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Rao Lecture 20 PDF

As a data type, a tree has a value and children, and the children are themselves trees; the value and children of the tree are interpreted as the value of the root node and the subtrees of the children of the root node. To allow finite trees, one must either allow the list of children to be empty (in which case trees can be required to be non-empty, an "empty tree" instead being represented by a forest of zero tree

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121 views

Rao Lecture 20 PDF

As a data type, a tree has a value and children, and the children are themselves trees; the value and children of the tree are interpreted as the value of the root node and the subtrees of the children of the root node. To allow finite trees, one must either allow the list of children to be empty (in which case trees can be required to be non-empty, an "empty tree" instead being represented by a forest of zero tree

Uploaded by

Sakura2709
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Lecture 20: Topo-Sort and Dijkstras Greedy Idea

! Items on Todays Lunch Menu: " Topological Sort (ver. 1 & 2): Gunning for linear time " Finding Shortest Paths # Breadth-First Search # Dijkstras Method: Greed is good!
! Covered in Chapter 9 in the textbook

R. Rao, CSE 326

Some slides based on: CSE 326 by S. Wolfman, 2000

Graph Algorithm #1: Topological Sort


143 322 321 326 370 341

142

Problem: Find an order in which all these courses can be taken. Example: 142 143 378 370 321 341 322 326 421 401
R. Rao, CSE 326

378 421 401

Topological Sort Definition


Topological sorting problem: given digraph G = (V, E) , find a linear ordering of vertices such that: for all edges (v, w) in E, v precedes w in the ordering
B C A F D E
3

R. Rao, CSE 326

Topological Sort
Topological sorting problem: given digraph G = (V, E) , find a linear ordering of vertices such that: for any edge (v, w) in E, v precedes w in the ordering
B C A F D E A
R. Rao, CSE 326

Any linear ordering in which all the arrows go to the right is a valid solution

D
4

Topological Sort
Topological sorting problem: given digraph G = (V, E) , find a linear ordering of vertices such that: for any edge (v, w) in E, v precedes w in the ordering
B C A F D E A
R. Rao, CSE 326

Not a valid topological sort!

D
5

Topological Sort Algorithm


Step 1: Identify vertices that have no incoming edge
The in-degree of these vertices is zero B A C F D E

R. Rao, CSE 326

Topological Sort Algorithm


Step 1: Identify vertices that have no incoming edge
If no such edges, graph has cycles (cyclic graph) B A C

Example of a cyclic graph: No vertex of in-degree 0

R. Rao, CSE 326

Topological Sort Algorithm


Step 1: Identify vertices that have no incoming edges
Select one such vertex Select B A C F D E

R. Rao, CSE 326

Topological Sort Algorithm


Step 2: Delete this vertex of in-degree 0 and all its outgoing edges from the graph. Place it in the output.
B C F D E A

R. Rao, CSE 326

Topological Sort Algorithm


Repeat Steps 1 and Step 2 until graph is empty
Select B C F D E A

R. Rao, CSE 326

10

Topological Sort Algorithm


Repeat Steps 1 and Step 2 until graph is empty

Select F A B

R. Rao, CSE 326

11

Topological Sort Algorithm


Repeat Steps 1 and Step 2 until graph is empty
Select C A D E B F

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12

Topological Sort Algorithm


Repeat Steps 1 and Step 2 until graph is empty

Final Result:
A B F C D E

R. Rao, CSE 326

13

Summary of Topo-Sort Algorithm #1


Store each vertexs InDegree (# of incoming A edges) in an array 2. While there are vertices remaining: " Find a vertex with 0 In-Degree zero and output it 1 " Reduce In-Degree of 1 all vertices adjacent to it by 1 2 " Mark this vertex (InDegree = -1) 2 In-Degree R. Rao, CSE 326 array 0
1.

C E B C D E Adjacency list E D

D A B C D E F

14

Topological Sort Algorithm #1: Analysis


For input graph G = (V,E), Run Time = ?
Break down into total time required to: Initialize In-Degree array: O(|E|) Find vertex with in-degree 0: |V| vertices, each takes O(|V|) to search In-Degree array. Total time = O(|V|2) Reduce In-Degree of all vertices adjacent to a vertex: O(|E|) Output and mark vertex: O(|V|) Total time = O(|V|2 + |E|) Quadratic time!
R. Rao, CSE 326 15

Can we do better than quadratic time?


Problem: Need a faster way to find vertices with in-degree 0 instead of searching through entire in-degree array

R. Rao, CSE 326

16

Topological Sort (Take 2)


Key idea: Initialize and maintain a queue (or stack) of vertices with In-Degree 0
Queue A F 0 A B A D E C 1 B F 1 C 2 D 2 E In-Degree array 0 F B C D E Adjacency list E D

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17

Topological Sort (Take 2)


After each vertex is output, when updating In-Degree array, enqueue any vertex whose In-Degree has become zero Queue
dequeue enqueue

B 0 A 0 B 1 C F 1 D B C D E Adjacency list E D

Output A B A D
R. Rao, CSE 326

C E

2 E In-Degree array 0 F

18

Topological Sort Algorithm #2


1. 2. 3.

Store each vertexs In-Degree in an array Initialize a queue with all in-degree zero vertices While there are vertices remaining in the queue: " Dequeue and output a vertex " Reduce In-Degree of all vertices adjacent to it by 1 " Enqueue any of these vertices whose In-Degree became zero B A D E C F Sort this digraph!
19

R. Rao, CSE 326

Topological Sort Algorithm #2: Analysis


For input graph G = (V,E), Run Time = ?
Break down into total time to: Initialize In-Degree array: O(|E|) Initialize Queue with In-Degree 0 vertices: O(|V|) Dequeue and output vertex: |V| vertices, each takes only O(1) to dequeue and output. Total time = O(|V|) Reduce In-Degree of all vertices adjacent to a vertex and Enqueue any In-Degree 0 vertices: O(|E|) Total time = O(|V| + |E|) Linear running time!
20

R. Rao, CSE 326

Paths
! Recall definition of a path in a tree same for graphs ! A path is a list of vertices {v1, v2, , vn} such that

(vi, vi+1) is in E for all 0 ! i < n.

Chicago Seattle Salt Lake City Example of a path: p = {Seattle, Salt Lake City, Chicago, Dallas, San Francisco, Seattle}
21

San Francisco Dallas


R. Rao, CSE 326

Simple Paths and Cycles


! A simple path repeats no vertices (except the 1st can be the

last):
" p = {Seattle, Salt Lake City, San Francisco, Dallas} " p = {Seattle, Salt Lake City, Dallas, San Francisco, Seattle}
! A cycle is a path that starts and ends at the same node:

" p = {Seattle, Salt Lake City, Dallas, San Francisco, Seattle}


! A simple cycle is a cycle that repeats no vertices except that

the first vertex is also the last


! A directed graph with no cycles is called a DAG (directed

acyclic graph) E.g. All trees are DAGs


" A graph with cycles is often a drag

R. Rao, CSE 326

22

Path Length and Cost


! Path length: the number of edges in the path ! Path cost: the sum of the costs of each edge

" Note: Path length = unweighted path cost (edge weight = 1)


3.5

Chicago
2

Seattle
2 2

Salt Lake City


2.5 2.5 3 2.5

length(p) = 5 San Francisco


R. Rao, CSE 326

cost(p) = 11.5 Dallas


23

Single Source, Shortest Path Problems


! Given a graph G = (V, E) and a source vertex s in V, find

the minimum cost paths from s to every vertex in V


! Many variations:

" unweighted vs. weighted " cyclic vs. acyclic " positive weights only vs. negative weights allowed " multiple weight types to optimize " Etc.
! We will look at only a couple of these

" See text for the others


R. Rao, CSE 326 24

Why study shortest path problems?


! Plenty of applications ! Traveling on a starving student budget: What is the

cheapest multi-stop airline schedule from Seattle to city X?


! Optimizing routing of packets on the internet:

" Vertices = routers, edges = network links with different delays " What is the routing path with smallest total delay?
! Hassle-free commuting: Finding what highways and roads to

take to minimize total delay due to traffic


! Finding the fastest way to get to coffee vendors on campus

from your classrooms


R. Rao, CSE 326 25

Unweighted Shortest Paths Problem


Problem: Given a source vertex s in an unweighted graph G = (V,E), find the shortest path from s to all vertices in G
A B F G E H

C Source D

Find the shortest path from C to: A


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H
26

Solution based on Breadth-First Search


! Basic Idea: Starting at node s, find vertices that can be

reached using 0, 1, 2, 3, , N-1 edges (works even for cyclic graphs!)


A B F G C D H

On-board example: Find the shortest path from C to: A


R. Rao, CSE 326

E B C D E F G H
27

Breadth-First Search (BFS) Algorithm


! Uses a queue to store vertices that need to be expanded ! Pseudocode (source vertex is s): 1. Dist[s] = 0 2. Enqueue(s) 3. While queue is not empty 1. X = dequeue 2. For each vertex Y adjacent to X and not previously visited (Prev allows $ Dist[Y] = Dist[X] + 1 paths to be $ Prev[Y] = X $ Enqueue Y reconstructed) ! Running time (same as topological sort) = O(|V| + |E|) (why?)
R. Rao, CSE 326 28

That was easy but what if edges have weights?


Does BFS still work for finding minimum cost paths?
2

A
1 3 9 1

8 3

Can you find a counterexample (a path) for this graph to show BFS wont work?

R. Rao, CSE 326

29

What if edges have weights?


! BFS does not work anymore minimum cost path may have

additional hops Shortest path from C to A: BFS: C A (cost = 9) Minimum Cost Path = C E D A (cost = 8)
2

A
1 3 9 8 1

D
3

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30

Dijkstra to the rescue


! Legendary figure in computer science ! Some rumors collected from previous classes ! Rumor #1: Supported teaching introductory computer
E. W. Dijkstra (1930-2002)

courses without computers (pencil and paper programming)


! Rumor #2: Supposedly wouldnt read his e-mail; so, his

staff had to print out his e-mails and put them in his mailbox

R. Rao, CSE 326

31

An Aside: Dijsktra on GOTOs


For a number of years I have been familiar with the observation that the quality of programmers is a decreasing function of the density of go to statements in the programs they produce.
Opening sentence of: Go To Statement Considered Harmful by Edsger W. Dijkstra, Letter to the Editor, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 11, No. 3, March 1968, pp. 147-148.
R. Rao, CSE 326 32

Dijkstras Algorithm for Weighted Shortest Path


! Classic algorithm for solving shortest path in weighted

graphs (without negative weights)


! Example of a greedy algorithm

" Irrevocably makes decisions without considering future consequences " Sound familiar? Not necessarily the best life strategy but works in some cases (e.g. Huffman encoding)

R. Rao, CSE 326

33

Dijkstras Algorithm for Weighted Shortest Path


! Basic Idea:

" Similar to BFS # Each vertex stores a cost for path from source # Vertex to be expanded is the one with least path cost seen so far $ Greedy choice always select current best vertex $ Update costs of all neighbors of selected vertex " But unlike BFS, a vertex already visited may be updated if a better path to it is found

R. Rao, CSE 326

34

Pseudocode for Dijkstras Algorithm


1. 2. 3.

Initialize the cost of each node to " Initialize the cost of the source to 0
2

B
1

1 While there are unknown nodes left in the 9 graph 3 1. Select the unknown node N with the C 8 2 lowest cost (greedy choice) D 3 2. Mark N as known E 3. For each node X adjacent to N If (Ns cost + cost of (N, X)) < Xs cost (Prev allows Xs cost = Ns cost + cost of (N, X) paths to be Prev[X] = N //store preceding node reconstructed)
35

R. Rao, CSE 326

Dijkstras Algorithm (greed in action)


vertex A B C D E known No No Yes No No cost " " 0 " " 2 Prev vertex known A B C D E cost Prev

Initial
A
3 9 8 1

Final
B
1

C
3

D
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E
36

Dijkstras Algorithm (greed in action)


vertex A B C D E known No No Yes No No cost " " 0 " " Prev 2 vertex A B C D E known Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes cost 8 10 0 5 2 Prev D A E C

Initial
A
3 9 8 1

Final
B
1

C
3

D
R. Rao, CSE 326

E
37

Questions for Next Time: Does Dijkstras method always work? How fast does it run? Where else in life can I be greedy? To Do: Start Homework Assignment #4 (Dont wait until the last few days!!!) Continue reading and enjoying chapter 9
R. Rao, CSE 326 38

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