Task Checklist

Introduction Basic Concepts Field Measurement Devices Example Orifice Calculation Control Valves Example Control Valves Basic Control Schemes Protective Systems

Slide 11.2

Purposes of Process Control

With few exceptions, new process units are equipped with a digital control system (DCS) that provides advanced control capabilities and interfaces to other systems, including management information and accounting systems. The driving force behind automation is economics to achieve the desired production at the lowest cost. Typically, control objectives include: Lowering labor costs Reducing or eliminating human error Reducing the size and space requirements of process equipment Improving product quality Reducing energy consumption Reducing raw material consumption Elimination of product giveaway Elimination of off-spec products

Slide 11.3

Basic and Corollary Functions

Basic Functions of Process Control Systems are: Maintaining Stability of the operating conditions at key points in the process. Providing the operator with information on these operating conditions and the means for adjusting them. Corollary Functions of Process Control Systems are: Automating operations to reduce the demand for continuous operator attention as dictated by economics and management information requirements. Insuring that operations are safe for personnel and equipment and meet all environmental or other regulatory requirements. Maintaining product quality while minimizing operating costs.

Slide 11.4

Process Control Architecture

Level 4 Business Network

Business environment

The Process Control Architecture recognizes the following 5 levels:

Secure Gateway Level 3 Process Control Network

Level 4: Level 3: Level 2:

Business Environment Control Applications Protective Systems

Process Control environment

Process Control System Process Monitoring System

Level 2

Level 1

Level 1: Basic Control and Monitoring Systems Level 0: Process interface (field instrumentation).

Process stream

Slide 11.5

Level 0

Basic Control

The process designer develops the basic control scheme with input from the process control specialist and manufacturing organization. A basic control loop includes the following elements:
Set Point F230 C

Controller

Transmitter

Transducer

Sensor

Final Control Element

Process

Slide 11.6

Basic Types of Control

The basic types of control are:

Flow Level Pressure Temperature Analysis

Slide 11.7

Flow Instruments

The proper selection of a flow meter for a particular application requires considerable evaluation of tradeoffs. Most frequently, a orifice meter is selected for economical reasons; Total installed cost Maintenance cost Operating cost Other key factors that drive the selection are; Accuracy Rangeability Fluid state Flowing conditions Reynolds number Density Mechanical installation constraints

Slide 11.8

Flow Instruments
The accuracy of flow instruments in plant applications is classified into 3 categories: Class I Sales, Custody Transfer, and other applications requiring high accuracy Class II Material Balance, and Equipment Performance applications Class III General Purpose The system accuracy achievable for typical meter types is as follows:
ACCURACY % OF MEASURED VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE METER TYPE Positive Displacement Turbine Orifice
(1)

CLASS I 0.2 0.2 1.0

(2)

CLASS II 0.2 0.2 2.0 0.75 0.2

CLASS III 0.5 5.0 1.5 0.5

Vortex Shredding Coriolis (3)

Not Recommended 0.2

Notes: (1) Accuracy of orifice meter is listed as % of full scale. (2) ExxonMobil Corporate Measuring Guidelines allow orifice meters to be used in Class I applications for steam and gases only. (3) Accuracy of coriolis meter is listed as %of mass flow rate.

Slide 11.9

Flow Instruments

Rangeability is a flow meters ability to cover a range of flow rates within specified accuracy limits. For differential pressure type flow meters, because of the square root relationship between flow rate and differential pressure, flow rangeability is usually severely limited without taking certain measures. A change in differential pressure from 100% down to 10% of full scale (about the limit for reasonable accuracy with conventional transmitters), the change in flow rate is only from 100% to 30% of full scale. In other words: orifice plates have only a 3:1 range Late breaking news: Orifice plates with smart transmitters can achieve 10:1 range Straight run requirements for flow instruments differ by flow meter type. General rule of thumb is 20 pipe diameters upstream, and 5 pipe diameters downstream. Late breaking news: Conditioning Orifice Plate and V-Cone can be installed with just 1 diameter upstream and 1 downstream!

Slide 11.10

Flow Instruments
Orifice Meter - Flow measurement by pressure drop over a flow restriction in a pipe

ratio (d/D) limited to 0.25-0.70

Slide 11.11

Flow Instruments
Overall permanent pressure loss through various primary elements:

Orifice Permanent P= 0.6*100 H2O=60 H2O=2 psi (0.14 kg/cm2)

Venturi Permanent P= 1-3 H2O (25-76 mm H2O)

Dall Flow Tube has lower permanent P than Venturi, but more prone to plugging

Slide 11.12

Flow Instruments
-

Expensive + Very accurate Must be clean + Good rangeability (10:1) Proving required + Better for viscous liquids (> 10 cp) 3-7 psi P (0.2-0.5 kg/cm2)
-

+ +

Poor rangeability (3:1) 10,000 Re min. Lowest cost 2 psi P (0.14 kg/cm2)

Expensive Must be clean 8-10 psi P (0.6 kg/cm2) Proving required Low viscosity fluids

+ +

Very accurate Good rangeability (10:1)

Liquid must be conductive Expensive No P

Liquid meter cannot handle vapor Proving may be required 8 max now

Expensive Proving may be required

+ + +

No P Wide range (100:1) Provides density/MW

+ + + +

Highest P Mass reading Density reading Very accurate

Slide 11.13

Problem Flow meters

What is the most common flow meter? What type of flow meter use for custody transfer? What type of meter use for many chemicals applications? Where use a magnetic flow meter? Where use an ultrasonic flow meter? What meter options if 10:1 turndown required? How are you going to point this out?

Slide 11.14

Level, Temperature and Pressure Instruments

Types of Level Measuring Devices: Differential Pressure Type (d/p Cell) Displacer Type Capacitance Probes Ball Float Nuclear Gauge Glass and Magnetic Gauges for local indication. Radar Pressure measurements uses electronic pressure transmitters (highly accurate) and local pressure gauges. Pressure switches are no longer preferred. Temperature measurement normally through Thermocouples: Type K (Chromel: NiCr-Alumel: NiMnAlSi) (0/2000F) (-20/1090C) Type T (Copper-Constantan: NiCu) (-300/200F) (-195/95C) Other types for specific temperatures, materials or process conditions Slide 11.15

Temperature Instrument Notes

Temperature control points: Consider including Check TI Tankage: Include safety critical priority 1 alarm Towers: Note where thermocouple is located (vapor space or DC)

Slide 11.16

Level Instruments

Can be used for large spans

Set spans: 14, 32, 48

Used for alarms/shutdowns

Used for solids or viscous/fouling

Slide 11.17

Level Instruments (cont.)

MAGNETIC LEVEL GAUGE Now preferred for high pressure, toxic, etc. Can send level signal CAUTION: If fluid density drops below specified density, gauge will read zero! (float sinks)

Simple device Used in open systems Measure pressure of nitrogen or air bubbled through liquid

LEVEL INSTRUMENT ARRANGEMENT

Provide independent alarms instruments if required Level gauge must cover all level instrument spans

Slide 11.18

Level Instruments (cont.)

Guided Wave Radar (GWR) Starting to be used in many installations due to advantages: Independent of specific gravity Can give both total level and interface level No moving parts However, there are disadvantages that have to be considered: Need to know dielectric constant of fluid Does not handle foam well Probe cannot touch vessel wall Solids cause incorrect readings Calibration problems May read zero after level exceeds 100%! Dead zone at top and bottom of standpipe

Slide 11.19

Problem Level Instruments

Compared to a standard design (horizontal drum with a displacer type level instrument and level gauges), how will design be different? Cooling tower basin High pressure, high H2S vessel 3 phase separator with emulsion Water K.O. Drum with MAG level gauge Level span is 20 Solids in fluid can cause plugging

Slide 11.20

Types of Control
Types of Control include: Cascade Control Feed Forward Control Ratio Control Split Range Control Override Control

Slide 11.21

Cascade Control

Cascade Control uses the output of the primary controller to manipulate the setpoint of the secondary controller. Allow faster secondary controller to handle disturbances, avoiding upsets. Example: Steam rate is flow controlled (fast), with temperature (slow) resetting the flow control set point. Slide 11.22

Control Loop Speed

Fast Response Reboiler steam pressure Closing control valve will result in immediate drop in pressure, which will immediately lower temperature Fuel gas rate Closing control valve will result in immediate firing decrease Slow Response Reboiler level Closing control valve will slowly raise reboiler level as condensate fills reboiler Reboiler/furnace outlet temperature Closing control valve will change duty which will slowly result in outlet temperature drop

Slide 11.23

Feed Forward Control

Feed Forward Control measures a disturbance and feeds a signal to an earlier part of the control loop so that corrective action can be initiated as the disturbance is taking. Example: Feed rate increases, raising the cooling water set point, avoiding temperature from rising.
Slide 11.24

Ratio Control

Ratio control is used to ensure that two or more flows are kept at the same ratio even if the flows are changing.

Slide 11.25

Split Range Control

Split Range Control is two or more control valves are controlled by one control loop. Example: When temperature is below 200F, add steam. When temperature is above 215F, add cooling water.
Slide 11.26

Override Control

Override Control normally uses the primary controller to control. A secondary controller takes over if it goes out of a set range. Example: Normally steam rate is temperature controlled, unless steam header pressure drops. Then the steam header pressure will control the steam rate.
Slide 11.27

Control Basics
Come up with basic control system. Provide necessary instruments and control valves. Review with Controls Engineer to be sure your system will work. Avoid common problems: Two control valves in series Control valves on cooling water HX bypass control valve with insufficient pressure drop in HX Improper range for instruments Orifice meters: 3:1 turndown, 25 pipe diameter run length, ratio 0.25-0.70, not mixed flow Control valves: 8:1 turndown, but could be less depending on actual valve oversize Specifying COT control on a recirculating reboiler
Slide 11.28

What Do We Typically Control?

Streams in and out of unit Utility streams Fuel gas, steam Pump and compressor Pump discharge to control rate Compressor suction/spillback to contol rate or pressure Fractionator pressure Unit internal streams

Slide 11.29

Fundamental Types of Control

PIC

GAS FC

FIC

LIC FIC

FO

FEED FC DISTILLATE
TIC

FC

FIC

LIC

STEAM FC

FEED

BOTTOMS FC

Slide 11.30

Typical Furnace Control Scheme

TI FL(CO) FIC AL TI

TI

OIL
PI

TI FL(CO) FIC AL TI

TI

FURNACE SHUTDOWN SYSTEM

TO TOWER/ RX
TI TI PHA PLA PIC

PILOT GAS

FUEL GAS

Slide 11.31

Centrifugal Compressor Control Scheme

Slide 11.32

Problem - Control
When do fired heaters require pass flow control? Where is control valve? Centrifugal pump Reciprocating pump Centrifugal compressor Reciprocating compressor How temperature control cooled product?

Slide 11.33

Fractionator Control Principles

Objectives of fractionator control Maintain desired separation Provide means for operator to adjust separation as product specification demands change Constant pressure required for satisfactory control Two types of fractionator control Material balance Composition + Analysis + Temperature (inferred)

Slide 11.34

Fractionator Pressure Control

Partial Condensation of Overhead Product

Slide 11.35

Fractionator Pressure Control

Drumless Flooded Condenser System (Total Condenser)

Overdesign exchanger by 10%

Pump low flow recycle required

Slide 11.36

Fractionator Pressure Control

Flooded Condenser Method with Drum (Total Condenser)

Slide 11.37

Fractionator Pressure Control

Hot Gas Bypass Arrangement (Total Condenser)

Slide 11.38

Composition vs. Material Balance Control

Temperature Controlled Split - Control of Heat Input

Use when there is a good correlation between tray (vapor) temperature and composition.

Slide 11.39

Composition vs. Material Balance Control

Material Balance Controlled Split (distillate draw flow controlled) Example: Diesel stripper, chemical purifier

Distillate and steam rate ratio controlled with feed rate.

Slide 11.40

Control Valve Specification

Specify operating conditions Max, normal, and min rates Pressure drop at normal rate Upstream Temp., Press., S.G. or Mol Wt. Is fluid: Corrosive? Contains solids? Failure to list solids may result in a valve plugging (see next slide) Valve body type and flow characteristics Only if important. Usually allow Instrument Engineer to define. Action on failure Flashing service Specify vapor and liquid rates and conditions Sonic differential pressure

Slide 11.41

Anti-Cavitation/Anti-Noise Alert

Valves in cavitation or high noise service will normally be fitted with special trim Trim is a cylinder with many little holes in it Will plug unless stream is clean or strainers provided (GP 15-9-1) Always specify solids when present Always note when standard anti-cavitation or anti-noise trim is not allowed Some sites (BMRF) do not allow due to reliability problems Not allowed in compressor spillback in Upstream installations

Slide 11.42

System Head - Capacity Relationship

Slide 11.43

Control Valve Pressure Drop

Allocation of Pressure Drop to Control Valve Circuit Differential Pressure: Pressure at source minus Pressure at destination +/- static head effect Static Head Constant: P = 20% of overall circuit differential pressure @ max flowrate Static Head Variable: P = 25-30% of overall circuit differential pressure @ max flowrate

For 3-Way valves - Use 50% of exchanger DP for exchanger port

Slide 11.44

Control Valve Sizing

Control Valve Sizing Calculations may be done manually by utilization of the equations provided in the Design Practices or by computer software (Pegasys). The results of specific control valve sizing calculations should be used to select a control valve that provides the calculated Cv at an opening that represents 80% of the full open capacity of the valve. For butterfly valves the calculated Cv should occur at an opening of 60 from full closed. Check rangeability of control valve meets the required rangeability for the minimum and maximum flow rate. Check that valve size is not greater than line size

Slide 11.45

Control Valve Sizing

Method 1 - Liquid to Liquid

q Cv = N1
where:

Gf ( p1 p2 )
volumetric flow rate (gpm, m3/h) absolute inlet pressure (psia, kPa) absolute outlet pressure (psia, kPa) liquid specific gravity at upstream conditions referenced to water at 60 F N1 = 1.0 for Customary units; = 0.0865 for Metric units q p1 p2 Gf = = = =

Alternative equations available in Design Practice XII-F

Slide 11.46

Control Valve Sizing

Method 2 - Gas/Vapor to Gas/Vapor

Cv =

w N 8 p1Y

T1 Mx

x=

p1 p2 p1

Y = 1

X 2.142kxT

where:

xT = the pressure drop ratio factor (empirically determined for each valve) w = mas flow rate (lb/h, kg/h) p1 = absolute inlet pressure (psia, kPa) p2 = absolute outlet pressure (psia, kPa) k = the ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv) M = Molecular weight T1 = absolute upstream temperature (R, K) N8 = 19.3 for Customary units; = 0.948 for Metric units

Alternative equations available in Design Practice XII-F Slide 11.47

Control Valve Characteristics

Equal Percentage (logarithmic) provided unless specified otherwise. Linear characteristic specified when pressure drop is constant.

Slide 11.48

Types of Control Valves

Linear actuated (globe, cage, angle) Double seated (balanced seat forces, but not tight shutoff) Single seated (tight shutoff, but may require larger/piston actuator) Cage (easy trim removal, can be balanced plug, not tight shutoff) Angle (To avoid impingement on valves surfaces, fluids with solids) Rotary actuated (butterfly, eccentric plug, ball) Butterfly (high capacity, but torque limitations, not tight shutoff) Ball (high capacity or pressure drop applications, tight shutoff) Three-way valves (mixing or diverting)

Slide 11.49

Types of Control Valves

Double-seated rarely purchased now due to GP control valve leakage requirement Butterfly and ball valves normally have poor controlling characteristics.

CAMFLEX/V-BALL Rotary valve quickly replacing doubleseated valve as valve of choice. Be sure site approves use of 3-way valves. Difficult/impossible to take out of service.

Slide 11.50

Control Valve Tightness

Class III (TSO3) Leaks 0.1% of rated Cv Requires Owners Engineer approval (GP 15-9-1) Double seated control valve are Class III Class IV (TSO4) Leaks 0.01% of rated Cv Standard for control valves Class V (TSO5) Minimum required for tight shut off (GP 15-9-1) Class VI (TSO6) Bubble tight Have a good reason to specify this

Slide 11.51

High Performance Control Valve Recommendations

Here are some recommendations given to improve control valve performance. Consider these when you are reviewing control valve selections. (EE.53E.2005)

Slide 11.52

Control Valve Fail Safe Position

Choice of Failure Position When selecting the positions to which the valves go on air or power failure the goal is: to require minimum operator attention to put the unit in the safest possible standby condition; to minimize upsets to associate units; and to ease the problem of returning to service when the failure is corrected. General rules to follow: Close valves feeding heat and material to the unit Close valves on streams leaving the unit Open valves on heat absorbing circuits (furnaces, heat exchangers, reflux streams, pumparounds)

Slide 11.53

Control Valve Location

Like to place in cooler portion of line Lower cost, easier to work on, less chance of cavitation Feed upstream of preheat exchangers Product downstream of coolers May want immediately after pump Minimizes equipment that must have max-max design pressure Allows designing for fail closed If fail closed control valve can block in HX, must protect for fire

Slide 11.54

Control Valve Primer (GP 15-9-1)

Standard was double ported globe valve Balanced forces best, especially for high pressure drop Not being specified much due to higher leakage A balanced valve, Camflex, and V500 rotary plug are almost as good Butterfly and ball valves normally not recommended unless: Butterfly: low pressure drop, large lines Ball: very high turndown, TSO, dirty service Equal % standard, since makes linear relationship when include pump curve and frictional pressure drop Cv increases slowly until valve mostly open, then opens quickly Linear used for constant pressure drop Bypass valve same Cv as control valve Normally use globe, since can throttle. Add gate if TSO/isolation required. Pressure drop above 100 psi requires special bypass valve Size for >15% open at min, valve Cv > 1.25x Cv required at max rate Do not oversize, can result in valve damage and fire Take into account piping configuration (expanders/reducers will limit flow) Check with manufacturer or Instrument Engineer if calculating Cv from % open of a Camflex valve Linear valve, but readout is designed to be Equal %

Slide 11.55

Protective Systems

A protective system is a component, group of components, or system that reduces risk by preventing, or mitigating the consequences of hazardous incidents. A protective system responds to a process demand and brings the process to a safe state. System may be either manually or automatically initiated. Protective System components shall be separate from the control system components. Protective Systems are designed to be fail-safe (Fail-Action). The typical protective system consists of: Sensors, e.g transmitters, switches (possible voting redundancy) Programmable Electronic Logic, e.g. Triconex, TMR Final elements, e.g. valves During design/detailed design, Protective Systems are defined by: Cause and Effect Diagram, and Availability (probability system will work, Spurious Trip Rate, and Testing Frequency.

Slide 11.56

Shutdown Systems (GP 15-7-2)

Minimum valves required to test valves or allow maintenance? Also decide limit switches and double blocks? Sensing Element 1oo1, 1oo2, 2oo2, 2oo3 set by unit reliability (not shutdown inadvertently) and availability (will work when needed) Historically used 1oo1, but now both requirements pushing toward 2oo3 Need pre-alarm and usually a control sensing element With 2oo3, can duplicate the signal for pre-alarm and control Other instrument stuff System bypass alarm (Priority 1) Fault and tripped alarms Manual reset on trip valve Hand switch shutdowns

Slide 11.57

Alarm Systems

Priority 1 alarms include all SHE-critical alarms and a limited number of other high priority alarms that do not meet the definition of SHE critical alarms but which nonetheless require immediate action or attention by the console operator. Priority 1 alarms shall be operable when the control system operator interface fails. Priority 2 alarms indicate the existence of an abnormal condition which may lead to a serious process upset. Prompt operator action or attention is required; however, the alarm point should be set to allow for sufficient time to determine the correct course of action. A priority 2 alarm is typically less critical, and need not be operable when the control system interface fails. Priority 3 alarm indicate the existence of an abnormal condition which requires operator attention, but does not present an immediate threat to continued operation and/or plant safety.

Slide 11.58

Separation Requirements

SHE Critical Alarm sensors shall be independent from the Control System sensors. SHE Critical Alarm Display shall be independent from the Control System. Manual trip shall be independent from the Control System, such that the unavailability of the Control System shall not affect operation of Manual trip. Manual trip shall be a hardwired pushbutton, located at a continuously manned location such as an Operator Console. Protective System trip valves shall be independent from the Control System. Provide ability to test and maintain Protective System trip valves. Block valves around trip valves shall either have alarmed limit switches or be car sealed. Alarmed limit switch required for automated sequential interlock system such as a burner management system

Late breaking news: 2oo3 trip sensors can also be used for control and alarms. See GP 15-7-2.

Slide 11.59