variability in our res"onses ?range/ 60,600 gallons:wee A, our res"ondents use a""roximately twice as muc! as t!e average American uses to meet t!ese same need 3184. According to t!e 0nited &ation-s 5uman Bevelo"ment =e"ort ?2008A, average total indoor and outdoor water use "er ca"ita in t!e 0SA ?108( gallons: wee A is about twice t!e amount used "er ca"ita in most +uro"ean nations and over 10.6 times t!e amount re1uired for basic needs, including bat!ing and laundry 3194. Students in our study re"orted using over t!ree times more water t!an a "erson truly re1uires to meet !is:!er basic needs. A full ex"lanation of t!is "!enomenon lies beyond t!e sco"e of our study, but t!e "!enomenon may relate to t!e "!ysical infrastructure of t!e water,delivery system, to t!e "ricing of water, or to a sense of water abundance or entitlement. 5owever, alt!oug! our study can only ex"lain a fraction of t!e e1uation, two inde"endent variables did emerge as statistically significant "redictors of student water consum"tion in a ste"wise linear regression/ "eer influenceii and lengt! of residencyiii. $oget!er, t!ey ex"lain over 1(R of t!e total variance in a ste",wise linear regression model w!ere &S(9 ?Figure 2A. 5istograms on t!e gra"! s!ow t!e "ercent of res"ondents at eac! "oint x ?bottom of gra"!A and eac! "oint y ?rig!t of gra"!A. +nvironmental be!avior literature "oints to social influences as "laying a small role, if any at all, in adult environmental be!aviors. 5owever, our study suggests t!at t!e social influence of "eers "lays a notable role in at least one environmental be!avior of emerging adults. Furt!er

study would be needed to determine w!et!er t!e communal living environment in university residence !alls and t!e develo"mental c!aracteristics of emerging adults can !el" to ex"lain w!y emerging adults in our study mig!t be more influenced by "eers t!an are adults in t!e general "o"ulation. In t!e meantime, as seen in 7eterson-s study, "eer influence s!ould be considered in con*unction wit! ot!er motivators, w!en encouraging students to !el" meet university conservation goals 3104. 2ur results also indicate t!at newcomers use more water t!an long,time residents. In 7rices, Bevices, 7eo"le or =ules ?200'A, 5eat!er .am"bell et al. discuss several ot!er studies t!at re"ort similar findings 324. Civen t!e !ig! influx of newcomers to a growing city li e 7!oenix and more s"ecifically to educational institutions li e AS0, newcomers may be an im"ortant demogra"!ic grou" to target wit! conservation initiatives, not only at t!e university but also in t!e greater metro"olitan area . Additional studies concerning t!e cause, geogra"!ic scale, and time frame after w!ic! an individual no longer ex!ibits a HnewcomerI "ers"ective could "rovide better information about w!ic! immigration "atterns most drastically influence water use "ractices. Are HnewcomersI new to t!e city, new to t!e state, or new to t!e desert climate 324N At w!at "oint in time ?or is it gradualNA do HnewcomersI cease to consume water li e newcomersN Implications As a small, non,re"resentative sam"le t!at relies on self,re"orted data, t!is study cannot be generali%ed to larger student "o"ulations. $!erefore, furt!er investigation is needed to "rovide a solid foundation for exact "olicy im"lementation. &onet!eless, t!is "ilot study does "rovide direction and targets for bot! student,led and administration,led sustainability efforts, bot! at AS0 and at ot!er universities. Furt!ermore, if t!e results from our wor can be re"roduced, t!ey would suggest a need for water conservation efforts to target emerging adults. Because of t!e "articularly !ig! water consum"tion rates of newcomers, encouraging reductions in water consum"tion among students w!o attend college at greater distances from !ome mig!t be of "articular interest. Because so many students live at university residence !alls across t!e country, establis!ing conservation,friendly "ractices among on cam"us residents could benefit t!e university in numerous ways, including in unity of t!e university community, in recruitment ?as a sustainable cam"usA, and in finances ?less consum"tion means lower costsA. )otivating suc! conservation be!avior, !owever, can be tric y. According to "revious studies, a multi, "ronged strategy for "romoting conservation s!ould consist of/ 1A 7roviding conservation information to residents t!roug! "am"!lets, "osters, broc!ures, or ot!er means 32, 10, 1<, 204G 2A )etering usage ?water, electricity, etc.A and "roviding feedbac to t!e residents about t!eir and t!eir neig!bors- consum"tion rates 310, 214G (A Installing water,saving devices 32, 1<4G 'A 2ffering financial incentives 32, 1<, 214G 6A Im"lementing regulations on usage 324. +ffective conservation efforts t!at includes a metering system and water, and energy,saving devices can offset t!e costs incurred at installation by reducing later water and energy ex"enditures. #ater and energy metering would not only enable administrators to offer financial rewards for conservation ?or "enalties for !ig! consum"tionA, but t!ey would also enable student,led efforts, li e organi%ing a conservation com"etition as seen in 7eterson-s study, t!at could lead to furt!er reductions in consum"tion. $!ese tec!nical im"rovements en!ance residents- ability to conserve, if so inclinedG !owever, as indicated in t!e literature, t!ey must be cou"led wit! ot!er met!ods of motivating conservation t!at are a""ro"riate for t!e target "o"ulations. Suc! incentives "lay a crucial role in "romoting t!e formation of conservation,friendly !abits. #it! t!e exce"tion of our wor and 7eterson-s study, met!ods

of !ow to motivate environmental be!avior c!ange among college students !ave not been ex"lored 3104. $!erefore, our and 7eterson-s wor s s!ould serve as references for future investigation and ex"erimentation. +1ually im"ortant are t!e student,led efforts, w!et!er formal or informal. $!ese can be as sim"le as generating active discussions to ado"t more sustainable "ractices among our "eers or as ambitious as a""roac!ing administrators wit! sustainability initiatives t!at you want to im"lement. 2ne exam"le of students doing *ust t!at is a grou" called S5AB ?Sustainability 5ouse At BarrettA. After several years of "lanning and develo"ing t!e community, t!e small, everc!anging grou" of S5ABers finally moved into t!eir new !ome at t!e beginning of t!e 200<,2010 sc!ool year, outfitted wit! numerous ways of minimi%ing water and energy consum"tion, suc! as dualflus! toilets, a metering system, and clot!eslines to air,dry laundry 3224. As S5AB demonstrates, conservation ac!ievement ta es time ?and often o""ortunities for infrastructure c!angeA, but t!ey are of increasing im"ortance, not only as com"lements to t!e curriculum, but also as distinct educational o""ortunities 314. 2ur researc! suggests t!at water conservation, of growing significance in desert and non,desert regions ali e, is of "articular concern among !ig! water,consuming grou"s li e emerging adults and t!ose new to t!e area, ma ing t!e university an ideal setting for t!e im"lementation of water conservation initiatives. It furt!ermore indicates t!at social influences, "er!a"s more so among emerging adults t!an in t!e general "o"ulation, could be !arnessed to ac!ieve suc! initiatives. Furt!er studies s!ould investigate t!ese and ot!er "ossibilities so as to better inform future efforts aimed at "romoting sustainable water use among students. +volution and structure of sustainability science 1. DuUs ). A. Bettencourta,b,1 and 2. Kasleen Eaurc Aut!or Affiliations 1. +dited by #illiam .. .lar , 5arvard 0niversity, .ambridge, )A, and a""roved Se"tember 29, 2011 ?received for review February 1<, 2011A &ext Section Abstract $!e conce"ts of sustainable develo"ment !ave ex"erienced extraordinary success since t!eir advent in t!e 1<;0s. $!ey are now an integral "art of t!e agenda of governments and cor"orations, and t!eir goals !ave become central to t!e mission of researc! laboratories and universities worldwide. 5owever, it remains unclear !ow far t!e field !as "rogressed as a scientific disci"line, es"ecially given its ambitious agenda of integrating t!eory, a""lied science, and "olicy, ma ing it relevant for develo"ment globally and generating a new interdisci"linary synt!esis across fields. $o address t!ese 1uestions, we assembled a cor"us of sc!olarly "ublications in t!e field and analy%ed its tem"oral evolution, geogra"!ic distribution, disci"linary com"osition, and collaboration structure. #e s!ow t!at sustainability science !as been growing ex"losively since t!e late 1<;0s w!en foundational "ublications in t!e field increased its "ull on new aut!ors and intensified t!eir interactions. $!e field !as an unusual geogra"!ic foot"rint combining contributions and connecting t!roug! collaboration cities and nations at very different levels of develo"ment. Its decom"osition into traditional disci"lines reveals its em"!asis on t!e management of !uman, social, and ecological systems seen "rimarily from an engineering and "olicy "ers"ective. Finally, we s!ow t!at t!e integration of t!ese "ers"ectives !as created a new field only in recent years as *udged by t!e emergence of a giant com"onent of scientific collaboration.

$!ese develo"ments demonstrate t!e existence of a growing scientific field of sustainability science as an unusual, inclusive and ubi1uitous scientific "ractice and bode well for its continued im"act and longevity.

science of science "o"ulation dynamics geogra"!y to"ological transition networ s $!e conce"t of sustainable develo"ment !as ex"erienced an extraordinary rise over t!e "ast two decades and now "ervades t!e agendas of governments and cor"orations as well as t!e mission of educational and researc! "rograms worldwide. Alt!oug! t!ere are some earlier antecedents, t!ese ideas !ad t!eir formal beginning in t!e 1<;0s wit! several im"ortant "olicy documents, "rimarily t!e World onservation Strate!y?1A and t!e now famous Brundtland re"ort "ur ommon #uture ?2A, issuing a call to arms for new "olicy and, wit! t!e "ublication in 1<<< of t!e &ational =esearc! .ouncil-s "ur ommon Journey re"ort, for t!e advent of a novel scientific disci"line ca"able of res"onding to t!e c!allenges and o""ortunities of sustainable develo"ment. $!e main obstacle to t!e creation of a science of sustainability, !owever, is its universal ?systems,levelA mandate ?(@8A. A science of sustainability necessarily re1uires collaboration between "ers"ectives in develo"ed and develo"ing !uman societies, among t!eoretical and a""lied scientific disci"lines, and must bridge t!e ga" between t!eory, "ractice, and "olicy. $!ere is arguably no exam"le in t!e !istory of science of a field t!at from its beginnings could s"an suc! distinct dimensions and ac!ieve at once ambitious and urgent goals of transdisci"linary scientific rigor and tangible socioeconomic im"act. $!erefore, an im"ortant 1uestion is w!et!er sustainability science !as indeed become a field of science. And if so, !ow !as it been c!anging, and w!o are its contributors in terms of geogra"!ic and disci"linary com"ositionN )ost im"ortantly, is t!e field fulfilling its ambitious "rogram of generating a new synt!esis of social, biological, and a""lied disci"lines and is it s"anning locations t!at !ave bot! t!e ca"abilities and needs for its insig!tsN As we s!ow below, t!e answers to all t!ese 1uestions are "ositive. $!e detailed analysis of t!e sc!olarly literature of sustainability science "rovided below "aints a detailed "icture of an unusual, fast growing, and varied field, w!ic! !as only recently become a unified scientific "ractice. In order to understand t!e advent and develo"ment of a new field of science, we !ave to "lace its dynamics and structure in t!e lig!t of broader studies covering many traditional disci"lines over time. In !is celebrated and still relevant account of t!e rise of new science ?9A, $!omas Eu!n c!aracteri%ed t!e advent of new fields in terms of two main events/ discovery and invention. $!e moment of discovery deals wit! t!e reali%ation, ty"ically by a small grou" of researc!ers, of a new conce"t or tec!ni1ue. In contrast, t!e moment of invention is c!aracteri%ed by t!e understanding and "ractice of t!e uses of discoveries. If discovery is t!e source of original nowledge, it is invention t!at creates science as we now it, as collaborative fields of activity c!aracteri%ed by s!ared "ractices and conce"ts. In one well, nown exam"le, Eu!n describes t!e discovery of oxygen ?inde"endently by Sc!eele and 7riestley in 199(@199'A as a constituent element of air. 5owever, it was only wit! t!e reali%ation of its role in combustion by Davoisier a few years later t!at oxygen was understood

as t!e ey ingredient to a large set of laboratory tec!ni1ues used universally in c!emistry and biology. It is !ard to s etc! an exacting "arallel between t!e advent of new fields in t!e natural sciences and sustainability science. 5owever, it is clear t!at early "olicy documents ?2, ;, <A on t!e need for sustainable develo"ment, most notably t!e 1<;9 0nited &ations Brundtland re"ort "ur ommon #uture ?2A, "rovided t!e first articulated conce"ts of economic and social develo"ment t!at could occur wit!out irreversible damage to t!e +art!-s natural environment or t!e de"letion of nonrenewable resources. $!is was still a long way from a clear,cut instrument of science and tec!nology. As we s!ow below, it too t!e best "art of t!e next twenty years for "ractical "ers"ectives to arise and for common met!odologies to connect nowledge and met!ods from a variety of traditional disci"lines into a new conce"tual and "ractical w!ole ?<, 10A. $o c!aracteri%e sustainability science, we develo" !ere an extensive analysis of t!e field-s literature. #e construct and analy%e time series for t!e number of "ublications and aut!ors in t!e field and model t!em using "o"ulation models t!at "roved useful for 1uantifying t!e develo"ment of ot!er scientific fields ?11, 12A, from "!ysics to t!e medical sciences and from com"uter science to materials and nanotec!nology. $!is reveals t!e founding events in t!e field t!at triggered t!e first flurry of "ublications. In "articular, we s!ow t!at a c!ange in t!e intensity of collaboration in t!e late 1<;0s was an essential ingredient in setting out t!e field on a "at! of growt!, geogra"!ic ubi1uity, and ultimate unification. #e s!ow t!e field-s geogra"!ic and disci"linary ma eu" and !ow t!is !as c!anged over time. Finally, we s!ow !ow t!e field of sustainability science !as evolved as a collaboration networ t!at became unified in terms of a giant cluster of coaut!ors!i" only around t!e year 2000. 7revious Section&ext Section =esults #e assembled a large cor"us of "ublications in sustainability science via ey word searc!es, including *ournal articles and conference "roceedings written in +nglis! over t!e "eriod of 1<9'@2010. Betails are given in $aterials and $et%ods and SI &e't. $!e cor"us analy%ed below consists of about (9,000 distinct aut!ors of over 20,000 "a"ers, from 19' countries and territories and 2,208 cities worldwide. A first im"ression of t!e t!emes covered by t!e cor"us is given in Figs. S1@S(. $em"oral +volution. Fig. 1A s!ows t!e tem"oral evolution of t!e field in terms of t!e cumulative number of distinct aut!ors. $wo main facts are immediately a""arent. First, t!e field is currently growing ex"onentially ?linearly on t!e semilog "lotA, wit! a doubling "eriod of ;.( y. Second, t!is rate of growt! was ac!ieved after a dynamical transient in t!e late 1<;0s, w!en t!e field-s "ace of growt! accelerated to "resent levels.

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Fig & $!e tem"oral evolution of sustainability science and its "o"ulation dynamics. ?AA $!e number of uni1ue aut!ors vs. time and ey events in t!e field ?see main textA. By around 2000, many more ey "ublications, suc! as ref. (, a""ear and ot!er ey meetings ta e "lace ?for exam"le,

t!e #orld Academies .onference $ransition to Sustainability in 21st .entury in $o yo in 2000 and t!e Ko!annesburg #orld Summit on Sustainable Bevelo"ment in 2002A, not s!own. $!e field-s growt! accelerated between t!e late 1<;0s and t!e late 1<<0s. ?(A 7o"ulation model accounting for t!e recruitment and "rogression of aut!ors from susce"tibility and ex"osure to t!e field to "ublication and exit ?see $aterials and $et%odsA. ? A $!e acceleration in t!e field-s growt! can only be accounted for by an increased contact rate between active individuals and susce"tible individuals over t!e "eriod 1<;0@1<<0, w!ere )?tA S ) V ?)0 , )A31 , 1.026: cos!?t , 1<<1A4, wit! ) S 2.0', )0 S 1.60. $!e best account of t!e growt! of t!e field in terms of its "o"ulation dynamics is s!own in Fig. 1A ?solid red lineA. $!ese trends can be inter"reted in terms of c!anges in t!e "o"ulation dynamics of t!e field, s"ecifically as c!anges in its "ull on new aut!ors and t!eir collaborative interaction rates. In "ast "ublications ?11, 12A, we !ave found it useful to infer 1uantitative c!aracteristics of different scientific fields from data analogous to t!at of Fig. 1A using a family of "o"ulation models t!at account for t!ese factors. $!ese models assume t!at t!e current active aut!ors in a field are instrumental in s"reading its wor ing nowledge and t!at, as suc!, a field can be c!aracteri%ed by a certain recruitment rate W at w!ic! new individuals become susce"tible to t!e idea, and rates of interaction X, , * t!at statistically transform t!ese individuals into active aut!ors, w!o eventually may also leave t!e field at some given exit rate YG see Fig. 1( and $aterials and $et%ods. 7er!a"s most im"ortantly, t!ese models were motivated by very general considerations for t!e dynamics of science ?1(@18A, in analogy to "o"ulation dynamics in ecology and e"idemiology, and were develo"ed and tested for fields for w!ic! we !ave detailed et!nogra"!ic information ?11, 19A, suc! as several subfields of !ig!,energy "!ysics and cosmology, 1uantum com"uting, and string t!eory. $!e most critical "arameters, s!own in Fig. 1(, are t!e recruitment rate W, t!e contact rate X, and t!e exit rate Y. $!e tem"oral trend of number of aut!ors in sustainability science is well modeled by W S 0.'80 ?or '8RA t!roug! t!e "eriod 1<98@200<, indicating t!at t!e number of "eo"le susce"tible to enter t!e field !as been growing ex"losively. Susce"tible and ex"osed "o"ulation are difficult to measure, but t!ese numbers are at least 1ualitatively "lausible as measures of t!e im"act of t!e field in terms of Internet "ages and general documents suggest ?1;A. $!e ot!er fundamental "arameter is t!e ratio R0 S ):+, often nown in ecology as t!e basic re"roductive number ?1<A. Its inter"retation is as a branc!ing ratio, w!ic! c!aracteri%es t!e average number of new aut!ors t!an an active aut!or will lead to t!roug! contact wit! susce"tible and ex"osed individuals, over !is or !er time in t!e field. R0 Z 1 means t!at t!e field will grow. $!e magnitude of R0 is a measure of t!e initial growt! rate and is directly related to t!e eigenvalue of t!e growing mode around t!e birt! of t!e field. $!e most im"ortant feature of t!e tem"oral trend in t!e field-s growt! is t!at it cannot be modeled accurately wit! a constant contact rate XG see Fig. 1 . Instead, a s!ar" (8R increase of t!e contact rate from ) S 1.60 to 2.0' must occur over t!e "eriod 1<;6 to 1<<0 in order to account for t!e trend of Fig. 1A. $!is also means a commensurate increase in R0 ensuring t!at t!e field !as grown not only in numbers of susce"tible individuals but also in terms of t!e rate of contacts between t!ese and t!e "o"ulation of "racticing scientists. $!is will be a""arent more directly, w!en we analy%e t!e field-s coaut!ors!i" networ evolution below. &ote t!at an increase in t!e recruitment rate W over time is not able to ex"lain t!e same effect because it is not directly related to t!e growt! in t!e number of aut!orsG its role is to facilitate a larger "ool of susce"tible individuals, but t!is effect eventually saturates. $!us, as we now in !indsig!t, t!e years t!at followed t!e "ublication of "ur ommon #uture ?2A were t!e foundational "eriod over w!ic!

many individuals first became interested in t!e issue of sustainable develo"ment and w!en contacts between t!em and early "ractitioners in t!e field intensified to current levels. Ceogra"!ic Bistribution. An interesting and unusual feature of t!e literature of sustainability science is t!e broad s"atial distribution of its contributions. In a very s"ecific sense, t!is is a necessary condition for a successful field t!at s"ans t!eory and "ractice as many develo"ing nations are at center stage of t!e direst c!allenges of sustainable growt!. In fact, alt!oug! researc! in more s"eciali%ed fields, "articularly in t!e natural sciences, tends to be concentrated in a few cities in t!e most develo"ed "arts of t!e world ?20A, t!e field of sustainability science !as a very different geogra"!ic foot"rint. Fig. 2 A and ( s!ow t!e national counts for numbers of "ublications and citations, res"ectively, across t!e globe. ?)uc! more detailed interactive world ma"s of cities and t!eir collaboration networ s are available in SI &e't and online at!tt"/::www.santafe.edu:[bettencourt:sustainability:A. $!e first clear signal from t!ese ma"s is t!at t!e field is widely distributed internationally and !as a strong "resence not only in nations wit! traditional strengt! in science\e.g., t!e 0nited States, #estern +uro"e, and Ka"an\but also elsew!ere. +s"ecially notewort!y are t!e magnitude of contributions from Australia, t!e &et!erlands, t!e 0nited Eingdom, Bra%il, .!ina, and India, and most es"ecially from Sout! Africa, &igeria, Eenya, and $ur ey. $!ese nations s!ow not only a large "resence in terms of numbers of "ublications but also in terms of t!eir 1uality as ex"ressed in terms of citations.

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Fig ' Ceogra"!ic distribution of sustainability science "ublications. ?AA &ational counts of number of "ublications. ?(A &ational counts for number of citations received. Fig. S' s!ows t!e analogous ma" for number of citations "er "a"er. $!e ma"s s!ow t!e wide geogra"!ic distribution of t!e field of sustainability science. $!is is unusual as com"ared to ty"ical s"eciali%ed fields in t!e natural sciences, for exam"le, and notably demonstrates t!e 1uality and 1uantity of contributions from many develo"ing nations. &ote t!e strengt! of smaller nations suc! as Australia, t!e 0nited Eingdom, t!e &et!erlands, Sweden, Sout! Africa, Eenya, and of Bra%il and .!inaG see Figs. S6@S9. An interactive world ma" of cities and t!eir collaboration networ is available online and for download at !tt"/::www.santafe.edu:[bettencourt:sustainability:. A finer geogra"!ic "icture can be gleaned by observing "roductivity and 1uality in t!e field at t!e local level of cities and by ma""ing t!eir collaboration networ s. It is "er!a"s sur"rising t!at t!e world-s leading city in terms of "ublications in t!e field is #as!ington, B., out"acing t!e "roductivity of Boston or t!e San Francisco Bay Area, w!ic! in ot!er fields ?see ref. 20A are several fold greater t!an t!at of t!e 0S ca"ital. A similar "icture is on dis"lay in t!e 0nited Eingdom, w!ere Dondon ?wit! almost ',000 "ublications in t!e field, *ust a few s!y of t!e tally of #as!ington, B.A easily out"aces any ot!er Britis! or +uro"ean city. 2t!er im"ortant cities in t!e field are Stoc !olmG #ageningen, t!e &et!erlandsG SeattleG )adison, #IG and, in t!eir regional contexts, &airobiG .a"e $own, Sout! AfricaG Bei*ingG )elbourneG

and $o yo. $!e "resence of "olitical and economic ca"itals, rat!er t!an traditionally more academic "laces, is a common trend t!roug!out t!e world. $!e networ s of collaborations between cities also s!ed some lig!t on t!e roots of greater regional "roductivity. For exam"le, &airobi is well connected to researc! centers in t!e 0nited States and #estern +uro"e, as are most large Australian cities and .a"e $own, Sout! Africa. $!e reac! of cities li e #as!ington, B.G DondonG Bei*ingG and, to a slig!tly lesser extent, .anberra, AustraliaG and .a"e $own, Sout! Africa is truly global, connecting wit! different scientific centers around t!e world, and contrasts wit! t!e less internationali%ed ?and relatively less "roductiveA cities of Bra%il and India, for exam"le. Anot!er interesting dimension of "ublications in sustainability science is t!at not only "rinci"al national researc! centers contribute but many smaller universities and laboratories !ave a "resence in t!e field. $!is is difficult to s!ow in its full ex"ression, but it is clearly visible t!roug! visual ins"ection of aut!or affiliations. $!is is es"ecially true in Australia, t!e &et!erlands, t!e 0nited Eingdom, and t!e 0nited States, but is also at "lay in ot!er nations. $!us, t!e geogra"!ic distribution of "ublications in sustainability science "aints a "icture of a regionally very diverse field wit! many different contributors, in develo"ed and develo"ing nations and in terms of different institutional ty"es and forms. $!is networ of collaboration !as strong roots in national ca"itals, w!ic! are aty"ically among t!e most "roductive researc! centers in t!e field, and s"ans t!e world in terms of coaut!ors!i" lin s. Bisci"line Foot"rint and Its +volution. A different "ers"ective into a new scientific field is its foot"rint in terms of traditional scientific disci"lines. 2ver t!e last few years, t!is ty"e of endeavor !as led to t!e creation of a set of diverse ma"s of science ?21@26A, w!ere different traditional disci"lines, organi%ed in terms of s"eciality *ournals, are interrelated in terms of t!eir *ournal level citations, reader-s clic streams, or ot!er relations!i"s. 5ere, we use a similar "rocedure to determine t!e disci"linary ma eu" of sustainability science and analy%e its tem"oral evolution ?see SI &e't for more detailsA. Fig. (A s!ows t!e relative com"osition of t!e literature of sustainability science in terms of Institute for Scientific Information ?ISIA,defined disci"lines. Fig. (( s!ows t!e c!ange in t!eir "ercent com"osition over time. $!e most notable feature of Fig. (A is t!e fact t!at t!e field is dominated by contributions from t!e social sciences, biology, and c!emical, mec!anical, and civil engineering. As a broad area, t!e social sciences are t!e greatest single contributor to t!e field wit! almost ('R of t!e total out"ut in terms of total number of "ublications. $!e social sciences- relative im"ortance !as decreased somew!at over time, reac!ing a maximum of '2R in 1<<6 and being down to (2R in 200<. #e can go furt!er to 1uantify t!e subdisci"lines t!at contribute t!e most wit!in t!e social sciences. #e find t!at environmental "olicy ?20.2R of t!e social sciences totalA, environmental management ?16.'RA, regional studies ?6.'RA, !uman resource management ?'.<RA, "olitical geogra"!y ?'.6RA, rural studies ?'.1RA, urban studies ?(.9RA, and econometrics ?(.'RA lead t!e list.

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Fig 6 $!e foot"rint of sustainability science in terms of traditional scientific disci"lines. ?AA $!e "ercent distribution in terms of ISI disci"lines determined based on t!e classification of *ournals w!ere "ublications a""eared. $!e field receives its largest contribution ?about ('RA from t!e social sciences, and ot!er large contributions from biology and c!emical, mec!anical and civil engineering. 2t!er im"ortant contributors are from medicine, +art! sciences, and infectious diseases. A similar analysis for sustainable develo"ment s!ows t!e same "atterns wit! only a small 6R increase in t!e relative contribution of t!e social sciences vs. biologyG see Fig. S;. ?(A $!e c!ange in "ercent contributions of ISI disci"lines over time. +ven as t!e field grows ex"onentially ?see Fig. 1AA, we observe little c!ange in t!e disci"linary mixture t!at ma es u" sustainability science. &evert!eless, a small increase in "ublication in noncore fields ?suc! as medicine, +art! sciences, brain sciences, c!emistry, and biotec!nologyA !as develo"ed over t!e last few years. Similarly, t!e field of biology wit! 2(.(R of total "ublications ?ac!ieving its maximum contribution of (0.8R in 1<<9 and down to 2(R in 200<A !as as its main subfields a mixture of contributions t!at is uni1ue to sustainability studies s"anning muc! of ecology and resource management. $!ese include as its main contributions weed management ?18.;R of t!e biology totalA, biological conservation ?16.<RA, ecological modeling ?11.8RA, forest science ?8.'RA, fis! researc! ?'.0RA, soil analysis ?(.<RA, molecular ecology ?(.9RA, and fis! biology ?(.6RA. Finally, t!e large field of c!emical, mec!anical, and civil engineering t!at is res"onsible for 21.8R of all "ublications in sustainability science is made u" of very diverse subfields. Its leading contributors to t!e literature of sustainability science are soil science ?2(.8R of t!e disci"line-s totalA, solar and wind "ower ?18.<RA, water waste ?<.'RA, ocean coastal management ?6.6RA, soil 1uality ?'.;RA, filtration membranes ?2.6RA, water "olicy ?2.'RA, and environmental "ollution ?2.(RA. From t!ese lists, we clearly see t!at alt!oug! a su"erficial reading of t!e different main disci"les t!at contribute to sustainability science may suggest nonoverla""ing researc! t!emes, t!is is not t!e case at all. In fact, t!e main t!emes t!at define t!e field, t!e conce"t of integrated management of !uman, social, and ecological systems and of t!e engineering and "olicy studies t!at su""ort and enable t!em, are t!e true crosscutting sub*ects t!at unify t!e field, as we now from refs. 28 and 29, w!ic! establis!ed t!at t!ese t!emes are well connected by mutual citation. .ollaboration &etwor Structure and +volution. $!e c!aracteri%ation of sustainability science given above "rovides us wit! a clear "icture of t!e growt! of t!e field, of w!ere it is based geogra"!ically, and w!at it is in terms of its researc! t!eme distribution. #!at our analysis so far does not "rovide is direct evidence t!at sustainability science !as created a new community of "ractice and a new synt!esis in terms of conce"ts and met!ods. #e !ave argued ?2;A t!at suc! unification is t!e !allmar of a true field of science, and s!owed t!at scientific endeavors t!at !ave !ad t!eir bursts of ent!usiasm ?e.g., cold fusionA but t!at failed to create unifying met!ods or conce"ts never emerged as wides"read collaboration networ s. 2n t!e contrary, true fields of researc! suc! as

cosmological inflation, "rion diseases, 1uantum com"uting, or string t!eory, tend to start from a few mutually isolated efforts ?w!ic! a""ear as small se"arate networ s of collaborationA t!at later, after t!e moment of invention alluded to in t!e Introduction, grow and congeal into a giant cluster of collaboration t!at includes t!e vast ma*ority of aut!ors in t!e field ?2;A. In t!is lig!t, it is critical to as if and w!en wides"read collaboration\between most aut!ors, and s"anning geogra"!y and disci"lines\!as become a feature of t!e literature of sustainability science. $!ere are two "ro"erties of researc! communities in t!eir way to becoming true fields. First, t!e number of coaut!ors!i" lin s tends to grow faster t!an t!e number of aut!ors, usually following a "ower law scaling relation ?wit! an ex"onent , Z 1A ?2;A. Fig. 'A s!ows !ow t!e number of coaut!ors!i" lin s !ave increased wit! numbers of aut!ors, w!ere every "oint corres"onds to a different year. Interestingly t!ere is evidence for two distinct regimes/ Before 1<;<, t!e number of collaborative lin s "er aut!or actually decreased wit! t!e number of new aut!ors s!owing t!at t!e field did not get denser in terms of its collaboration structure and t!at different t!emes, "ursued by different communities, did not unifyG in fact, t!ey became more and more se"arate. $!is is sometimes ty"ical of fields founded on an idea t!at !as not yet "roven wor able. An exam"le is t!e field of 1uantum com"uting, w!ic! existed for at least a cou"le of decades as a fascinating "ro"osal but t!at only gained tangible algorit!ms, ex"eriments, and new t!eory in 1<<'@1<<6G see ref. 2;. After about 1<;<, a "eriod t!at, as we !ave seen above, was also mar ed by an acceleration in t!e growt! of new aut!ors and an inferred increase in contact rate, t!e field started to become denser wit! t!e number of coaut!ors!i" connections "er aut!or now increasing wit! an ex"onent , S 1.2( Z 1. As a result of growing lin density, t!e field eventually became dominated by a giant cluster of collaboration to w!ic! most aut!ors now belong. $!is unification in terms of collaboration !a""ened only around t!e year 2000G see Fig. '(. Because t!e formation of a giant cluster of collaboration is analogous to a to"ological "!ase transition in "!ysical systems, it can be c!aracteri%ed by a measure of t!e relative si%e of t!e largest collaboration cluster P, and a measure of t!e relative si%es of disconnected collaboration efforts, w!ic! are larger in t!e beginning of t!e field, increase toward t!e onset of t!e formation of a giant cluster, and t!en fall to almost %ero once t!e field unifies ?see SI &e't for detailsA. $!ese 1uantities are s!own in Fig. '(G t!eir c!ange c!aracteri%es t!e formation of t!e field as a giant collaboration cluster emerges. #e see t!at P starts to increase away from ?almostA %ero and t!at S dro"s "reci"itously around t!e year 2000.

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Fig 8 $!e unification of sustainability science as a scientific field. ?AA $!e number of collaborations ?edges in a coaut!ors!i" gra"!A vs. t!e number of uni1ue aut!ors. $!ere are two regimes in t!e develo"ment of t!e field. +arly on, before 1<;<, t!e number of collaborations "er aut!or was decreasing ?solid blac line, lin s l S l0a,, wit!a t!e number of aut!ors and , S 0.;' ] 1A, due to many "ublications re"eating "revious teams or being from a single aut!or. $!is is ty"ical of fledgeling fields wit! conce"ts or tec!ni1ues t!at are not yet establis!ed. After 1<;<, t!e field grows faster ?see Fig. 1AA and becomes denser and denser in terms of collaborations ?, S 1.2( Z 1A. ?(A As a result of t!is gra"! densification, most aut!ors eventually belong to a giant collaboration networ cluster t!at defines t!e field and s"ans t!e

world in terms of geogra"!y ?Fig. 2A and grou"s of traditional disci"lines ?Fig. (A. $!is is measured in terms of t!e fraction of aut!ors in t!e largest collaboration cluster ?P, blue lineA and t!e networ cluster susce"tibility ?S, red lineA, w!ic! is large w!ile t!ere are inde"endent collaboration grou"s ?ty"ical of early fields and tec!nologiesA and becomes very small as most aut!ors become connected. By t!ese measures, t!e field of sustainability science became unified around t!e year 2000 ?gray s!aded areaA. In addition, alt!oug! not s!ow !ere, networ s of collaboration between cities or nations, or between disci"lines, unify earlier as t!ey are ?veryA coarse,grained versions of coaut!ors!i" networ s. As a result, we can say t!at a field of sustainability science !as indeed become co!esive over t!e last decade, constituting of large,scale collaboration networ s to w!ic! most aut!ors now belong and "roducing a new conce"tual and tec!nical unification t!at s"ans t!e globe. 7revious Section&ext Section Biscussion $!e conce"t of sustainable develo"ment !as ac1uired a global cultural and social dimension t!at vastly transcends t!e traditional boundaries of a scientific field. For exam"le, in a recent review ?1;A Eates estimates t!at over ;,920,000 #eb "ages existed in Kanuary (1, 2006, on t!e t!eme of sustainable develo"ment alone ?a similar searc! at t!e time of t!is writing estimates 21,600,000 documents^A, as well as being a "ervasive element in t!e manifestos of almost every large cor"oration and government, not to mention t!e myriad initiatives t!at derive ins"iration from t!e conce"t. $!is success "uts a greater onus on t!e existence of a scientific "ractice t!at we may call t!e field of sustainability and t!at can carry t!e as"irations of so many "eo"le and institutions and guarantee t!e tangible scientific and societal im"act of t!ese ideas. Befining or even circumscribing a field of science is of course not a well,defined tas because it is somew!at sub*ective. 2ver t!e last few years, several met!ods !ave been "ro"osed to do t!is automatically ?see, e.g., refs 2< and (0A, but many clear difficulties remain. For t!ese reasons, identifying fields of science still re1uires a mixture of automated searc!es and active domain ex"ertise ?12, 2;A. 5ere, we !ave used new conce"ts and met!ods from science of science and tec!nology studies to build and analy%e t!e develo"ment of t!e cor"us of sustainability science in +nglis!, assembled via ey term searc!es, using standard sc!olarly collections ?see SI &e'tA. A similar collection was assembled and analy%ed in terms of networ structures in refs. 28 and 29, es"ecially t!eir citation networ s, and its analysis is com"lementary to t!e "ers"ectives given !ere. $!ere are several issues of com"leteness and of t!e "resence of false "ositives in our cor"us t!at are wort! discussing. #e !ave found by manual ins"ection t!at some records "rior to t!e 1<;0s are incorrect and tend to refer to sustainability in terms of t!e general continuation or maintenance of a "rocess. $!is is es"ecially troublesome in retrieving "atents ?not analy%ed !ereA, w!ere almost all records refer to t!ese features of a "rocess and not to t!emes in sustainability science. For t!is reason, we !ave not included !ere an analysis of "atent records in t!e field. =ecords found to be erroneous were extracted from t!e cor"us manually. #e also c!ec ed visually, by ins"ection of all titles, t!at t!e relative fre1uency of false "ositives is minute in later years. For t!ese reasons, we believe our collections to be mostly free of error. $!e issue of com"leteness is more difficult to establis!. Beyond sub*ective *udgement w!ere two !uman analysts may diverge, t!ere are two main issues t!at "lague t!e construction of com"re!ensive cor"ora of interdisci"linary international fields. First, t!e literature available in t!e world-s best searc! engines is mostly written in +nglis!. Second, indexing of many

"ublication in t!e social sciences and es"ecially related to "olicy tends to be incom"lete in t!ese sources. $!e incom"leteness due to t!e first issue can be estimated by counting records from t!e same sources in ot!er languages. Searc!ing t!e world-s largest languages, we !ave found ((8 records in Cerman, 226 in S"anis!, 11( in Frenc!, 1;6 in 7ortuguese, and 10 in .!inese ?)andarinA in t!e ISI #eb of Science database. =ecall t!at t!is com"ares wit! over 20,000 records in +nglis!, so we ex"ect t!at t!e incom"leteness in our cor"us is of t!e order of a few "ercent. 5owever, issues remain of w!et!er collections in ot!er languages are e1ually well sam"led and if a different set of ey words may be necessary in eac! language to obtain more com"re!ensive cor"ora. 2t!er issues t!at ma e t!e analysis difficult !ave to do wit! "arsing textual records in a variety of languages and t!eir associated different syntax. It will no doubt be desirable in t!e future to extend cor"ora in t!ese ways, but we derive some assurance t!at our collections of sc!olarly "ublications in sustainability science constitute, by t!ese estimates, t!e vast ma*ority of researc! in t!e field. In t!is lig!t, we ex"ect t!at, alt!oug! t!e number of total "ublications and aut!ors can vary somew!at wit! different searc! criteria, t!e form of t!e tem"oral trends discussed above s!ould be robust. $!ey ma e good sense in relation to t!e general "erce"tion of t!e events t!at stimulated t!e growt! of t!e field ?(, ', 8, 1;A. $!e single most im"ortant feature of growt! in t!e field is t!e stee" rise in its growt! rate in t!e late 1<;0s and early 1<<0s. $!is corres"onds to t!e years t!at followed t!e "ublication of t!e Brundtland re"ort ?2A, a widely ac nowledged formative document for t!e field "ublis!ed in 1<;9 and around t!e time of t!e im"ortant "ublication of Agenda 21 at t!e =io +art! summit in 1<<2 ?;A. 2ur analysis suggests t!at t!e main develo"ment of t!is "eriod was an increase in t!e contact rate between active scientists in t!e field and a growing "o"ulation of individuals susce"tible and ex"osed to t!e new ideas of sustainable develo"mentG seeFig. 1. $!ese more intense interactions a""ear also in a c!ange in t!e structure of collaboration in t!e field ?Fig. 'AA, w!ic! only at t!is time starts becoming denser, in terms of t!e increase in t!e average number of collaborative lin s "er eac! new aut!or entering t!e field. Interestingly, t!e "o"ulation dynamics establis!ed over t!is early "eriod ?w!en t!ere were only a few !undred aut!ors in t!e fieldA is "reserved subse1uently, even as t!e field grows by over a factor of t!irty. Anot!er as"ect of t!e sustainability science literature t!at we ex"ect is not sensitive to !ow collections are assembled refers to its wides"read geogra"!ic and institutional distribution as well as its disci"linary com"osition. It is certainly "ossible t!at our analysis underestimates somew!at t!e counts of "ublications and citations, es"ecially for nations w!ere +nglis! is not t!e official language and, as discussed above, in t!e social sciences and at t!e interface wit! "olicy and society. For exam"le, it would be im"ortant to understand if t!e contributions of Bra%il, and ot!er Datin American countries, India, and .!ina are underestimated, because t!ese nations are fundamental for societal c!allenges in sustainable develo"ment. In Africa, it is curious to note t!at significant contributions to t!e literature come from t!ree +nglis!, s"ea ing nations, Sout! Africa, Eenya, and &igeria, t!oug! t!ese are also large and, in t!eir regional context, scientifically strong countries. &evert!eless, it is "ossible t!at contributions from ot!er African nations in non,+nglis! documents are being excluded from our analysis. It will be im"ortant to com"ile and "ursue t!ese sources and t!eir "otential contribution in order to !ave a more com"lete view of sustainability science-s geogra"!ic distribution. &evert!eless, "er!a"s because it establis!es lin s among different science "ractices, ty"ical not only of traditional researc! environments in t!e natural sciences, we can see t!at t!e field !as a strong "resence in smaller universities and laboratories as well as ot!er "olicy,driven scientific organi%ations and receives contributions from cities and nations t!at transcend t!e list of usual sus"ects in terms of strengt! in 1uantity and 1uality of scientific "roduction. $!is

large and diverse set of contributions constitute bot! a c!allenge in terms of conce"tual unification, but also a vast o""ortunity for develo"ments in t!e field to ac1uire interdisci"linary and worldwide im"act. It will be interesting to continue to analy%e !ow t!e field develo"s geogra"!ically and t!e role of its international and regional lin s in creating new scientific insig!ts and enabling t!eir societal im"act. $a""ing literatures in local languages and documents closer to a""lication and "olicy may be essential to understand t!ese lin ages. =egarding disci"linary com"osition, we c!ec ed t!at t!e cor"us obtained from a 1uery for Hsustainable develo"mentI essentially coincides wit! t!ose obtained in our main cor"us. $!e only tangible c!ange of ado"ting sustainable develo"ment as t!e field identifier is a small bias in favor of social sciences and "olicy ?w!ic! account for (<.6R, u" from ('RA vs. biological sciences ?w!ic! are reduced from 2(R to 1<.;RA. $!e relative contribution of c!emical, mec!anical, and civil engineering is essentially unc!anged. ?at 2(R vs. "reviously 21.8RA. Subdisci"lines also !ave similar relative contributions wit!in t!ese fields s!owing t!at t!e disci"linary ma eu" of t!e field is robust to "lausible c!anges in terms of bibliogra"!ic 1ueries. $!e issue of co!esion of t!e field "ervades all t!ese discussions. .o!esion is establis!ed and can be measured in "rinci"le in a variety of ways suc! as citations ?28, 29A and collaborations, as we !ave s!own above, and between different entities from aut!ors to nations and disci"lines. If anyt!ing, collaboration and citation are !ig! bar measures of contact and scientific exc!ange at t!e most disaggregated level "ossible and exclude wea er lin s t!at are often also im"ortant for t!e establis!ment of common scientific nowledge and "ractices. As suc!, we ex"ect t!at measuring t!e unification of t!e field from collaboration lin s is conservative and any resulting error would not be in w!et!er t!e field is mostly connected but in delaying suc! signal somew!at. #e also verified t!at t!e advent of a giant com"onent of collaboration is not t!e result of a few aut!ors wit! large degree connecting t!e gra"!, because t!e to" ten most connected aut!ors are !ig!ly clustered wit! eac! ot!er and account only for a few "ercent of t!e edges in t!e largest com"onent and, moreover, are unambiguously identifiable as single legitimate individuals. It remains difficult to assign disci"linary labels ob*ectively to aut!ors or lin s, as t!ese identifiers are currently based on t!e sub*ects covered by eac! *ournal as a w!ole, and as suc! it is difficult to see to w!at extent disci"line integration is obtained at t!e finest level. Im"rovements in consistent affiliation data may ma e t!is ty"e of analysis "ossible in t!e near future, but for now we note t!at t!e definition of a to"ological transition re1uiring more t!an !alf of all aut!ors and t!e citation analysis of refs 28 and 29 su""ly am"le evidence for t!e large,scale disci"linary integration of t!e field. $!us, by t!ese measures t!e field of sustainability science !as become unified in terms of most aut!ors belonging to t!e same large giant cluster of collaboration and citation. $!ese networ s s"an t!e world geogra"!ically and a wide range of disci"lines in t!e social sciences, biology, and engineering, all "rimarily concerned wit! t!e integrated management of !uman, social, and biological systems. #e believe t!at all t!is evidence ta en toget!er establis!es t!e case for t!e existence of a young and fast,growing unified scientific "ractice of sustainability science and bodes well for its future success at facing some of !umanities greatest scientific and societal c!allenges ?8, (1A. 7revious Section&ext Section )aterials and )et!ods

$!e "o"ulation models s etc!ed in Fig. 1 are of t!e ex"licit form 314w!ere S, -, and I are "o"ulation classes corres"onding to susce"tible individuals, t!ose already ex"osed, and t!ose w!o use t!e idea as aut!ors ?infectedA, res"ectively. Bescri"tions of t!e cor"us of sustainability science "ublications, "o"ulation models and "arameter estimates, ma"s of aut!ors and citations, disci"line ma""ing, and collaboration networ construction and analysis can be found in SI &e't. 7revious Section&ext Section Ac nowledgments #e t!an Eaty B_rner and Bavid I. Eaiser for discussions and t!e =esearc! Dibrary at Dos Alamos &ational Daboratory for !el" wit! retrieving collections. $!is wor was su""orted by t!e &ational Science Foundation under Crants SC+=09'2181 and SB+0<8626< ?to D.B.A. 7revious Section&ext Section Footnotes 1 $o w!om corres"ondence s!ould be addressed. +,mail/ bettencourt`santafe.edu. Aut!or contributions/ D.).A.B. designed researc!G D.).A.B. and K.E. "erformed researc!G D.).A.B. and K.E. contributed new reagents:analytic toolsG D.).A.B. and K.E. analy%ed dataG and D.).A.B. wrote t!e "a"er. $!e aut!ors declare no conflict of interest. $!is article is a 7&AS Birect Submission. See .ommentary on "age 1<''<. $!is article contains su""orting information online at www."nas.org:loo u":su""l:doi/10.109(:"nas.110291210;:,:B.Su""lemental. Freely available online t!roug! t!e 7&AS o"en access o"tion.