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Introductory Material
(Christopherson Cha 1)

I. Brief History Of Geography:

Three driving forces: TRADE, MILITARY, and CURIOSITY HOW to get to a place WHAT that place was like. WHY that place was different Pre-geography: Geography has probably been practiced since humans first were able to use tools and communicate.

II. Definitions of Geography

A. Geography (from geo, "Earth," and graphein, "to write,") is the science that studies the relationship among geographic areas, natural systems, society, cultural activities, and the interdependence of all these over space (spatial analysis). CHRISTOPHERSON IN GEOSYSTEMS B. Physical Geography centers on spatial analysis of all the physical elements and processes that make up the environment: energy, air, water, weather, climate, landforms, soils, animals, plants, and the Earth itself. III. Why Geography?
A. Important to understand the world around us; the way it works. B. Human-environment interrelationships are increasingly important. 1. Humans are affected by the environment 2. Humans can greatly affect the environment. 3. Technology will not save us; only help us... What do geographers do? Careers: Outstanding foundation to many career choices! Looks at the broad perspective. Trend in business to hire students from other backgrounds.

IV.

A. Teaching: All levels B. Environmental and Resource Planning:

Meteorologist (Weather Forecaster) Field Biologist (Environmental Impact Reports, Ecological Restoration) Forest Ranger, Park Ranger City Planner (Where to build? Water? Stable Foundations? Natural Hazards?) Hydrologist (Water managers, flood control) Farmer (Crop choice)

C. Site Location: Location, Location, Location. Area known as locational analysis.

Locate a business, what's important? Customers, energy, supplies, workers, transportation routes. very important today, just as in the past. However, today Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have supplanted static maps for much of what used to be just cartographic maps. There are many GIS/cartography applications today, as businesses, science institutions, and governments begin to see the utility of spatial databases linked to new mapping and display technologies, including satellite imagery, aerial photography, GPS navigation, etc. This is a very cutting edge and well paid career field, both now and into the foreseeable future.

D. Cartography (the art and science of making maps): Accurate maps are

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Environmental Systems
which is linked by movements of matter and energy. Systems can be large or small, depending on how one wishes to study them. **Instead of studying the environment piecemeal, we now try to look at all the elements as they interrelate.

System = A distinct and interrelated set of components (living and non-living)

I. Types of Systems A. Closed Systems: Closed with respect to transfer of matter, but not energy. Rare in
nature. Biosphere Project.

B. Open Systems: Includes the flow of both energy and matter. All environmental systems
are open systems. Examples: Automobile, Lake, Forest, The Earth??

II. System Concepts A. Feedback: When one portion of a system affects another.
Negative Feedback: Feedback which discourages change in the system. (human respiration) Positive Feedback: Feedback which encourages change in the system. (??)

B. Equilibrium : The tendency of a system to maintain structure and character over time. 1. Steady-state equilibrium: Remains extremely constant (Cave) 2. Dynamic-equilibrium: Fluctuates around an average. (Prairie and fires) 3. Metastable equilibrium: Occasionally changes drastically. (Mt. St. Helen's) C. Inputs and Outputs: These are terms which refer to energy or matter entering a system
(inputs) and exiting a system (outputs).

III. Models of Systems: Models are attempts by humans to simplify and display the functions of a

system. They are only our best-guess and they are never perfect. Examples include Black Box (not descriptive, only recognizes a system as such), Grey Box (intermediate level of description), and White Box, (An attempt at the highest level of description of components, structures, and processes of a system.).

IV. The Earth as a System: Major Components A. Atmosphere: Gaseous envelope surrounding Earth. B. Hydrosphere: Water, including ice (cryosphere) C. Lithosphere: Solid part of the Earth (rocks, minerals, soil) Biosphere: The living portion of the Earth, made possible by the other three.

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Units of Measure
I. Length Examples A. 1 inch is about 2.5 centimeters (cm) B. 6 feet is about 1.8 meters (m) C. 1 foot is about 30 centimeters (cm) D. L.A. to Sac. is about 400 miles or 660 kilometers (km) E. 1 yard is about 1 meter (m) II. Weight Examples A. 100 pounds is about 45 kilograms (kg) B. 1 pound is about 450 grams (g) III. Volume Examples A. 1 quart is about 1 liter (L) B. 1 gallon is about 4 liters (L) IV. Temperature Comparisons
Coldest Day on Record: Antarctica Freezing Point of Water: Chilly Day: Room Temp: Hot Day: Hottest Day on Record: Boiling Point of Water: (-89C = -129F) (0C = 32F) (10C = 50F) (20C = 68F) (40C = 105F) (58C = 136F) (100C = 212F)

V. Conversion Example
How many kilometers is 3000 feet? 3000 feet x 1 mile 5280 feet x 1.6 kilometers 1 mile

= 0.91 kilometers

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Geographic Information Sciences

I. Cartography: Cartography is the art and science of making maps. A. Map: A map is a flat representation of the spherical Earth. The only truly correct
representation of the shapes of the Earth's land masses is a globe.

B. Projections (see web site on class page): A map is actually a projection of a

spherical surface to a flat surface.

1. Types of Projections: a) Cylindrical: True-shape, true-direction; distorted area. Areas of land b)

mass at high latitudes appear much larger than they actually are. (Mercator Projection) Planar: see text

c) Conic: see text 2. Projections cause distortion of: a) Shape b) Area (or Size): Mercator Projection c) Distance d) Direction C. Scale:
reduction. A map is a reduced picture of the true Earth. Scale indicates the amount of

1. Written Scale: Expressed in words. Ex: "one inch equals one mile" 2. Graphic Scale: A line with divisions 3. Representative Fraction: Expressed as a fraction, (Ex. 1:24,000) Indicates
the amount of reduction.

Self Study

Which is larger scale, a road map of San Diego or a world map? Understand large and small scale.

Hint: Think small scale -> large area and vice versa...

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II. Geographic Information Technologies: (Expanding Technologies) A. Remote Sensing: Air and satellite imagery; mostly passive imaging (except radar) B. Global Positioning System (GPS): ground receiver which communicates with
satellites and calculates/displays exact locational data.

C. Geographic Information System (GIS) (see Appendix II): A computer system

for entering, storing, manipulating, analyzing, and displaying spatial data. All data is digital!!! and metadata.

1. Database of Information: (Rows and Columns) Data with spatial components

2. Digital "Georeferenced" Map: Map information is stored in real world

coordinates like latitude/longitude.

3. Example: Trivial Example Task: Finding the perfect residence in San Diego
Potential Home data ID # Price Pool Yard

Bedrooms

Bathrooms

Square Feet

Garage

Query the Database to select only the houses you are interested in All other homes eliminated on the map... Compare with other maps (Overlay): This is possible because all of the data is georeferenced. Schools, Libraries, Parks, Malls (Shopping), Emergency Medical Facilities Police Station, Incidents of violent crime, Freeway access points, Bus Stops Buffer and include or exclude Flood Danger Zones Earthquake Faults

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The Earth: Space, Location, and Time

I. The Earth in Space A. Milky Way Galaxy: Group of over 100 billion stars arranged in a flat, swirling disk like

collection. (120,000 light years across) Our sun is a medium sized, rather ordinary star in the Milky Way Galaxy. Light year: The distance light travels in one year. 300,000 kilometers per second (186,000 miles). Light could travel around the Earth 71/2 times in one second. (Circumference of Earth = 40,000km or 25,000 miles) Over a million years on a jet plane How much is one billion? Fill up 30 average size classrooms with jelly beans

B. Solar System: There are nine planets orbiting around the sun, forming what we call the
solar system.

C. The Earth -Basic Facts:

The third planet from the sun Averages 150 million km (or 93 million miles). Light from the sun actually takes about 8 minutes to reach the Earth The shape is an oblate spheroid (or ellipsoid), meaning that it is essentially a round sphere which is slightly bulging at the equator. This is caused by the outward force of the earth's rotation.

D. The Revolving Earth: The earth takes an elliptical path around the sun, which it

completes once every 3651/4 days. We account for this quarter day by adding an extra day once every four years. We add Feb. 29 every four years (leap year).

Self Study

What is Perihelion and when does it happen? What is Aphelion and when does it happen? Do these events cause seasons to occur? (The answer is no; you should understand why.)

E. The Rotating Earth: The earth rotates on its axis, which is an imaginary line passing

through the earth from the north pole to the south pole. If one is looking at the earth from the side, with the north pole at the top and the south pole at the bottom, then the direction of rotation will be from left to right.

Rotating reference frame (the surface of the earth) introduces new apparent forces (eg, the Coriolis Force).

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II. Location - The Geographic Grid: In order to better measure the earth and evaluate global

environmental phenomena, humans have imposed a grid system over the entire globe (graticule). (The actual shape of the globe is called an oblate spheroid, meaning flattened sphere.) These are the parallels of latitude and the meridians of longitude.

A. Parallels of Latitude (Figure 1.10): Imaginary Circles drawn on the globe

perpendicular to the axis. Lat = Flat

1. Equator: The one which perfectly bisects the globe is called the Equator, and it is
designated as 0Latitude. Define great circles and small circles

2. Angular Distance: Measured in degrees north or south of the Equator

There are 90 degrees from the Equator to both the North and South Poles. Each degree of latitude represents approx. 110 km (70 miles). Sacramento, CA lies at approx. 39 North Latitude.

Parallels of Latitude
(examples)

NORTH POLE

30 North Latitude Equator (0 Latitude)

30 South Latitude

SOUTH POLE

B. Meridians of Longitude (Figure 1.12): Imaginary Circles. Each circle intersects

both the North and South Poles. They cross all parallels of latitude at right angles.

1. Prime Meridian: This is the meridian designated as 0Longitude. Decided

arbitrarily. Passes through the old Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England.

2. Angular Distance: Measured in degrees east or west of the Prime Meridian.

From the Prime Meridian, there are 180 degrees to the East and 180 degrees to the West. (360 degrees total) Sacramento, CA lies at approx. 121 West Longitude. Each degree of longitude is approx. 110 km (70 miles), but only at the Equator. They converge toward the Poles.

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Meridians of Longitude (examples)

North Pol

90

Prime Meridian (0 Longitude)

90 West Longitude

Note: A correct location on the geographic grid must give Latitude (North OR South) AND Longitude (East or West). Sacramento, California is located at approx. 39 North Latitude and 121 West Longitude.

III. Time A. One Full Rotation: approx. 24 hrs; 15 degrees per hour. B. Solar Noon: Technically, noon is when the sun is at its highest point in the sky. But this is
different depending on exactly what your longitude is.

C. Time Zone (Figure 1-15): Political (human) designations which divide rough

longitudinal zones into units which all follow the same time. There are 24 time zones, each being 15 of longitude wide (many countries modify this system). Each time zone has a controlling meridian (the place where solar noon and clock noon are the same)

D. Coordinated Universal Time (UTC): Special accurate atomic clocks which provide

an official reference time for the whole world. UTC time always refers to the time at the Prime Meridian. This used to be called Greenwich Mean Time.

E. International Date Line (Figure 1-16): At approx. 180 deg Longitude.

Travel eastward across it and lose a day. Travel westward across it and gain a day.

F. Daylight Savings Time: In the summer months, this policy moves our waking/working
hours into the actual daylight hours. So, if the sun normally goes down at around 7:00pm during the summer, people will begin turning lights on. But, with daylight savings time we move the clocks ahead so that the sun goes down around 8:00pm. This way we save an hour's worth of energy by not turning on lights.

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Reasons for the Seasons

(Christopherson Cha 2)

I. The Tilted Earth (Inclination): The earth's axis is tilted 23.5 from a right angle with the plane
of the ecliptic; the axis is always directed to a fixed point in space (Polaris, same as the North Star).

The Tilted Earth

North!Pol
3!"

Plane of the Ecliptic

So"th!Pol

II. Incoming Solar Radiation (also called Insolation): The Earth intercepts Solar
Radiation.

A. Solar Constant: The average amount of energy received at the top of Earth's

atmosphere, before it actually enters. The value is 1372 Watts/m2. Generally, this value doesn't change.

B. Distribution of Radiation: Depending on latitude and time of year, the amount of

insolation received at the Earth differs!

1. Hours of Insolation: Less hours of insolation mean less total insolation. 2. Angle of Incidence (or Sun Angle): This is the angle at which the suns
rays hit the earth. It is critical is in determining seasons. Direct Ray (or Vertical Ray): When the sun rays come from directly overhead at a 90 degree angle. These are the strongest rays!!! Lower Angle Rays When sun rays come to earth at a lower angle; in other words, when the rays come from lower in the sky. Rays become progressively weaker when the angle becomes less. These rays also pass through more atmosphere, resulting in more filtering.

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Sun Angles
SUN

SUN SUN H$%h &t!A'%l !(!H$%h &t!E' r%) *D$r ct!Ra)) + d$",!A'%l !(!+ d$",!E' r%) Lo- &t!A'%l !(!Lo- &t!E' r%)

C. Seasonality of Insolation (Reasons for seasons) 1. Subsolar Point: The point on the Earth where the sun is perfectly overhead, or
the point where the sun's rays hit the earth's surface absolutely perpendicular.

2. Declination: The latitude of the sub-solar point. It changes throughout the year. 3. Circle of Illumination: The half of the globe which is receiving the sun's rays.
It is always exactly one half of the globe.

#. The Key Factor:

The axis always points to the same point in space. This means that as the earth orbits the sun, the declination (see definition) migrates north and south between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. This means that the suns most powerful rays move back and forth between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres during the course of the year.

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December Solstice (around December 21)

Summary of Seasonal Changes in Earth / Sun Relationships

March Equinox (around March 21) June Solstice (around June 21)

September Equinox (around September 21)

*Declination - 23.5 South Lat. (This latitude is referred to as the Tropic of Capricorn. This is the highest latitude in the Southern Hemisphere which receives the Sun's direct ray on at least one day of the year.) *24 hrs. darkness north of 66.5 North Lat. (This latitude, referred to as the Arctic Circle, represents the lowest latitude in the Northern Hemisphere which experiences at least one day with 24 hrs of continuous darkness.) *24 hrs. light south of 66.5 South Lat. (This latitude, referred to as the Antarctic Circle, represents the lowest latitude in the Southern Hemisphere which experiences at least one day of 24 hrs of continuous sunlight.) *Called Winter Solstice in N. Hem. *Hours AND angles of insolation highest throughout Southern Hem., causing Summer! *Hours AND angles of insolation lowest throughout Northern Hem., causing Winter! *Declination - Equator at 0Lat *All points on Earth receive 12 hrs. light / 12 hrs. dark *Called Vernal Equinox in N. Hem. *Declination - 23.5 North Lat. (This latitude is referred to as the Tropic of Cancer. This is the highest latitude in the Northern Hemisphere which receives the Sun's direct ray on at least one day of the year.) *24 hrs. light north of 66.5 North Lat. (This latitude, referred to as the Arctic Circle, represents the lowest latitude in the Northern Hemisphere which experiences at least one day of 24 hrs of continuous sunlight.) *24 hrs. dark south of 66.5 South Lat. (This latitude, referred to as the Antarctic Circle, represents the lowest latitude in the Southern Hemisphere which experiences at least one day of 24 hrs of continuous darkness.) *Called Summer Solstice in N. Hem. *Hours AND angles of insolation lowest throughout Southern Hem., causing Winter! *Hours AND angles of insolation highest throughout Northern Hem., causing Summer! *Declination - Equator at 0Lat *All points on Earth receive 12 hrs. light / 12 hrs. dark *Called Autumnal Equinox in N. Hem.

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Problem: It is valuable to know what the maximum angle of the sun will be on a given day at any
location. Higher maximum sun angles produce high insolation; conversely, lower maximum sun angles produce low insolation. This important angle can be calculated for any location by first calculating the total difference (in degrees) between the latitude of your chosen location and the declination for that day. Then, subtract this number from 90 . Calculate the maximum angle of the sun in Sacramento on the following dates: Difference (see Hints below*)

Sacramento's Latitude June Solstice? September Equinox? December Solstice? March Equinox? 39 North 39 North 39 North 39 North

Declination

Maximum Sun Angle

*HINTS: This difference is in degrees only; it is not a latitude! Also, you will need to be careful when the declination is in the Southern Hemisphere. Under this circumstance, you may NOT subtract to find the difference. THINK!

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The Atmosphere
(Christopherson Cha 2)

Atmosphere: The collection of gases surrounding the Earth. Held in place by gravity.
Different parts can be categorized in different ways.

I. Heterosphere (80km and higher): Where gases are not evenly mixed. Filters out damaging
radiation.

II. Homosphere (0-80km): Where gases are evenly mixed. A. Composition 1. Nitrogen (78%): generally inert; does not readily react with other gases or
elements

2. Oxygen (21%): highly active, involved in oxidation reactions, important for

biological activity.

3. Argon (approx. 1%): inert #. Carbon dioxide (0.033%): very important as an absorber of longwave energy
in the atmosphere. Called a radiatively active gas.

.. Water vapor (approx. 1%): varies, also important as an absorber of

longwave energy in the atmosphere. Called a radiatively active gas.

/. Ozone (< .001%) a) Ozonosphere (15-55km): Layer where ozone is found. b) Function: Important in absorbing dangerous ultraviolet (UV) rays. c) Problems

Levels dropping Losses high over poles Incidences of cancer and sunburn increasing Reasons are Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs); used in industry.

B. Divided into three temperature layers 1. Mesosphere (80-50km) 2. Stratosphere (approx. 14-50km) 3. **Troposphere** (0-approx. 14km):

Contains 90% of all atmosphere. Where our weather takes place. Warmest at surface, cooling toward space. The top is called the "tropopause."

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C. Pollution in the Troposphere 1. Sources a) Natural: Forest fires, volcanoes, dust storms. Most pollution is naturally b) Anthropogenic: Major sources are automobile exhaust and coal
burning. occurring.

2. Specific Pollutants a) Ozone: Created when smog is broken down by sunlight. Dangerous at the b)
surface of the earth Acid Rain: Rain which mixes with industrial smoke to create a slightly acidic solution. Can be especially damaging to plants, amphibians, and invertebrates.

3. Complicating Factor The Temperature Inversion: In this situation, a

layer of warm air sits over a layer of cold air. This traps pollution. Caused by cold air drainage and/or radiation cooling.

Temperature Inversion

Warm #ir La$er (colder air a%o&e and %elo') Pollution trapped(

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Energy Budgets
(Christopherson Cha 3)

Electromagnetic Radiation: To understand energy relationships in the Earth/Atmosphere

system, one must first understand the nature of electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation (also called radiant energy or just radiation) is emitted in the form of waves which travel quickly away from the surface of ALL objects (the sun, rocks, ice, trees, soil, etc).

I. Radiation Wavelength Review: Wavelength decreases with increasing temperature. Hotter

objects emit shorter wavelengths. We lump radiation into two types.

A. Shortwave (Solar) 1. Wavelengths < 3 m (peaks at 0.5 m) (m stands for micrometers) 2. Also called "insolation": (short for incoming solar radiation) B. Longwave (Terrestrial) 1. Wavelengths > 3 m (peaks at 10 m) 2. Also called "thermal infrared" II. Important Radiation Terms A. Emitted: Given off. B. Transmitted: Allowed to pass; unchanged by atmosphere or water C. Reflected: Bounded in the opposite direction by atmosphere or water D. Absorbed: Changed into heat energy.

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III. Radiation Budget for the Earth/Atmosphere System: Averaged over many years,
incoming radiation EQUALS outgoing radiation for the earth/atmosphere system. (Bank account example!!!) In other words, INPUT equals OUTPUT; the earth/atmosphere system balances!!!

Radiation Budget for the Earth/Atmosphere System

RADIATION INPUTS 100 units solar radiation received at top of atmosphere (shortwave) RADIATION OUTPUTS 30 units solar reflected back to space called albedo (shortwave)

6 units (reflected by atmosphere) 20 units (reflected by clouds) 4 units (reflected by the land-sea surface) review the concept of albedo below

64 units emitted by atmosphere to space (longwave) 6 units emitted by the earth directly to space (longwave) 100 units of Input Input = Output Radiation Budget for the Earth/Atmosphere System Balances!!!
Albedo = shortwave reflected divided by total shortwave received Average for the Earth: Asphalt: Forest: Dry concrete Water: Fresh Snow: 30% 5-10% 10-20% 17-27% 10-60% 80-95%

30+64+6=100 units of Output

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IV. Radiation Budget for the Surface of the Earth: Radiation budget at the surface of the
Earth does not balance:

Radiation Budget for the Surface of the Earth

RADIATION INPUTS 55 units shortwave received at Earth's surface 95 units longwave (from the atmosphere) absorbed at surface 55+95=150 units of Input Input exceeds Output by 30 units!!! Radiation Budget for the Surface of the Earth does not balance!!! There is a 30 unit surplus of radiation at the Earth's surface!!! Important Points:
When the Earth is heated by insolation (solar), it begins to emit longwave radiation back toward the atmosphere. Longwave from the Earth is then absorbed by the atmosphere (CO2 and H2O vapor) and re-radiated back toward earth (called counterradiation). Because of this, it is correct to say that the atmosphere is actually heated from below. It is heated by the longwave radiation emitted by the earth. This is similar to a car on a hot day where the shortwave can enter through the windows, but the longwave cannot escape; thus, the car heats up. Greenhouse effect.

RADIATION OUTPUTS 4 units shortwave reflected back to space 116 units longwave emitted by the surface toward space 4 + 116 = 120 units of Output

V. Energy Budget (includes heat and radiation) for the Surface of the Earth Balances! The
Energy Budget includes both heat energy and radiation energy

Total Energy Budget for the Surface of the Earth

(includes heat AND radiation)

ENERGY INPUTS 30 units surplus radiation (see previous calculations)

ENERGY OUTPUTS 23 units Latent Heat: The heat energy

trapped in evaporated water (water vapor). We do not feel it.

7 units Sensible Heat: Sensible heat is the 30 units (net) Input

heat we feel and the heat measured by thermometers.

23 + 7 = 30 units of Output

Input = Output Energy Budget for the Surface of the Earth balances!!! VI. Poleward Heat Transport:
Radiation surpluses occur globally at low latitudes (between 36 North and South Latitude)

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Sensible and latent heat is subsequently produced at low latitudes This heat flows poleward (toward the high latitude radiation deficit areas)

VII.Energy Budget for Specific Locations A. Net Radiation 1. Net Surplus of Radiation: INPUTS OF RADIATION greater than OUTPUTS
OF RADIATION (results in heating at the surface)

2. Net Deficit of Radiation: OUTPUTS OF RADIATION greater than INPUTS OF

RADIATION (results in cooling at the surface - called RADIATION COOLING)

B. Latent vs. sensible heat:

Net surplus of radiation will produce some form of heat If there is water available, evaporation will occur and latent heat will be produced. Sensible heat will be produced if there is no water available That is why dry environments can be hot.

Problem:

Assume you measure the following for an unknown surface:

80 units shortwave received at surface (input) 40 units shortwave reflected by surface (output) 110 units longwave received and absorbed (input) 120 units longwave emitted (output)

Radiation Diagram

QUESTIONS: Is this a surplus or deficit? How many units of surplus or deficit? Is the surface heating or cooling? Is this in the daytime or nighttime? What is the albedo?

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Air Temperature
(sensible heat)
(Christopherson Cha 3)

I. What determines surface air temperature? A. The Process:

Surface temperature determines air temperature Surface temperature determined by radiation surplus or deficit. Cold surface will cool the air through conduction Warm surface will heat the air through conduction

B. Air Temperature Lag: Because it takes time to heat the air, the warmest time of the

day will follow the maximum period of surplus of radiation by several hours. This is also true for the annual monthly pattern. The highest annual temperatures will follow the highest sun angles by a couple of months.

C. Normal Lapse Rate: On average, temp drops at an average rate of 6.4C / 1000
meters. Called the normal lapse rate.

II. Measuring Air Temperature: Air Temperature is a measurement of sensible heat, the motion
of the individual molecules of atmosphere. liquid or solid.

A. Thermometer: Generally measures temperatures by the expansion and contraction of a B. Thermistor: An electric thermometer. Measures electrical resistance at different
temperatures

III. Factors Affecting Surface Air Temperature A. Latitude: High latitudes receive lower sun angles; thus they have less total insolation than
low latitudes. Less insolation means lower temperatures.

B. Altitude: On average temperature decreases with increasing altitude. Called normal lapse
rate.

1. Thin Atmosphere: Emits less longwave, so the mountain receives less. 2. Normal Lapse Rate: Recall that air temperature drops with increasing altitude

C. Cloud Cover 1. Day Clouds: Insolation blocked; results in lower maximum temperatures. i.e., It
doesn't get as hot as a clear day.

2. Night Clouds: Clouds radiate increased longwave toward Earth; results in higher
minimum temperatures. i.e. It doesn't get as cold as a clear night.

3. Daily Temperature Range: Difference between the maximum and minimum is

low in a cloudy situation.

D. Land/Water Heating Differences: Water has certain properties as compared to land.

It heats and cools more slowly than land!!!!!!

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Water (Maritime)

Heats and cools more slowly and to lesser extremes. Generally is cooler in the summer and warmer in the winter compared to land.

Land (Continental)

1. Specific Heat: Water has a high specific heat,

which means that it takes more energy to heat water than land the same number of degrees. So it takes longer to heat. It also takes longer to cool off because it takes time to lose all of the stored heat.

Heats and cools rapidly slowly and to greater extremes. Generally is hotter in the summer and colder in the winter. Land has a lower specific heat, so it takes less energy to heat it. Thus, it heats faster. It also cools faster because there is very little stored heat.

2. Transparency: Since insolation penetrates and is

absorbed at depth, the heat is dispersed widely. For this reason, it takes a long time to dissipate in winter.

Since insolation is absorbed entirely at surface, all heat is concentrated there. For this reason, it can also escape quickly in winter. Once the land surface heats up, the energy travels very slowly into the deeper ground. Thus, the surface stays hot

3. Mixing: Water heats slowly because it mixes with

cooler, deeper water. Thus, the whole ocean is heating, not just the surface layer.

#. Evaporation: Evaporative cooling constantly

keeps ocean water cool in the summer.

Land usually has little water to evaporate, so all surplus energy goes to sensible heat. The air gets hot.

Special Note: Oceans are like an energy storage bank. During the summer, they absorb the surplus
of energy, keeping maritime locations cooler than continental locations. During winter, they emit that stored energy, so the same maritime locations are kept slightly warmer than continental locations. MARITIME: Located by the ocean Cooler in summer and warmer in winter. Low annual temperature range. CONTINENTAL: Located far from the ocean Hotter in summer and colder in winter. High annual temperature range.

**Look at Figure 3.23. Does this graph seem to make sense in light of the information presented here?

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IV. Global Temperature Maps Isotherm: A line on a map connecting points of equal temperatures. Transect and Gradient (Intro to these terms) Temperature Gradient: Change in temperature over distance.

If the temperature changes quickly as I travel from one place to the next, we say that this is a high temperature gradient. High temperature gradients are indicated by closely spaced isotherms on the map. If the temperature doesn't change as I travel from one place to the next, we say that this is a low temperature gradient. Low temperature gradients are indicated by widely spaced isotherms on the map.

A. June/July World Air Temperature Patterns

SELF STUDY In general, how does the Equator compare to the Poles? Where are the coldest winter temperatures? (High or low latitude; over oceans or land surfaces?) Compare coastal and continental (inland) locations with the same latitude; which one is colder in winter? Which is colder in summer? Which seems to have the warmer summers, Northern or Southern Hemispheres? Why? (HINT: See maritime vs. continental discussion.)

B. Annual Temperature Range (difference between yearly high and low)

SELF STUDY What happened to the range as latitude increases? Where are the highest ranges? (High or low latitude?; over oceans or land surfaces?) Where are the lowest ranges? (High or low latitude?; over oceans or land surfaces?) How do ranges compare between coastal and inland locations of the same latitude?

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Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulation

(Christopherson Cha 4)

I. Atmospheric Pressure:

Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by air molecules. Since the atmosphere is fluid, this force acts in all directions. It is approx. 1kg/cm2. Theoretically, if we were to take a perfectly vertical column 1cm2 at the base and rising to space, the collective weight would be 1kg.

A. Relationship Between Molecular Density and Atmospheric Pressure:

High density means high pressure; low density means low pressure. Atmospheric pressure is highest at sea level and decreases rapidly toward space. This is because gravity is holding the molecules in place.

B. Relationship Between Temperature and Atmospheric Pressure:

Heated air becomes less dense: Molecules move faster and spread outward. Results in LOW pressure. Cooled air becomes more dense: Molecules move slowly and stay compact. Results in HIGH pressure. These are called THERMAL high and low pressures.

C. Measurement of Pressure 1.! !Average Sea-Level Atmospheric Pressure Values a) 29.92 inches Hg b) 760 millimeters Hg c) 1013.2 millibars (mb) (this is the one we will use) 2. Mercurial Barometer: This method involves the fluctuations in the level of
mercury in a test tube. The fluctuations are caused by changes in air pressure.

3. Aneroid Barometer: This method involves the expansion or contraction of a

small, sealed metal chamber. The chamber expands with lowered external pressure and contracts when external pressure increases.

II. Wind: The horizontal motion of the air with respect to the Earth's surface.
The atmosphere has a consistently irregular pattern of air pressure. Since any flowing fluid strives to reach a uniform pressure, the atmosphere is constantly in motion (wind). Movement is from high to low pressure (soda can)

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A. The Pressure Gradient Force: The force generated by the pressure differences
between two points.

1. Isobars: On a map, these are lines of equal pressure. 2. Closely spaced isobars: Indicate a high pressure gradient and high wind
speeds

3. Widely spaced isobars: Indicate a low pressure gradient and low wind speeds #. Direction of Force: The pressure gradient force acts perpendicular to the
isobars.

B.

The Coriolis Force: An apparent deflection of wind and ocean currents. (The single hardest thing to understand in Physical Geography. If nothing else, memorize this) Northern Hemisphere
to the RIGHT

Deflection of winds and ocean currents:

Southern Hemisphere
to the LEFT

1. Wind Speed: The strength of the Coriolis Force increases as wind speed
increases.

2. Latitude: The strength of the Coriolis Force increases as latitude increases. 3. No force at Equator
This apparent force occurs because, as a wind or ocean current is set in motion in a particular direction, the earth basically rotates out from under it. This makes it seem as though the wind or ocean current takes a left or right turn, depending on the hemisphere. To understand this, you will have to read this section in the text carefully. We may have an in-class demonstration.

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C. Cyclones and Anti-Cyclones: Spiraling wind systems (NOT storms) 1. Cyclones (Low Pressure): Inward spiraling wind systems!
Northern Hemisphere (Side View) Southern Hemisphere (Side View)

ascending con&erging

ascending con&erging

LO0

LO0

Northern Hemisphere (Top View)

Southern Hemisphere (Top View)

Northern Hemisphere (Side View)

2. Anticyclones (High Pressure): Outward spiraling wind systems!

Southern Hemisphere (Side View)

descending di&erging

descending di&erging

HI1H

HI1H

Northern Hemisphere (Top View)

Southern Hemisphere (Top View)

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III. General Atmospheric Circulation Model A. Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) or Equatorial Low Pressure Trough: High inputs of insolation along the equator cause warming and
convectional lifting (THERMAL LOW PRESSURE). Winds are weak here (called Doldrums); pressure is low. Lots of rain!!!

B. Hadley Cell: This warm air rises to the troposphere and then turns poleward in both C.
directions. At approx. 30N & S Latitude these currents descend from the tropopause toward earth. The circulation is called a Hadley Cell. Subtropical High Pressure Cells: Created where the Hadley Cell descends to Earth. Centers with generally fair, warm weather. Wind is weak here; (called Horse Latitudes). These are anticyclones. (Since they are NOT directly caused by heating or cooling, they are considered DYNAMIC HIGH PRESSURE.) Trade Winds: Northeast and Southeast trade winds created as air spirals toward Equator away from Subtropical High Pressure and into the Equatorial Low Pressure Trough. Found between 5 - 25 N & S Latitude (roughly) Westerlies: Created as air spirals away from Subtropical High Pressure toward the Poles. Found between 40 - 60 N & S Latitude (roughly) Sub-Polar Low Pressure Cells: Usually synonymous with the Polar Front, which is a distinct boundary between warm and cold air at about 60N & S Latitude. Associated with stormy weather. Steep temperature gradient exists here. Important zone of mixing. (Since they are NOT directly caused by heating or cooling, they are considered DYNAMIC LOW PRESSURE.) Polar High Pressure Cells: Bitter cold, dense air descends at the poles, creating high pressure (THERMAL HIGH PRESSURE). Polar Easterlies: Cold, dry wind at high latitudes (70+ North and South.). Spirals out of the Polar High Pressure

D. E. F.

1. H.

Atmospheric Circulation A Closer Look:

These patterns are complicated by the different surfaces of the earth. The pressure systems usually take the form of CELLS (a concentration of pressure).

Pressure and Wind Systems Migrate: Pressure and Wind Systems Migrate North and
South During the Year, roughly following the north and south migration of the Sub-Solar Point

1. ITCZ Example: Note the movement of the ITCZ between July and January. 2. Subtropical High Examples a) Pacific Sub-Tropical High: Centered near Hawaii. Farthest north in
July and then heads south.

b) Azores Sub-Tropical High: Centered near Azores (off the coast of

Portugal). Has the same effect as the Pacific Sub-tropical High.

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P O L AR ! H I 1 H PRESSURE

S U B ! 3 ! P O L AR ! L O 0 ! P R E S S U R E

S U B ! 3 ! T R O P I C AL ! H I 1 H ! P R E S S U R E Hadl ) C ll

ITC2 ITC2
S U B ! 3 ! T R O P I C AL ! H I 1 H ! P R E S S U R E

Hadl ) C ll

S U B ! 3 ! P O L AR ! L O 0 ! P R E S S U R E

P O L AR ! H I 1 H PRESSURE

Dynamic vs. Thermal Pressure Systems: Thermal pressure systems will develop

over hot or cold land masses. They are driven by extreme temperatures. The HIGHS are cold, descending air over land masses in the winter hemisphere, while the LOWS are warm, ascending air over land masses in the summer hemisphere. Pressure systems which develop without temperature extremes are called dynamic pressure systems.

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Pressure System Review Table

Subtropical Highs (also Associated Temperature Cyclone or Anticyc. Direction of Spiral (N.Hem) Basic Cause Movement of Air Associated Weather Where Found Warm Sub-Polar Lows
(also called Dynamic Lows)

Thermal Highs
(usually on land)

Thermal Lows
(usually on land)

called Dynamic Highs)

Cool to Cold Cyclone

Very Cold Anticyclone Clockwise

Warm Cyclone Counter Clockwise

Anticyclone Clockwise

Counter Clockwise General Circ. of Atmosphere Descending and Diverging Clear and Warm Over Oceans at approx. 30N or S Lat (always present, migrate some north or south) Stable Pacific Subtropical High, Azores High Ascending and Converging Cloudy, Rain or Snow Over Oceans at approx. 60N or S Lat (generally travel west to east) Unstable Aleutian Low, Icelandic Low

Surface Cooling Surface Heating Descending and Ascending and Diverging Converging Clear and Freezing Warm and Thundershowers At Poles and Over Over Continents in Continents in Summer - High Winter - Low Sun Sun Season and Season Along the Inter Tropical Convergence zone (ITC) Stable Unstable Polar Highs Siberian High, Canadian High Asian Low, Equatorial Low Pressure Trough

Stability Examples in N. Hem.

IV. Upper Atmospheric Circulation Features A. Geostrophic Winds:

Extremely high speeds reached above the surface (lack of friction) The Coriolis Force acts strongly on high speed winds. They move so fast that the Coriolis Force actually causes them to flow parallel to the isobars. They don't flow from high to low; they flow between high and low.

B. Polar Jet Stream Example: Geostrophic wind at the Polar Front

West-to-east "pipe" of wind 350-450 km/hr. The polar front jet stream roughly marks the global boundary between cold polar air and warm tropical air. It is across this boundary that much global energy transfer occurs. Rossby Waves (Fig. 4-16): Huge undulations in the polar jet stream. Pockets of cold air are brought south while pockets of warm air are brought north.

V. Local Winds (Winds on a smaller scale)

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A. Land and Sea Breezes: Winds are always designated by where they are coming from;
if you are standing at the beach facing the ocean and the wind is in your face, this is a sea breeze. During a warm day the land surface heats more rapidly than the sea surface, generating a thermal low pressure on land. As heated air ascends by convection, a vacuum is created and cool marine air converges to fill the void. The land breeze occurs at night as the reverse happens (the land cools causing the air above it becomes cooler and denser. This generates a thermal high pressure.) See Fig. 4-18.

Sea Breeze

Land Breeze

B. Mountain and Valley Breezes: Mountain slopes heat rapidly when heated by the

sun. Convection creates up valley breezes. Conversely, the cooling at night creates down valley drainage winds. This is because the cool air is dense and flows downhill. The general term for this cold air flowing downhill under the force of gravity is katabatic wind or cold air drainage..

Valley Breeze

Mountain Breeze (also called Cold Air Drainage or Katabatic Wind)

)ooled air

*eated air

C. Monsoonal Winds - South Asia Example: Similar to a large scale sea breeze.

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1. December/January: ......the ITCZ is well south of southeast Asia, and the area
is dominated by the Siberian High (thermal high). Wind blows offshore (out to sea)

2. June/July: Thermal low pressure develops (the Asian Low). This thermal low
merges with the ITCZ. This thermal low pressure serves as a vacuum for warm, moist, tropical air off the Indian Ocean. Precipitation is substantial.

VI. Ocean Currents A. Factors Determining Direction of Current 1. Anti-Cyclones (create gyres): Surface winds actually pull surface currents

along through the force of friction between the water and air. The subtropical high pressure centers (anticyclones) form huge circulating ocean currents called gyres.

2. Coriolis Force: Deflects currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere. B. Role in Energy Transfer: 1. Warm waters transferred poleward 2. Cold waters transferred equatorward 3. Global the energy balance maintained C. Examples 1. Warm Currents: Found on eastern sides of continents; can serve to moderate
otherwise potentially very cold climates.

a) Gulf Stream (or Florida Current): Eventually becomes the N.

Atlantic Current, warms the British Isles and Scandinavia.

b) Kuroshio Current: Warms Japan and East Asia. 2. Cold Currents: Found on western sides of continents; can serve to moderate
otherwise potentially very warm climates.

a) Peru-Chile Current: Cold current which travels north up the west coast
of South America.

b) California Current: Cold current which travels south down the coast of
California.

c) "Upwelling" and the California Current Example:

Cold water is dense and generally sinks to the ocean bottom. With upwelling, the deep, dense cold waters are brought to the surface by the action of winds.

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Upwelling

VII. El Nio (see Focus Study, pg 220):

This is not a violent storm or large waves. In the strictest sense, an El Nino event occurs when the trade winds, which normally push warm Pacific water along the Equator toward Australia and Indonesia, weaken. This allows the warm water to flow (or "slosh") back toward South America (Coastal Peru). The net result is that a large body of unusually warm water forms off the coast of South America. This raises the atmospheric water vapor content in this area; some of this gets channeled toward California causing heavy rains. Conversely, Australia and Indonesia experience cooler ocean waters and dryer weather than normal.