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com
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This book is under copyright to A-level Maths Tutor. However, it may be

distributed freely provided it is not sold for profit.

Contents

Newton’s Laws 3

connected particles 9

work & energy 18

power & efficiency 23

more circular motion 25

elastic strings 31

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Newton’s Laws

Newton's Laws of Motion

1. A body will remain at rest or travel at uniform linear velocity unless acted upon by an
external force.

2. The rate of change of linear momentum is proportional to the applied force and acts in
the same direction as the force.

3. The forces of two bodies on each other are equal and directed in opposite directions.

Definition of momentum

Momentum(P) is a vector quantity equal in magnitude to the product of mass and velocity.

Note, mass(m) is a scalar quantity, while velocity(v) is a vector quantity.

P = mv

m (kg) v(ms-1) P (kg. ms-1)

The letter 'p' in small case is designated to represent pressure.

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Theory

If we consider a force F acting on a mass m with velocity v, the Second law may be
represented by the proportionality:

The Newton N

As seen from the theory relating to the Second Law, to get rid of the constant of
proportionality each quantity is made unity.

So we come to our definition of a Newton:

A Newton is the force that when applied to a 1 kg mass will give it an acceleration of 1
ms-2.

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Linear acceleration

Here the mass is either stationary and is accelerated by a force in a straight line or is
initially moving at constant velocity before the force is applied.

Example #1

A 5N force acts on a 2.5kg mass, making it accelerate in a straight line.

i) What is the acceleration of the mass?
ii) How long will it take to move the mass through 20m?
(Answer to 2 d.p.)

i)

ii)

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Example #2

A force causes a 3kg mass to accelerate. If the velocity of the mass at time t is given by:

v = 2ti - 3t2j + 4t3k

what is the magnitude of the force when t = 5 secs. ?

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Linear retardation

Here the mass is already moving at constant velocity in a straight line before the force is
applied, opposing the motion.

Example #1

A 4 kg mass travelling at constant velocity 15 ms-1 has a 10 N force applied to it against

the direction of motion.
i) What is the deceleration produced?
ii) How long will it take before the mass is brought to rest?

i)

ii)

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Example #2

A sky diver with mass 80kg is falling at a constant velocity of 70 ms-1 . When he opens his
parachute he experiences a constant deceleration of 3g for 2 seconds.
i) What is the magnitude of the decelerating force?
ii) What is his rate of descent at the end of the 2 seconds deceleration?

i)

ii)

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Connected Particles

Pulleys

Problems involve two weights either side of a pulley. The heavier weight pulls on the
lighter causing both to accelerate in one direction with a common acceleration.

calculation of acceleration 'a'

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calculation of tension 'T'

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Example

A 3 kg mass and a 5 kg mass are connected over a pulley by a light inextensible string.
When the masses are released from rest, what is:
i) the acceleration of each mass?
ii) the tension in the string
(Take g=9.8 ms-2 . Answer to 2 d.p.)

i)

ii)

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Towe-bar/towe-rope/chains

Usually one body pulled horizontally by another with each linked by a towe-bar or similar.
This is similar to the pulley but drawn out in a line.

assuming no friction,

calculation of acceleration 'a'

calculation of tension 'T'

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Example

A car of mass 600 kg towes a trailer of mass 250 kg in a straight line using a rigid towe-
bar.
The resistive force on the car is 200N.
The resistive force on the trailer is 80N.
If the forward thrust produced by the engine of the car is 800 N, what is(to 3 d.p.)
i) the acceleration of the car
ii) the tension in the towe-bar

i) looking at all the forces on the car and trailer together

ii)

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Inclined plane with pulley

The pulley at the end just changes the direction of the force. problems involve the resolved
component of the weight of the object down the plane.

for a mass sliding down a smooth incline

for a mass pulled up an incline via a pulley

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Example

A 2 kg mass on a smooth 30o plane is connected to a 5 kg mass by a light inextensible

string passing over a pulley at the top of the plane.
When the particles are released from rest the 2 kg mass moves up the plane.
i) what is the acceleration of the 2 kg & 5 kg masses?
ii) What is the tension in the string?

i)

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ii)

Mass ascending or descending in a lift

It is important to remember that there are only two forces on the body in the lift - the
weight down and the reaction of the floor up.

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Example

A person of mass 100 kg stands in a lift.

What is the force exerted by the lift floor on the person when the lift is:
i) moving upwards at 3 ms-1
ii) moving downwards at 4 ms-1

i)

ii)

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Work & Energy

Theory - Work & Energy

Consider a particle of mass m moving linearly with an applied force F constantly acting on
it.
u = initial speed, v = final speed, a = acceleration,
s = distance covered, t = time taken

By definition,

work done = (force) x (distance force moves)

Since the expression ½mv2 is defined as the kinetic energy of a particle of mass m, speed
v, our definition is modified to:

work done = change in kinetic energy produced

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mathematical proof

Consider a particle, mass m, speed v, being moved along the x-axis by a force of
magnitude F.
The applied force F is proportional to the displacement of the particle, x, along the x-axis.

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Gravitational Potential Energy

This is the energy a mass posesses by virtue of its position. It is equal to the product of
mass, gravitational field strength(g) and the vertical distance the particle is above a fixed
level.

m = mass speed(ms-1), g = gravitational field strength(N/kg)

h = vertical distance(m)

potential energy P.E.(joules) = mgh

(note the unit for g - the gravitational force on a mass of 1kg)

The Law of Conservation of Energy

In a closed system the amount of energy is constant. Or in other words 'energy can never
be created nor destroyed', it mearly changes from one form into another.

This is the classical physics view that is useful for most purposes. However, in the real
world systems are seldom perfect. We also have the problem when referring to particle
physics that energy can indeed be created and destroyed. Annihilation of elementary
particles is an example of this(matter-antimatter: electron-positron collision).

Example #1

A pump forces up water at a speed of 8ms-1 from a well into a reservoir at a rate of 50 kg
s-1 .
If the water is raised a vertical height of 40 m, what is the work done per second?(assume
g=10 ms-2 )

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Example #2

A gun is fireed at a 3 cm thick solid wooden door.

The bullet, of mass 7g, travels through the door and has speed reduced from 450 ms-1 to
175 ms-1.
Assuming uniform resistance, what is the force of the wood on the bullet. (answer to 5 sig.
figs.)

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Example #3

In a science experiment, a 50g mass slides down a 60o incline of length 0.5m.
If the mass is given an initial speed of 2 ms-1 down the plane and its final speed is
measured as 3 ms-1, what is the magnitude of the frictional force opposing the mass?
(assume g=10 ms-2 , answer to 2d.p.)

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Power & Efficiency

Power

Power is by definition the rate of working.

Since work = force x distance moved, it follows that :

Example

A military tank of mass 20 metric tonnes moves up a 30o hill at a uniform speed of 5 ms-1 .
If all the frictional forces opposing motion total 5000N, what is the power delivered by the
engine?
(g = 10ms-2 , answer in kW)

If the tank is moving at constant speed then the forces forwards are balanced by the
forces backwards.

m is the tank's mass, then mgsin30o is the component of the weight down the hill
R is the total of resistive forces down the hill
T is the tractive force forwards up the hill

mgsin30o + R = T

T = (20,000 x 10 x 0.5) + 5000 = 105,000N

power = force x speed

power of tank engine = 105,000 x 5 = 525,000W

Ans. 525 kW

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Efficiency

Efficiency is the ratio of useful work out divided by total work done, expressed as a
percentage.

Example

A pump running at an efficiency of 70% delivers oil at a rate of 4 kgs-1 with a speed of 3
ms-1to an oil heater .
if the vertical distance moved by the oil is 10 m, what is the power consumption of the
pump?
(g = 10 ms-2, answer to 1 d.p.)

Ef = 70%, m=4kg, v=3 ms-1 , h=10 m, g=10 ms-2

work/sec. to raise oil 8 m high = mgh = 4x10x10 = 400 J/s

work/sec. to produce discharge speed = 0.5x4x3x3 = 18 J/s
total work/sec. = 400 + 18 = 418 W

418 W represents 70% of the power supplied

therefore total power consumption of pump =

Ans. power consumption of pump is 597.1W (1.d.p.)

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Circular Motion

Conical pendulum

Problems concerning the conical pendulum assume no air resistance and that the string
has no mass and cannot be stretched.

Solution of problems involves resolving forces on the mass vertically and horizontally. In
this way the speed of the mass, the tension in the string and the period of revolution can
be ascertained.

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Example

A 20g mass moves as a conical pendulum with string length 8x and speed v.
if the radius of the circular motion is 5x find:
i) the string tension(assume g =10 ms-2 , ans. to 2 d.p.)
ii) v in terms of x, g

i)

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ii)

Mass performing vertical circular motion under gravity

Consider a mass m performing circular motion under gravity, the circle with radius r .
The centripetal force on the mass varies at different positions on the circle.

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For many problems concerning vertical circular motion, energy considerations(KE & PE) of
particles at different positions are used to form a solution.

Example #1

A 50g mass suspended at the end of a light inextensible string performs vertical motion of
radius 2m.
if the mass has a speed of 5 ms-1 when the string makes an angle of 30o with the vertical,
what is the tension?
(assume g =10 ms-2 , answer to 1 d.p.)

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Example #2

A 5kg mass performs circular motion at the end of a light inextensible string of length 3m.
If the speed of the mass is 2 ms-1 when the string is horizontal, what is its speed at the
bottom of the circle?
(assume g =10 ms-2)

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Elastic Strings/Springs

Hooke's Law

The extension e of an elastic string/spring is proportional to the extending force F.

where k is the constant of proportionality, called the spring constant.

By definition the spring constant is that force which will produce unit extension(unit Nm-
1
) in a spring.

example

A 2kg mass hangs at the end of an elastic string of original length 0.5 m.
If the spring constant is 60 Nm-1, what is the length of the extended elastic string?

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The energy stored in a stretched string/spring

(same as the work done in stretching a string)

Remembering that 'work = force x distance moved', if the elastic string is extended a small
amount δe(such that the force F is considered constant) then the work done δW is given
by:

example

A 2 kg mass m hangs at a point B at the end of an elastic string of natural length 0.7 m
supported at a point A.
The extension produced in the string by the mass is a fifth of the original length, while the
spring constant is 5mg.
If the mass is now held at point A and then released, what is the maximum speed the
mass will attain?
(g = 10 ms-2 , answer to 1 d.p.)

Let PE be related to the equilibrium position of the mass. Hence the mass will have
maximum KE when passing through point B. Below that point there will be no net force
downwards to produce acceleration. The net force will act in the opposite direction,
producing deceleration.

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In the diagram,

a1 is linear acceleration under gravity

a2 is non-linear acceleration(decreasing)

a3 is negative acceleration i.e. deceleration.

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Notes

This book is under copyright to A-level Maths Tutor. However, it may be

distributed freely provided it is not sold for profit.

©2009 A-level Maths Tutor All Rights Reserved www.a-levelmathstutor.com