Though it is often viewed both as the archetypal Anglo-Saxon literary work and as a cornerstone of modern literature, Beowulf has

a peculiar history that complicates both its historical and its canonical position in English literature. y the time the story of Beowulf was composed by an unknown Anglo-Saxon poet around !"" a.d., much of its material had been in circulation in oral narrative for many years. The Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian peoples had invaded the island of ritain and settled there several hundred years earlier, bringing with them several closely related #ermanic languages that would evolve into $ld English. Elements of the Beowulf story%including its setting and characters%date back to the period before the migration. The action of the poem takes place around &"" a.d. 'any of the characters in the poem%the Swedish and (anish royal family members, for example% correspond to actual historical figures. $riginally pagan warriors, the Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian invaders experienced a large-scale conversion to )hristianity at the end of the sixth century. Though still an old pagan story, Beowulf thus came to be told by a )hristian poet. The Beowulf poet is often at pains to attribute )hristian thoughts and motives to his characters, who fre*uently behave in distinctly un-)hristian ways. The Beowulf that we read today is therefore probably *uite unlike the Beowulf with which the first Anglo-Saxon audiences were familiar. The element of religious tension is *uite common in )hristian Anglo-Saxon writings +The Dream of the Rood, for example,, but the combination of a pagan story with a )hristian narrator is fairly unusual. The plot of the poem concerns Scandinavian culture, but much of the poem-s narrative intervention reveals that the poet-s culture was somewhat different from that of his ancestors, and that of his characters as well. The world that Beowulf depicts and the heroic code of honor that defines much of the story is a relic of pre.Anglo-Saxon culture. The story is set in Scandinavia, before the migration. Though it is a traditional story%part of a #ermanic oral tradition%the poem as we have it is thought to be the work of a single poet. /t was composed in England +not in Scandinavia, and is historical in its perspective, recording the values and culture of a bygone era. 'any of those values, including the heroic code, were still operative to some degree in when the poem was written. These values had evolved to some extent in the intervening centuries and were continuing to change. /n the Scandinavian world of the story, tiny tribes of people rally around strong kings, who protect their people from danger%especially from confrontations with other tribes. The warrior culture that results from this early feudal arrangement is extremely important, both to the story and to our understanding of Saxon civili0ation. Strong kings demand bravery and loyalty from their warriors, whom they repay with treasures won in war. 'ead-halls such as 1eorot in Beowulf were places where warriors would gather in the presence of their lord to drink, boast, tell stories, and receive gifts. Although these mead-halls offered sanctuary, the early 'iddle Ages were a dangerous time, and the paranoid sense of foreboding and doom that runs throughout Beowulf evidences the constant fear of invasion that plagued Scandinavian society. $nly a single manuscript of Beowulf survived the Anglo-Saxon era. 2or many centuries, the manuscript was all but forgotten, and, in the 3!""s, it was nearly destroyed in a fire. /t was not until the nineteenth century that widespread interest in the document emerged among scholars and translators of $ld English. 2or the first hundred years of Beowulf-s prominence, interest in the poem was primarily historical%the text was viewed as a source of information about the Anglo-Saxon era. /t was not until 3456, when the $xford scholar 7. 8. 8. Tolkien +who later wrote The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, works heavily influenced by Beowulf, published a groundbreaking paper entitled 9Beowulf: The 'onsters and the )ritics; that the manuscript gained recognition as a serious work of art.

Beowulf is now widely taught and is often presented as the first important work of English literature, creating the impression that Beowulf is in some way the source of the English canon. ut because it was not widely read until the 3<""s and not widely regarded as an important artwork until the 34""s, Beowulf has had little direct impact on the development of English poetry. /n fact, )haucer, Shakespeare, 'arlowe, =ope, Shelley, >eats, and most other important English writers before the 345"s had little or no knowledge of the epic. /t was not until the mid-to-late twentieth century that Beowulf began to influence writers, and, since then, it has had a marked impact on the work of many important novelists and poets, including ?. 1. Auden, #eoffrey 1ill, Ted 1ughes, and Seamus 1eaney, the 344& recipient of the @obel =ri0e in Aiterature, whose recent translation of the epic is the edition used for this Spark@ote. Old English Poetry Beowulf is often referred to as the first important work of literature in English, even though it was written in $ld English, an ancient form of the language that slowly evolved into the English now spoken. )ompared to modern English, $ld English is heavily #ermanic, with little influence from Aatin or 2rench. As English history developed, after the 2rench @ormans con*uered the Anglo-Saxons in 3"66, $ld English was gradually broadened by offerings from those languages. Thus modern English is derived from a number of sources. As a result, its vocabulary is rich with synonyms. The word kingly, for instance, descends from the AngloSaxon word cyning, meaning 9king,; while the synonym royal comes from a 2rench word and the synonymregal from a Aatin word. 2ortunately, most students encountering Beowulf read it in a form translated into modern English. Still, a familiarity with the rudiments of Anglo-Saxon poetry enables a deeper understanding of the Beowulf text. $ld English poetry is highly formal, but its form is *uite unlike anything in modern English. Each line of $ld English poetry is divided into two halves, separated by a caesura, or pause, and is often represented by a gap on the page, as the following example demonstrates: Setton him to heafdon hilde-randas. . . . ecause Anglo-Saxon poetry existed in oral tradition long before it was written down, the verse form contains complicated rules for alliteration designed to help scops, or poets, remember the many thousands of lines they were re*uired to know by heart. Each of the two halves of an Anglo-Saxon line contains two stressed syllables, and an alliterative pattern must be carried over across the caesura. Any of the stressed syllables may alliterate except the last syllableB so the first and second syllables may alliterate with the third together, or the first and third may alliterate alone, or the second and third may alliterate alone. 2or instance: Aade ne letton. Aeoht eastan com. Lade, letton, leoht, and eastan are the four stressed words. /n addition to these rules, $ld English poetry often features a distinctive set of rhetorical devices. The most common of these is the kenning, used throughout Beowulf. A kenning is a short metaphorical description of a thing used in place of the thing-s nameB thus a ship might be called a 9sea-rider,; or a king a 9ring-giver.; Some translations employ kennings almost as fre*uently as they appear in the original. $thers moderate the use of kennings in deference to

a modern sensibility. ut the $ld English version of the epic is full of them, and they are perhaps the most important rhetorical device present in $ld English poetry.
Plot Overview King Hrothgar of Denmark, a descendant of the great king Shield Sheafson, enjoys a prosperous and successful reign. He builds a great mead-hall, called Heorot, here his arriors can gather to drink, recei!e gifts from their lord, and listen to stories sung by the scops, or bards. "ut the jubilant noise from Heorot angers #rendel, a horrible demon ho li!es in the s amplands of Hrothgar$s kingdom. #rendel terrori%es the Danes e!ery night, killing them and defeating their efforts to fight back. &he Danes suffer many years of fear, danger, and death at the hands of #rendel. '!entually, ho e!er, a young #eatish arrior named "eo ulf hears of Hrothgar$s plight. (nspired by the challenge, "eo ulf sails to Denmark ith a small company of men, determined to defeat #rendel.

1rothgar, who had once done a great favor for eowulf-s father Ecgtheow, accepts eowulf-s offer to fight #rendel and holds a feast in the hero-s honor. (uring the feast, an envious (ane named Cnferth taunts eowulf and accuses him of being unworthy of his reputation. eowulf responds with a boastful description of some of his past accomplishments. 1is confidence cheers the (anish warriors, and the feast lasts merrily into the night. At last, however, #rendel arrives. eowulf fights him unarmed, proving himself stronger than the demon, who is terrified. As #rendel struggles to escape, eowulf tears the monster-s arm off. 'ortally wounded, #rendel slinks back into the swamp to die. The severed arm is hung high in the mead-hall as a trophy of victory. $verDoyed, 1rothgar showers eowulf with gifts and treasure at a feast in his honor. Songs are sung in praise of eowulf, and the celebration lasts late into the night. ut another threat is approaching. #rendel-s mother, a swamp-hag who lives in a desolate lake, comes to 1eorot seeking revenge for her son-s death. She murders Aeschere, one of 1rothgar-s most trusted advisers, before slinking away. To avenge Aeschere-s death, the company travels to the murky swamp, where eowulf dives into the water and fights #rendel-s mother in her underwater lair. 1e kills her with a sword forged for a giant, then, finding #rendel-s corpse, decapitates it and brings the head as a pri0e to 1rothgar. The (anish countryside is now purged of its treacherous monsters. The (anes are again overDoyed, and eowulf-s fame spreads across the kingdom. eowulf departs after a sorrowful goodbye to 1rothgar, who has treated him like a son. 1e returns to #eatland, where he and his men are reunited with their king and *ueen, 1ygelac and 1ygd, to whom eowulf recounts his adventures in (enmark. eowulf then hands over most of his treasure to 1ygelac, who, in turn, rewards him. /n time, 1ygelac is killed in a war against the Shylfings, and, after 1ygelac-s son dies, eowulf ascends to the throne of the #eats. 1e rules wisely for fifty years, bringing prosperity to #eatland. ?hen eowulf is an old man, however, a thief disturbs a barrow, or mound, where a great dragon lies guarding a horde of treasure. Enraged, the dragon emerges from the barrow and begins unleashing fiery destruction upon the #eats. Sensing his own death approaching, eowulf goes to fight the dragon. ?ith the aid of ?iglaf, he succeeds in killing the beast, but at a heavy cost. The dragon bites eowulf in the neck, and its fiery venom kills him moments after their encounter. The #eats fear that their enemies will attack them now that eowulf is dead. According to eowulf-s wishes, they burn their departed
)

king-s body on a huge funeral pyre and then bury him with a massive treasure in a barrow overlooking the sea. 'aDor characters Beowulf eowulf exemplifies the traits of the perfect hero. The poem explores his heroism in two separate phases%youth and age%and through three separate and increasingly difficult conflicts%with #rendel, #rendel-s mother, and the dragon. Although we can view these three encounters as expressions of the heroic code, there is perhaps a clearer division between eowulf-s youthful heroism as an unfettered warrior and his mature heroism as a reliable king. These two phases of his life, separated by fifty years, correspond to two different models of virtue, and much of the moral reflection in the story centers on differentiating these two models and on showing how eowulf makes the transition from one to the other. /n his youth, eowulf is a great warrior, characteri0ed predominantly by his feats of strength and courage, including his fabled swimming match against reca. 1e also perfectly embodies the manners and values dictated by the #ermanic heroic code, including loyalty, courtesy, and pride. 1is defeat of #rendel and #rendel-s mother validates his reputation for bravery and establishes him fully as a hero. /n first part of the poem, eowulf matures little, as he possesses heroic *ualities in abundance from the start. 1aving purged (enmark of its plagues and established himself as a hero, however, he is ready to enter into a new phase of his life. 1rothgar, who becomes a mentor and father figure to the young warrior, begins to deliver advice about how to act as a wise ruler. Though eowulf does not become king for many years, his exemplary career as a warrior has served in part to prepare him for his ascension to the throne. The second part of the story, set in #eatland, skips over the middle of eowulf-s career and focuses on the very end of his life. Through a series of retrospectives, however, we recover much of what happens during this gap and therefore are able to see how eowulf comports himself as both a warrior and a king. The period following 1ygelac-s death is an important transitional moment for eowulf. /nstead of rushing for the throne himself, as 1rothulf does in (enmark, he supports 1ygelac-s son, the rightful heir. ?ith this gesture of loyalty and respect for the throne, he proves himself worthy of kingship. /n the final episode%the encounter with the dragon%the poet reflects further on how the responsibilities of a king, who must act for the good of the people and not Dust for his own glory, differ from those of the heroic warrior. /n light of these meditations, eowulf-s moral status becomes somewhat ambiguous at the poem-s end. Though he is deservedly celebrated as a great hero and leader, his last courageous fight is also somewhat rash. The poem suggests that, by sacrificing himself, eowulf unnecessarily leaves his people without a king, exposing them to danger from other tribes. To understand eowulf-s death strictly as a personal failure, however, is to neglect the overwhelming emphasis given to fate in this last portion of the poem. The conflict with the dragon has an aura of inevitability about it. 8ather than a conscious choice, the battle can also be interpreted as a matter in which eowulf has very little choice or free will at all. Additionally, it is hard to blame him for acting according to the dictates of his warrior culture. Grendel

Aikely the poem-s most memorable creation, #rendel is one of the three monsters that eowulf battles. 1is nature is ambiguous. Though he has many animal attributes and a grotes*ue, monstrous appearance, he seems to be guided by vaguely human emotions and impulses, and he shows more of an interior life than one might expect. Exiled to the swamplands outside the boundaries of human society, #rendel is an outcast who seems to long to be reinstated. The poet hints that behind #rendel-s aggression against the (anes lies loneliness and Dealousy. y lineage, #rendel is a member of 9)ain-s clan, whom the creator had outlawed E and condemned as outcasts.; +3"6.3"!,. 1e is thus descended from a figure who epitomi0es resentment and malice. ?hile the poet somewhat sympathetically suggests that #rendel-s deep bitterness about being excluded from the revelry in the mead-hall owes, in part, to his accursed status, he also points out that #rendel is 9FmGalignant by nature; and that he has 9never showFnG remorse; +35!,. Hrothgar 1rothgar, the aged ruler of the (anes who accepts eowulf-s help in the first part of the story, aids eowulf-s development into maturity. 1rothgar is a relatively static character, a force of stability in the social realm. Although he is as solidly rooted in the heroic code as eowulf is, his old age and his experience with both good and ill fortune have caused him to develop a more reflective attitude toward heroism than eowulf possesses. 1e is aware of both the privileges and the dangers of power, and he warns his young protHgH not to give in to pride and always to remember that blessings may turn to grief. 1rothgar-s meditations on heroism and leadership, which take into account a hero-s entire life span rather than Dust his valiant youth, reveal the contrast between youth and old age that forms the turning point in eowulf-s own development. Unferth Cnferth-s challenge to eowulf-s honor differentiates him from eowulf and helps to reveal some of the subtleties of the heroic code that the warriors must follow. Cnferth is presented as a lesser man, a foil for the near-perfect eowulf. +A foil is a character whose traits contrast with and thereby accentuate those of another character., The bitterness of Cnferth-s chiding of eowulf about his swimming match with reca clearly reflects his Dealousy of the attention that eowulf receives. /t probably also stems from his shame at being unable to protect 1eorot himself%he is clearly not the sort of great warrior whom legend will remember. ?hile boasting is a proper and acceptable form of self-assertion, Cnferth-s harsh words show that it ought not to be bitter or disparaging of others. 8ather than heroism, Cnferth-s blustering reveals pride and resentment. Aater, Cnferth-s gift of his sword for eowulf-s fight against #rendel-s mother heals Cnferth-s breach of hospitality, but it does little to improve his heroic status. Cnlike eowulf, Cnferth is clearly afraid to fight the monster himself. Wiglaf ?iglaf, one of eowulf-s kinsmen and thanes, is the only warrior brave enough to help the hero in his fight against the dragon. ?iglaf conforms perfectly to the heroic code in that he is willing to die attempting to defeat the opponent and, more importantly, to save his lord. /n this regard, ?iglaf appears as a reflection of the young eowulf in the first part of the story%a warrior who is strong, fearless, valiant, and loyal. 1e embodies eowulf-s statement from the early scenes of the poem that it is always better to act than to grieve. ?iglaf thus represents the next generation of heroism and the future of the kingdom. 1is bravery and solid bearing
+

provide the single glint of optimism in the final part of the story, which, for the most part, is dominated by a tone of despair at what the future holds.
&hemes, ,otifs - Symbols

Themes
&hemes are the fundamental and often uni!ersal ideas e.plored in a literary ork. The Importance of Establishing Identity

As eowulf is essentially a record of heroic deeds, the concept of identity%of which the two principal components are ancestral heritage and individual reputation%is clearly central to the poem. The opening passages introduce the reader to a world in which every male figure is known as his father-s son. )haracters in the poem are unable to talk about their identity or even introduce themselves without referring to family lineage. This concern with family history is so prominent because of the poem-s emphasis on kinship bonds. )haracters take pride in ancestors who have acted valiantly, and they attempt to live up to the same standards as those ancestors. ?hile heritage may provide models for behavior and help to establish identity%as with the line of (anish kings discussed early on%a good reputation is the key to solidifying and augmenting one-s identity. 2or example, Shield Sheafson, the legendary originator of the (anish royal line, was orphanedB because he was in a sense fatherless, valiant deeds were the only means by which he could construct an identity for himself. ?hile eowulf-s pagan warrior culture seems not to have a concept of the afterlife, it sees fame as a way of ensuring that an individual-s memory will continue on after death%an understandable preoccupation in a world where death seems always to be knocking at the door.
Tensions Between the Heroic Code and Other Value Systems

'uch of eowulf is devoted to articulating and illustrating the #ermanic heroic code, which values strength, courage, and loyalty in warriorsB hospitality, generosity, and political skill in kingsB ceremoniousness in womenB and good reputation in all people. Traditional and much respected, this code is vital to warrior societies as a means of understanding their relationships to the world and the menaces lurking beyond their boundaries. All of the characters- moral Dudgments stem from the code-s mandates. Thus individual actions can be seen only as either conforming to or violating the code. The poem highlights the code-s points of tension by recounting situations that expose its internal contradictions in values. The poem contains several stories that concern divided loyalties, situations for which the code offers no practical guidance about how to act. 2or example, the poet relates that the (anish 1ildeburh marries the 2risian king. ?hen, in the war between the (anes and the 2risians, both her (anish brother and her 2risian son are killed, 1ildeburh is left doubly grieved. The code is also often in tension with the values of medieval )hristianity. ?hile the code maintains that honor is gained during life through deeds, )hristianity asserts that glory lies in the afterlife. Similarly, while the warrior culture dictates that it is always better to retaliate than to mourn, )hristian doctrine advocates a peaceful, forgiving attitude toward one-s enemies. Throughout the poem, the poet strains to

accommodate these two sets of values. Though he is )hristian, he cannot +and does not seem to want to, deny the fundamental pagan values of the story.
The Difference Between a ood !arrior and a ood "ing

$ver the course of the poem, eowulf matures from a valiant combatant into a wise leader. 1is transition demonstrates that a differing set of values accompanies each of his two roles. The difference between these two sets of values manifests itself early on in the outlooks of eowulf and >ing 1rothgar. ?hereas the youthful eowulf, having nothing to lose, desires personal glory, the aged 1rothgar, having much to lose, seeks protection for his people. Though these two outlooks are somewhat oppositional, each character acts as society dictates he should given his particular role in society. ?hile the values of the warrior become clear through eowulf-s example throughout the poem, only in the poem-s more didactic moments are the responsibilities of a king to his people discussed. The heroic code re*uires that a king reward the loyal service of his warriors with gifts and praise. /t also holds that he must provide them with protection and the sanctuary of a lavish mead-hall. 1rothgar-s speeches, in particular, emphasi0e the value of creating stability in a precarious and chaotic world. 1e also speaks at length about the king-s role in diplomacy, both with his own warriors and with other tribes. eowulf-s own tenure as king elaborates on many of the same points. 1is transition from warrior to king, and, in particular, his final battle with the dragon, rehash the dichotomy between the duties of a heroic warrior and those of a heroic king. /n the eyes of several of the #eats, eowulf-s bold encounter with the dragon is morally ambiguous because it dooms them to a kingless state in which they remain vulnerable to attack by their enemies. Iet eowulf also demonstrates the sort of restraint proper to kings when, earlier in his life, he refrains from usurping 1ygelac-s throne, choosing instead to uphold the line of succession by supporting the appointment of 1ygelac-s son. ut since all of these pagan kings were great warriors in their youth, the tension between these two important roles seems inevitable and ultimately irreconcilable. Motifs
#onsters

/n )hristian medieval culture, monster was the word that referred to birth defects, which were always understood as an ominous sign from #od%a sign of transgression or of bad things to come. /n keeping with this idea, the monsters that eowulf must fight in this $ld English poem shape the poem-s plot and seem to represent an inhuman or alien presence in society that must be exorcised for the society-s safety. They are all outsiders, existing beyond the boundaries of human realms. #rendel-s and his mother-s encroachment upon human society %they wreak havoc in 1eorot%forces eowulf to kill the two beasts for order to be restored. To many readers, the three monsters that eowulf slays all seem to have a symbolic or allegorical meaning. 2or instance, since #rendel is descended from the biblical figure )ain, who slew his own brother, #rendel often has been understood to represent the evil in Scandinavian society of marauding and killing others. A traditional figure of medieval folklore and a common )hristian symbol of sin, the dragon may represent an external malice that must be con*uered to prove a hero-s goodness. ecause eowulf-s encounter with the
0

dragon ends in mutual destruction, the dragon may also be interpreted as a symbolic representation of the inevitable encounter with death itself.
The Oral Tradition

/ntimately connected to the theme of the importance of establishing one-s identity is the oral tradition, which preserves the lessons and lineages of the past, and helps to spread reputations. /ndeed, in a culture that has little interaction with writing, only the spoken word can allow individuals to learn about others and make their own stories known. This emphasis on oral communication explains the prevalence of bards- tales +such as the 1eorot scop-s relating of the 2innsburg episode, and warriors- boastings +such as eowulf-s telling of the reca story,. 2rom a broader perspective, eowulf itself contributes to the tradition of oral celebration of cultural heroes. Aike 1omer-s Iliad and dyssey, eowulf was passed on orally over many generations before being written down.
The #ead$Hall

The poem contains two examples of mead-halls: 1rothgar-s great hall of 1eorot, in (enmark, and 1ygelac-s hall in #eatland. oth function as important cultural institutions that provide light and warmth, food and drink, and singing and revelry. 1istorically, the mead-hall represented a safe haven for warriors returning from battle, a small 0one of refuge within a dangerous and precarious external world that continuously offered the threat of attack by neighboring peoples. The mead-hall was also a place of community, where traditions were preserved, loyalty was rewarded, and, perhaps most important, stories were told and reputations were spread. Symbols
The olden Tor%ue

The collar or necklace that ?ealhtheow gives eowulf is a symbol of the bond of loyalty between her people and eowulf%and, by extension, the #eats. /ts status as a symbolic obDect is renewed when we learn that 1ygelac died in battle wearing it, furthering the ideas of kinship and continuity.
The Ban%uet

The great ban*uet at 1eorot after the defeat of #rendel represents the restoration of order and harmony to the (anish people. The preparation involves the rebuilding of the damaged meadhall, which, in conDunction with the ban*uet itself, symboli0es the rebirth of the community. The speeches and giving of gifts, essential components of this society-s interactions, contribute as well to the sense of wholeness renewed.