Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2: Working With Internal and External Personnel . . . . . . . 7

Chapter 3: Preparation of Internal Financial Information . . . . . . . 15

Chapter 4: A Complete Set of External Financial Statements . . . . 29

Chapter 5: Management of Cash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Chapter 6: The Management of Accounts Receivable . . . . . . . . . . 45

Chapter 7: Management of Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Chapter 8: Short-Term Financial Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Chapter 9: Property, Plant, and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Chapter 10: Raising Capital and the Capital Structure . . . . . . . . . . 75

Chapter 11: Planning and Budgeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Chapter 12: Obtaining Financing and Increasing Cash Flow . . . . . 91

Chapter 13: Taxes for Small Businesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Chapter 14: Internal Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Chapter 15: The Changing Role of the Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Notes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction
The Small Business Controller describes the role of the controller in a small
business and provides a detailed “how-to” analysis of the various duties
and responsibilities the controller often assumes. This work, based on
approximately 30 years of working relationships with many small busi-
nesses, describes the functions many small business controllers perform as
well as specific elements a controller needs to consider when performing
specialized functions.
Chapter 1 outlines the content of each chapter and the transition
from public accounting to private industry for the small business con-
troller. Chapter 2 presents issues working with internal and external per-
sonnel, including the owner and dealing with outside professionals, such
as legal advisors, outside CPA firms, banking relationships, information
technology and computer consultants, and insurance agents and brokers.
Chapter 2 concludes with comments regarding outsourcing and offshor-
ing accounting and finance functions.
Chapter 3 includes the preparation of internal financial information
and discusses relevant topics such as the information end user. Addition-
ally, it presents key information about the quantity of information, its
presentation, and content of the report. A discussion of financial ratios,
including profitability, liquidity, leverage, and activity or turnover ratios
is included. It also presents the fast close, along with suggestions on how
to incorporate a fast close into the controller’s role. Tables 3-1 through
3-3 and Figures 3-1 through 3-4 illustrate various key areas discussed
within chapter 3.
Chapter 4 discusses a complete set of external financial statements
and gives examples of compilation, review, and audit reports issued by
outside accounting firms.
Chapter 5 presents the management of cash, including the importance
of cash flow, the cash cycle, the cash conversion cycle, cash management
2 THE SMALL BUSINESS CONTROLLER

and forecasting its cash position, investing idle cash, and compensating
balances. Chapter 5 describes optimizing the float, including the collec-
tion and disbursement floats. Specific recommendations are part of this
chapter to help increase the small business’s cash flow. Tables 5-1 and
5-2 illustrate the various calculations and possible format for determining
how to optimize the float.
Chapter 6 deals with the management of accounts receivable. Top-
ics include the establishment of an effective credit policy, a financial
analysis worksheet, and key financial ratios and the attainment of addi-
tional security on accounts receivable balances and a guarantee. It also
discusses shortening the receivable cycle, accepting P-cards, and account-
ing for bad debts according to generally accepted accounting principles
(GAAP) and the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). Table 6-1 presents a
format to analyze accounts receivable over a prolonged period.
Chapter 7 discusses issues pertaining to the management of inventory,
including inventory turnover, carrying costs, reorder points, different
methods of inventory valuation, and the ABC approach. Additionally, it
contains just-in-time inventory management, direct material and direct
labor costs, and cycle counting. Table 7-1 illustrates a format emphasizing
the impact that carrying costs and inventory levels have on cash and profits.
Chapter 8 discusses short-term financial planning, including the need
for additional working capital, managing accounts payable, A, B, & C
vendors, company commitment agreements, certificates of insurance,
sales and use tax exemption certificates, and the Uniform Commercial
Code (UCC) and security agreements. Additionally, it includes inventory
returns and restocking charges. Table 8-1 presents a worksheet to use in
the analysis of accounts payable.
Property, plant, and equipment, including the role of the controller in
capital investment decisions, and investment evaluation methods includ-
ing payback, net present value, and internal rate of return methods are
part of chapter 9.
Chapter 10 discusses key points when raising capital and planning the
capital structure and includes the cost of capital for debt and equity, cost
of retained earnings, weighted-average cost of capital, financial leverage,
hurdle rates, and treasury stock. Tables 10-1 and 10-2 illustrate specific
relevant information.
 INTRODUCTION 3

Planning and budgeting are the topics in chapter 11. It includes the
role of the controller in planning and budgeting, the break-even point,
margin of safety, free cash flow, and fixed expenses and cost coverage
ratio. We discuss static and flexible budgets and present lease versus
debt financing. Tables 11-1 and 11-2 illustrate the importance of this
internal information.
Chapter 12 contains topics on obtaining financing and increasing
cash flow. Internal sources of financing, including reduction of inventory
levels, profits, increasing accounts receivable collections, and accounts
payable disbursement policies, are part of this chapter. We also discuss
funding from shareholders, family, and friends, in addition to venture
capitalists and angel investors. Tables 12-1 through 12-5 illustrate key
points within this chapter.
Chapter 13 contains taxes for small businesses. We discuss key areas
such as choice of entity—sole proprietorships, partnerships, C and S
corporations, and limited liability companies (LLCs). Additionally, we
present change in fiscal years, differences in net income and taxable
income, deferred tax assets and tax liabilities, and permanent and tem-
porary timing differences. This chapter also contains a discussion of the
preparation and filing of Form 1099 and other information tax returns,
the Alternative Minimum Tax (AMT), taking money out of S and C
corporations, and preparing for an IRS audit. Lastly, it contains topics
including debt versus equity financing by shareholders, tax planning
strategies, and tax administrative matters.
Chapter 14 pertains to internal controls within the small business. It
discusses the controller’s role in internal controls, a definition and value
of internal controls, and the development of an internal control structure.
We present information regarding the overall responsibility for internal
controls, including limitations of internal controls.
The changing role of the controller is part of chapter 15. Topics
include professional and trade associations, ethics and ethical challenges,
and the need for a small business code of ethics. We also discuss various
professional accounting associations’ code of ethics.
In today’s environment, the controller for a small business often works
without an adequate job description outlining all duties and responsibili-
ties. They should have all the answers and are seldom able to accomplish
4 THE SMALL BUSINESS CONTROLLER

all of their day-to-day activities without the help of an experienced and

dedicated staff, which seldom is available.
Many definitions exist as to what constitutes a small business. Some
organizations define small businesses by sales volume and number of
employees. Others use different criteria, such as number of locations, cus-
tomers, or suppliers. For example, Wikipedia defines small businesses in
the United States as consisting of fewer than 100 employees, and are usu-
ally privately owned corporations, partnerships, or sole proprietors.1 In
this book, we adopt this definition to define small businesses. Regardless
of the definition, it is important to note that the functions of the control-
ler will vary greatly depending on many factors.
Regardless of how large or small the business, one key ingredient
that all controllers must possess is the ability to analyze information.
This ability might include the capacity to understand various ratios,
spot trends, or understand the implication both the ratios and trends
indicate for the company and the industry. Additionally, the techni-
cal knowledge the small business controller must possess is significant
and includes the required rules and regulations necessary to prepare and
present accurate financial information.
Whatever the job description of the small business controller, if there
is a job description at all, it is reasonable to assume that neither is it all-
inclusive nor does it identify accurately the total responsibility controllers
possess within the organization. The controller of a small business usually
does not have all of the talent and expertise readily available and usually
seeks other alternatives.

Transition From Public Accounting to Private Industry

Many controllers for nonpublic companies transition from public
accounting, whether it be from a “Big Four” firm or a smaller local firm.
In public accounting, the individual may have been in an assurance and
compliance role. Now in a small business environment, the individual
may be moving into an area of management accounting and becoming a
key player in management.
The transition from working in public accounting to private indus-
try as a controller for a small business challenges the new controller to
 INTRODUCTION 5

develop a new set of professional skills. While an individual working in

public accounting acquires and develops many skills, the new small busi-
ness controller may not have learned or developed many of the skills
relevant to a position in private industry. Interpersonal, organizational,
and supervisory expectations all demand a different set of skills and
talents that require time and a different work setting to develop. For
example, in large specialized public accounting firms, advance planning
for meetings usually occurs, allowing the individual time to prepare. In
private industry, however, there tends to be less time for controllers to
make decisions. There are more demands for the controller’s attention.
There is an expectation of quick decisions. Employees look to the con-
troller for direction and quick resolution of problems, not on a planned
schedule. In general, the process moves faster, and decisions are expected
quicker. This is indicative of the diverse job responsibilities and require-
ments of a small business controller.
Another transition challenge that the controller commonly encoun-
ters is the lack of a professional team. For example, in public accounting,
a staff accountant typically will have access to individuals to discuss issues
regarding a client. In small business, the support team often does not
exist. As a result, the new controller needs to develop relationships with
outside advisors and professionals who will be available when needed.
Now that you know about the contents of this book, let’s move into
chapter 2.