The British Psychological Society

Psychology of Education Section

The Psychology of
Education Review
Volume 29 Number 2
September 2005

ISSN: 0262-4088
The Psychology of Education Review – Volume 29 Number 2 September 2005 – ISSN 0262-4088

EDITORS
Justine Howard & Ruth Kershner

PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION SECTION – OFFICERS & COMMITTEE 2005

Chair:
Susan Hallam University of London, Institute of Education. E-mail: [email protected]

The Psychology of Education Review editors:

Justine Howard University of Glamorgan. E-mail: [email protected]
Ruth Kershner University of Cambridge. E-mail: [email protected]

Secretary:
Lynne Rogers University of London, Institute of Education. E-mail: [email protected]

Treasurer:
Pam Qualter University of Central Lancashire. E-mail: [email protected]

Membership Secretary:
Penelope Munn University of Strathclyde. E-mail: [email protected]

Ordinary Committee Members:

Donald Christie University of Strathclyde. E-mail: [email protected]
Joe Elliott University of Sunderland. E-mail: [email protected]
Jane Hutchinson University of Central Lancashire. E-mail: [email protected]
Judy Ireson University of London, Institute of Education. E-mail: [email protected]
Richard Remedios University of Stirling. E-mail: [email protected]
Yvonne Reynolds University of London, Institute of Education. E-mail: [email protected]
Paul Rideout University of Glasgow. E-mail: [email protected]
Peter Sutherland University of Stirling. E-mail: [email protected]

Co-opted Member:
Julie Dockrell University of London, Institute of Education. E-mail: [email protected]
Editorial
Justine Howard & Ruth Kershner

T
HIS EDITION OF The Psychology of Further details of the conference
Education Review includes a very are available on the Psychology of Educa-
thought-provoking open dialogue on tion pages in the BPS website
the topic of Neuroscience and Education. (http://www.bps.org.uk/education/events/
It is introduced by Professor Usha Goswami, events_home.cfm).
Director of the new Centre for Neuroscience This is the last edition of PER to involve
in Education which is located in the Univer- Peter Pumfrey as Book Reviews Editor. Peter
sity of Cambridge Faculty of Education. has made an exceptional contribution for
Given the subtitle of this open dialogue, ‘the many years in this role and in his committee
brain in the classroom’, we are particularly work for the Section. We would like to thank
pleased to have two responses from prac- him on behalf of the committee and the
tising teachers in primary and special educa- members, and wish him well in the future.
tion, both of whom have studied psychology We are sad to see him go and he’s a hard act
at higher degree level. Teachers’ perspec- to follow, but we are sure that the new Book
tives are essential to enrich and guide the Reviews Editors, Peter Sutherland and
current debates about neuroscience, Colette Gray, will maintain the high quality
psychology and education. The open of this important part of PER.
dialogue demonstrates the potentially wide-
ranging educational implications of neuro- Justine Howard & Ruth Kershner
scientific research and it highlights the value Co-Editors.
of establishing dialogue and further collabo-
ration between teachers and researchers.
We are also very pleased to have an indi-
vidual paper in this issue and we would
welcome future submissions of full papers or
short accounts of work in progress.
We are looking forward to the 2005
Annual Conference to be held on
4–6 November at the University of Durham.
The main themes of Learners and Learning,
Self concept, Memory and Social Inter-
actions should provide something of interest
for everyone. Professor Herb Marsh, Univer-
sity of Western Sydney, will give the Vernon-
Wall lecture, and Professor Susan
Gathercole, University of Durham, will speak
on Working Memory and Classroom
Learning.

The Psychology of Education Review, Vol. 29, No. 2, September 2005 1

© The British Psychological Society ISSN 0262-4088
Open Dialogue:
Neuroscience and Education: The brain in
the classroom
Usha Goswami

Recent advances in neuroscience have been hailed with enthusiasm by some educators, and treated with
sceptical caution by others. Here I outline the potentially exciting applications of the state of the art to educa-
tion, while acknowledging the rather limited contribution made by neuroscience to date. I argue that it is
crucial for education to engage with neuroscience, so that an informed critical stance can be adopted to the
different claims that are appearing about brain-based learning. Education as a discipline has been slow to
take the initiative, creating a knowledge gap that is being filled by those actively marketing various educa-
tional programmes to teachers and schools on the basis of often spurious claims about the brain.

T
HERE IS GROWING lay interest in the teachers. We already know that most of the
brain sciences, and in how neuroscience brain cells (neurons) that a child brings to
can be applied to education and to the the classroom form before birth, by the
classroom. It will not be long before parents seventh month of gestation (see Johnson,
worried about their child’s progress in school 1997, for a more detailed overview). After
are offered the chance to have a private brain birth, brain development consists mainly of
scan, and it is not beyond the bounds of imag- the growth of connections between neurons:
ination that teachers and headteachers may synaptogenesis. Brain cells pass information to
be faced with parents bringing in neuroscien- each other via low-voltage electrical signals,
tific assessments on which they are expected which travel from neuron to neuron via
to act. Current neuroscience techniques special junctions called synapses. As soon as
cannot offer such detailed information about the child is born, the brain is busy sculpting
individual children, and it is important that connections between neurons, proliferating
educators are aware of the state of the art. At some connections and pruning others. The
the same time, neuroscience does hold out electrical signal is propagated across the
some very exciting possibilities for education. synapse by chemical messengers called
It seems preferable for educators to engage neurotransmitters. There are around 100
with these possibilities now, while the applica- billion neurons in the brain, all with
tion of neuroscience to education is still in its multiple connections. Neuroscientists
infancy, so that they can influence the future assume that when many neurons are ‘firing’
development of the field. If this opportunity is together, the patterns of neural activity
missed, schools may rely on the variety of correspond to particular mental states or
commercial educational packages that appear mental ‘representations’. Every lesson that a
to be based on neuroscience, but which in child participates in changes the connectivity
fact have at best tangential links with actual of their brain. So too does every social inter-
data. action and every emotional experience. In a
trivial sense, connectivity is changing on a
Selected basics of brain development daily basis, in fact the brain grows new
and measurement connections even in old age. To document
The brain is the key organ of learning. the effect of any educational experience,
In this respect, it is of central interest to therefore, it is not sufficient to demonstrate

2 The Psychology of Education Review, Vol. 29, No. 2, September 2005

© The British Psychological Society ISSN 0262-4088
 Neuroscience and Education

a change in connectivity. Any educational neuroscience, the child is shown particular

intervention of any kind will always change events in order to elicit systematic deflec-
connectivity. tions in electrical activity. These are called
The child’s brain is also working harder Event Related Potentials or ERPs. ERPs are
than the adult’s. Brain metabolism (as meas- time-locked to specific events. For example,
ured by glucose uptake, which is an approxi- when a child hears a sound, the brain regis-
mate index of synaptic functioning) is well ters the event within 100ms of its occur-
above adult levels in the early years. The rela- rence, and has decided after about 250ms
tive rates at which different areas of the brain whether the sound is novel or not. While
are working for different learning experi- ERPs can distinguish timing differences of
ences can be determined by comparing the 1ms, the source of the electrical signal is
blood flow to different brain regions. The usually difficult to localise. Current
type of neuroscience which can be applied to neuroimaging techniques hence comple-
education (cognitive neuroscience) works ment each other. fMRI gives precise infor-
either by measuring relative blood flow, or by mation about location, but not about timing.
measuring directly the electrical signals that ERPs give precise timing information, but
transmit the information. The former meas- source localisation is difficult.
urement technique (functional magnetic
resonance imaging, or fMRI) relies on the What can we measure?
fact that as blood flow to particular brain As this brief description makes clear, current
areas increases, the distribution of water in techniques exert important limitations on
the brain tissue changes. fMRI works by how cognitive neuroscience can be applied
measuring the magnetic resonance signal to education. If we wish to discover why one
generated by the protons of water molecules child is artistic and another is not, or
in neural cells, generating a BOLD (blood whether one child is especially creative, what
oxygenation level dependent) response. could we measure? There is no simple index
Increases or decreases in BOLD response in of creativity that could be mapped by
specific brain areas are used to make infer- changes in blood flow or by the relative
ences about learning or processing. For speed of ERPs. On the other hand, if we wish
example, when we hear human speech, to find out whether some children (who are
blood flow to the temporal lobe increases. perhaps at risk of epileptic seizures when
fMRI is very sensitive to where in the brain playing videogames) have an abnormal
information is being processed, but the tech- neural response to light, or whether other
nique can only acquire images of activity children (who are perhaps at risk of devel-
over periods of approximately half a second. oping reading difficulties) are insensitive to
Hence fMRI is not very sensitive to the changes in a certain class of sounds, we can
timing of mental events. Timing, of course, is use visual or auditory evoked potentials
crucial. For example, it has long been (visual or auditory ERPs) to study whether
believed that individual differences in the brains of these children are responding
processing time cause differences in intelli- differently compared to the brains of
gence (e.g. Anderson, 2001). In order to children without such difficulties (see
measure the time course of the weak elec- Wilkins et al., 2004; Maurer et al., 2003, for
trical signals that transmit information in the related work). Even so, it is difficult to draw
brain, very sensitive electrodes are used. conclusions at the level of the individual
These are placed on the child’s scalp in a child. Cognitive neuroscience currently
kind of ‘cap’ formation. If the spontaneous relies largely on group comparisons.
natural rhythms of the brain are being Is it possible to use cognitive neuro-
recorded, this is called EEG (electro- science to discover whether different educa-
encephalography). More usually in cognitive tional interventions are working as claimed?

The Psychology of Education Review 3

Usha Goswami

Again, it depends on the intervention. If a variables like language ability and cognitive
child has been learning fine motor co-ordi- ability. For example, if a target group of
nation via a certain training technique, we autistic children are given an emotion recog-
cannot study the neural source of any nition task, and their brain activity is
apparent improvements, because neither of compared to that of a control group of
the imaging methods currently available can autistic children who have not been matched
tolerate much movement artefact. For both for language age and general cognitive
ERP and fMRI, children need to keep still, ability, any group differences found in brain
and (for ERP) they should not move their activity will be ambiguous. They could reflect
eyes too much. For fMRI, they actually need difficulties in recognising emotion in the
to lie still in a noisy and somewhat claustro- autistics, but they could also reflect an infe-
phobic magnet. If children are required to rior ability to label these emotions linguisti-
press buttons or manipulate things in order cally, or a cognitive difficulty with task
to measure the success of an intervention, demands unrelated to emotional processing.
again, brain responses due to the response Finally, any group comparisons in any kind
organisation and motor demands of these of task should ideally be carried out on
outcome measures must be separated from groups matched for their ability to perform
brain responses due to the cognitive skill of the task in question. Suppose you want to
interest. For example, if we want to measure determine whether deaf children recruit
the child’s ability to recognise whether visual different areas of the brain to make phono-
stimuli are words or nonsense words, they logical similarity judgements compared to
may have to press one button for a real word hearing children. To find out, you would
and another button for nonsense. The brain need to ensure that both groups of children
activity specific to the act of accessing were equally efficient at performing the
meaning must then be distinguished from phonological similarity task (e.g. do these
the brain activity due to the act of recog- words rhyme? Cart–heart). If the deaf group
nising a sequence of visual symbols, of were worse than the hearing group to begin
recoding the symbols into sound, and of with, any differences found in the cortical
organising and executing a button press. areas activated by the task could reflect this
difference in efficiency rather than a differ-
The importance of experimental design ence in how the brain sets about the task.
In fact, probably the most important point to And for any imaging study, we always need to
make about studies relying on neuroscience ask the question – what has imaging told us
techniques is that all the usual rules about that we could not have learned from a simple
research design apply. If a target group of behavioural comparison? In many current
dyslexics is given a certain intervention, and studies, the answer is, unfortunately, ‘not
changes in brain activity are compared to a much’. In most studies, a change or differ-
group of children who received no interven- ence in behaviour is accompanied by a
tion (an unseen control group), differences change or difference in neural activity. We
in neural activity will of course be found (e.g. have good correlations, but usually the
Temple et al., 2003). These differences change or difference in neural activity tells
cannot be attributed to the type of interven- us nothing extra about how learning is going
tion used, unless an additional control group on in the brain.
are recruited who receive the same amount
of extra intervention from the same experi- The possibilities for the future
menters, and this intervention varies from Given these many caveats, what can brain
the target intervention by only the specific science offer education? In fact, as long as
factor of interest. Similarly, target and stringent research designs are used and as
control groups must be matched for core long as technology continues to improve at

4 The Psychology of Education Review

 Neuroscience and Education

the current rate, it should be able to offer (the characteristic neural response to gram-
many things. Within the next 20 years, matical anomalies is a positivity at 600ms, the
methods should be so refined that we will P600). Ideally, all of these responses would
have robust data at the level of the individual be studied in the same children, enabling
child, and core neurodevelopmental aspects the different causal theories to be pitted
of the typical acquisition of language, against each other. We could find out
literacy, numeracy and emotional regulation whether a child can be dyslexic without any
(behavioural inhibition) should be under- measurable cerebellar deficit, or whether a
stood, enabling deviations from typical child could have SLI and yet show a perfectly
development to be picked up early and in typical P600.
quite specific ways. I will select three exam- In fact, ERP studies have already demon-
ples of what neuroscience could offer educa- strated abnormal processing of auditory
tion based on data that is already being signals in children with SLI and dyslexia at
collected. the group level. Areas of difficulty include
One area for which neuroscience has consonant and vowel duration, pitch
great potential is special education. discrimination, and phonetic contrasts (e.g.
Consider, for example, the causal origins of Bishop & McArthur, 2004; Bradlow et al.,
developmental language disorders. Some 1999; Csépe et al., 2001; Kraus et al., 1996;
language disorders affect at least one child Leppänen et al., 1999; Richardson et al.,
in every classroom, for example dyslexia and 2003; Schulte-Körne et al., 1998). These
specific language impairment (SLI). Some abnormal responses correlate with behav-
prominent theories of each disorder iour (less accurate perceptual responding),
attribute the underlying cause to an auditory but are often similar to the responses of
processing deficit: the brain is not much younger typically developing children
processing incoming linguistic information (see, for example, Bishop & McArthur,
in the way that it should (e.g. Tallal, 2004; 2004). Such results imply that the brain is
Goswami et al., 2002). Nevertheless, these processing auditory signals in the same way
theories disagree on the nature of the funda- in children with developmental language
mental deficit, and there are equally promi- disorders as in typically-developing children,
nent theories suggesting other causes, such but with reduced efficiency. What is needed
as a cerebellar weakness for dyslexia or a now is longitudinal studies, following infants
specific genetically-carried grammatical who show such discrepant responses, and
deficit for SLI (e.g. Nicolson & Fawcett, mapping the effects on the development of
1999; van der Lely et al., 1998). The time their language systems. Eventually, it should
course of ERPs offer a way of assessing these become possible to distinguish neural
competing theories. We already know that ‘markers’ of risk in the cradle, enabling early
auditory signals result in characteristic brain and focused intervention while the language
responses such as the N100 (a negative system is still developing. The simplistic view
deflection at about 100ms as the sound is would be that the brains of these infants will
registered) and the mis-match negativity (or still learn the same types of things about
MMN, a relative change in negativity if the language as the brains of typically-devel-
sound is different from preceding sounds, oping children from the same types of input.
for example if it is a/b/ rather than a/d/, However, a greater amount of perhaps
see Cheour et al., 1997). Hence the N100 enriched input may be required if learning is
and MMN could be used to compare the to follow a similar developmental trajectory.
different auditory theories. Similarly, cere- The core educational areas of literacy
bellar function could be studied in dyslexics and numeracy can also benefit from a neuro-
using fMRI, and grammatical processing science approach. Consider the develop-
could be studied in SLI children using ERP ment of numeracy. Imaging techniques have

The Psychology of Education Review 5

Usha Goswami

the potential to demonstrate what children psycholinguistic guessing game and the task
understand about number before they are of the teacher was to provide realistic and
very accurate in calculation or even in exciting texts, to phonics-based methods, in
counting. For example, we already know that which the task of the teacher is to instruct
there is a phylogenetically ‘old’ system for children in letter-sound correspondences,
number, present in animals and already either without books or perhaps using a
functioning in human infants, that records restricted range of texts chosen so that all
the ‘amount of stuff’ that is out there – a words have predictable spelling patterns
system for recording approximate (often leading to linguistically-peculiar
numerosity (Dehaene et al., 1998). At the texts). ERP methods offer an in-principle
same time, we have a culturally-transmitted way of distinguishing the effects of these
symbolic system for number, based on Arabic different instructional regimes on the devel-
numerals. Symbolic number acquisition opment of decoding and comprehension.
enables calculation and the appreciation of Whole language methods might be expected
the relations between quantities, and eventu- to improve semantic aspects of language
ally enables higher mathematics. Yet (e.g. noticing semantic anomalies), while
children take a while to learn the count phonics might be expected to improve
sequence, and even when they are counting phonetic aspects (e.g. the point at which /b/
accurately, there is debate concerning and /d/ are recognised as different sounds).
whether they understand what they are The relative development of the two kinds of
doing when they assign labels to quantities. skill could be studied in children following
Again, imaging methods can help us to find the two kinds of instructional method. In
out how much they do understand. In adults, fact, imaging work in Hungarian has already
the parietal areas of the brain are activated compared eight-year-old children being
when numbers or quantities (e.g. sets of taught to read by whole language methods
dots) are compared, and it has been shown with eight-year-olds being taught to read by
that five-year-olds activate the same parietal phonics (children in Hungary enter school
areas when comparing Arabic digits as adults at age six). It was found that during the first
(e.g. is three smaller or larger than five? See year of teaching, the MMN to phonetic
Temple & Posner, 1998). However, the changes (like /b/ – /d/) showed a signifi-
children take three times as long as the cantly shorter latency in the phonics
adults to make their response. Hence behav- children only (Csépe et al., 2001). This
iourally, they appear to be less sure that suggests that the phonics tuition was ‘sharp-
three is smaller than five, even though ening up’ the phonetic aspects of the
neurally they get there at the same time and language system. However, it may have had
in the same way. Simple number comparison little impact on other aspects of reading, like
tasks such as this can be used with ERP semantic comprehension. By giving children
imaging to track the development of sentences to comprehend and tracking the
number understanding in young children. characteristic brain response to semantic
For example, we can study how the innate anomalies (the N400), we could find out.
‘number sense’ becomes integrated with the
symbolic number system (see Szûcs, in press, Conclusions
for a specific discussion). Although it is important to be aware of the
Finally, consider long-standing educa- limitations of current imaging technology,
tional questions such as the debate neuroscience has a lot to offer education.
concerning the utility of different methods Brain imaging enables children’s abilities to
for the initial teaching of reading. The be studied in an objective manner, without
pendulum has swung from ‘whole language’ requiring overt responses, and often in para-
methods, in which reading was regarded as a digms that do not require overt attention

6 The Psychology of Education Review

 Neuroscience and Education

(e.g. auditory paradigms) and that are diffi- effects are a worry will still be poor studies,
cult to influence by inadvertent social cueing even if they demonstrate changes in brain
(e.g. if the child is inside the magnet). activity in the target group. The future
Imaging also allows interactions between potential of neuroscience for education
different neural systems to be studied at the requires us to go beyond correlational
same time. If a child is emotionally upset, for demonstrations, to use neural markers as the
example, this will show up in the relative basis for hypothesis-driven work about how
patterns of neural activity. Hence even if, for teaching and learning can change the brain.
example, mathematical ability is the focus of
the study, the child’s emotional reactions to Correspondence:
having to manipulate numbers will be Professor Usha Goswami
recorded at the same time. Any imaging Faculty of Education,
study is, however, only as good as its research University of Cambridge,
design, and the usual rules of doing good 184 Hills Road,
experiments in education apply. Studies with Cambridge CB2 2PQ.
unseen control groups or where Hawthorne E-mail: [email protected]

References
Anderson, M. (2001). Annotation: Conceptions of Kraus, N., McGee, T.J., Carrell, T.D., Zecker, S.G.,
Intelligence. Journal of Child Psychology and Nicol, T.G. & Koch, D.B. (1996). Auditory neuro-
Psychiatry, 42, 287–298. physiologic responses and discrimination deficits
Bishop, D.V.M. & McArthur, G.M. (2004). Immature in children with learning problems. Science, 273,
cortical responses to auditory stimuli in specific 971–973.
language impairment: Evidence from ERPs to Leppänen, P.H., Pihko, E., Eklund, K.M. & Lyytinen,
rapid tone sequences. Developmental Science 7(4), H. (1999). Cortical responses of infants with and
F11–F18. without a genetic risk for dyslexia: II. Group
Bradlow, A.R., Kraus, N., Nicol, T.G., McGee, T.J., effects. Neuroreport, 10, 969–973.
Cunningham, J., Zecker, S.G. & Carrell, T.D. Maurer, U., Bucher, K., Brem, S. & Brandeis, D.C.A.
(1999). Effects of lengthened formant transition (2003). Altered responses to tone and phoneme
duration on discrimination and neural represen- mismatch in kindergartners at familial dyslexia
tation of synthetic CV syllables by normal and risk. Neuroreport, 14(17), 2245–2250.
learning-disabled children. Journal of the Acoustic Nicolson, R.I. & Fawcett, A.J. (1999). Developmental
Society of America, 106, 2086–2096. dyslexia: The role of the cerebellum. Dyslexia:
Cheour, M., Alho, K., Sainioi, K., Reinikainen, K., An International Journal of Research and Practice, 5,
Renlund, M., Aaltonen, O., Eerola, O. & 155–177.
Näätänen, R. (1997). The mismatch negativity to Richardson, U., Leppänen, P.H.T., Leiwo, M. &
speech sounds at the age of three months. Devel- Lyytinen, H. (2003). Speech perception of
opmental Neurophysiology, 13, 167–174. infants with high familial risk for dyslexia differ
Csépe, V., Szûcs, D. & Lukács, A. (2001). Does it at the age of six months. Developmental Neuropsy-
matter how we learn to read? (in Hungarian). chology, 23, 385–397.
In C.S.Pléh, J. László & A. és Oláh (Eds.), Schulte-Körne, G., Deikmel, W., Bartling, J. &
Learning, initiatives and creativity (pp.198–213). Remschmidt, H. (1998). Auditory processing and
ELTE: Eötvös Kiadó. dyslexia: Evidence for a specific speech
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(1998). Abstract representations of numbers in Szûcs, D. (in press). The early development of numerical skills.
the animal and human brain. Trends in Neuro- Tallal, P. (2004). Improving language and literacy is a
science, 21(8), 355–611. matter of time. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5,
Goswami, U., Thomson, J., Richardson, U., 721–728.
Stainthorp, R., Hughes, D., Rosen S. & Scott, S.K. Temple, E., Deutsch, G.K., Poldrack, R.A., Miller,
(2002). Amplitude envelope onsets and develop- S.L., Tallal, P., Merzenich, M.M. & Gabrieli, J.D.E.
mental dyslexia: A new hypothesis. Proceedings of (2003). Neural deficits in children with dyslexia
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Usha Goswami

Temple, E. & Posner, M.I. (1998). Brain mechanisms

of quantity are similar in five-year-old children
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Epilepsia, 45 (Suppl. 1), 7–13.

8 The Psychology of Education Review

Open Dialogue peer review:
A response to Goswami
Laura Penrose

A
S A CLASS TEACHER in a mainstream teachers should be aware of any developments
junior school, with a background in which may be applicable to education as they
psychology, I welcome the oppor- happen, so that schools can take an informed
tunity to comment on both the potential for stance from the beginning as information
future application of neuroscience in educa- filters into school. I have sat through meetings
tion, and Goswami’s claim that ‘it is crucial with ‘experts’ introducing new initiatives and
for educators to engage with neuroscience’. questioned the psychological validity of their
Goswami argues that it is crucial for statements. Colleagues, without a background
education to engage with neuroscience in psychology, have listened to the same pres-
despite its currently limited contribution. entation and taken it as fact. Only if develop-
She argues that it may not be long before ments in neuroscience are monitored by
parents concerned about their child’s schools will they be able to correctly assess
progress are offered the facility to use a brain data, programmes and initiatives.
scan for assessment purposes. She also In addition Goswami highlights the need
asserts that in the future these assessments for educators to influence the future of the
might provide data which schools are field of neuroscience and the need for
expected to act upon. I agree that ‘parent hypothesis driven research. Educators are
choice’ is already (increasingly) being exer- the individuals who spend the most time
cised by parents insisting on investigation with children and, therefore, have a role to
and diagnosis of children’s perceived lack of play in identifying some appropriate applica-
progress or Special Educational Needs. tions of neuroscience. Also educators are
Parents are proactively seeking this from those who would need to implement
outside school. I have faced parents bringing changes in practice to ensure the success of
a diagnosis which we were expected to act interventions to combat identified deviations
on, despite questioning it, that was later from normal development.
retracted by the diagnosing professional. However, whilst I agree with Goswami
Other parents have both secured assess- that education should take a critical stance,
ments and additional teaching programmes so that they can differentiate between
with private companies. I have my doubts programmes based on sound and erroneous
about some of these and their stated objec- neuroscience premises, this is easier to
tives or claims. Therefore, I strongly believe discuss than implement. The people that
that if the future of neuroscience may ultimately may need to make decisions about
provide similar options for parents, teachers programmes and implement assessments are
need to be aware of the developments from in individual schools. As a class teacher I
the beginning so they can make informed often feel isolated and unaware of develop-
decisions when presented with data. ments in psychology and education and with
Whilst the outlined basics of brain devel- no easy mechanism to suggest my observa-
opment and possibilities for the future are tions to academics and researchers. Contact
interesting, Goswami acknowledges that with educational psychologists within school
currently the impact on education is limited. is so time pressured that only the children at
Despite the current limitations I agree that the ‘top of the list’ are seen by the psycho-

The Psychology of Education Review, Vol. 29, No. 2, September 2005 9

© The British Psychological Society ISSN 0262-4088
Laura Penrose

logist and no discussions of developments in daily basis. The key to getting educators to
psychology are possible. As for articles in engage with neuroscience is ensuring a
journals, newspapers or information coming summary of key research is easily accessible
into school, often it is just another piece of to teachers. Personal contact with educa-
paper or initiative which teachers have little tional psychologists and magazines in school
time to pay attention to, especially if neuro- are possibilities. However, given the time and
science currently has a limited application to paperwork pressures in schools, one possible
their daily practice. In addition it is very diffi- solution is a centralised approach from
cult for educators to take the initiative in psychologists where researchers publish
filling the knowledge gap when the base concise, teacher friendly summaries of rele-
level of neuroscience knowledge is so low. vant research on one publicised website.
Therefore, in summary, I strongly agree
with Goswami’s claim that it is crucial for Correspondence
education to engage with neuroscience but I Laura Penrose, MPhil (Psychology)
highlight the problems which need to be Giles Junior School,
addressed in order for this to happen. Durham Road,
Currently there is poor opportunity for two- Stevenage,
way communication of ideas and knowledge Hertfordshire SG1 4JQ.
between researchers in neuroscience and Tel: 01438 353374
the educators working with the children on a E-mail: [email protected]

10 The Psychology of Education Review

Open Dialogue peer review:
A response to Goswami
Paul Howard-Jones

G
OSWAMI’S EVOCATION OF a future vantages of impoverished environments than
time, when parents pay for cognitive the advantages of rich ones (Blakemore &
neuroscientific assessments and Frith, 2005).
demand action from their schools, provides Despite such early difficulties between
educators with much food for thought. With neuroscience and education, Goswami
current advances in neuroscience, rising succeeds in presenting special education as
public interest in brain function and an an area where neuroscience is now
increasing number of educational impacting positively. It is emphasised that
programmes that claim to be brain-based, a present techniques have clear limitations in
new relationship between neuroscience and terms of what they can tell us, whereas new
education appears set to emerge. techniques, or combinations of present
Goswami’s review of what may be possible ones, may tell us more. Although fMRI and
is both cautionary and enthusiastic, as well as ERP have poor temporal and spatial resolu-
providing some clues about how this inter- tion respectively, it is suggested that a combi-
disciplinary area needs to develop. The nation of these two techniques may be
many entrepreneurial classroom solutions particularly helpful for providing educa-
that claim to be brain-based are certainly one tional insights. Indeed, a two-participant
reason why education must engage more pilot study that combined these techniques
with neuroscience. On the other hand, their to investigate dyslexia has already reported
generally ill-informed nature is also indica- encouraging results (Grunling et al., 2004).
tive of the difficulty involved in coherently Perhaps it is unsurprising that special
moving from ‘brain scan to lesson plan’. education research, where established rela-
Perhaps made distrustful by these dubious tionships exist between experimental
‘brain-based’ approaches, many educators psychology and practice, has been the first
believe that neuroscience has nothing to area to benefit from neuroscience. However,
offer education (Davies, 2004). Yet there are the perceived relevance of neuroscience in
also many cases of how it has been enthusi- education extends beyond this realm. Inter-
astically over-interpreted. For example, ventions and programmes of change in
research that related increased synaptic mainstream education are commonly
growth in rats with the complex environ- presented as brain-based and part of the role
ments in which they were reared (e.g. of neuroscientists in education may be to
Turner & Greenough, 1985) has frequently comment upon these, if not participate in
been provided as evidence for the impor- producing better ones. However, here in
tance of making early years environments as mainstream education, ideas produced from
rich as possible. Less attention is generally wholly experimental investigations are less
given to later research showing increases in likely to directly influence classroom prac-
synapses of rats after experiencing complex tise. Rather, teachers often develop and
environments as adults (Greenough et al., apply strategies emerging from their own,
1987). Also, given the laboratory-based defi- and others’, context-based interpretations,
nition of a complex environment, it appears intuitively using whatever concepts are avail-
these studies may say more about the disad- able that may be useful to a particular situa-

The Psychology of Education Review, Vol. 29, No. 2, September 2005 11

© The British Psychological Society ISSN 0262-4088
Paul Howard-Jones

tion. It must be said that the communicative niques to look at. Even higher level and more
powers of entrepreneurs have been more complex processes with outcomes requiring
successful in feeding into this approach than subjective appraisal, such as those involving
have the efforts of scientists. Apart from creative tasks, can be the useful focus of
providing fundamental knowledge about neuroscientific investigation (e.g. Howard-
learning and the brain, the future of neuro- Jones et al., in press). Such investigations can
science in education may depend upon again involve modification of traditional
science involving itself more with this inter- neuroscientific methodologies to improve
pretative process. Brain-based educational ecological validity without sacrificing scien-
programmes should be sceptically examined tific control, thus allowing both scientific and
and they should be rejected if they are based educational design criteria to be met.
upon dubious scientific ideas. But how With Goswami, I believe that neuro-
should we develop ones that have a better science is set to offer education many
scientific basis? Without enough two-way insights, and a new interdisciplinary area
dialogue to achieve this (Geeke & Cooper, with its own techniques and understanding
2003), pseudo brain science may continue to will emerge. Along the way, we may have to
plague mainstream educational thinking think carefully about how to integrate these
without challenge. insights with other sources of knowledge,
One dilemma for scientists when scientific and otherwise, to communicate an
engaging in brain-based dialogue with understanding which is as meaningful as
educators is deciding how to deal with an possible in educational terms.
essentially ‘partial’ knowledge. Teachers are
fairly familiar with this problem too. They Correspondence
know that an examination result, an answer Dr Paul Howard-Jones
to a question in class, a pupil’s or parent’s Graduate School of Education,
perception of learning cannot, in them- 35 Berkeley Square,
selves, provide a firm conclusion about Bristol BS8 1JA.
learning. They do, however, all help to build E-mail: [email protected]
a picture about the pupil’s progress and may
References
help suggest an appropriate strategy. Simi-
Blakemore, S.-J. and Frith, U. (2005). The learning
larly, correlations between neural activity
brain. Oxford: Blackwell.
and behaviour may offer no certain conclu- Davis, A. (2004) The credentials of brain-based
sions about learning in isolation, but they learning. Journal of Philosophy of Education,
can further enhance existing pictures about 38(1), 21-35.
how and whether learning is occurring, and Geake, J. & Cooper, P. (2003). Cognitive neuro-
the effect of interventions upon it. The iden- science: Implications for education? Westminster
Studies in Education, 26(1), 7–20.
tification and tracking of ‘neural markers’ Greenhough, W.T., Black, J.E. & Wallace, C. S.
appears a natural progression for studies in (1987). Experience and brain development.
neuroscience and education. Although such Child Development, 58(3), 539–559.
techniques may reveal that there is no one Grunling, C., Ligges, M., Huonker, R., Klingert, M.
type of ‘typical acquisition’, they will Mentzel, H.-J., Rzanny, R., Kaiser, W.A., Witte, H.
& Blanz, B. (2004). Journal of Neural Transmission,
undoubtedly provide a more convincing and 111, 951–969.
helpful type of neuroscientific evidence than Howard-Jones, P.A., Blakemore, S.J., Samuel, E.,
correlation studies. Summers, I.R. & Claxton, G. (in press). Semantic
Having agreed that understanding limita- divergence and creative story generation: An
tions is essential and that much will be gained fMRI investigation. Cognitive Brain Research.
Turner, A.M. & Greenhough, W.T. (1985). Differen-
by further developing techniques and tial reading effects on rat visual cortex synapses.
methodologies, I feel more optimistic than I. Synaptic and neuronal density and synapses
Goswami about what we can use current tech- per neuron. Brain Research, 329, 195–203.

12 The Psychology of Education Review

Open Dialogue peer review:
A response to Goswami
Susan Hallam

What can neuroscience tell us about For permanent and substantial reorgani-
learning? sation of brain functioning to take place a

I
SHARE USHA GOSWAMI’s concerns considerable time investment is necessary.
about the way that findings from neuro- Long years of instrumental music practice
science are misinterpreted in educa- are associated with an increase in neuronal
tional contexts. This is not a new representation for the processing of the
phenomenon. For many years it has been tones of the musical scale. The largest
common to hear educators justifying partic- cortical representations are found in musi-
ular curriculum initiatives in terms of the cians who have been playing instruments for
need to stimulate left and right brain devel- the longest periods of time (Pantev et al.,
opment, despite the evidence that both 2003). Changes are also specific to the
hemispheres are implicated in most intellec- particular musical learning undertaken
tual activities. As knowledge about the (Munte et al., 2003). Processing of pitch in
process of synaptogenises became more string players is characterised by longer
widely known it was interpreted to mean that surveillance and more frontally distributed
teachers should make explicit the connec- event-related brain potentials attention.
tions between concepts. The fact that it takes Drummers generate more complex memory
considerable time and engagement for these traces of the temporal organisation of
connections to become permanent was not musical sequences and conductors demon-
embraced by the educational community. strate greater surveillance of auditory space
Perhaps the most important message for (Munte et al., 2003). Compared with non-
educators to take from current findings in musicians, string players have greater
neuroscience is that through the processes of somatosensory representations of finger
synaptogenisis, myelinisation and pruning, activity, the amount of increase depending
the cerebral cortex self-organises in response on the age of starting to play (Pantev et al.,
to learning activities (Pantev et al., 2003). 2003; Elbert et al., 1995; Karni et al., 1995). It
Research in relation to the development of is clear that the brain develops in very
musical skills has demonstrated this process. specific ways in response to particular
When participants practised five-finger exer- learning activities and the extent of change
cises on the piano over as short a period as depends on the length of time engaged with
five days there was evidence of enlargement learning.
of the cortical representation area targeting Particular methods of approaching
the long finger flexor and extensor muscles problem solving are also reflected in subse-
(Pascuel-Leone et al., 1994). Where practice quent brain activity. When students (aged 13
continued over further weeks, the cortical to 15) were taught to judge symmetrically
maps obtained after the weekend rest showed structured musical phrases as balanced or
a small change from baseline with a tendency unbalanced using traditional instructions
to increase in size over the course of the study about the differences (including verbal
(Pascual-Leone, 2003). Over a four week explanations, visual aids, notation, verbal
period there was evidence of the beginnings rules, playing of musical examples), or
of the process of brain re-organisation. participating in musical experiences

The Psychology of Education Review, Vol. 29, No. 2, September 2005 13

© The British Psychological Society ISSN 0262-4088
Susan Hallam

(singing, playing, improvising or performing ensuring that the curriculum is not over-
examples from the musical literature), loaded, and that teaching and assessment
activity in different brain areas was observed. methods motivate students and encourage
The music processing of the traditionally active and deep engagement with learning
trained group produced increased activation over long periods of time. While neuro-
of the left fronto-temporal brain regions, science may offer the possibility for the early
probably reflecting inner speech and analy- identification of specific difficulties in
tical, step-by-step processing. In contrast, the learning this will be of little use unless ways
musically trained procedural group showed of addressing them are also developed.
increased activation of the right frontal and Historically, early identification of problems
bilateral parieto-occipital lobes indicating a through psychological testing has led to the
more global way of processing and visuo- labelling of learners but the necessary
spatial associations (Altenmuller et al., 1997). support and development of programmes to
Overall, the evidence suggests that the ameliorate their difficulties has not always
brain substrates of processing reflect the followed.
‘learning biography’, of each individual
(Altenmuller, 2003, p.349). As we engage Correspondence
with different learning experiences over Profesor Susan Hallam
long periods of time permanent changes Lifelong Education and International
occur in the brain. These changes reflect not Development,
only what we have learned but also how we Institute of Education,
have learned. The message for educators is University of London,
clear. Learners must have sufficient time to 20 Bedford Way,
engage with particular learning activities to London WC1H 0AL.
ensure that learning occurs. This means E-mail: [email protected]

References
Altenmuller, E.O., Gruhn, W., Parlitz, D. et al. (1997). Munte, T.F., Nager, W., Beiss, T. Schroeder, C. &
Music learning produces changes in brain activa- Erne, S.N. (2003). Specialisation of the
tion patterns: A longitudinal DC-EEG-study unit. specialised electrophysiological investigations in
International Journal of Arts Medicine, 5, 28–34. professional musicians. In G. Avanzini, C.
Altenmuller, E.O. (2003). How many music centres Faienza, D. Minciacchi, L. Lopez & M. Majno
are in the brain? In I. Peretz & R. Zatorre (Eds.), (Eds.), The neurosciences and music (pp.112–117)
The cognitive neuroscience of music (pp.346–356) New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pantev, C., Engelien, A., Candia, V. & Elbert, T.
Elbert, T., Pantev, C., Wienbruch, C. Rockstroh, B. & (2003). Representational cortex in musicians.
Taub, E. (1995). Increased cortical representa- In I. Peretz & R. Zatorre (Eds.), The cognitive
tion of the fingers of the left hand in string neuroscience of music (pp.382–395) Oxford:
players. Science, 270, 305–306. Oxford University Press.
Karni, A, Meyer, G. Jezzard, P., Adams, M.M., Turner, Pascuel-Leone, A. (2003). The brain that makes
R. & Ungerleider, L.G. (1995). fMRI evidence for music and is changed by it. In I. Peretz & R.
adult motor cortex plasticity during motor skill Zatorre (Eds.), The cognitive neuroscience of music
learning. Nature, 377, 155–158. (pp.396–412) Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Maguire, E.A., Gadian, D.G., Johnsrude, I.S., Good, Pascuele-Leone, A, Grafman, J. & Hallett, M. (1994).
C.D., Ashburner, J., Frackowiak, R. & Frith, C.D. Modulation of cortical motor ouput maps during
(2000). Navigation-related structural change in development of implicit and explicit knowledge.
the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proceedings of the Science, 263, 1287–1289.
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
America, 97(8), 4398–4403.

14 The Psychology of Education Review

Open Dialogue peer review:
A response to Goswami
Fathima Khan

I
WRITE THIS RESPONSE from a physical and sensory disabilities which
personal perspective and positioning as a restrict their ability to respond to or interact
classroom teacher in an all ages with their environments. As children in this
special school for children and young very small population (even in comparison
people with severe to profound and multiple to the total population of people with special
learning difficulties. Having not thought educational needs) display very different
much about neuroscience research, despite individual characteristics and capabilities,
its obvious relevance to the context in which research on learning and development
I work, I was interested to read Usha within this population is often difficult and,
Goswami’s article and, indeed, spurred into therefore, very sparse. As a result, many
reading, thinking and talking with pupils in special schools at present follow a
colleagues about the issues raised in the developmental curriculum where learning
article. Particularly inspiring were the possi- and progress is measured against typical
bilities for the future that neuroscience learning milestones (see, for example, the
could offer special education. The potential QCA’s ‘p-levels’), milestones which do not
for using neuroscience to identify the causal reflect their individual and often atypical
origins of developmental language disorders developmental paths.
such as dyslexia and specific language The vision of a future, therefore, where
impairment seems clear. The benefits of teachers have access to individual neurosci-
such research would be the implementation entific assessments for their pupils with
of more appropriate interventions, at the severe learning difficulties is indeed
right times, for children with developmental appealing. At last teachers would be able to
language disorders that would enable them tell which pupils in their class are actually
to access a more typical developmental path. benefiting from learning the count sequence
The benefits of a neuroscience approach (usually up to no more than 10 in my
to understanding the development of school), or which pupils ‘get’ number
numeracy and literacy in typically devel- concepts and which don’t and perhaps never
oping children are also clearly illustrated in will. Where literacy and language develop-
the article. It seems clear, however, that a ment are concerned, the neuroscience
neuroscience approach also has much to approach could prove even more important
offer to the understanding of the develop- in my particular teaching context. It could
ment of numeracy and literacy for individ- illuminate whether individuals who do not
uals with severe learning difficulties, for develop speech (due to dyspraxia, for
whom, in most cases, trajectories of typical example, which may affect all their motor
development have only limited application. movement) still develop receptive language
Children described as having severe learning in the normal expected sequence even when
difficulties in the United Kingdom are those they are not able to show those language
who show significantly below average intel- skills expressively. It could illuminate
lectual functioning. Many, furthermore, whether the level of interaction and commu-
have significant communication difficulties, nication that a child can demonstrate is
may be non-speaking and may have other consistent with their motor development,

The Psychology of Education Review, Vol. 29, No. 2, September 2005 15

© The British Psychological Society ISSN 0262-4088
Fathima Khan

as is commonly believed, or whether it is up the larger part of the population of

hampered by the child’s physical disability children with severe and profound learning
and therefore not indicative of their cogni- difficulties. Such a project would enable
tive or internal thought and linguistic devel- teachers to devise more meaningful and rele-
opment. The implications of these questions vant individual education programmes for
for pedagogical issues, concerned with pupils with severe learning difficulties once
learning, and for curriculum issues they have a clearer idea of how the curricula
concerned with inclusion, relevance and they offer makes a difference to the brains of
meaning are far-reaching indeed. the children they teach.
While individual neuroscientific assess-
ments remain, for the time being, in the Correspondence
realm of the future, an important task for Fathima Khan
neuroscience, at present, it seems to me, Faculty of Education,
would be to illuminate atypical development University of Cambridge,
in children with cognitive dysfunctions due 184 Hills Road,
to genetically-based developmental disor- Cambridge CB2 2PQ.
ders. It is these children, after all, that make E-mail: [email protected]

16 The Psychology of Education Review

Open Dialogue peer review:
A response to Goswami
David Whitebread

I
AM DELIGHTED TO have been asked to learning. Research at the behavioural level
respond to Usha Goswami’s paper, which, in education is notoriously difficult; the
in my view, makes an important contribu- demands of ecological validity make the kind
tion to a very significant area. In the current of control needed to establish clear cause
situation, where a significant proportion of and effect relationships almost impossible to
teachers and schools are enthusiastically achieve. Further, the outcomes of a partic-
adopting ‘brain-based’ pedagogies, almost all ular intervention may only manifest them-
of which are entirely bogus, voices such as selves at the level of performance over a
Goswami’s clearly setting out the current considerable time-period. The establishment
limited state of scientific knowledge, are very of neural markers for key aspects of develop-
welcome. The paper emphasises the care ment, however, raises the possibility of
required in designing neuroscientific experi- providing rigorous and early indications of
ments and in drawing conclusions from beneficial cognitive change.
them, particularly in relation to education. There is much talk of establishing
However, I am with Goswami wholeheart- genuine dialogue between the neuroscien-
edly in rejecting the arguments, notably tific and educational communities. For this
promoted by John Bruer, that cognitive to happen, neuroscientists need to inform
neuroscience is irredeemably reductionist educators about relevant research in cogni-
and is never likely to make a useful contribu- tive neuroscience – and Goswami’s paper
tion to educational questions. In this paper makes an excellent contribution to this –
and elsewhere, she has ably demonstrated and educators must start helping to
the clear potential of neuroscientific construct the agenda for the neuroscientists.
research to increase our understandings in I would like to make a small initial contribu-
relation to literacy problems. At the recent tion to this latter enterprise by highlighting
Launch Conference for the Centre for two potentially fruitful areas.
Neuroscience in Education at Cambridge, First, in early years education currently
papers by John Duncan on intelligence, Eric there is an important debate internationally
Taylor on ADHD, Uta Frith on autism and about the appropriate age at which children
social cognition, and Denes Szucs on should enter formal schooling, and begin to
numeracy, just to select a few, clearly indi- learn to read, do formal maths, etc. In the
cated similar potential for increased under- UK, for example, recent policy has been
standing in a range of important areas for founded on the belief that the earlier we
education. start children learning to read the better,
We do, of course, need to be vigilant in while in many parts of continental Europe,
our critical awareness, and to beware of the requiring children under the age of six or
use of pseudo-scientific evidence, or the seven to start learning to read is regarded as
overgeneral application of particular data to unhelpful and inappropriate. Put simply, the
justify favoured positions. Nevertheless, crucially important question is whether,
there are good reasons for believing that particularly in the first few years of life, the
neuroscientific evidence can contribute to developing brain becomes ‘ready’ for partic-
understandings about teaching and ular kinds of learning at particular stages or

The Psychology of Education Review, Vol. 29, No. 2, September 2005 17

© The British Psychological Society ISSN 0262-4088
David Whitebread

ages. In the UK, are we asking children to of seven or eight years. My own research and
learn in some areas before the brain struc- that of others, however, has more recently
tures which will make this possible have been established that these processes can be
formed? Within current neuroscientific liter- clearly discerned in children as young as
ature there are a number of areas of investi- three years of age. Neuroscientific research,
gation which seem likely to be able to inform perhaps related to established neural
this debate. The work by Mark Johnson and markers in the frontal lobes for aspects of
others related to the interactive develop- executive functioning, may well help us to
ment of regional specialisation , and studies understand the early emergence of these
of the development of mylenisation in the vital aspects of cognition. The possibility of
young brain, leading to increased speed in early detection of atypical development and
some areas of brain function, bear crucially metacognitive remediation offers exciting
on this kind of debate. opportunities which could be highly benefi-
Second, a considerable groundswell of cial for children who currently experience
research in recent years has indicated the difficulties in learning in school. More
crucial significance of self-regulation or generally, such research is clearly required if
metacognition for the development of indi- we are to move towards genuinely evidence-
viduals as learners. We now have fairly strong based ‘brain-friendly’ educational practices.
evidence that this is a key area of deficiency
in many children with learning difficulties. It Correspondence
is also well-established that metacognitive Dr David Whitebread
training is highly effective with such Faculty of Education,
children. Early research in this area University of Cambridge,
suggested that metacognition was a late- 184 Hills Road,
developing aspect of cognitive functioning, Cambridge CB2 2PQ.
with the first signs emerging around the ages E-mail: [email protected]

18 The Psychology of Education Review

Open Dialogue:
Author’s response to peer commentary
Usha Goswami

I
AM GRATEFUL FOR the thoughtful and with clarity, but they should not themselves
constructive comments in reply to my enthuse about particular studies or ideas
target article. Although the future directly to teachers – it may be too early to
scenario that I depicted of a parent arriving draw firm conclusions, or (as noted by
in school clutching a brain scan was Whitebread) particular data may be used to
intended to provoke debate, the responses justify favoured positions. What is needed is
of Penrose, Whitebread and Howard-Jones a critical and informed interface between
show that this vignette was not as far-fetched neuroscientists and teachers. Academics in
as may be supposed. As also pointed out by Departments of Education seem ideally
the commentators, it is not merely parents placed to provide this interface.
who may be gullible to the claims of ‘brain- Another initiative could be taken by
based’ learning programmes. Penrose’s those teaching trainee teachers and by those
point about the plausibility of apparent teaching on education degrees. Some neuro-
‘experts’ when the teacher lacks relevant science and more psychology needs to find
knowledge is critical. She comments that its way into our educational programmes for
colleagues untrained in psychology will teachers. So much more is known now about
listen to a presentation by an ‘expert’ and childhood cognitive development than was
accept it as fact. Howard-Jones notes that the known even 20 years ago, and yet much of
communication skills of neural entrepre- this knowledge is not taught to trainees nor
neurs are often far superior to those of available as part of continuing professional
neuroscientists, and that the former there- development courses. Nevertheless, many
fore have had far more influence than the teachers are willing to invest time and energy
latter. We all seem to be in agreement that it in keeping abreast of developments in the
is important for educators to be informed, so cognitive and brain sciences. Our recent
that they can take a critical stance and avoid Launch Conference for the Centre for
accepting as ‘fact’ what are possibly (as Neuroscience in Education in Cambridge
Whitebread describes) entirely bogus ‘brain- (July 2005, mentioned by Whitebread)
based’ pedagogies. attracted nearly 250 teachers and educators.
However, the point that it is difficult for Their enthusiastic feedback about the
teachers themselves to keep abreast of devel- presentations made by neuroscientists
opments in educational neuroscience is well- overviewing certain fields of study suggests
made (see Penrose). Teachers do not that the interest is there. In fact, the notion
necessarily have the time to take the initia- of one centralised website (suggested by
tive in filling the knowledge gap. In my view, Penrose) is also already being considered.
it is lecturers in University Departments of The National Education Research Forum
Education who need to take the initiative (NERF) are acutely aware of the difficulties
here. Although Howard-Jones suggests that faced by teachers who want independent
scientists may need to involve themselves evaluations of various interventions, brain-
more in communication, my own view is that based or otherwise. They hope to provide
the job of the scientists is to do high-quality one central site via their website (www.nerf-
science. They should report their findings uk.org) where teachers can access informa-

The Psychology of Education Review, Vol. 29, No. 2, September 2005 19

© The British Psychological Society ISSN 0262-4088
Usha Goswami

tion about various school-based interven- development in affected individuals may

tions, just as doctors can access the latest indeed help to explain the diversity of indi-
information about clinical trials of various vidual characteristics and capabilities in the
drugs. population of individuals with severe
The area of special education is high- learning difficulties. For example, it is
lighted by both Khan and Howard-Jones, certainly possible that children who do not
and I agree with their views concerning the speak can develop normal receptive
potential here for contributions from neuro- language skills, indeed, individual such cases
science. Khan is correct to highlight the have already been documented (e.g. Cossu,
unique case of children with severe learning 2003).
difficulties. About 40 per cent of individuals Hallam concentrates on how the cerebral
with IQ below 70 have a medical background cortex self-organises in response to learning
condition, and this rises to 80 per cent for activities, a theme also prominent in the
individuals with IQ below 50 (Gillberg & recent book by Blakemore and Frith (2005)
Soderstrom, 2003). This has led to the emer- on neuroscience and education. However,
gence of brain-based theories about causa- Hallam’s examples are drawn from the field
tion linked to the disproportionate number of musical cognition. It is important to
of males who present with different medical recognise that music is a special case of
conditions. For example, it has been learning, in that motor ability is critical to
suggested that dysregulation of the normal the level of expertise attained. Motor ability
developmental trajectory of myelination may does not play a specific role in the acquisi-
play a role in some disorders (Bartzokis, tion of more familiar classroom skills like
2004). Myelin sheaths form around the literacy, numeracy and metacognition.
axons (nerve fibres) of brain cells and Learners may need time to engage with the
increase neural transmission speed. Myelin curriculum, but neuroscientific studies of
also enables widely distributed neural music learning per se do not prove this to be
networks to fire at the same time, which is the case. Nevertheless, Hallam’s point about
necessary for higher-level skills like the early identification of children with
reasoning and memory. Developmental special needs is well-taken. It is indeed of
abnormalities in the amount/thickness of little use to identify these children if nothing
myelin impair neural processing, and would is then offered to ameliorate their difficul-
be expected to particularly affect late-devel- ties. I am with Khan in being optimistic. With
oping brain structures such as the frontal, her, my hope is that neuroscience will even-
temporal and parietal lobes. These are the tually enable the implementation of more
critical areas for language, mathematics, appropriate interventions at the right times
planning and reasoning. Greater under- for the children concerned, thereby
standing of cause and effect in basic brain improving upon the current state of the art.

References
Bartzokis, G. (2004). Quadratic trajectories of brain
myelin content: Unifying construct for neuropsy-
chiatric disorders. Neurobiology of Ageing, 25,
49–62.
Blakemore, S.J. & Frith, U. (2005). The learning brain:
Lessons for education. Oxford: Blackwell.
Cossu, G. (2003). The role of output speech in
literacy acquisition: Evidence from congenital
anarthria. Reading & Writing, 16, 99–122.
Gillberg, C. & Soderstrom, H. (2003). Learning
disability. The Lancet, 362, 811–821.

20 The Psychology of Education Review

Individual Paper:
The worries of junior high school pupils
in Taiwan
Chris Kyriacou & Chun-Fang Yang

This study used a questionnaire to explore the worries of 120 junior high school pupils in Taiwan and the
coping strategies they use to cope with such worries. The data indicate that about a quarter of the respon-
dents find being a pupil very or extremely stressful. They are particularly worried about tests and exami-
nations, whether they will be able to gain entry to a good senior high school, and whether they will get a
good job in the future. The most frequent coping strategies reported involved a mix of strategies: emotion
control, problem solving, and social support. The study provides further evidence of the high level of worry
commonly experienced by secondary school aged pupils in many countries.

O
VER THE LAST 20 years there has commonly reported may not represent the
been an increased interest in severest sources of stress. Taken as a whole,
exploring the worries experienced by however, most secondary school aged pupils
pupils both at school in their life outside worry about their future, examination pres-
school. There is little doubt that pupils face sures and their general academic progress at
a variety of concerns, ranging from worries school. They worry about their relationships
about their personal appearance, the anxiety with other pupils, including general friend-
generated by examinations, being bullied at ship as well as more romantic engagements,
school, and worries about their future and also worry about being bullied at school.
employment prospects. Studies of the Pupils also worry about aspects of their home
worries experienced by pupils and how they life, particularly having conflicts with their
attempt to cope with such worries have now parents. Many pupils also have particular
been published in many countries: e.g. worries about their parents arguing a lot,
Australia (Lewis & Frydenberg, 2002), and coping with the illness and/or death of
England (Denscombe, 2000), Israel a parent or other close relative.
(Milgram & Toubiana, 1999), Norway Whilst worry and stress can be considered
(Torsheim & Wold, 2001), South Korea to be negative states, it is important to bear
(Kyriacou & Kim, 2004), Taiwan (Li, 2001) in mind that the generation of such states
and the US (Pomerantz et al., 2002). can often be adaptive, for example, in ener-
The general picture that emerges from gising pupils to revise before an important
such studies for pupils during the secondary examination, although high levels of these
school years is a complex one, since much states for some pupils can be maladaptive,
depends on pupils’ particular circumstances such as when a high level of test anxiety leads
(Frydenberg, 1997; McNamara, 2000; Kyri- to the pupil’s mind going blank (e.g. see
acou, 2003). For example, facing a life Boekaerts, 1995, for an analysis of how worry
threatening illness would clearly be a major and stress can generate either an adaptive or
source of stress for those pupils in such a a maladaptive response for pupils).
situation, but as such situations are fairly The present study was undertaken to
rare, this would not feature as an item which explore the worries facing secondary school
most pupils worry about. We, therefore, have aged pupils in Taiwan and how they attempt
to bear in mind that the worries most to cope with their worries. The particular

The Psychology of Education Review, Vol. 29, No. 2, September 2005 21

© The British Psychological Society ISSN 0262-4088
Chris Kyriacou & Chun-Fang Yang

impetus for this study came from a rising 2001; Wu, 1996) indicate that older pupils
concern in Taiwan that adolescents face high during the secondary school years appear to
levels of academic pressure to do well in experience more stress than young pupils.
school, and this is particularly acute with Finally, five studies in Taiwan looking at
respect to the examinations taken at the end coping strategies (Jiang, 1991; Jiang, 1993;
of junior high school in order to gain entry Li, 2001; Su, 1998; Wu, 1996) indicate that
into the senior high school or vocational boys are more likely than girls to use
school of their choice. This study in part problem solving and positive thinking strate-
sought to explore how such academic pres- gies, whilst girls are more likely than boys to
sures would compare with other worries use self-blame, to resign themselves to the
experienced by Taiwanese pupils. The study situation, and to discuss problems with
does not, however, attempt to test a specific others. These findings are also in line with
hypothesis regarding whether the overall research findings in other countries
level of stress for Taiwanese students is (Kyriacou, 2003).
higher than that reported in other countries;
rather the study was designed to be an Research design and data collection
exploratory survey conducted in a Taiwanese The main aim of this study was to explore
setting. The small size of the sample and the the worries reported by a sample of junior
fact that no claims are made regarding its high school pupils in Taiwan and how they
representativeness for the pupils at this attempted to cope with such worries. The
particular school, also counsels against questionnaire asked pupils to firstly rate how
drawing firm conclusions. stressful they found being a junior high
A study by Li (2001) based on a survey of school student on a five-point scale labelled
stress amongst 455 junior high school pupils extremely stressful, very stressful, moderately
in Taiwan found that the most frequent stressful, mildly stressful, and not at all
reported worry was ‘there are too many tests in stressful; and secondly, to rate their ability to
the school’. This is in line with a number of cope with stress on a five-point scale labelled
surveys conducted in other countries. For certainly better than most pupils, probably
example, a survey by Gallagher and Millar better than most pupils, about average, prob-
(1996) of 3983 secondary school pupils in ably not as well as most pupils, and certainly
Northern Ireland found that the most not as well as most pupils.
frequently reported worry was ‘whether I will Pupils were then asked to rate 50 sources
pass my exam’. A study of 116 secondary of life stress on a five-point scale labelled
school pupils in South Korea reported by Kyri- 0=Not encountered in the last six months; or
acou and Kim (2004) found that the most if encountered: 1=Not worried, 2=A bit
frequently reported source of stress was ‘the worried, 3=Quite worried, and 4=Very
stress of working hard’. Finally, Denscombe worried. This list comprised life stress events
(2000) in a study of 1648 year 10 and 11 pupils in four main categories: home, relationships,
in England reported that taking GCSEs consti- school, and future identity, which was drawn
tuted a major source of stress, with its mixture up after considering research studies on
of examination and course work pressures and pupils’ worries (Kyriacou & Kim, 2004; Li,
their perception that their success or other- 2001; McNamara, 2000; Milgram &
wise in their GCSEs constituted a fateful Toubiana, 1999; Millar et al., 1993; Su, 1998;
moment in their life trajectories. As a whole, it Wu, 1996).
appears that the stress generated by examina- Finally, the questionnaire asked pupils to
tions and tests towards the end of the rate the frequency of using 30 coping strate-
secondary school years is a major source of gies on a four-point scale labelled 0=Never,
stress for pupils in many countries. 1=Sometimes, 2=Often, and 3=Always. This
Three studies in Taiwan (Jiang, 1991; Li, list was drawn up after considering previous

22 The Psychology of Education Review

 The worries of junior high school pupils in Taiwan

research on pupils’ use of coping strategies school, and this school can be regarded as
(Lewis & Frydenberg, 2002; Li, 2001; McNa- having a high ability intake with a strong
mara, 2000; Robson et al., 1995; Su, 1998; academic ethos, this study must be regarded
Wu, 1996). as exploratory.
The questionnaire was designed in
English and then translated into Chinese. Findings and discussion
The Chinese version was distributed to 130 The questionnaires were completed by 58
junior high school pupils midway through male and 62 female pupils, aged 14 or 15
year 9 (their final year at the school) in three years, attending their third year in a junior
classes at a school where the second author high school.
used to be a school teacher. The school was Table 1 gives the percentage responses to
located in the urban area of Yunghe, a town the general question on the stress of being a
of approximately 231,000 people in Taipei junior high school pupil (N=120). Using a
County, which is in the northern part of five-point response scale scored 1 (not at all
Taiwan. This school is regarded as a distin- stressful) to 5 (extremely stressful) respec-
guished school in Taipei, as pupils at this tively yielded a mean of 3.13 (s.d.=0.74).
school have a good record of achievement in About a quarter of the respondents rated
the entrance examinations for entry to being a junior high school pupil as very or
senior high schools. Because of its good extremely stressful. This is generally in line
reputation, many parents want to send their with the findings typically reported in other
children to this school, and it has now studies of pupil stress for this age group of
become one of the bigger junior high pupils (Kyriacou, 2003).
schools in Taipei, with 123 classes, about 300 Table 2 gives the percentage responses to
teachers, and around 4600 pupils. the general question of how they rate their
The questionnaires were distributed by the overall ability to cope (N=120). Using a five-
second author’s former colleagues and point response scale scored 1 (certainly not
completed in class time. One-hundred-and- as well as most pupils) to 5 (certainly better
twenty completed questionnaires were than most pupils) respectively yielded a
returned. Ten pupils who had not finished mean of 3.10 (s.d.=0.69). Most of the respon-
completing the questionnaire during class dents rated their coping ability as about
time where allowed to finish the questionnaire average, with very few pupils rating it as
at home, but failed to return the question- certainly better or certainly not as well as
naire. The response rate was thus 92 per cent. most pupils.
As the data were all collected at one Table 3 gives the pupils’ rating of life

Table 1: Pupils’ rating of how stressful they find being a junior high school student
(percentages, N=120).
Not at all Mildly Moderately Very Extremely
stressful stressful stressful stressful stressful
0.8 14.2 60.8 19.2 5.0

Table 2: Pupils’ rating of their coping ability (percentages, N=120).

Certainly not Probably not About Probably Certainly
as well as as well as average better than better than
most pupils most pupils most pupils most pupils
2.5 10.8 61.7 24.2 0.8

The Psychology of Education Review 23

Chris Kyriacou & Chun-Fang Yang

Table 3: Pupils’ rating of life stress events occurring in the last six months
(in descending order of mean scores, N=120;
Scoring: 0=Not encountered; 1=Not worried; 2=A bit worried;
3=Quite worried; 4=Very worried).
Life stress event 0 1 2 3 4 Mean s.d.
47 I worry that I can’t enter a good senior
6.7 10.0 35.0 15.8 32.5 2.57 1.22
high school
45 I can’t achieve my expectations 6.7 9.2 44.2 17.5 22.5 2.40 1.13
48 I worry that I can’t find a good job after
15.8 16.7 20.8 15.0 31.7 2.30 1.46
I graduate
33 I do less well than before in tests 10.8 19.2 29.2 19.2 21.7 2.21 1.28
35 I’m not interested in some specific subjects 10.8 23.3 32.5 15.0 18.3 2.06 1.24
34 My results are compared with those of others 12.5 23.3 32.5 15.0 16.7 2.00 1.25
42 I can’t correct my bad habits 5.8 27.5 42.5 12.5 11.7 1.96 1.05
41 I doubt my ability 9.2 28.3 36.7 11.7 14.2 1.93 1.15
43 I don’t know how to arrange my time 10.0 22.5 42.5 15.8 9.2 1.91 1.07
31 There are too many tests in the school 7.6 26.1 42.9 14.3 9.2 1.91 1.03
36 I have problems in understanding some
18.3 22.5 31.7 12.5 15.0 1.83 1.29
specific subjects
6 My parents expect too much of me 19.2 23.3 37.5 14.2 5.8 1.64 1.12
29 The school’s discipline is too strict 22.5 32.5 20.8 7.5 16.7 1.63 1.35
44 I don’t know what is in my interests 20.8 30.8 26.7 12.5 9.2 1.58 1.21
7 I have a conflict with my parents 17.5 36.7 32.5 7.5 5.8 1.47 1.05
46 There is no goal to my life 28.3 24.2 30.0 9.2 8.3 1.45 1.22
32 There is too much homework to do 17.5 34.2 38.3 6.7 3.3 1.44 0.96
39 I feel bored and have nothing to do 16.7 41.7 30.0 5.8 5.8 1.42 1.02
38 My teachers punish me 10.0 50.0 30.8 6.7 2.5 1.41 0.85
16 Our class has very competitive climate
22.5 32.5 31.7 8.3 5.0 1.40 1.08
between peers
8 I have a conflict with my brother or sister 26.7 33.3 22.5 10.8 6.7 1.37 1.18
2 My parents have a series of quarrels 23.3 29.2 36.7 9.2 1.7 1.36 0.99
5 My parents over control me 26.7 31.7 27.5 8.3 5.8 1.35 1.13
40 I worry about my appearance 21.7 41.7 24.2 5.0 7.5 1.35 1.10
4 My parents have different views on discipline
25.8 36.7 27.5 8.3 1.7 1.23 0.98
from each other
37 My teachers expect too much of me 26.7 37.5 26.7 5.8 3.3 1.21 1.01
22 I like someone but I don’t know what he or
36.7 33.3 20.8 4.2 5.0 1.07 1.09
she thinks
10 My parents don’t give me enough
45.0 24.2 23.3 2.5 5.0 0.98 1.11
pocket money
50 I suffer from ill health 38.3 35.0 20.8 5.0 0.8 0.95 0.93
21 I don’t know how to communicate with the
42.5 35.0 11.7 6.7 4.2 0.95 1.09
opposite sex
49 Menses occurs for girls or nocturnal emission
31.7 51.7 12.5 0.8 3.3 0.92 0.88
occurs for boys
30 I worry that school violence could happen
50.8 24.2 20.8 2.5 1.7 0.80 0.96
to me
19 I feel lonely and have no close friends 54.2 21.7 17.5 4.2 2.5 0.79 1.03
17 I have difficulties getting along with my
44.2 35.0 19.2 0.8 0.8 0.79 0.83
classmates

24 The Psychology of Education Review

 The worries of junior high school pupils in Taiwan

Table 3: Pupils’ rating of life stress events occurring in the last six months
(continued)

Life stress event 0 1 2 3 4 Mean s.d.

24 I don’t like someone and don’t know how 58.3 17.5 16.7 5.0 2.5 0.75 1.06
to reject him or her
14 Death or serious illness of relatives 59.2 15.8 18.3 5.0 1.7 0.74 1.03
12 My parents oppose me having a boyfriend 55.8 27.5 8.3 5.0 3.3 0.72 1.03
or a girlfriend
20 I have a quarrel or fight with my friends 50.0 31.7 15.8 1.7 0.8 0.71 0.85
13 My parents don’t like my friends 61.7 13.3 20.0 4.2 0.8 0.69 0.98
11 My family has financial difficulties 59.2 20.8 12.5 7.5 0 0.68 0.96
27 My teachers oppose me having a boyfriend 56.7 26.7 10.8 4.2 1.7 0.67 0.94
or a girlfriend
18 I feel myself to be pushed out from a group 52.5 30.8 13.3 3.3 0 0.67 0.83
9 My parents show blatant favouritism 60.8 19.2 15.8 2.5 1.7 0.65 0.94
23 I like someone but he or she rejects me 72.5 16.7 5.8 1.7 3.3 0.46 0.93
15 I move to a new school and am separated 78.3 8.3 10.8 1.7 0.8 0.38 0.81
from previous friends
28 Death or serious illness of close friends 83.3 8.3 5.0 3.3 0 0.28 0.71
25 I become estranged for my friends because 81.7 14.2 3.3 0 0.8 0.24 0.59
of my boyfriend or girlfriend
26 I have broken off a steady relationship with 81.7 14.2 3.3 0.8 0 0.23 0.54
my boyfriend or girlfriend
3 My parents have a problem with the police 88.3 6.7 2.5 0.8 1.7 0.20 0.68
involving a court appearance
1 My parents get separated or divorce 91.7 2.5 3.3 2.5 0 0.16 0.59

The Psychology of Education Review 25

Chris Kyriacou & Chun-Fang Yang

Table 4: Pupils’ rating of the frequency of using coping strategies

(in descending order of mean scores, N=120;
Scoring: 0=Never; 1=Sometimes; 2=Often; 3=Always.
Coping strategy 0 1 2 3 Mean s.d.
25 Do leisure activities, such as taking exercise,
3.3 13.3 45.0 38.3 2.18 0.78
watching TV
24 Think about happy things to make myself
7.5 31.7 35.0 25.8 1.79 0.91
feel better
1 Accept the reality 4.2 40.0 33.3 22.5 1.74 0.85
6 Tell myself not to be nervous and relax 4.2 36.7 42.5 16.7 1.71 0.79
2 Think about the problem carefully and how
5.0 39.2 38.3 17.5 1.68 0.81
to solve it
10 Discuss the issue with my friends or classmates 10.0 30.8 41.7 17.5 1.66 0.88
17 Want to be left alone 8.3 43.3 26.7 21.7 1.61 0.91
7 Comfort myself that this is not the worse
15.8 35.0 32.5 16.7 1.50 0.95
situation
16 Lose my interest in everything 17.5 35.0 28.3 19.2 1.49 0.99
8 Tell myself that such experience can make me
16.7 37.5 26.7 19.2 1.48 0.98
more mature
5 Imagine that marvellous changes will happen 10.0 45.8 30.0 14.2 1.48 0.85
26 Find something to eat 18.3 39.2 21.7 20.8 1.45 1.01
27 Go to sleep 15.0 42.5 25.8 16.7 1.44 0.94
21 Be irritable 19.2 40.0 26.7 14.2 1.35 0.95
4 Analyse the source of the stress 16.7 44.2 27.5 11.7 1.34 0.89
18 Put problems aside temporarily and do not think
15.0 51.7 22.5 10.8 1.29 0.85
about it
20 Sulk 21.7 42.5 24.2 11.7 1.25 0.93
15 Try to forget or ignore it 17.5 51.7 20.0 10.8 1.24 0.86
14 Find an excuse or other reasons to explain
12.5 59.2 25.0 3.3 1.19 0.68
something away
12 Talk to someone who has encountered a
29.2 40.0 23.3 7.5 1.09 0.90
similar situation
19 Delay dealing with problems as long as possible 28.3 48.3 14.2 9.2 1.04 0.89
9 Talk to my parents or elderly relatives 32.5 41.7 14.9 10.8 1.04 0.95
30 Do nothing but let things take their natural course 34.2 41.7 16.7 7.5 0.97 0.90
3 Read some relevant articles or books to find
31.7 45.0 18.3 5.0 0.96 0.83
a solution
29 Improve my time management skills 25.8 54.2 18.3 1.7 0.95 0.71
13 Deny problems exist 55.0 35.8 5.8 3.3 0.57 0.75
22 Vent my anger by throwing something 58.3 30.0 7.5 4.2 0.57 0.80
11 Ask for help from teachers or professional
63.3 30.8 3.3 2.5 0.45 0.68
counsellors
28 Pray to God 73.3 25.0 1.7 0 0.28 0.48
23 Release worry by resorting to smoking, drinking
90.8 4.2 2.5 2.5 0.16 0.58
alcohol, or using drugs

26 The Psychology of Education Review

 The worries of junior high school pupils in Taiwan

stress events occurring in the last six months gender difference. Female pupils were more
(in descending order of mean scores). The likely to discuss the issue with friends or
items with the three highest mean scores all classmates (p<0.05), and more likely to go to
concern worries about the immediate future: sleep (p<0.01). These two differences are in
worrying about whether they can enter a line with previous research in Taiwan indi-
good senior high school (33 per cent of the cating a tendency for female pupils to be
respondents said they were ‘very worried’ by more likely than male pupils to seek social
this), not achieving their expectations (23 support and to resign themselves to the situ-
per cent) and not finding a good job after ation (Jiang, 1991; Jiang, 1993; Li, 2001; Su,
they graduate (32 per cent). It is not 1998; Wu, 1996).
surprising that year 9 pupils who would be No attempt is made here to explore the
taking their entrance examinations later in association between the frequency of using
the academic year reported that not coping strategies and the reported level of
entering a good senior high school was their stress, since a possible relationship between
major worry. Two items which explicitly these two variables is hard to interpret. If
mention tests (‘I do less well than before in one found there was a high correlation
tests’, and ‘There are too many tests in the between the use of a particular coping
school’) both feature highly. strategy and the level of reported stress, it
Table 4 gives pupils’ rating of the could be argued, on the one hand, that this
frequency of using coping strategies (in indicates that particular strategy is effective
descending order of mean scores). Engaging (that’s why it is being used frequently by
in leisure activities received the highest pupils who report higher stress) or, on the
mean score (38 per cent of pupils said they other hand, that this indicates that particular
‘always’ did this). Frydenberg and Lewis strategy is ineffective (since higher stress is
(1999) divided coping strategies into three being reported by pupils using this strategy).
areas: problem-solving (working hard and The link between stress and coping is a
dealing head on with the problem), refer- complex one. The study here simply sought
ence to others (seeking help, advice and to explore the strategies pupils tended to
social support) and non-productive coping use, and not whether they are effective.
(emotion control, mental reappraisal and
mental distancing techniques). Looking at Conclusion
the items which feature with the highest This exploratory study gives a useful indica-
mean scores, some of these fall into the cate- tion of the major sources of worry for a
gory of non-productive coping (e.g. ‘think sample of Taiwanese junior high school
about other happy things and make myself pupils and how they attempt to cope with
better’), some involve problem-solving (e.g. these. The findings support the view that the
‘think about the problem carefully and how pressures caused by the entrance examina-
to solve it’) and some involve reference to tion for entry into a senior high school is a
others (e.g. ‘discuss the issue with my friends major source of worry, together with
or classmates’). One of the coping skills most concerns about not achieving their expecta-
frequently covered in stress workshops tions and not finding a good job. The most
aimed at helping secondary school pupils to frequently used coping strategies involve a
develop their coping skills deals with mixture of emotion control strategies,
improving pupils’ time management skills; it problem-solving strategies and seeking
is interesting to note that for this sample this support. Taken together with other research
item has a mean score sixth from the bottom studies, this study adds further evidence of
(with only two per cent of pupils reporting the high level of worry typically being expe-
that they ‘always’ did this). There were two rienced by pupils in many countries as they
items were a t-test indicated a significant progress towards the end of secondary

The Psychology of Education Review 27

Chris Kyriacou & Chun-Fang Yang

schooling. Schools and governments need to Correspondence

consider whether this can be tolerated, or Dr Chris Kyriacou
whether action needs to be taken to reduce Department of Educational Studies,
stress and to help pupils cope more effec- University of York,
tively with the worries they experience. York YO10 5DD.
E-mail: [email protected]

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28 The Psychology of Education Review

A Note to the Readers
Peter D. Pumfrey

Dear Readers, policy of the PER Book Reviews section. It is

equally relevant to both Review Papers and
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Change of Editorship for the Book Reviews Editor extending such
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Hallam, Chairperson of the Education come across a situation where I considered
Section of the British Psychological Society that such an invitation was merited, until the
and Dr. J. Howard, Editor of The Psychology of publication of PER Vol. 28, No. 2. I received
Education Review (PER) that, owing to unan- a letter from the senior editor/author
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PER Book Review papers, Continue with the existing policy whereby
Book Reviews and Editorial Policy the authors/editors of reviewed books do
In the previous edition of PER (Vol. 29, not have a ‘right of reply’ (as opposed to
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was presented. It raised an important issue published review.
concerning the development of editorial

The Psychology of Education Review, Vol. 29, No. 2, September 2005 29

© The British Psychological Society ISSN 0262-4088
Peter D. Pumfrey

Option 2. Editorial decision

Change PER Book Reviews editorial policy In future, all requests for review book copies
and formally invite ALL book made to publishers will state explicitly that
authors/editors to send in their reactions to authors/editors would have a ‘right of reply’
the review of their book published in PER. to a review, BUT that this would be of no
(Option 2 would require a limitation to more than a specified number of words and
the length of such a response and a deadline must be submitted to the PER Book Review
by when it must reach the PER Book Reviews Editors by a given deadline. Operational-
Editors.). ising both of these criteria would be at the
Your views were requested. PER Book Review Editors’ discretion.
Subsequent to this consultation, both the
Results and Policy Recommendation lead editor of the publication reviewed and
The number of responses was small (N=9). the author of the PER book review were
All were in favour of Option 2. contacted and informed of the editorial
The following edited views summarise decision.
key concerns expressed by the respondents. The following response was submitted
‘I come down on the side of your Option prior to that decision but not used until the
2 – whilst imposing a strict limitation and consultation with the readership was
imposing a “deadline”, as you indicate.’ completed.
Having suffered once or twice at the hands
of reviewers, I think that a right of reply is Peter D. Pumfrey, CPsychol., FBPsS.
indicated in terms of ‘natural justice’. One PER Book Reviews Editor.
compromise but tenable position, I suppose,
would be to make it clear that the right of
reply would be limited to matters of scientific
or substantive fact – and the assessment as to
whether the response from the author/
editor was confined to that would be at the
absolute discretion of the Book Review
Editors.
The contrary view might be that, if the
author/editor is offered ‘natural justice’,
why should the reviewer not also have the
right of reply? A way to meet that potential
problem – of never-ending dispute – might
be to say that normally no further corre-
spondence would be entertained after the
original response but that in very excep-
tional circumstances, and at the Book Review
Editors’ sole discretion, a final response
from the book reviewer could be allowed.
The simple solution would, of course, be
to stick with the status quo and a quiet life!
However, as I have indicated above, I have
never felt the present situation – not
confined to the BPS, of course – was satisfac-
tory or fair.’

30 The Psychology of Education Review

A response to a Book Review
Leslie Smith

Dear Peter (Pumfrey), My second reaction is to note that the names

Thanks for sending me a copy of Alan of our contributors are conspicuously absent
McLean’s review of our book for the from the review. This is an astonishing over-
Psychology of Education Review (2004). I have sight. I request that you publish the Contents
three reactions. page as a supplement to the review, whether
His expectations are seriously in the 2004 issue, or the next one.
mismatched with the actual questions that My third reaction is to note that McLean
we set for this volume, as set out in our Intro- offers no clue as to his own answers to our
duction: questions.
‘The papers were intended to address such Yours sincerely
questions as: Emeritus Professor Leslie Smith
! perspectives on human development Formerly of the Department of Educational
applied to motivation; Research, Lancaster University,
! perspectives on motivation applied to Lancaster LA1 4YL.
human development;
! perspectives on both human
development and motivation;
! perspectives on human development and
motivation applied to education.’

Development and Motivation: Joint Perspectives

Leslie Smith, Colin Rogers & Peter Tomlinson (Eds.)

Contents Two motivational systems that shape

development: Epistemic and self-organising
Introduction Kurt W. Fischer & Michael Connell
Leslie Smith & Colin Rogers Taking agency seriously in the theories-of-
Ability conceptions, motivation, and mind enterprise: Exploring children’s
development understanding of interpretation and
Carol Dwek intention
Morals, motives, and action Bryan W. Sokol & Michael Chandler
Elliot Turiel Multiple goals and multiple pathways in the
An integration of motivation and cognition development of motivation and learning
Mark H. Bickhard Paul R. Pintrich
Interest and human development: Achieving motivation in real contexts
An educational-psychological perspective Julian Elliott & Neil Hufton
Andreas Krapp Towards a model that integrates motivation,
Developmental regulation across the life affect and learning
span: A control-theory approach and Monique Boekaerts
implications for secondary education Conclusion
Jutta Heckhausen & Susan P. Farruggia Colin Rogers & Leslie Smith

The Psychology of Education Review, Vol. 29, No. 2, September 2005 31

© The British Psychological Society ISSN 0262-4088
Book Reviews
Edited by Peter D. Pumfrey

A Review Paper represents a somewhat more extensive considera-

tion of a given publication than is possible in the space normally
available to contributors to the Book Reviews section of
The Psychology of Education Review.
Members of The Psychology of Education Section who have
read a recent professional publication that they consider merits an
extended treatment as a Review Paper are asked to contact the Book Reviews Editor in the first
instance. The Book Reviews Editor may also invite colleagues to write an extended review of a
book for The Psychology of Education Review.
The first review in this edition, written by myself, is an example of a
Review Paper.

REVIEW PAPER teaching reading (Clare, 2005). Could

TMPR5 be of value in this task?
Theoretical Models and Processes of To do as Ruth Kelly requires, one
Reading (TMPR5) (5th ed.) assumes that there is a generally accepted
Robert B. Ruddell & Norman J. Unrau (Eds.) understanding concerning what we mean by
Newark, Delaware: International Reading the concept ‘Reading’ and the skills
Association, 2004. involved. Excluding individuals with various
ISBN: 0-87207-502-8 (Paperback). forms of sensory impairment, for the vast
Pp. xxiv + 1728. £91.50. majority of the population the ability to read
will include both decoding graphic repre-
!" Reviewed by Peter D. Pumfrey
sentations of language into sounds and the
In the UK one central component of the comprehension of what has been decoded.
National Curriculum, the National Literacy The limitations of this description become
Strategy, was launched in 1998. It is deemed clear when it is accepted that reading is but
not to have been the success in raising attain- one facet of literacy and that literacy itself is
ments that had been anticipated by govern- but one of a number of symbolic systems that
ment. Government is reconsidering permeate everyday life. Additionally,
guidance formerly (and formally) given to languages and orthographies differ
teachers on the teaching of reading in partic- markedly in: the transparency of the links
ular, and of literacy in general, to young between written symbols; the sounds
children. Under the Chairmanship of Barry employed; the difficulties in decoding
Sheerman, MP, The House of Commons symbols to sounds; comprehension of the
Select Committee on Education has been information that has been processed; the
considering selected evidence addressing pedagogies that have evolved; and the
this political/educational challenge. In the resources deployed to facilitate the acquisi-
Summer of 2005, the Secretary of State for tion by children of literacy skills. The Inter-
Education, Ruth Kelly, announced the national Reading Association might, to
setting up of an independent review of advantage, consider following the example
evidence concerning ‘the role of phonics’ in of the former United Kingdom Reading

32 The Psychology of Education Review, Vol. 29, No. 2, September 2005

© The British Psychological Society ISSN 0262-4088
 Book Reviews

Association and rename itself the Interna- ! the ability to assess a wide range of
tional Literacy Association. literacy theories reflected in various
theoretical models; and
Q.1. Does TMPR5 offer the UK Secretary of ! an understanding of reading and literacy
State for Education’s research team evidence research and the ability to use and apply
that can assist them in their task? this knowledge base in generating new
Q.2. Might TMPR5 serve more far reaching research and informing instructional
and important ends? and decision-making.’ (pp.x+xi).
Q.3. Should there be further printed What is the provenance of the book? How
editions of TMPR5? adequately does its structure and contents
facilitate the professional reader’s achieve-
I will return to these three questions at the ment of these six laudable purposes?
end of the review. The International Reading Association was
The demise of the printed book has been established in 1956. Since its formation, it has
predicted. Currently the technology of book been, and continues to be, a dominant force
production enables an ever increasing in the development of theory, research, prac-
volume of written materials to be produced tice and policy in relation to literacy. The first
and disseminated in any field. Publishers edition of Theoretical Models and Processes of
have to sell their wares. Authors aspire to Reading (TMPR1) was published in 1970 (348
have their writings read by whichever audi- pp.). Subsequent editions appeared in 1976
ence they are addressing, and to receive (second edition: 768 pp.), 1985 (third edition
critical comments. Irrespective of the mode, 976 pp.), 1994 (fourth edition 1296 pp.) and
conventional or electronic, whereby 2004 (fifth edition: xxiv+1728 pp.). Seventy
messages are disseminated, the time avail- per cent of the contents of TMPR5 have not
able to professionals to read, reflect and appeared in earlier volumes. A CD has been
discuss theory, research and practice with developed for use with TMPR5. It provides
their colleagues has not increased. The supporting articles focussed on each of the
challenges of coping with information over- four sections of the book. (The reviewer has
load have to be faced. So too has the not seen the contents of this CD.)
increasing cost/benefits ratio of purchasing Paralleling the pattern of earlier editions,
books such as TMPR5, whether by libraries TMPR is divided into four major Sections.
or individuals. The 60 contributions (four Introductions
TMPR5 is weighty in all senses of the plus 56 Chapters) are drawn mainly, but not
word. It is also expensive. Is it worth reading? exclusively, from the US and Anglophone
Important pointers to the last question can countries. Seventy-eight contributors are
be found in its six ambitious purposes. These listed: 72 are from institutions in the US;
are to provide: three from the UK, and one each from
! an in-depth knowledge and under- Australia, Canada and China.
standing of the most current reading and Rigorous quality control procedures have
literacy research; been applied in selecting the contents of the
! an understanding of a wide range of book. All contributions are deemed to repre-
research designs and their application to sent the highest level of scholarship in a
expanding the literacy knowledge base; given field. Section One, ‘Perspectives on
! a precise understanding of a wide range Literacy Research and its Applications:
of theoretical models and cognitive Viewing the Past, Envisioning the Future’,
processes; sets the scene by exploring the past, present
! the ability to critically evaluate and and future of literacy research and practice.
critique a wide range of reading and It identifies crucial changes that have taken
literacy research; place, are taking place now and are likely to

The Psychology of Education Review 33

Book Reviews

occur in the future in the field. New and Engagement. (Five chapters).
potentially promising lines for both research Part 6. Instructional Effects on Literacy
and its applications are presented. Section Development. (Four chapters).
Two, ‘Processes of Reading and Literacy’,
comprises a judicious balance between Section Three.
theoretical and applied research across a Models of Reading and Writing Processes.
variety of methodologies. Section Three is Introduction plus :
entitled ‘Models of Reading and Writing Part 1. Cognitive-Processing Models.
Processes’. The models presented are seen as (Seven chapters).
evolving phases in theory development. Part 2. A Dual Coding Model.
Some models well-known to professionals (One chapter)
have been updated. Newer models have Part 3. A Transactional Model.
been included. The final Section Four looks (One chapter).
to the future. It includes five new contribu- Part 4. An Individual-Environmental Model
tions, each concerned with a different part of Writing. (One chapter).
of what each author sees as the important in Part 5. An Attitude-Influence Model.
the expanding literacy spectrum before us. (One chapter).
Each looks to a particular aspect of the Part 6. A Sociocognitive Model of Reading.
future. The promise and the problems of (One chapter).
ICT , of assessment and of children from
low-income backgrounds are challengingly Section Four.
addressed. Literacy’s New Horizons:
Each Section begins with an Introduc- An Emerging Agenda for Tomorrow’s
tion. Section One includes three chapters. Research and Practice.
Each of Sections Two and Three is sub- Introduction plus: (Five chapters).
divided into six Parts. Each Part includes a
different number of chapters. The following The systematic inclusion of sets of six care-
summary is intended to indicate to readers fully formulated ‘Questions for Reflection’
the concerns and scope of the book’s for each of the four Sections provides
contents. readers with useful ‘advance organisers’ in
relation to the content that follows. Each set
Section One. of questions is designed around five explicit
Perspectives on Literacy Research and its expectations of the reader (p.xvi). The fifth
Application: Viewing the Past and of these is ‘require summaries and applica-
Envisioning the Future. tions of key ideas to classroom reading
Introduction plus: (three chapters). instruction’.
In all countries in which textual informa-
Section Two. tion is a valued resource, theory, practice
Processes of Reading and Literacy. and research are mutually interdependent.
Introduction plus: All are essential if advances in our ability to
Part 1. Language and Cognition in understand, and optimise children’s acquisi-
Sociocultual Contexts. (Eight chapters) tion of literacy are to be made. Conceptual-
Part 2. Foundations for Literacy ising the nature of receptive and expressive
Development. (Seven chapters) processes involved in children’s acquisition
Part 3. Comprehension Development from of literacy and optimising the efficacy of the
Words to World. (Nine chapters) teaching and learning involved are contin-
Part 4. Extending Comprehension Through uing challenges. The contents of TMPR5
Metacognition. (Three chapters). summarised above underline a commend-
Part 5. Reader Response, Motivation and able breadth of coverage. Reading and

34 The Psychology of Education Review

 Book Reviews

reflecting on the contributions indicates and attainments as they develop and change over
their depth of scholarship – even where the time and in a variety of pedagogic contexts, is
reader questions what is being assumed by essential. If this is neglected, it can lead to an
an author and the theoretical and peda- unhelpful polarisations and conflicts
gogical applications deemed to flow from between the expectations of society and of
their findings. Many disciplines are legiti- the individual.
mately involved in attempting these complex
and challenging tasks. Section Three makes Conclusion
it clear that constructing theories, making Returning to the three questions posed
predictions and testing them are central to earlier:
the advancement of knowledge in this field.
The desire for simple answers to complex Q.1. Does TMPR5 offer the UK Secretary of
questions concerning the nature, identifica- State for Education’s research team evidence
tion, incidence, prognoses and facilitation of that can assist them in their task?
literacy development in a wide range of Answer: Yes.
contexts, is understandable. TMPR5 There are also many other helpful recent
confirms the limitations of what profes- sources including two by McGuinness,
sionals know and can do on the basis of published in 2004 and 2005. Her analysis of
current research evidence. Its authors also the efficacy of a number of phonics teaching
identify promising avenues for future approaches is thought provoking (McGuin-
research and the development of practice. ness, 2004). Reservations concerning her
International comparative studies of conclusions have been expressed (Pumfrey,
reading attainments have demonstrated 2005).
statistically significant mean differences in,
for example, reading attainments between Q.2. Might TMPR5 serve more far reaching
children in different countries. Even for the and important ends?
most successful country, the national target Answer: Yes.
of a literate population remains an ongoing The tensions between advocates of the
challenge. The nature and limitations of the respective influences of ‘nature’, ‘nurture’
assessment techniques used to assess attain- and their interactions can lead to unneces-
ments in, and attitudes towards, reading and sary and counterproductive polarised posi-
other aspects of literacy are not well under- tions. TMPR5 is a resource that can open up
stood by members of the teaching profession promising lines of development. These may
in many countries. lead to the resolution of existing controver-
Values and priorities matter. Believing sies involved in the advancement of know-
that the educational system aspires to ledge and its application. Hypothesis and
providing ‘The greatest good for the greatest antithesis can lead to synthesis.
number’ encourages the search for The aspiration of improving our effec-
approaches, or a combination of approaches, tiveness in helping children to acquire the
that demonstrate on average a superiority to skills of literacy is laudable. It would be diffi-
other approaches in facilitating young cult to find any politician, professional,
children’s acquisition of literacy in general parent or carer who would disagree on this
and reading in particular. In contrast, placing objective. Current research evidence on how
the individual child at the centre of profes- the objective can best be approached is
sional concern is expressed as ‘I swear somewhat sparse.
nothing is good to me that ignores individ- Physicists are involved a search for TOE
uals’ (Whitman). A knowledge of the nature (Theory of Everything’) and GUT (Grand
of both inter and intra-individual differences Unifying Theory), TMPR5 vividly illustrates
in children’s information processing abilities that in relation to the nature and modifiability

The Psychology of Education Review 35

Book Reviews

of inter and intra-individual differences in Peter D. Pumfrey, Emeritus Professor,

children’s cognitive, conative and affective University of Manchester and Visiting Professor,
attributes, professionals in many disciplines University College Worcester.
have much to do. In our present state of
knowledge, suspicion of any panaceas References
claiming to eliminate illiteracy is essential. Clare, J. (2005). Teaching reading will return to
the sound method. Daily Telegraph, No. 46,650,
3 June.
Q.3. Should there be further printed McGuinness, D. (2004). Early reading instruction. What
editions of TMPR5? science really tells us about how to teach reading.
Answer: Yes. Cambridge, Massachusets: The MIT Press.
I have been a member of the United McGuinness, D. (2005). Language development and
learning to read. Cambridge, Massachusets: The
Kingdom Reading Association, now the
MIT Press.
United Kingdom Literacy Association, and Pumfrey, P.D. (2005). Review Paper. ‘Early reading
of the International Reading Association, for instruction. What science really tells us about
many years. TMPR2, 3 and 4 have been how to teach reading’. The Psychology of Education
resources that have helped me as a student, Review, 29(1), 69–74.
researcher and tutor. In reality it will be for
current and future students, researchers and
tutors to determine whether or not Informa-
tion Communication Technologies will make
such books redundant.

REVIEW PAPER nents, and from a range of disciplines. An

Advisory Board of 19 international scholars
Handbook of Early Childhood Literacy reviewed the chapters. The handbook is in
Nigel Hall, Joanne Larson & Jackie March five sections as follows:
(Eds.) ! Perspectives on Early Childhood
London: Sage, 2004. Literacy;
ISBN: 0-7619-7437-7 (Hardback). ! Early Childhood Literacy in Families,
Pp. 437. £85.00. Communities and Cultures;
! Early Moves in Literacy;
!" Reviewed by Margaret M. Clark
! Literacy in Preschool Settings and
Schools;
Outline of the handbook ! Researching Early Childhood Literacy.
The editors state that: ‘This handbook In the preface the editors state that on
provides an overview of up-to-date research the whole the chapters reflect ‘a particular
into early childhood literacy’ and ‘deals with and distinctive view of early childhood
subjects relating to the nature, function and literacy’. In many of the chapters literacy is
use of literacy and the development, considered ‘a social practice, linked to
learning and teaching of literacy in early cultural and linguistic practices and power
childhood’. It emphasises ‘literacy as a relationships in specific contexts’ (p.xix).
socially situated and global experience, one The reasons given for selecting this emphasis
that is evolving in relation to changes in are that the editors see this as a relatively
contemporary culture and technological recent development; it provides a broad
innovation’. (p.437) interpretation of childhood literacy; and it
The handbook has 33 chapters by 45 recognises that literacy is changing in
authors from seven countries and four conti- contemporary society. It covers the period

36 The Psychology of Education Review

 Book Reviews

from pre-school to eight years of age, though students, or provide readily accessible
the major focus is on pre-school in a number conclusions of a kind to appeal to policy-
of the chapters. makers or practitioners. In many chapters
The editors do not claim that the hand- there is little attempt to relate the findings to
book is comprehensive in its coverage of preschool and primary settings although the
research into childhood literacy. Within the handbook is said to cover the years to eight.
major themes, they state that leading author- Although I assume the authors were
ities provide social, cultural and historical given guidelines, not all seem to have
analyses of aspects of early childhood adhered to these, some using less familiar
literacy. It appears that a similar framework terminology with little preparatory scene
was provided for authors, including a histor- setting. Clearer abstracts in some chapters,
ical review of their field, thoughts about or a longer overview of the field, for example
future research, and an extensive reference at the start of each section, might have
list. The readership for which it is intended helped; alternatively a final chapter
is said to be researchers, academics, students surveying the field covered, and indicating
and policy makers. The editors note that the areas omitted. Only a few authors relate
some readers may consider they pay too little their chapter to others, possibly I suspect,
attention to school literacy; however, they when they were already familiar with, and in
claim that until recently it would be difficult sympathy with the work of these researchers.
to find other research. They consider that To a great extent readers are left to make
too much research into literacy is driven by their own links. Inevitably my areas of
the agendas of schooling, obscuring all else, expertise meant that some chapters were
particularly realities outside and beyond easier for me to process and appealed to me
schooling; this dominance should not, it is more. However, my comments reflect my
argued, be unreflectively accepted. There is attempts to assess the handbook`s relevance
a focus in the handbook on what children to a wide readership.
can do; little attention is given to children
who find acquisition of literacy difficult. Awakening to literacy
It is stressed in the first chapter, and in
General impressions others, that the type of research reported in
As a conscientious reviewer I probably had to the handbook is of relatively recent origin. I
approach the handbook in a rather different would take issue with that view. I was
way from many readers, as I studied it in a surprised that Awakening to Literacy (1984)
more concentrated form, and from cover to edited by Goelman, Oberg and Smith, was
cover! Readers are more likely to select referred to by only one author, particularly
sections and chapters within their sphere of since the work of many of the contributors to
research interest. As a researcher who has that book are cited in a number of chapters.
devoted many years to literacy research I still It could have provided readers with a valu-
found new insights and a number of useful able historical overview of research across
references. However, some chapters I found disciplines already available by 1984. It
heavy-going and loaded with technical contains papers from an international
terms. To be fair, in some instances this seminar convened by Frank Smith. The
could have been because they were further participants included educationists, psychol-
from my field of expertise; nonetheless, ogists and anthropologists, and in addition
some chapters thanks to their terminology to Frank Smith and myself, Bruner, Olsen,
and style would have been less accessible to a Bissex, Ferreiro, Yetta Goodman and the
wide readership. I do not think the hand- Scollons. The papers were circulated in
book would sustain the interest for example, advance, and we devoted several days to
of undergraduate early childhood literacy learning from the perspectives of the other

The Psychology of Education Review 37

Book Reviews

participants. The book also has chapters by ered superior to those which do not, and he
Heath and Donaldson (though neither was suggests that literacy is often defined by ‘its
able to attend the seminar). Already by 1984 other’, the illiterate.
the Scollons were considering the negative In Chapter 4 Razfar and Gutierrez
implications of introducing literacy to a consider the social cultural aspects about
culture with an advanced oral language, and literacy practices of linguistic and racial
in particular the effect of the type of Amer- minority homes; this they argue can promote
ican textbooks which were being used, which narrow conceptions of literacy.
they felt would devalue the existing culture, In Chapter 5 Knobel and Lankshear
also the impact of computers in communi- consider out-of-school literacies, challenging
ties which were not book literate (Scollon & commonly held but detrimental assumptions
Scollon, 1984). My contribution was based and stereotypes regarding traditionally
on a further analysis of my study of Young marginalised students and their out-of-
Fluent Readers, which was completed by 1970, school lives. They argue that study of young
and published in 1976, particularly with children under eight is under-researched, or
reference to the young children’s earliest not researched in sufficient breadth.
attempts at spelling (Clark 1976, 1984). The In Chapter 7 Gregory and Kenner stress
papers from this symposium formed a valu- the growing appreciation ‘that people with
able focus for my lectures on early literacy in access to different languages, cultural and
1980s. One of these students was Shirley religious practices have not just funds of
Payton, whose dissertation Developing Aware- knowledge but a range of choices that are
ness of Print is referred to in Chapter 1 of this inaccessible to monolinguals’ (p. 82). In
handbook. Her study was of her own young Chapter 15, the same authors remind us that
daughter’s very early interactions with more children in the world are now bilingual
literacy in all its forms, in the home. I would than monolingual, and are being educated
agree that recently more attention is being bilingually or in a second language other
devoted to children’s earliest interactions than their mother tongue.
with print, however, I would not accept that Cairney (Chapter 8) claims that we still
interdisciplinary research of these areas is know little about the way that the multilit-
only a recent development. My study of eracies of life interact and shape each other
young children who entered school already and those who use them. He cites research
reading with fluency and understanding, claiming that school acts as ‘a linguistic
conducted in 1970 is referred to in five chap- leveller’ and fails to acknowledge and build
ters. In one of these my name is spelt incor- upon the linguistic diversity of families. He
rectly. In another the date of publication is stresses that literacy is not culturally neutral.
given as 1999, not 1976, and the index gives Hannon (Chapter 9) claims that early
only one of the page references. childhood educators tend to see family
literacy programmes as the latest form of
Selected points parental involvement in early literacy, while
While most of the research reported is from he considers the families’ own literacy values
English-speaking countries, there are some and practices. He singles out certain aspects
interesting points made on literacy where of these programmes he feels have high
children are simultaneously learning to read theoretical or practical interest.
and write in two different languages. I have Marsh (Chapter 10) has a focus on a
provided tasters from a selection of chapters. growing area of interest, literacy and popular
In Chapter 2 Viruru considers the influ- culture, an area within which she indicates
ence of global capitalism on pre-literate there is as yet limited research as far as early
communities, and points out that these soci- childhood is concerned. She gives a helpful
eties which use written language are consid- outline of existing research, arguing that we

38 The Psychology of Education Review

 Book Reviews

should become aware of the role of popular eliminate whole fields of literacy research
culture for young children and appreciate seems short-sighted and damaging (p.302).
ways in which this can inform the early years They also claim that competing ideologies
curriculum. have made it difficult for readers of research
Robinson and Mackey (Chapter 11) to understand how to interpret the findings.
consider the complexities of the relationship Labbo and Reinking (Chapter 28)
between televisual texts. They claim that discuss the fact that for many youngsters
much existing research sets up a simple literacy activities involve computers prior to
opposition between print and television, and outside school and that their experi-
where the latter is viewed as a deficit to be ences with these may be more frequent,
confronted. richer and more meaningful than those they
Stainthorp (Chapter 18) considers the experience on entry to school.
important topic of phonology and learning Comber (Chapter 29) claims that
to read, beginning with a clear introduction research into critical literacy is still in its
on the meaning of the various terms. infancy.
However, she states that: ‘The number of I found the final section entitled
syllables in a word is synonymous with the ‘Researching Early Childhood Literacy’
number of vowels’ (p.210). Surely not – disappointing. Its three chapters seemed very
vowel sounds, possibly? limited in scope, and are presented in such a
Nikolajeva from Sweden gives an inter- way that they would not tempt the general
esting overview of research into picture reader to read on. The first is introduced
books and illustrated books in Chapter 20. with the following, ‘We are interested in the
She stresses the importance of visual literacy, underlying chronotopes of research studies
a relatively new area of research. The author of young children and literacy … an implied
chooses to use picture books as her term; ideology about how people move through
this I found rather confusing as I would use time and space’ (p.381). The second chapter
the words ‘illustrated’ and ‘picture books’ deals with ‘feminist methodologies’, making
with rather different meanings. some interesting points, particularly as the
Scharer and Zutell (Chapter 23), discuss author is an Australian living in Norway,
the development of spelling. I was interested which she claims to my surprise to be quite an
in their comment that while English- oral culture. The final chapter adopts a natu-
speaking children’s earliest spellings repre- ralistic viewpoint. While views expressed in
sent consonants (as I found in my Young this section would be of interest to some
Fluent Readers, and other case histories of readers, I anticipated a more wide-ranging
very young children), Spanish-speaking and balanced discussion of research into
children represent vowel elements, childhood literacy for this final section. I was
according to Ferrerio and Teberosky also surprised that there was not a detailed
(p.279). They note that there is relatively discussion of ethics in naturalistic research in
little research on similarities within and any of these chapters.
across language systems. They regard it as
important that research encourages teachers Final comments
to find out what children are ‘using but There are inevitable gaps in an edited volume
confusing’ as a basis for their instruction. not found in a textbook by a single author;
In Chapter 25, Larson and Peterson though naturally there are strengths in
make a point which surprised me. Appar- breadth in an edited book with many authors.
ently in the US ‘a federally sanctioned defi- Some gaps could have been compensated for
nition of research effectively eliminates all by authors linking chapters within each
forms of qualitative research from recogni- section, by a more extensive overview, or a
tion as valid science’. They argue that to concluding chapter drawing points together.

The Psychology of Education Review 39

Book Reviews

I would have liked to see more reference Margaret M. Clark,

to ICT in pre-school, for example. Two Visiting Professor, Newman College of Higher
useful references to this are Stephen and Education,Birmingham.
Plowman (2002 a and b). The first is a review
of the literature on ICT in preschool References
settings, the second reports the findings of Clark, M.M. (1976). Young fluent readers. London:
Heinemann.
observational study in Scotland. I would also
Clark, M.M. (1984) Literacy at home and at school:
like to have seen a more detailed review of Insights from a study of young fluent readers.
young children’s television, video and DVD In H. Goelman, A. Oberg & F. Smith (Eds.),
use, and their interactive use of computers. Awakening to literacy. Exeter, New Hampshire:
There are recent surveys of these, which Heinemann.
Goelman, H., Oberg, A. & Smith, F. (Eds.) (1984).
form an important aspect of the lives of
Awakening to literacy. Exeter, New Hampshire:
many young children, with differential use Heinemann.
by children in different social classes. The Payton, S. (1984). Developing awareness of print:
National Literacy Trust has recently under- A young child’s first steps towards literacy. Educa-
taken such a literature review. tional Review Off-set publication No. 2. Birm-
ingham: University of Birmingham.
Finally, I felt sorry that there was not
Scollon, S.B.K. & Scollon, R. (1984). Can Tommy
more attention to differences between read? In H. Goelman, A. Oberg & F. Smith
spoken and written language and to the (Eds.), Awakening to literacy. Exeter, New Hamp-
development of grammar which takes place shire: Heinemann.
even in very young children; issues about Stephen, C. & Plowman, L. (2002a). ICT in pre-school:
A benign addition? A review of the literature on ICT in
distinctions between lower case and capital
pre-school settings. Dundee: Learning and
letters; more consideration of young Teaching Scotland.
children’s growing appreciation of the Stephen, C. & Plowman, L. (2002b). Come back in two
difference between drawing and writing and years! A study of the use of ICT in pre-school settings
between the sounds and names of letters. In during spring and summer 2002. Dundee: Learning
and Teaching Scotland.
a publication with contributions from
authors from so many countries I would also
have liked to see some consideration of the
implications for literacy development of the
very different ages at which children
commence formal instruction in literacy,
and the approaches adopted. Since so many
children before the age of five are now in
preschool settings, and before eight years of
age, in some countries, would have had their
basic instruction in literacy, I think readers
would have found it helpful to have had
more attention to the implications of such
differences for literacy development.

40 The Psychology of Education Review

 Book Reviews

Reading and Reader Development: policies, partnerships, promotional activities

The Pleasure of Reading and staff skills and training. At the end of the
Judith Elkin, Briony Train & Debbie Denham chapter, the experiential accounts from
London: Facet Publishing, 2003. librarians in four countries – Australia,
ISBN: 1-85604-467-X (Hardback). Canada, the Netherlands and Norway – illus-
Pp. 256. £44.95. trate how reading for pleasure is promoted
by their public library services.
!" Reviewed by Rea Reason
The following two chapters become more
The three authors of this book describe and relevant for me. Chapter 5 considers multi-
evaluate, from different angles, how libraries cultural literature and includes lengthy
can enhance individual joy, satisfaction and quotes from the writings of a range of
pleasure in reading throughout life. The authors. Not surprisingly, it is argued that
book is organised into nine chapters. The racial tension and institutional racism in the
first provides an overview of the factors that UK have many underlying causes. Chapter 6
contribute to reader development. The is entitled ‘special needs/special places’.
theoretical basis is not in psychological I expected to read about library access for
research as such but in eloquent quotes from those with literacy learning difficulties but
literary authors that illustrate the individual this aspect is covered rather cursorily.
and social benefits of reading. Instead, the emphasis is on social inclusion
In recent years public libraries within the and particular client groups such as looked-
UK have introduced project based promo- after children, victims of abuse, the elderly,
tional events and programmes ranging from the visually impaired and reading in hospi-
reading groups to national reading tals and prisons. The chapter leaves me
campaigns. These are described in the wishing for much more information as it is
second and third chapters. For example, the not possible to do justice to such a wide
Public Libraries Challenge Fund invested £4 range of topics within its limits.
million in a range of projects for both adults The seventh chapter – ICT and reader
and children that also involved the creation development – starts with a consideration of
of partnerships with other sectors. Evalua- the tensions between book reading and tech-
tions of these projects showed that they stim- nology. It moves quickly, however, to
ulated innovation and short-term reader describe the many positive developments
development. However, the authors acknow- such as interactive fiction, internet reading
ledge the dangers of operating within a communities and e-books. The library
project culture where change only happens services have themselves, of course, become
as a result of time-limited project budgets. transformed through the use of ICT,
These comments certainly resonate with Chapter 8 focuses on research and evalu-
those of us who have tendered for project ation in the field of reader development and
funding and then found that projects have the final ninth chapter provides an overview
petered out as funding has ceased. It is as if of the major issues presented in the book.
the projects have been regarded as fringe Many of the dilemmas encountered in
activities, not central enough for sustained applied psychological research are
public funding. addressed here too. For example, the
The fourth chapter focuses on a survey in Research Assessment Exercise undertaken
2002 by the International Federation of by university departments can result in
Library Services. Librarians from some 18 ‘research for research’s sake’ that lacks rele-
countries were involved in considering the vance for practitioners in libraries and adds
impact of reader-centred work on their to their scepticism about the value or impact
services and to share examples of good prac- of evaluations. A substantial section in
tice. The survey provides data about reading chapter eight considers the merits and

The Psychology of Education Review 41

Book Reviews

pitfalls of quantitative and qualitative majority were concerned with the acquisi-
research. Illustrations demonstrate how both tion of reading skills and the cognitive
can be misinterpreted leading to inaccurate processes underpinning these skills. Few
and wrongly used findings. The last part of were on reading as a leisure activity. For this
the chapter is perhaps most interesting as it reason alone, I have welcomed the opportu-
provides case examples of evaluations of nity to review a book that has as its focus the
projects such as the National Year of Reading importance of reading for pleasure. The
in 1998–1999, the DCMS/Wolfson reader- authors have certainly convinced me of the
development funded initiatives in instrumental role of public library services in
2000–2002 and the Branching Out developing enthusiasm for reading and
programme in 1998–2001. allowing free access to books, ICT and other
According to the US National Reading reading materials.
Panel, there were some 100,000 studies
published in the English language on Dr. Rea Reason,
reading during the period 1996–1999. The The University of Manchester.

The Moral Foundations of Educational driven type of research that supplanted prac-
Research: Knowledge, Inquiry and tical philosophy to the detriment of breadth,
Values coherence and value in educational
Pat Sikes, Jon Wilson & Wilfred Carr (Eds.) research. McCulloch follows with a sketch of
Maidenhead: Open University Press, 2003. a ‘social history’ of educational research that
ISBN: 0-335-21-46-5 (Paperback). traces additional problems of lack of coher-
Pp. 141. £16.99. ence and arguments about value to the
tensions in the latter half of the 20th century
!" Reviewed by Hazel Francis
between educational research based on the
This edited collection of papers stems from a methods valued in the various parent disci-
protest by staff at the Department of Educa- plines and between such ‘disciplined’
tion at Sheffield University against criticism research and inquiry devoted to illustrating
from government and others that educa- how things are and ought to be in schools in
tional research does not provide value for relation to issues of teacher education.
money and against the government-backed The other papers from Sheffield take posi-
requirement of a range of research tech- tions with respect to value as they address
niques, particularly relating to the construc- particular questions of educational research,
tion and treatment of numerical data, as part though a paper from outside on similar lines
of doctoral research programmes. The by Nixon, Walker and Clough is more
protest takes the form of adopting a moral neutrally presented. Unfortunately their
high ground to contrast with the morally range is very limited. The authors’ research
impoverished positions of those they oppose has mainly been directed towards helping
– hence the title and theme that educational teachers to understand aspects of their prac-
research should rest on educational values. tice and professional lives and to bringing
In the first paper Carr suggests that reports together to inform the practice of
educational research might be more inter- teacher educators. The work has been charac-
nally coherent and more highly valued by terised by the adoption of qualitative research
external critics if lessons could be learned methods. Their main claim to value in
from examination of how education fared in research is the aim of promoting education
the past. He argues that the 19th century that is good for the individual and for society.
introduction of a state system of compulsory Thus research aims and values sit squarely
education saw the growth of a managerially with educational. This is what it means to hold

42 The Psychology of Education Review

 Book Reviews

the high moral ground. It would have been seeking funding for research to improve
helpful to the reader if this theme had been education when the work, albeit in educa-
developed, illustrated, and analysed further to tional contexts, is primarily directed towards
examine the values behind the research and extending knowledge in another field.
the value of the research to others. Instead Different kinds of educational research
recourse is made to extracts from the work of promoted within university departments are
Bourdieu and Inglis to claim moral value for not the only targets for attack. Research
language-based research in the social and wanted by government, wherever carried out,
human sciences generally. is criticised on the grounds that a high
The implication of claiming the moral premium is put on numerical data and value
high ground is that other research (in Carr’s for money. Carr’s paper should have
and McCulloch’s terms both government reminded us that ‘managerial research’ is no
‘managerial’ and university discipline-based) government whim but is a necessity for the
does not allegedly share these aims. provision of a publicly funded service where
Arguably, it seems to me that this cannot be resources are not limitless and must be used
shown by simply identifying or attributing wisely. I think anyone who studies the various
different or ‘lesser’ values to other kinds of working party reports to the then Ministry of
research or to other aims, particularly aims Education, together with the annual reports
concerned with learners’ experiences and by Her Majesty’s Inspectors of Schools, must
achievements. Nor can methods be acknowledge that they were underpinned by
disdained because numerical modelling is the disposition to spend resources wisely for
adopted. The raw data of inquiry may be the good of individuals and society. There
words, pictures or measurements but may be argument over what is judged to be
whether they are linguistically, numerically good, but not over the existence of the very
or otherwise modelled will depend on the same value of promoting good education that
appropriate relation with the aims of the is claimed by the Sheffield group to underpin
work. The qualitative/quantitative distinc- its own work. And, although the commis-
tion is no basis for any differential attribu- sioning of research is differently organised,
tion of value, and the pejorative use of the the same is true today. Who can quarrel with
term ‘positivism’ is wilfully misleading. The such a worthy over-riding value? But educa-
way in which different ways of carrying out tional research cannot avoid the conflicts of
research are denigrated reminds me of the values contained within this and which arise
infant throwing its toys out of the cot. largely from politically motivated aims.
But, unlike the infant, the researcher cannot Included amongst the papers are useful
depend on the continued existence of a and less emotionally charged analyses by
beneficent provider of cots. Funding for Pring and Paechter Pring points to the need
research for education departments is not for moral judgment that arises out of
guaranteed and there must always be the inevitable conflict of values relating to the
fear of withdrawal. Caution is indicated in conduct of educational research and thus of
claiming the moral high ground without the burden of virtue that rests on the
convincing funding bodies that the work researcher. Paechter examines what may be
done actually does achieve its aims and claimed to be good practice and judgment in
should have a high priority. We are all in the the construction of knowledge from the
same position of having to justify our work in perspectives of different disciplinary
terms of values relating to its usefulness and strengths. Whilst neither of the latter adds
quality as well as its aims and methods. anything new, both could be useful back-
Temper tantrums are no substitute for well- ground material for doctoral students’
founded persuasion. But I do agree with the appreciation of the wider nature of the field
authors when they question the morality of within which their own work rests.

The Psychology of Education Review 43

Book Reviews

The book as a whole is somewhat disap- Hazel Francis, Emeritus Professor,

pointing. An examination of educational Institute of Education, University of London.
research in terms of values rather than
methods would be interesting and valuable,
not least because educational provision is an
arena for clashes of values behind inquiry
into what is the case, thought about what
ought to be the case, and political decision
about what will be the case; but a ruffled
feathers approach to advocating particular
kinds of work is no substitute.

Evidence-Based Practice in Education disciplinary groups involved in such work.

Gary Thomas & Richard Pring Sebba (3) then examines the development
Maidenhead & New York: Open University of evidence practice, a key element in this is
Press, 2004. the participation of the potential users of
ISBN: 0-335-21334-9 (Paperback). research. Next, Gough (4) discusses the
Pp. 244. £23.99. need for systematic research synthesis in
policy formulation in what would be an
!" Reviewed by James Ward
excellent introductory section for research
This book is the fifth in a series (Conducting students.
Educational Research) which is directed Part 2 devotes three chapters to the use
towards postgraduate students and of ERB in three areas. In the first of these
reseachers in education and allied fields.The Andrews (5) analyses some of the difficulties
series is designed to provide readers with of reconciling disparate approaches and
insights into a variety of forms of educational methodologies in EBP with reference to
research and the methodological and tech- projects undertaken by the English Review
nical issues involved, this particular volume Board. Similar problems are identified by
being concerned with evidence-based prac- Cordingly (6) who, among other things,
tice (EBP). For this purpose the editors have, gives a short account of the work of the UK
therefore, assembled a group of twelve Teacher Training Agency in promoting
distinguished contributors who represent teacher-conducted research. Here she distin-
considerable expertise and experience in guishes between evidence-based and
educational research and a wide range of evidence-informed practice.
related problem areas. It is generally assumed that the applica-
There are 14 chapters. Following an tion of scientific data combined with practi-
informative and occasionally provocative tioner knowledge is fundamental to medical
introduction by Thomas, the contents are decision-making: most doctors routinely
organised into three parts. Part 1 (What is make reference to their computers during
evidence-based practice?) contains three diagnosis and treatment. For this reason I
interesting chapters bearing upon this topic. was intrigued by the two excellent chapters
In the first of these (2), Davies addresses the by Eraut (7) and Perault (8) which deal with
need for workers to maintain an up-to-date medical issues in EBP. Among the many
awareness of the findings of research as important points made by Perault is that
might be provided by systematic and decision making in this area is concerned
comprehensive reviews. Here particular with improving rather than understanding
reference is made to the work of the Camp- human capacity- surely a fundamental issue
bell Collaboration, one of several inter- for educational research?

44 The Psychology of Education Review

 Book Reviews

In Chapter 9, Gallagher contributes an revisit debates about the nature of evidence

interesting cross-cultural viewpoint, this time and the unpredictability of human behav-
on US special education. In her trenchant iour. He identifies the need for continuous
analysis she reveals that much of its early reviews of what is claimed as evidence,
promise is unfulfilled and that the field is stressing the importance of the political
now better characterised by vituperative context of research
debates, claims and counter-claims, excessive Evidence-Based Practice in Education is
politicisation and name calling. Such prob- commended as a clearly written, balanced
lems are not entirely confined to the US. and authoritative contribution: Part 3 is
Part 3 (Questions) includes four chapters particularly instructive. It should undoubt-
and final comments by the second editor. edly be well-received by its target reader-
Hammersley (10) provides a searching ships. For me its diverse content reflects the
critique of ERB, pointing out that it has growth, in the UK at least, of educational
become associated, in government thinking research as a vast social enterprise, involved
at least, with the drive towards transparent just as much in serving political decision
accountability, hence increasing political making as in the minutiae of classroom
control of the research process – this would teaching and organisation. From the
not be new to most applicants for research perspective of an educational psychologist or
grants! Some of the same points are made by special educator most of the problems and
Hodkinson and Smith (11) who, in exam- issues are familiar, sometimes distressingly
ining the relations between research, policy so. For instance, despite ostensibly positive
and practice, cite the Labour Party’s attitudes and a considerable level of support,
tendency to make policies without reference it is commonly found that teachers (and
to much of the existing knowledge base in an adminstrators) are liable either to reject
area. A central issue in educational research research findings or misapply them – (I am
concerns how to make its findings practical. sure that Deborah Gallagher would know all
This is the theme for Elliott (12) who reviews about this). Otherwise I encountered much
the field at some length, referring to the new material and especially enjoyed the
views of important contributors such as references to medical practice and US
Hargreaves, Stenhouse and Peters. A further special education.
insight into this topic is provided by
Torrance (11) who illustrates some of his Professor James Ward,
points by reference to an action research University of Macquarie, Australia.
project. Pring’s concluding comments (14)

Action Research for Improving Practice: book has two broad aims: first, to give guide-
A Practical Guide lines for practitioners wanting to investigate
Valsa Koshy how to improve their professional practice;
London: Paul Chapman, 2005. and second, to give guidance to students on
ISBN: 1-4129-0755-1 (Hardback); how to plan, conduct and report action
ISBN: 1-4129-0756-X (Paperback). research for a dissertation. The book presup-
Pp. xvi+149. £60.00 (hbk); £17.99 (pbk). poses no prior knowledge or training in
research of any kind. The author teaches
!" Reviewed by Colin D. Elliott
action research methods in the area of
This book does what it says in the title: it education and, in consequence, the book is
provides a practical guide for anyone primarily aimed at classroom research.
wanting to carry out action research. The Nonetheless, it could be useful to those in

The Psychology of Education Review 45

Book Reviews

other helping professions. The titles of the complementary. Time after time in the
seven chapters are self-explanatory. The first research community arguments break out
chapter considers the nature of action about supposedly mutually exclusive
research. The following chapters cover the methods, when they are nothing of the sort.
issues of getting started, reviewing literature, In educational psychology, a good example
planning action, gathering data, analysing of this is the contrast between curriculum-
data, and writing up and reporting the based measurement (CBM) and traditional
research. psychometric measurement. Twenty years
Every chapter gives bulleted checklists of ago I argued in the original British Ability
useful suggestions for would-be action Scales Handbook that they were complemen-
researchers, as well as case examples illus- tary methods. Additionally, action research
trating them. One good idea, mentioned and psychometric tests are also complemen-
more than once, is the recommendation for tary. To give Valsa Koshy her due, she doesn’t
the researcher to have a ‘critical friend’ who make these false contrasts between research
can give feedback on research ideas – the methods, and one of her examples of action
good, the bad and the ugly. This is likely to research – looking at the role of handwriting
be valuable not only at the planning stage of in raising achievement (pp.71–79) – uses
a piece of work, but at the point of analysing numerical data.
results. Given the large number of sugges- Valsa Koshy emphasises that action
tions that are made in the book, one omis- research is essentially cyclic and reflective. If
sion that I found surprising was a a researcher wishes to improve some
recommendation to researchers to look for teaching method, observations are taken,
threats to the validity of their results and action steps are prepared and tried out,
conclusions. A critical friend could be more observations are gathered in a moni-
helpful in this regard, as we all wear concep- toring process, and if necessary the action
tual blinkers and are prone to bring our steps are modified, and so on. This is surely
favoured perspective to bear in looking at what medical practitioners, psychologists
any results. and teachers have always done. Now ‘action
It is when Prof. Koshy writes briefly about research’ has been given a name and a
the philosophy underlying action research conceptual identity, and this has led to
that I get somewhat queasy. In Chapter 2, she methodology that gives us hopefully a more
refers to the work of Carr and Kemmis in systematic way of improving our practice. For
their book Becoming Critical. She quotes these example, consider the educational psycholo-
authors as asserting that ‘action research will gist’s work with an individual student. Infor-
entail indicating how it rejects positivist mation is obtained on a presenting problem
notions of rationality, objectivity and truth in from a number of sources. These might
favour of a dialectical view of rationality’ include classroom observations, interviews
(p.24); and that ‘self-critical communities of with teacher, parent and student, and the
action researchers enact a form of social results of psychometric tests (typically based
organisation in which truth is determined by on traditional quantitative research). All
the way it relates to practice’ (p.25). Really? these sources build a picture of the child:
This is certainly high-flown stuff, and reflects they add to our understanding of the nature
the way that action research has embraced of the problem. The next big question is, ‘So
postmodernism with its dislike of objectivity what?’ What intervention may help to alle-
and its suggestion that truth is relative. It is viate the problem? Action research is the
all so unnecessary. This sort of language next logical step for the clinician, to enable
presents action research as antagonistic to an effective intervention to be developed,
traditional, quantitative, ‘positivist’ research, applied and monitored. The initial data
whereas it can more productively be seen as gathering phase of observations, interviews

46 The Psychology of Education Review

 Book Reviews

and test results underpins hypothesis gener- was’ rather than ‘Data are’ or ‘Data were’). I
ation and a necessary precursor to the action know this is the sloppiness of the age, but
research on the intervention plan. must we perpetuate it? Enough of this
This book is written in a very clear style. It carping! For anyone wanting to do an action
contains many examples and case studies to research project in the field of education,
illustrate the processes step by step. The this book is a good guide, and a good buy.
publisher is also to be congratulated on good
editing, design and production standards. Professor Colin D. Elliott, Visiting Professor,
One small criticism (does it reveal my age?) is Graduate School of Education at the University
that the word ‘data’ is used in the singular of California, Santa Barbara.
rather than the plural (‘Data is’ and ‘Data

Including families in the learning cally disadvantaged communities, on the

community, family centres and the premise that they need such intervention to
expansion of learning boost their life chances.
Stewart Ranson & Heather Rutledge This book explores the work of family
York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 2005. centres in encouraging learning and
ISBN: 1-85935-301-0 (Paperback). enabling participation in community activi-
Pp. 85. £15.95. ties amongst disadvantaged families. Three
family centres are studied in detail, selected
!" Reviewed by Sheila Wolfendale
to reflect different geographical regions.
This book is published at a time when The book is divided into four parts. In
government policy on lifelong learning and Part 1 the authors set the scene by reference
skills for life is pervasive within school-based to changing configurations of family compo-
and adult education. The conception of sition and they go on to examine current
providing ‘cradle to grave’ learning opportu- policies and provision for family learning,
nities is woven into, for example, ‘Sure Start’ which include the formation of ‘Education
(offering parents of pre-school children the Action Zones’ (EAZ), ‘Sure Start’, extended
chance to acquire basic skills including schools, parenting programmes, and the
parenting skills) and family literacy (a ‘Neighbourhood Renewal Programme’. The
learning partnership between schools and history and provision of family centres are
families). The term ‘family learning’ has then discussed. Four models that have
been used to encompass organised evolved are identified and defined, these
programmes like family literacy as well as are: client-focussed family centres; service-
incidental, spontaneous activities around the support family centres; family and commu-
home and community, all of which denote nity centres, and the networked centre
‘lifelong learning’. (p.13).
The promotion of lifelong learning via The authors comment ‘policy makers are
provision of various kinds, including the now acknowledging that, if these centres are
family centres which are the focus of the to succeed in their objectives – whether of
book by Ransom and Rutledge, is informed treatment, or provision or participation -
by an ideology that postulates economic, they have to become crucibles for learning’
social and personal benefits to family (p.13). The fourfold aims of the study are
members and to society (see Schuller et al., then outlined.
2004). Whilst the lifelong learning model Phase 1 of the study constituted a
purports to have universal applicability, in mapping exercise, whereby a questionnaire
reality and in practice, specific initiatives are was sent to 102 EAZs and 52 completed ques-
usually targeted at identified socio-economi- tionnaires were returned. From this infor-

The Psychology of Education Review 47

Book Reviews

mation, the EAZ family centres were classi- For this reviewer, the book seems to come
fied and visits and telephone interviews with to a rather abrupt stop on page 73. I would
10 EAZs provided further illuminative back- have welcomed further discussion that
ground information. For Phase 2 of the linked the findings back to broader contexts
study three family centres were selected as of the lifelong learning and family empower-
the key case studies (with visits to other ment agendas and commensurate local and
centres in the localities providing some national initiatives designed to support these
comparative data). aspirations. However, most disappointingly,
Part 2 of the book examines the ethos these issues are merely hinted at obliquely in
and functioning of the three centres, each of the final pages.
which provide distinctly different family Another omission is that there is no
learning activities which are described in critical review of the methodology and the
some detail. Activities provided include early inclusion of a technical appendix would
literacy, playgroups, family support have been most helpful. Appendices 1 and 2
(including family cooking, art therapy), reproduce the interview schedules used, but
counselling, advice, parenting skills and in the narrative there is no information
family learning. about the exact number of participants nor
Part 3 of the book, entitled ‘Families how the interview data were analysed. Case
learning to care differently’ constitutes a study methods were mentioned en passant
kind of mosaic. It presents multi-faceted (cf. p.15) but were not appraised post hoc.
views of some of the parents attending the Despite these limitations, the book will
centres to illustrate a number of key identi- be a useful addition to the growing literature
fied themes around the impact and effects of on lifelong and family learning. It provides
family attendance at the centres. As ever, illuminative data about provision and about
such individual testimonies are graphic, the views of the recipients of the provision.
moving and powerful. As such, the book contributes to a growing
Part 4 is the conclusion, reminding the evidence-base for the impact of social inter-
reader that ‘the research was designed to vention measures such as family centres.
focus progressively on the relationships
between family centres and the families Professor Sheila Wolfendale,
attending them’ (p.67). The authors School of Psychology, University of East London.
consider that family centres made a distinc-
tive contribution to changing the lives of Reference
individuals, of families and of communities Schuller, T., Preston, J., Hammond, C., Brassett-
Grundy, A. & Bynner, J. (2004). The benefits of
in a number of ways that are discussed.
learning, the impact of education on health, family life
and social capital. London: Routledge/Falmer.

Emotional Health and Well-Being some of the authors. I found instead that it
Helen Cowie, Chrissie Boardman, initially seemed somewhat superficial and, at
Judith Dawkins & Dawn Jennifer the same time, difficult to get into. Twenty
London: Paul Chapman, 2004. brief chapters are provided, each linked to
ISBN: 0-7619-4355-2 (Paperback). the theme of mental health, particularly as it
Pp. 226. £18.99. relates to school and schooling.
The book is divided into three sections,
!" Reviewed by Bob Burden
the first of which consists of six chapters
I really wanted to like this book as I have setting the scene, so to speak. It addresses
great respect for what I know of the work of why schools should see their students’

48 The Psychology of Education Review

 Book Reviews

emotional well-being as a issue of impor- to look at it again with fresh eyes. This
tance and concern, and emphasises the need enabled me to take a somewhat different
for a whole school approach. The following perspective. This is not a book to read
12 chapters focus mainly on specific areas through in one sitting, nor is it the place for
where things can go wrong and different anyone with even a reasonable amount of
categories of special need. Here we have knowledge about children’s social and
brief summaries of how to recognise and emotional development to search for new
deal with disaffection, bullying, sexual insights. It did make me reflect, however, on
health, drug abuse, eating problems, autistic how little time can be afforded in these days
spectrum disorders, attention deficit disor- of an overcrowded National Curriculum to
ders and more. The final section, incorpo- training new teachers in such matters. If, like
rating two chapters, suggests ways of me, you are afforded one, one hour lecture
predicting the difficulties that a school is on your POCE programme to cover the
likely to encounter in setting up policies, and whole of the pastoral curriculum, you could
emphasising the importance of review and so a lot worse than directing your students to
evaluation. this book as a starting point. It will enable
One problem for me was that the authors them to get a feel of some important issues
try to cover so much that they end up doing which can then be followed up in greater
little justice to anything. Another is that they depth elsewhere. The general presentation
don’t really seem to be clear exactly what is excellent and the writing style clear. The
they are trying to accomplish or to whom reference section provides plenty of direc-
their text is directed. Each chapter includes tions for further inquiry.
several boxed vignettes illustrating how a On the whole, then, a book worth adding
particular programme or technique has to one’s Education Department or Psycho-
worked in action, or how to introduce these logical Service library, to be dipped into
techniques into a school’s pastoral curri- occasionally and recommended to students
culum. Quite often these are interesting, and schools who are willing to take on board
occasionally they are really informative and the vital message that schools are not just
helpful, but sometimes that are just trite and about academic success, but don’t have
one is left with the impression that a box was much appreciation themselves of what can
there to be filled because that was the format be done about it.
that had been agreed on
After reading the book through once, Bob Burden, Professor of Educational Psychology,
I set it aside for several weeks and then tried University of Exeter.

ADHD in the Schools: Assessment and Aimed primarily at school-based profes-

Intervention Strategies (2nd ed.) sionals working with pupils with ADHD, this
George J. DuPaul & Gary Stoner well-organised book offers practical sugges-
London: Guilford Press, 2003. tions for classroom assessment and interven-
ISBN: 1-57230-862-1 (Hardback); tion strategies. With discussions of recent
ISBN: 1-59385-089-1 (Paperback). research findings and many references
Pp. 330. £31.00 (hbk); £17.99 (pbk). offering sources for further reading, this
book should appeal to a wider audience
!" Reviewed by Linda Wheeler
including teachers, psychologists, parents,
Published as part of the Guilford School Practi- clinicians and researchers. It is also acces-
tioner Series, the second edition of this book is sible to the reader with little or no experi-
written by two experienced US researchers ence of the challenges presented by the
and psychologists. disorder. Reference is made to the wealth of

The Psychology of Education Review 49

Book Reviews

published material on the concept of ADHD operational definitions used. Chapter 4

since the first edition of the book in 1994. offers up-to-date information on the impor-
The second edition updates information in tance of early identification and intervention
three major areas: identification and assess- for young children who might be at risk for
ment of students who might have ADHD; ADHD. Two approaches to screening in this
development and implementation of class- age group are described: classroom-based
room-based intervention programs for these screening (proactive) and individual
students; and communication with physi- screening (reactive). Evidence is provided
cians when stimulants are employed to treat on three treatment approaches:
this disorder. psychotropic medication, pre-school-based
The first chapter offers a clear, concise behaviour intervention and parent educa-
introduction, beginning with five short case tion in the use of behavioural interventions.
examples of children diagnosed with ADHD. The authors identify a gap between research
These are well-chosen to reflect the wide- and practice with regard to community-
ranging differences in ADHD characteristics based prevention and intervention. They
which might be encountered in the school advocate greater involvement of school
setting. They highlight the heterogeneity of psychologists in the prevention of difficulties
the disorder, the types of symptoms displayed associated with ADHD.
by individuals and some of the co-existing The next three chapters form the main
conditions they may experience. There focus of the book and concentrate on
follows a brief informative overview of the school-based intervention strategies.
concept of ADHD, followed by an outline of Chapter 5 begins with clear guidelines for
the contents of subsequent chapters. the design, implementation and evaluation
Chapter 2 concentrates on screening and of interventions. There follows a section on
assessment in school settings. A short review examples of contingency management
of the use of DSM–IV criteria in school-based procedures. Several instructional and self-
assessment begins with a current definition management strategies are also clearly
of ADHD, followed by a discussion of the described and the chapter concludes with a
advantages and limitations of the DSM short section on teacher support systems.
approach in school settings. This is followed Medication therapy is discussed in detail in
by a description of a behavioural assessment Chapter 6. The first section provides basic
approach to the evaluation of ADHD in details of psychotropic medications used in
which the importance of multiple methods the treatment of ADHD symptoms. This is
of data collection across informants and especially useful to the reader from a non-
settings is stressed. The five stages of US medical background. A summary of this
school-based evaluation of ADHD are section states that there is a need for more
presented, with each stage in the assessment investigation into alternative drugs with
model broken down clearly into subsections larger samples. The second section describes
and described in detail. Readers in the UK the behavioural effects of stimulants. It then
will be able to make comparisons with assess- discusses dose-response and individual
ment procedures in UK special education. In responsivity, normalisation of classroom
the following chapter on ADHD and functioning, and the use of a combination of
learning difficulties an interesting section on medication and behaviour therapy. It ends
possible causal connections between ADHD with a short summary of the possible side
and academic problems outlines three effects of Central Nervous System (CNS)
hypothesised relationships. Limitations in stimulants. The final short sections cover the
the findings of empirical investigations are communication of results with the
discussed, centring on problems associated prescribing physician, the ongoing moni-
with the inconsistencies in conceptual and toring of medication response and the limi-

50 The Psychology of Education Review

 Book Reviews

tations of stimulant medication treatment. case examples clearly illustrate key concepts
Chapter 7 examines several approaches that including the wide-ranging characteristics
can be used in addition to classroom behav- displayed by pupils who may have the
iour strategies and medication and suggests disorder. These examples will aid the school-
factors to consider before recommending a based practitioner in the identification and
treatment. The summary stresses the impor- assessment process. The detailed breakdown
tance of school-based professionals not only of the stages involved in US school-based
being aware of empirically sound treatments evaluation in Chapter 2 will be of particular
for ADHD but also being familiar with less interest to American school-based profes-
effective interventions. This final point sionals. The information provided in each
could prove particularly useful in the school stage can be utilised by international readers
setting where parents might seek advice and comparisons may be made with other
from school personnel as to the effectiveness special education assessment procedures. It
of novel treatments. would have been useful if the authors had
Chapter 8 clearly highlights the necessity provided some idea of the time scales
for effective communication and multi- involved in the assessment process in the US.
professional collaboration, as ‘the assessment They refer to this assessment model as ‘an
of ADHD … is a process involving multiple idealised model that must be adapted for practical
informants and multiple methods across multiple application and local level’ (p.58). Whilst
settings’ (p.241). An important distinction is acknowledging that individual cases may
made between DSM diagnoses and educa- differ, an approximate time period could
tional services. The DSM–IV classification have been suggested or an indication could
system uses nomothetic assessment tools and have been included in the case examples
procedures (i.e. comparing children with used in this section. Tables and figures are
one another), whereas decisions on educa- used effectively throughout the book in
tional interventions are more usefully order to clarify several features. Particular
related to idiographic approaches (i.e. examples of these include the aforemen-
comparisons of an individual over time). tioned five stages of the US assessment
Another significant factor to be considered procedure and also the steps required in the
is the variability in the behaviour and undertaking and evaluating of medication
response to treatment of children diagnosed trials in schools (Chapter 6). Examples of
with ADHD. The final chapter eloquently reproducible letters, assessment sheets and
summarises the book and clearly identifies sample handouts will be of use to school
future directions for school-based research practitioners.
and investigation. The authors conclude that Professionals from backgrounds other
significant work needs to be undertaken in than education will derive a sound under-
several key areas: meeting the needs of standing of the practicalities of multi-profes-
adolescents with ADHD; delineating the sional assessment and interventions for
roles and responsibilities of school-based pupils displaying ADHD characteristics. The
‘case managers’; teacher training in ADHD; importance of effective collaboration and
and more research to determine practical, communication between educational and
time-efficient ways of dealing with ADHD. health professionals is well highlighted.
The authors are to be congratulated on Researchers and students will find numerous
the outstanding quality of this well-struc- discussions of up-to-date research studies
tured book. It is a useful addition to available and investigations together with many refer-
resources, offering an extensive review of the ences offering sources for additional reading
major issues confronting school profes- and suggestions for further research. Most
sionals in understanding and treating pupils parents and readers from non-specialist
with ADHD in mainstream education. The backgrounds will find this book reasonably

The Psychology of Education Review 51

Book Reviews

easy to read. In particular they may find it Beginning with the enthusiastic ‘Fore-
helpful to be provided with an easily under- word’ written by Russell Barkley and contin-
standable list of all available types of drug uing through to the comprehensive list of
treatments, together with tablet sizes and references, this exceptional book is well
dose ranges. However, some non-profes- worth reading. It is a valuable contribution
sional readers may find that there are too to the literature and should be recom-
many references and some of the figures mended reading for anyone with an interest
used to show, for example, changes in dose in the assessment and treatment of ADHD in
response and behaviour, may be a little diffi- schools.
cult to understand. The section dealing with
apparently less effective adjunctive interven- Linda Wheeler, Research Student,
tions should prove particularly useful to University College Worcester.
school professionals and to concerned
parents. As a teacher, having been
approached in the past by parents anxious to
do the best for their child, it would have
been helpful to have had access to this type
of information.

Self-esteem: The costs and causes of the conditions in childhood that result in low
low self-worth self-esteem’. Finally he offers a critical review
Nicholas Emler of the varieties of intervention that have been
York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 2001. claimed to be successful in raising self-esteem
ISBN: 1-84263-020-2 (Paperback). in this age group.
Pp. 97. £15.95. One of the strengths of the book is its
detailed analysis of the logic underlying
!" Reviewed by Tony Cline
claimed links between low self-esteem and
The aim of this book is to ‘summarise what is some of the social problems of childhood
known from research about the nature of and adolescence. Emler shows how low self-
self-esteem, its consequences and its esteem might impact on particular aspects of
antecedents’. The focus is on self-esteem in development as a direct contributory cause
childhood and adolescence. Emler outlines that is independent of other causes (e.g.
some of the popular views of what self-esteem leading to risk-taking in sexual behaviour
is and what it does to a person and traces that carries a higher risk of an unwanted
these views back to their roots in early scien- pregnancy) or as a mediator that links some
tific psychology. He reviews the ways in which cause to an effect (e.g. linking poor
the construct has been measured and exam- academic results at school to increased risk
ines arguments that have been put for of pregnancy in adolescence). Alternatively
regarding it as a unitary quality and for it might be an indirect or mediated cause
relating it closely to other psychological (e.g. through making teenage girls more
attributes. There is a detailed analysis of susceptible to peer influence) or a moder-
evidence for the behavioural consequences ator or a correlated outcome or an effect. He
of low self-esteem with particular attention to analyses these different routes to correlation
its possible role in social problems such as with meticulous care. In a typical passage, for
delinquency, drug abuse, teenage pregnancy, example, he unpicks the evidence relating to
racism and attempted suicide. He considers the (not very strong) relationship between
the roots of self-esteem, attempting to low self-esteem and weak educational attain-
provide an overview of ‘what is known about ments. He argues against those writers who

52 The Psychology of Education Review

 Book Reviews

exaggerate the agency of the construct. may be treated as a corrective. The theme of
Level of global self-esteem, he points out, what is known about the value that young
does not have much impact on what young people in our society put on themselves is an
people want or try to achieve in this domain important theme. Yet, as a whole, this is a curi-
– though it does influence what they expect ously bland text. The research on which
to manage. Those with high self-esteem can Emler chooses to focus mostly relies on
show greater persistence, but their efforts summative questionnaire measures of self-
may not bear fruit because they are not esteem. He writes of ‘sources’ and ‘conse-
necessarily well-directed. The main conclu- quences’ of low self-esteem with little
sion is that self-esteem is ‘only trivially attention to theoretical and empirical work
related to later educational attainment’. In a on the processes by which it may itself develop
rather disappointing coda he notes the or may impact on the subsequent develop-
higher correlations found with a slightly ment of an individual. This review can be
different construct, education-specific self- relied on for an authoritative account of one
esteem, but chooses not to examine the liter- part of the story, but it is only one part and
ature on such variants in detail. may not include the denouement that readers
Occasionally the admirable effort to of this journal will be most eager to see.
cover a great deal of ground in as concise a Nonetheless, much can be forgiven to an
way as possible leads Emler to give so little author who ends a review of this topic by
information about a study that one cannot reminding us that the possession of high self-
form a judgement about the argument he is esteem is not always seen in an entirely posi-
offering in connection with it. For example, tive way. Terms like narcissistic, arrogant,
in his analysis of the use of indirect measures smug and conceited have been used to
of self-esteem as an alternative to self-reports describe such people. Evidence reviewed by
he queries the interpretation that Farnham Emler links the characteristic with racism
et al. (1999) placed on their findings. It is and violence. He ends persuasively with a
difficult for readers of this book to engage plea to recognise ‘the benefits of modera-
critically with the issue as we are not told the tion’ in this as in so much else. If the book
basis of the findings that Farnham and his has significant limitations, it does achieve
colleagues reported. That is perhaps an triumphantly its most urgent objective - to
inevitable difficulty in a review of this kind, challenge the sentimental nonsense and
given space limitations. commercial exploitation that are often
This review is authoritative and balanced. directed at those with low self-esteem in pros-
It is presented in a lucid prose in a well-organ- perous societies.
ised format. Connections are made to
popular and media representations of self- Professor Tony Cline,
esteem to which this unsensational volume Centre for Education Studies, University of Luton.

Homework: The evidence currently generally taken as self-evidently

Susan Hallam good. While parents may complain that their
London: Institute of Education, University children receive too little and agencies may
of London, 2004. occasionally publish guidance on how much
ISBN: 0-85473-695-6 (Paperback). time teachers should be expecting children
Pp. 118. £9.99. of differing ages to be devoting to it each
week, its purposes and benefits are rarely
!" Reviewed by Nigel Hastings
questioned. But that is just what this brief
Like motherhood and apple pie, homework and tightly written book sets out to do, by
is an aspect of educational practice that is reviewing evidence of how homework is

The Psychology of Education Review 53

Book Reviews

used, of how pupils engage with tasks set as higher attaining pupils being given and
homework and of the effects of that engage- completing more than their lower attaining
ment on progress and attainment. peers, thereby increasing the differences
The scene-setting ‘Introduction’ effectively between them.
establishes the idea that research on home- Although the amount of time spent on
work is not entirely recent, with UK-based homework is so often the predominant
surveys from 1928 and 1935 as well as more concern of parents, teachers and a succes-
recent international comparisons being sion of education ministers, the clearest issue
briefly reviewed, and reminds readers of to emerge from this review is that, while
relevant recent policy developments, at least teachers and schools as institutions empha-
in England. The next two chapters focus on sise the importance of homework, the atten-
the effects of homework, primarily on attain- tion they give to planning, explaining,
ment, and immediately reveal that the term marking, providing feedback on, and incor-
‘homework’ embraces a wide variety of types porating activities completed for homework
of activity, set and pursued for a diversity of into subsequent classroom lessons is variable
purposes. Research relating to differences in and limited. Too often, it seems, more atten-
practice and effects relating to time spent, tion is given to non-completion of home-
subject, age group, attainment and school work than to acknowledging and building on
policies are covered in Chapter 2, while work that has been completed. In discussing
Chapter 3 considers the less well researched these issues, Sue Hallam moves from the
aspect of homework purposes. The next stance of independent, critical reviewer of
three chapters examine published evidence evidence, which has characterised the way
about the beliefs, experiences and practices she has written preceding chapters, into
of teachers, pupils and, finally, parents. In prescriptive mode. In the closing pages she
conclusion, Sue Hallam draws together the offers well substantiated recommendations
overall picture arising from her review of for how schools and teachers could, and
research and comment from more than 300 should, make better use of the opportunity
cited sources in a chapter entitled ‘Future that homework provides for supporting
directions’. learning. While the time pupils spend on
So what does that overall picture look homework is important, more is not better.
like? As with so many important educational What would substantially improve the quality
questions, what emerges is not the set of of both the experience and benefits of
definitive answers that we would like. In homework, Hallam argues, is if schools,
quality of design, scale and setting, teachers, and in turn their pupils, were
published research varies, but there are clearer about the purposes of homework and
some trends in findings, as well as indica- its relationship to intended learning, both in
tions of how research questions could more general and in relation to each specific
usefully be cast and pursued. Firstly, at both activity, and if homework activities were
primary and secondary school levels, home- more explicitly followed though. Interven-
work does relate to progress and attainment, tion studies, developed to evaluate just such
but the relationship is curvilinear with an approach, support this view.
respect to time. In other words, the more This is not the first review of research
time spent on homework, the greater the evidence about homework to be published.
benefit … up to a point, ‘with moderate In addition to having the obvious contempo-
levels of homework being the most effective’ rary merit of being up to date, this is
(p82). However, even at ‘moderate levels’, certainly not its only commendable quality.
the impact on attainment is modest. In prac- Although not written with a lay audience as
tice, the way homework is used by schools, its target readership, Sue Hallam’s style is
and viewed by pupils and parents, results in accessible to the serious-minded parent as

54 The Psychology of Education Review

 Book Reviews

well as to the student of education and other Professor Nigel Hastings,

researchers. Those who could gain most Nottingham Trent University.
from these 118 pages are teachers and head-
teachers seeking to enhance the contribu-
tion that homework could yet make to their
pupils’ progress and attainment.

Understanding Psychology (2nd ed.) are 14 chapters encompassing both Social

Barbara Woods and Cognitive psychology. In addition,
London: Hodder & Stoughton, 2004. Chapter 13 takes a look at research methods
ISBN: 0340-88668-4 (Paperback). and Chapter 14 discusses ‘planning, carrying
Pp. 182. £15.99. out and writing up’ an Investigation.
Although compact (182 pages), Under-
!" Reviewed by Francine Brett
standing Psychology is clear and concise and
Understanding Psychology is a good introduc- an ‘easy’ read. At the back there is a Glossary,
tion to the work and ideas of psychologists. Further Reading section, Websites and an
Each chapter covers a topic on the Speci- Index.
fication and ends with sample exam ques- In short, Barbara’s book ‘does what it says
tions for GCSE Psychology. The book is on the tin’! It can be used as a textbook or
attractively laid out with each chapter out of general interest and will no doubt be
carrying ‘boxes’ of text that students may use an invaluable tool for teachers and lecturers
as activities. The key points are in bold text. delivering GCSE level Psychology to
Woods provides comprehensive coverage students.
of the latest AQA GCSE Specification for
Psychology. It provides an ideal introduction Francine Brett,
for all those interested in the subject. There Consultant Psychologist.

Teaching and Learning Lessons from as teacher, educational psychologist, univer-

Psychology sity lecturer and teacher trainer. As one
Richard Fox might expect, given the extensive breath of
Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. experience of the author, the book benefits
ISBN: 1-4051-1487-8 (Paperback). from not only his deep and extensive knowl-
Pp. 304. £16.99. edge of psychology but also his considerable
practical experience of working with
!" Reviewed by Jeremy Swinson
teachers and especially his role as a teacher
The degree and extent to which the disci- trainer.
pline of psychology should feature in the Like Gaul this book is in three parts. Part
training of teachers has in recent years 1 consists of ‘a course for beginning
become the subject of considerable debate. teachers.’ It has sections on the repertoire of
If anyone doubted the importance that teaching, the social context of the classroom,
psychology plays in both our understanding lesson planning and, of course, how to keep
children’s learning and also the processes of order. This section is informed by what
many aspects of teaching then they would do described as ‘craft knowledge’. It contains
well to take a look at the extensive evidence numerous vignettes of recorded episodes
contained in this book. from real lessons. These are a joy to read,
Richard Fox recently retired from his add to the understanding of the issues and
post at Exeter University after a long career give the whole text a credibility that is often

The Psychology of Education Review 55

Book Reviews

missing from other published work in this room practice. The book, therefore, is both
field. scholarly and also very practical. There may
Part 2, looks at the main areas of research well be other books on the market cover
that have contributed to our understanding some of the individual topics in this book in
of learning, teaching and motivation. There greater detail, but I cannot think of any
is an extensive debate on innate capacity and other single volume that covers the broad
cultural learning, chapters on human and range of issues as well as Fox.
particularly student motivation, as well as Naturally Fox does not cover all the areas
sections on intuitive learning, individual of teaching practice with the same degree of
differences and the development of the depth. Chapter 10 on influencing student
mind. This section contains examples of a motivation includes only a short discussion
number of key research studies including on the use of punishment and the role of
dialogue from students which both inform school exclusions. An example is given of
and illustrate the reader’s understanding of good school practice in which one primary
the issues. school successfully reduced their exclusions.
Part 3 is concerned with issues of interest Inevitably, this example would not be suitable
to a more experienced teacher. It covers a in many other settings and given that the
range of topics including, special needs, reduction of exclusions is a key issue espe-
bullying, child abuse, the impact of gender cially in secondary schools, its thin coverage
and ethnicity on learning, assessment and in the book is one source of weakness.
finally a discussion of professional growth According to the author the book is
and development. As in the other sections of aimed at anyone interested in teaching. It
the book it contains numerous examples of will undoubtedly be of particular interest to
good practice that both illuminate and those training to teach and those teachers
develop the points being made. The book engaged in further study. As Ted Wragg
ends with a complete transcript of a lesson, points out in his introduction, teaching is an
which readers are encouraged to analyse in art form with a scientific and philosophical
conjunction with earlier chapters. This foundation. Teaching is also a professional
proved to be an extremely enjoyable exercise activity which can and should be evidenced
for this reviewer, and like other of examples based. The ultimate strengths of this book
of verbatim recording of teachers and are two-fold. First it admirably demonstrates
children, really brings this book to life. the extensive contribution that psychology
Finally there is a useful glossary of educa- has to our understanding of teaching and
tional terms. Every chapter of the book, and second it demonstrates very clearly that the
there are 16 in all, ends with a set of five to scientific methodology used by psychologist
10 questions, which are ‘designed to check has provided much evidence to support
your understanding of the chapter’. Whilst effective professional practice. This book is,
he may have retired, obviously Richard Fox therefore, to be highly recommended. It
remains a teacher at heart! places psychology at the centre of our under-
This book has a number of major standing of teaching and learning and
strengths. It is broad in the range of issues it demonstrates this clearly to its readers,
addresses and it appears to cover these in an whether they are teachers in training or
admirable degree of depth. Above all it more experienced colleagues wishing to
applies detail knowledge of psychology to extend their knowledge.
the whole of the education process. It is
especially strong on the application of Dr. Jeremy Swinson
psychological theory and research to class- Witherslack Schools.

56 The Psychology of Education Review

 Book Reviews

The Making of a Therapist: A Practical The book reads easily and well, with an
Guide for the Inner Journey approachable and very human style of
Louis Cozzolino delivery. Some aspects of the book may be
New York/London: W.W. Norton, 2004. less welcome for some readers, however. The
ISBN: 0-3937-0424-6 (Hardback). author writes using a largely psychodynamic
Pp. 213. £22.00. language, referring to splitting and making
interpretations, which may jar with some.
!" Reviewed by Peter Jenkins
Despite this, the author is clearly not making
This book is about the two journeys made claims for the sole effectiveness or value of
simultaneously in the process of learning to this approach, as there is a decidedly inte-
become a counsellor, therapist or practising grative and inclusive flavour to much of the
psychologist. As the author puts it, these material presented here. Similarly, the
include ‘one outward into the professional advice on how to collect fees from resistant
world and the other inward, through the clients may be less than useful for most prac-
labyrinths of our own psyches’. Essentially, it titioners working in either the education
makes a case for practitioners to be as atten- system or the NHS. Again, at one stage, he
tive to their own inner, psychological make- advises bringing in the client’s friends or
up as to the more skilled and technical side family to gain a wider perspective on the key
of their role. The author is a Professor of issues, advice which will probably appeal to
Psychology at Pepperdine University in the some readers rather than to others, who may
US, and is himself an experienced therapist. be more committed to mainly individual
Fortunately, however, this book is not about work with clients.
what a brilliant psychologist he is, but a fairly Overall, this is a useful and engaging
humbling exploration of the slips, mistakes book for beginning and also for more expe-
and assumptions which many of us will rienced practitioners working in the field of
recognise from our own practice experience. counselling and psychology. There are some
The book is divided into three sections, specific and valuable tips. These include the
covering getting through first sessions, key significance of conveying hope of the
getting to know your clients and getting to potential for change to clients, of making
know yourself. The first section is helpful on ‘no self-harm’ contracts with suicidal and
acknowledging the nervous anxiety facing vulnerable clients and of recognising the
the beginning practitioner, with the advice role of strong feelings evoked in working
that the client is probably even more nervous cross-culturally. The book will be useful both
than the professional in this situation! The as a beginner’s guide to practice and also as
second and third sections will still be useful an orientation manual for experienced prac-
for the beginner, but also have something titioners wanting to re-examine and reflect
valuable for more experienced practitioners, on their practice. It is, thankfully, not yet
particularly if somewhat settled into an estab- another book about the superiority of the
lished routine. Cozzolino explores the author’s chosen model of therapy, but a cele-
personal and emotional aspects of thera- bration of the ordinary day-to-day struggle to
peutic work, such as acknowledging and be ‘good enough’, to use Donald Winnicott’s
repairing mistakes, coping with silence and phrase, in the human and imperfect art of
sexual attraction to clients, and the all-too- undertaking therapeutic work with clients.
rarely mentioned issue of dealing with tired-
ness and fatigue. He suggests ‘shuttling’ Peter Jenkins,
between different aspects of awareness, both University of Salford.
internal and external, as a way of shifting
focus and constantly recalibrating the practi-
tioner’s energies and focus.

The Psychology of Education Review 57

Book Reviews

Behaviour Recovery (2nd ed.) mirroring, picture cues, questioning strate-

Bill Rogers gies, modelling and rehearsal and self-talk.
London: Paul Chapman, 2004. Behaviour Recovery focuses upon behav-
ISBN: 1-4129-0145-6 (Paperback). ioural variables that can be modified by care-
Pp. 203. £18.99. fully planned interventions Although social
learning theory is an underpinning feature
!" Reviewed by Peter Wakefield
of Behaviour Recovery, there is also an
Bill Rogers is a teacher, university lecturer, acknowledgement that achieving successful
distinguished author and educational outcomes with children whose behaviour
consultant who lectures across the UK and challenges the authority of the teacher, relies
Australasia, particularly in the field of behav- upon certain other factors. These include
iour management. This book is specifically creating a learning environment in which
designed for teachers and other practi- children feel safe, valued and respected and
tioners concerned with developing positive ensuring that the curriculum is accessible
whole school strategies that contribute to the and expectations for achieving success are
development of a conducive learning envi- realistic. Over recent years increasing pres-
ronment. The key tenets of Behaviour sure from the DfES to raise standards in UK
Recovery are that children can be taught pro- schools and maintain the movement towards
social behaviours that: (i) enable them to more inclusive schools has placed consider-
learn more effectively and as a consequence, able additional burdens upon teachers.
achieve successful outcomes; and (ii) Within Behaviour Recovery consideration is
improve their social skills and enable them given to the role that peers can play in medi-
to interact with peers and adults in ways that ating the inappropriate behaviour of
gains their approval and enhances their children whose behaviour can disrupt the
social standing. In addition, Behaviour learning for all children. These strategies,
Recovery gives an emphasis to early interven- together with whole class responses such as
tion and the importance of providing an in- class meetings (or circle time), can be incor-
school framework of structural and porated within the day to day management
emotional support for the class teacher. of the classroom. The author stresses the
The book is presented in an accessible importance of motivating the child to
and coherent manner. The eight chapters change their unwanted behaviours: ‘you own
can be reviewed in four sections: your own behaviour – you can make better choices
! Background information about the that will see you feeling better as you behave better’
pathology of behaviour; (p.57). Children who have an extended
! Key features of Behaviour Recovery; history of failure in school need to see a
! Intervention strategies; and value in behaving in a pro-social manner.
! Working with partners to facilitate Often, compliance with rules is not deemed
Behaviour Recovery. ‘cool’ in children whose dysfunctional home
The Appendix is an integral aspect of the life may not provide the structure and
book, providing photocopiable ideas for parental guidance children need in order to
supportive materials relating to the Behav- make decisions that will have positive
iour Recovery programme. The pictorial outcomes for them. Encouraging children to
illustrations enhance the reader’s apprecia- voice their views regarding their educational
tion of specific strategies whilst the experience is an important aspect of devel-
diagrams/tables offer both an overview of oping self-advocacy skills, self confidence
the programme’s management and in other and positive self esteem.
instances, a synthesis of particular features. Rogers indicates the importance of devel-
The author offers some practical suggestions oping an appropriate whole school reward
for ‘recovering’ behaviour through the use of system that is not based solely on extrinsic

58 The Psychology of Education Review

 Book Reviews

rewards. Children need to perceive a value rary context of the typical UK classroom,
in a reward or ‘celebration’. Encouraging nor, for example, in respect of strategies
children to be successful can be achieved regarding bullying advocated in recent DfES
through verbal encouragement, non-verbal initiatives (Charter for Bullying, 2000). A key
signals and peer approbation. In respect of feature of Behaviour Recovery advocated by
the vexed question of sanctions or ‘corrective Rogers is described as ‘basic civics and
discipline’ (p.96), the author offers some manners’ (p.21). To enable UK teachers to
sensible, practical and non-coercive sugges- connect with these concepts, mentioned
tions to teachers. The importance attached should be made to the citizenship initiative.
to pupils appreciating that they have to be There is little doubt that a teacher may find
accountable for their behaviour is stressed, the ideas and strategies for their implemen-
together with an acknowledgement that tation a welcome addition to their own
some children’s behaviour can be extreme toolbox of ideas. Despite this, it is apparent
and require interventions that necessitate that the literature alluded to by Rogers,
support from senior colleagues in school. apart from a few exceptions, is dated and
The section on ‘time-out’ is particularly fails to capitalise upon more recent case
interesting and raises the question of pupils’ study material and initiatives from the DfES
rights and the wider ethical issues of working relating to behaviour such as links between
one to one with pupils which is an integral behaviour and attendance and behaviour
aspect of the Behaviour Recovery process. and learning and teaching. These points
Whilst the book contains a plethora of should not seriously detract from the fact
sensible and practical ideas for managing that the book provides sound advice, prac-
children whose behaviour disrupts the tical ideas and is written in a style that is non-
learning of other children, some of the threatening. Teachers, especially newly
strategies are not those that could be realisti- qualified teachers, and teaching assistants
cally undertaken by a busy teacher respon- would benefit from absorbing these ideas
sible for the learning of 30 children. In the into their practice.
UK, the increased use of teaching assistants
provides a promising vehicle for many of the Peter Wakefield,
Behaviour Recovery strategies to be employed. University College Worcester.
The book is not cognisant of the contempo-

REVIEW PAPER – but perhaps ‘practitioner’ would be the

most appropriate description with regard to
Handbook of Emotional and the stance taken when reviewing this publi-
Behavioural Difficulties cation.
Peter Clough, Philip Garner, John T. Pardeck & The book is divided into four parts.
Francis Yuen (Eds.) Part 1: Context and Terminologies (six chap-
London: Sage Publications, 2005. ters).
ISBN: 0-7619-4066-9 (Hardback). Part 2. Roots and Causes (seven chapters).
Pp. 440. £85.00. Part 3. Strategies and Interventions (nine
chapters).
!" Reviewed by Eddie McNamara
Part 4. Some Points of Tension and Develop-
The editors of this publication write ‘This ment (five chapters).
book has been written to enable individual chap- In all, it comprises 27 chapters contributed
ters to be useful resources for students, academics to by 46 authors. The majority of the 46
and practitioners’. The reviewer would like to contributors are drawn from the UK and
associate himself with all three target groups the US.

The Psychology of Education Review 59

Book Reviews

The overall aim of this Handbook is ‘to that this contribution was misplaced in the
provide a systematic and comprehensive section ‘Strategies and Interventions’. I had
overview of a series of often related themes hoped that this contribution might be an
which underpin theoretical and philoso- SEBD equivalent to the work of Prochaska
phical approaches to pupils perceived as and DiClemente. From an analysis of the
having Emotional and Behavioural Difficul- myriad of therapeutic approaches engaged
ties (EBDs) and their realisation in both in at the time of their work (over 150) they
policy and provision’. The particular aims of distilled out a series of stages of change that
the editors are to allow the reader to people go through – whether the change be
consider children and young people with self change or change achieved within a ther-
EBDs from three perspectives and levels. apeutic situation.
The editors also claim that the themes or I next turned with a degree of enthu-
topics are organised to highlight: (1) key siasm to the chapter written by Bill Rogers.
principles or characteristics; (2) examples of Bill Rogers is a practitioner whose work will
their impact on current practice; and (3) be known to many readers of this review.
issues arising for debate. Rogers’s chapter, ‘Teaching Students with
My first reaction to perusing the contents Emotional Behavioural Disorders’, fits
was that it was most certainly a reference snugly within the Part 3 section of the book
book and not a ‘practitioner book’. Thus, as – ‘Strategies and Interventions’. Roger’s is
far as the reviewer was concerned, the both rigorous, persuasive and practical in his
purpose of the book, as described on the presentation of effective strategies to meet
flyleaf, has been achieved namely, ‘This book the needs of children with SEBD
has been written to enable individual chapters to The next chapter in Part 3 is about
be useful resources for students, academics and preventative approaches at the school-wide
practitioners’. systems level – a contribution made by Lewis
The review strategy I adopted was to go and Newcomer. The chapter title is
firstly to those sections of the Handbook ‘Reducing Problem Behaviour through
which were of particular interest and then School-wide Systems of Positive Behaviour
‘work away’ to the other sections. Thus Part Support’. The authors of this chapter are
3, ‘Strategies and Interventions’ was the US-based, but the first paragraph of their
reviewer’s first port of call, followed by Part contribution reflects current UK Govern-
4, ‘Some Points of Tension and Develop- ment concerns par excellent, namely ‘One of
ment’, then Part 1, ‘Context and Terminolo- the greatest challenges confronting educators is to
gies’ and finally Part 2, ‘Roots and Causes. provide a positive learning and teaching environ-
ment in schools with high rates of discipline prob-
Part 3 – Strategies and Interventions. lems’. In this chapter the authors were
There are nine chapters in this section. The putting forward an American concept of
first, contributed by John Visser, attempts to Positive Behaviour Support (PBS) which is
address the issue ‘What Makes What Works, already paralleled in this country. For the
Work?’ Visser writes to the theme of identi- PBS recommends positive pupil manage-
fying ‘eternal verities’. Eternal verities he ment structures to be in place at the systems,
defines as core factors that must be present if classroom and individual pupil level. Such a
any intervention is to meet successfully the model has already long been espoused in the
needs of children and young people with British Educational System cf Building a Better
Social, Emotional and Behavioural Difficul- Behaved School (Galvin et al., 1990). Reading
ties (SEBD). The verities that Visser identi- their brief reference to environmental
fies appear to be a drawing together of the approaches immediately brought to mind
personal characteristics and belief systems of the philosophy/resource of Framework for
effective workers in the field of EBD. I feel Intervention (Birmingham City Council,

60 The Psychology of Education Review

 Book Reviews

1998) – a UK model that has well developed when going to a section including the
practices to identify environmental factors heading ‘interventions’ was to find learned
contributing to problem behaviour and de- reviews of promising interventions such as
emphasises within child factors. Over all I those currently favoured in the UK – inter-
concluded ‘nothing new here’. Lots of UK ventions such as ‘circle time, ‘circle of
resources and initiatives could have provided friends’, ‘solution focused approaches’,
a more valuable contribution for UK readers ‘cognitive behavioural interventions’,
of this Handbook and probably in a more ‘emotional literacy programmes’ (for school,
semantically digestible fashion. small group and individuals) and so on. The
The chapter following the ‘School-wide absence of such relevant current content may
Systems of Positive Behaviours Support’ is have predisposed me to a negative cognitive
titled ‘Building School-wide Behaviour Inter- bias when looking at this section.
ventions that Really Work’. Again, parallels The major intervention paradigm shift
with Building a Better Behaved School are over the last two decades or so has been the
apparent. move from the behavioural paradigm to a
I was at a loss to understand how three of cognitive-behavioural paradigm. This has
the chapters came to be included in this allowed for an integration of behavioural
section. The chapters concerned are ‘Advo- and counselling approaches in the EBD
cacy for Students with Emotional and Behav- field. Yet in this book of 440 pages there is
ioural Disorders’, ‘Voices from the Margins: only one reference to cognitive behavioural
the Perceptions of Pupils with EBD about interventions – and this was not in the Strate-
their Educational Experiences’ and gies and Intervention section.
‘Involving ‘Students with Emotional and Further, there is no mention of the model
Behavioural Difficulties in their Own of the Stages of Change, yet some would claim
Learning: a Transnational Perspective’. that this model is precipitating a major para-
In contrast, McGraw’s chapter, ‘Direc- digm shift in how professionals understand
tions in Teaching Social Skills to Students and facilitate behaviour change. What of the
with specific EBDs’ was appropriately located other sections?. Consistent with my practice of
and proved very interesting at the strategic going to the areas that interested me most,
level. The author starts the chapter with the the next section I read was in Part 4, ‘Some
assertion that lack of social competence Points of Tension and Development’.
virtually defines an emotional and behav-
ioural disorder. After defining ‘social compe- Part 4 – Some Points of Tension and Development
tence’ she goes on to focus on the identified There are two chapters in this section
specific social learning needs of students focusing on the training of teachers for work
‘with EBDs’ – namely ADHD, Conduct with EBD students. They are: (1) ‘The Gap
Disorder and the Anxiety Disorders.The last Between Research and Practice: Achieving
chapter of this section is ‘The Pupils Support Effective In-service Training for Teachers
Base in the Scottish Secondary School: An Working with EBD students’ (Royer); and
Alternative to Exclusion’ – contributed by (2) ‘Do Teacher Training Courses Prepare
Hamill. The description of the modus Us for the Challenge of Students Experi-
operandi and the issues raised reflect very encing EBD’ (Blake). The author of the
closely those associated with Learning former chapter is Canadian while the author
Support Units in English Secondary Schools. of the latter American – thus the direct rele-
I was disappointed that only two, or vance of the contents of these chapters is to
perhaps three, of the chapters in the section a degree limited for UK readers. It will be
‘Strategies and Interventions,’ fit comfortably. useful reading to those engaged in substan-
They are the chapters by Bill Rogers, Helen tive EBD teacher training who are in a posi-
McGraw and, perhaps Hamill. My expectation tion to read the chapters from a comparative

The Psychology of Education Review 61

Book Reviews

perspective, i.e. with an ongoing evaluation about ‘how, as part of research methodologies, we
of how the contents illuminate teacher might go about assessing the views of marginalised
training (initial teacher training and INSET) child populations’. I would direct any student
in the UK. The contents will also be of engaged in research work with young people
interest to ‘think tank’ members and ‘policy to read this chapter as part of their back-
makers’ working at a level which has the ground preparation.
potential to influence government policies. Having read the chapters of the two parts
What of the remaining three chapters of of the Handbook of most personal interest, I
this section of the book? Montague and went on to Part 1 (Concepts and Terminolo-
Castro devotes a chapter to ‘Attention gies) and Part 2 (Roots and Causes.
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Concerns and
Issues’. This chapter starts with a neat, Part 1, Concepts and Terminologies
succinct description of the development of This section contains six chapters. My atten-
the terminology and diagnostic criteria since tion was first drawn to the sixth chapter of the
they were first included in the ‘Diagnostic section, namely, ‘The forgotten ‘E’ in EBD’
and Statistical Manual of Mental disorders by Tony Bowers. Bowers outlines the termi-
(DSM- II, 1968). nological development in the area of EBD
The authors then go on to examine issues from the time of the Underwood’s report
related to the theoretical perspectives and (1955) – and its reference to ‘maladjusted
current thinking about ADHD, definitions children’ - to the current situation in which
and diagnostic criteria, assessment and identi- the term ‘EBD’ is used. Bowers notes that the
fication procedures and treatment interven- term ‘social’ has been butted on along the
tion practices. The chapter also includes the way. Bowers makes the point that over the last
position of the National Association of School 50 years ‘Emotions have been given a back seat
Psychologists, namely ‘That instruction on where formally identified special educational needs
behavioural intervention should be tried out are concerned’. The reviewer would commend
before medication is introduced into the this chapter to all practitioners in the field of
treatment plan’. This chapter was admirably EBD – the contents constitute powerful elic-
placed in the section of the book devoted to iting stimuli for ‘reflective practice’. Indeed
‘Concerns and Issues’ and provided both a the chapter may be particularly pertinent for
scholarly and relevant overview of the field educational psychologists in the context of
and issues within the field. what their actual and potential contributions
The penultimate chapter of this part of should be in this area of work.
the book is ‘How We Prevent the Prevention Space does not allow for significant
of Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties in comment on the remaining four chapters in
Education’. Having interpreted the title, this section. A chapter by Kavale et el.,
I then went on to find the contents of this explores the definition of ‘Emotional and
chapter to be interesting, relevant and Behavioural Disorders in the USA situation’.
certainly addressing an ‘issue’. This chapter Winzer’s chapter looks at critical issues with
constitutes an effective ‘briefing paper’ for regard to international comparisons in EBD,
practitioners and policy makers engaged in while Ted Cole offers an historical perspective
drawing up proposals for early intervention with regard to EBD. Although third ranked in
policies and practices. terms of the priority of sections to be read by
A further chapter of this section, the reviewer, Part 1 was perhaps the most easy
‘Researching a Marginalized Population: to read, coherent and complementary vis a vis
Methodological Issues’, is contributed by the theme of the title of the section. It consti-
Lewis. It is the only chapter in this section of tutes very relevant reading both for
the book contributed to by a worker in a UK newcomers to the field of EBD and for practi-
setting. Lewis describes the chapter as being tioners who perhaps, after some time, wish to

62 The Psychology of Education Review

 Book Reviews

place their personal beliefs, views, experi- school’. Again a parallel with the UK situa-
ences and knowledge in the context of the tion can be seen – such a needs assessment
field of EBD as it has developed. being referred to the UK as a ‘Behaviour
Audit’.The chapter by Furlong et al, while
Part 2 – Routes and Causes interesting, was not ‘new’ in terms of the
The first chapter in this section is concerned concepts, ideas and paradigms put forward.
with biology and behaviour – and the author, Parallels to most if not all of the ideas can be
Cooper, considers the educational relevance identified within the UK system.
of the bio-psycho-social perspective. Cooper Chapter 9, ‘The Problem is not the
starts the chapter with a description of exam- Problem: Hard Cases in Modernist Systems’
ples of different types of SEBD – followed by by O’Brien and Guiney, was difficult to read
brief accounts of the social, psychological and its relevance hard to identify. I am of the
and behavioural explanations of how these opinion that at least some of the target audi-
difficulties develop. Cooper concludes that ence of the Handbook will have a difficulty
the bio-psycho-social perspective can help accessing this chapter.
overcome the impulse to blame and In Nicholson’s chapter on ‘Academic
condemn but also observes that it must never Achievement and Behaviour’ the conclusion
be allowed to permit workers to escape from is drawn ‘there does not have to be an actual auto-
responsibility to put effort into overcoming matic link between problem behaviours and under-
SEBD. This is an appropriate conclusion to achievement in school’. However, he goes on to
his own chapter and an appropriate entrée assert, ‘children with behavioural problems are
to the following chapter by Furlong et al. on almost certain to have reading and other academic
the ‘Influences of the School Context and problems’ and argues that ‘their classroom focus
Processes on Violent and Disruption in should be broader than just the prevention of
American Schools’. The authors, following a behaviour problems’. In my opinion, with the
summary of the status of school violence in advent of the National Curriculum, undue
American schools, focus on the unique emphasis has been placed on the narrow
elements of the school context that curricular requirements of the National
contribute to, or detract from, the occur- Curriculum when, in an EBD context, of
rence of aggression and other anti-social equal if not more importance is a well devel-
behaviour. They conclude by outlining prin- oped and effectively delivered personal/
ciples of prevention and intervention that social education (PSE) programme.
will assist schools more effectively to reduce
violence and disruption on their campuses. Concluding observation
With regard to the prevention of violence It was with some relief that I found in the
and disruption the authors raise and first chapter of this publication the editors’
respond to the question ‘Focusing on the acknowledgement that some readers will feel
student or the context?’ The conclusion drawn that the selection of chapters has been ad
is that the existence of a school wide disci- hoc and what has been presented is a
pline plan is a key strategy used in American haphazard assembly of research. The obser-
schools for preventing behaviour problems vations of the editors mirror to a degree my
that lead to student exclusion from school. feelings about the cohesiveness of the book.
Much the same conclusion could be drawn Nonetheless the quality of most of the chap-
with regard to the situation in the UK. With ters is excellent, the referencing good and
regard to school violence and disruption – some chapters are almost essential reading.
prevention principles – the authors high- I concluded that this is a book that is a
light the important beginning step as ‘to useful, but not essential, library acquisition.
conduct a needs assessment to accurately
identify the problems that exist in each Eddie McNamara, PhD, FBPS

The Psychology of Education Review 63

Book Reviews

References
Birmingham City Council (1998). Behaviour in Galvin, P., Mercer, S. & Costa, P. (1990). Building a
Schools: Framework for Intervention. Birmingham better behaved school. London: Longman.
‘New Outlooks’ Study of Emotional and Behav- Prochaska, J.O. & DiClemente, C.C. (1984). The
ioural Problems for Birmingham City Council Transtheoretical approach: Crossing the traditional
Education Department. boundaries of therapy. Malabar, FL: Krieger.

Books for Review

The following books are available for review. If you would like to review one of them, and/or
if you would like to submit an Extended Review of a professionally significant book that you
have already read and consider merits such treatment, please contact the named persons on
one of the following channels.

E-mail: [email protected] Tel: 01786 467211 (Direct Line & Answerphone)

E-mail: [email protected] Tel: 028 9038 1271 (Switchboard)

Please provide your name, contact numbers/addresses and details of the book you would like
to review whether in the normal 700 to 800 words review, or in a lengthier extended Review
Paper format. You will then be contacted.

Reviews Editors, The Psychology of Education Review (with effect from the publication of Vol. 29, No. 2).

LIST OF BOOKS FOR REVIEW.

Blakemore, S.J. & Frith, U. (2005). The learning brain; lessons for education. Oxford: Blackwell

Fish, L.S. & Harvey, R.G. (2005). Nurturing Queer Youth. Family Therapy Transformed. New York:
W.W. Norton.

Grandstaff, D. (2004). Speaking as a Professional. Enhance your Therapy or Coaching Practice through
Presentations, Workshops and Seminars. New York: W.W. Norton.

Koshy, V. (2005). Action Research for Improving Practice. London: Sage.

Herbert, M. (2005). Developmental Problems of Childhood and Adolescence. Oxford: BPS/Blackwell.

Sambell, K., Miller, S. & Gibson, M. (2005). Studying Childhood and Early Childhood. A Guide for
Students. London: Sage.

Yelland, N. (Ed.) (2005). Critical Issues in Early Childhood Education. Maidenhead: Open
University Press. McGraw-Hill Education.

N.B. If you have any suggestions concerning books that should be considered for reviewing in
The Psychology of Education Review, please contact the Reviews Editors.

64 The Psychology of Education Review, Vol. 29, No. 2, September 2005

© The British Psychological Society ISSN 0262-4088
Notes for contributors
The Psychology of Education Review is published twice yearly (March/September). The aim is to publish
material in the area of Psychology and Education. Submissions in the following form are welcomed.

The Open Dialogue: This is a mechanism whereby there is simultaneous exchange of views on an issue of
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comment on the position; Author’s Reply, offering a final response. Anyone wishing to contribute should
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Individual Papers: We welcome individual papers in any aspect of Psychology and Education. Papers should
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(1) peer refereed reports on on-going research by established researchers (750 to 2000 words);
(2) reports on on-going research from research students (up to 1000 words).

Book Reviews: The Review aims to provide reviews of relevant books as soon as possible after their
publication. Authors should alert the Book Reviews Editor if they wish to see a particular book reviewed –
either of their own writing or if they feel it is relevant to our readers. Authors may be invited to respond to
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enquiries to Review Editor, Justine Howard. E-mail: [email protected]

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Printed in England by the British Psychological Society

Contents
1 Editorial
Justine Howard & Ruth Kershner

2 Open Dialogue:
Neuroscience and Education: The brain in the classroom
Usha Goswami

Open Dialogue peer review:

9 A response to Goswami – Laura Penrose
11 A response to Goswami – Paul Howard-Jones
13 A response to Goswami – Susan Hallam
15 A response to Goswami – Fathima Khan
17 A response to Goswami – David Whitebread

Open Dialogue:
19 Author’s response to peer commentary
Usha Goswami

Individual Paper:
21 The worries of junior high school pupils in Taiwan
Chris Kyriacou & Chun-Fang Yang

29 A Note to the Readers

Peter D. Pumfrey

31 A response to a Book Review

Leslie Smith

32 Book Reviews

64 Books for Review

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