Engineering Encyclopedia

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Compaction And Excavation

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services. Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees. Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.

Chapter : Civil File Reference: CSE11605

For additional information on this subject, contact K.S. Al-Yahyai on 874-2523

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Contents

Page

PLOTTING MOISTURE VS. DENSITY RELATIONSHIPS...............................1 SELECTING CONTROL TESTS USED IN DETERMINING MOISTURE-DENSITY RELATIONSHIPS..........................................................5 Laboratory Compaction Control Tests .......................................................5 Impact Compaction ....................................................................................5 Summary of Laboratory Tests for Compaction Control ...........................11 Field Compaction Control Tests...............................................................12 CALCULATING PERCENT COMPACTION....................................................16 MATCHING FILL AND COMPACTION REQUIREMENTS FROM SAES-M-100 .......................................................................................................18 MATCHING COMPACTION EQUIPMENT TO SOIL TYPES ........................19 Smooth-Wheel or Drum Roller and Pneumatic-Tired Roller ...................20 Sheepsfoot Roller .....................................................................................20 Tamping-Foot Roller ................................................................................20 Mesh- or Grid-Pattern Roller....................................................................20 Vibration...................................................................................................23 IDENTIFYING PROBLEMS OF FIELD COMPACTION .................................24 DESCRIBING STRENGTH AND COMPRESSIBILITY OF COMPACTED SOILS .........................................................................................26 Clays.........................................................................................................26 Sands ........................................................................................................26 CORRECT USE OF CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR) VALUES..............................................................................................................27 Definition of CBR ....................................................................................27 Determining CBR Values.........................................................................27 ESTIMATING CBR OF IN-PLACE SOILS .......................................................31
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IDENTIFYING SOIL EXCAVATION EQUIPMENT........................................33 Bulldozers.................................................................................................33 Backhoes, Draglines, and Clamshells.......................................................34 Scrapers ....................................................................................................39 ESTIMATING SOIL EXCAVATION PRODUCTION RATES.........................40 IDENTIFYING ROCK EXCAVATION EQUIPMENT OR METHODS ...........41 Ripping .....................................................................................................41 Blasting and Rock Breakers .....................................................................46 Rock Blasting Terminology......................................................................47 Contract Definitions of Soil Versus Rock ................................................49 GLOSSARY ........................................................................................................51

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Plotting Moisture vs. Density Relationships

Compaction is the mechanical stabilization or densification of soils by the application of mechanical energy. Compactive effort is a measure of the mechanical energy applied to a soil mass. The objective of compaction is the improvement of the engineering properties of the soil mass. Several advantages are derived from compaction: Detrimental settlements can be reduced or prevented. Soil strength increases. Slope stability can be improved. Bearing capacity of pavement subgrades can be improved. Undesirable volume changes (for example, caused by swelling) and shrinkage may be controlled.

The success of compaction is quite dependent on the water content of the soil during compaction and on the level of compactive effort applied to the soil. In the laboratory, a soil sample at a certain moisture content is compacted in a mold by dropping a hammer onto it from a specified height for a specified number of blows. The moisture content, wc, and the dry density, d, are determined and a point is plotted on a graph as shown in Figure 1. This is repeated for a number of different moisture contents and other points are determined and plotted to form a curve as shown.

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MOISTURE VERSUS DENSITY CURVE

FIGURE 1 For the conditions of the test, the dry density at the peak of the curve is called the maximum dry density, d(max), and the corresponding moisture content is called the optimum moisture content, wc(opt), as shown in Figure 1. These are commonly used as indicators of the moisture content at which the soil should be compacted to obtain a high percentage of the maximum dry density. Neither of these quantities, that is, d(max) and wc(opt), is a property of the soil itself. If, for example, all conditions are kept unchanged except that a higher compactive effort is used, the maximum dry density is higher and the optimum moisture content is lower. The zero air voids curve or the complete saturation curve (Figure 1) shows densities for various moisture contents if the voids are entirely occupied with water, that is, 100% saturation. This curve is not attainable in practice because air always remains trapped in the soil. Curves similar to that in Figure 1 can be obtained for different compactive efforts as shown in Figure 2, where curve 1 corresponds to the lowest compactive effort and curve 3 to the
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highest. The shape of the moisture-density curve also varies with the type of material being compacted.

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MOISTURE-DENSITY CURVES FOR DIFFERENT COMPACTIVE EFFORTS

FIGURE 2

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Selecting Control Tests Used in Determining Moisture-Density Relationships

Laboratory Compaction Control Tests The purpose of a laboratory compaction test is to determine in the laboratory a moisturedensity curve comparable to that for the same material when compacted in the field. The optimum moisture content and maximum dry density are obtained from the curve and used to specify field compaction requirements. Impact Compaction Impact compaction, where a metal hammer is dropped several times on a soil sample in a mold, is the most common method used for standard laboratory tests. The mass of the hammer, height of drop, number of drops, number of layers of soil, and the volume of the mold are specified. Two such tests are widely used. Standard Proctor Test (ASTM D698) The mass of the hammer is 2.5 kg and the height of fall is 305 mm. The soil is placed in three layers in a 10 cm-diameter mold with an approximate capacity of 9.4 cm3 (1/30 ft3) and each layer is compacted by 25 blows. The soil to be used is dried and crushed, and the fraction passing through a No. 4 sieve is thoroughly mixed with a small amount of water. The damp soil is then placed in a mold and compacted. See Figure 3. This process is continued several times using different amounts of water until a curve as in Figure 1 can be developed. Note that there are some modifications and corrections which are made for gravelly material but they will not be discussed here.

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STANDARD AASHTO* OR PROCTOR TEST

Modified Proctor Test (ASTM D1557) This is used when a moisture-density relationship is desired for a higher compactive effort. The mold used is the same as the Standard Proctor mold. This test uses a heavier hammer (4.54 kg), falling from a greater height (457 mm), and compaction is done in 5 layers, where each layer is compacted by 25 blows. Besides being used for soil passing No. 4 sieve, this test is also used when soils containing significant amounts of gravel are compacted. In this case the diameter of the mold used is 15.2 cm and the soil should pass a 2 cm sieve. See Figure 4.

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MODIFIED AASHTO OR PROCTOR TEST

4.54 kg Hammer 25 Blows Per Layer

Compactive Effort 457 mm

Soil Sample 9.4 cm (1/30 ft 3 ) Five Layers

3

FIGURE 4

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Determining Relative Density Relative Density, Dr, refers to an in-situ degree of compaction, relating the density of a cohesionless granular (sandy) soil to its maximum density (the densest state to which a soil can be compacted, Dr = 100%) and the minimum density (the loosest state that dry soil grains can attain, Dr = 0%). Relative density is defined as: Dr = e emax emin en emax - en ,% max - emin

= void ratio of soil in loosest state = void ratio of soil in densest state = existing void ratio of soil

Relative density can be defined in terms of unit weights as: Dr = n - min max max - min n

where: = unit weight, insitu (n), maximum (max), and minimum (min). The latter equation utilizing unit weights is more widely used because normal laboratory procedures use compaction molds with weight-volume measurements. The concept of relative density applies only to cohesionless soils, not to silt or clay. It is sometimes used for compaction control of cohesionless soils because the laboratory control tests more closely simulate the field compaction than do Proctor Tests. Two common test methods are used in laboratories to determine the maximum and minimum index density.

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Maximum Index Density (ASTM D4253) Either oven-dried or wet soil is placed in a mold. A 14-kPa surcharge is applied to the surface of the soil, and then the mold, soil, and surcharge are vertically vibrated. The vibration can be done in several ways as specified in the standard. This test provides emin, the smallest possible void ratio of the soil sample. See Figure 5. MAXIMUM INDEX DENSITY

Micrometer

Top Plunger 14 kPa

Cylinder

Sample Bottom Plunger

Vibrating Plate

FIGURE 5

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Minimum Index Density (ASTM D-4254) A funnel pouring device or a hand scoop is used to place oven-dried soil into a mold or other container of known volume in such a manner that prevents the formation of lumps or dense pockets or the segregation of particles according to size. Compaction of the soil should also be minimized. This test provides emax the largest possible void ratio of the soil sample. See Figure 6. MINIMUM INDEX DENSITY

FIGURE 6 These two methods for determining relative density are applicable to soils in which 100%, by dry weight, of soil particles pass a 75-mm sieve and which may contain up to 30%, by dry weight, of soil particles retained on a 37.5-mm sieve. For sands with different particle-size distributions, slight variations of the above methods are used, as specified in the standards.

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Summary of Laboratory Tests for Compaction Control Determining Moisture-Density Relationships Impact Compaction: Standard Proctor Test - ASTM D698 Soil type: Mold: Rammer: 100% passing No. 4 (4.75-mm) sieve. Diameter = 101.6 mm; capacity = 9.4 cm3. Weight = 2.5 kg; falling freely from a height = 305 mm.

Modified Proctor Test - ASTM D1557 Soil type: Mold: Rammer: 100% passing No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve. Diameter = 101.6 mm; capacity = 9.4 cm3. Weight = 4.54 kg; falling freely from a height = 457 mm.

Note: For soils with gravel use a 2-cm sieve with a mold 10 cm in diameter. Determining Relative Density Maximum Index Density - ASTM D4253 Minimum Index Density - ASTM D4254 Soil type (same for both): Free draining cohesionless soils with 100%, by dry weight, passing 75-mm sieve with a maximum of 30%, by dry weight, retained on a 37.5-mm sieve. Any container of known volume, preferably a mold similar to the Proctor Mold. Poured into mold and vibrated with a small surcharge placed on top of soil. Poured into mold using a funnel or scoop so that no bulking or segregation occurs.

Mold (same for both):

Placement - ASTM D4253:

- ASTM D4254:

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Field Compaction Control Tests Field tests provide the field density information necessary to determine whether compaction specifications are being met. The following three methods are common in Saudi Arabia. Nuclear Densitometer Test (ASTM D2922) This is a rapid, non-destructive technique for the in-place determination of wet density of soil and soil-aggregate using nuclear equipment. A gamma-ray source is used to pass gamma rays through the material being tested. The intensity of radiation after passage is recorded using a gamma-ray detector. The radiation intensity reading is converted to measured wet density by using correlation curves. See Figure 7. NUCLEAR DENSITOMETER TEST

FIGURE 7

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Nuclear Densitometer Test (ASTM D2922) (Cont'd) Advantage: The principal advantage of this test is the relative ease with which it can be performed (compared to methods such as the sand-cone and rubber-balloon, which involve digging holes and collecting and weighing bulky samples). This ease of operation makes this test particularly useful for the continuing control of construction, because many more tests can be performed per day than with other methods. In addition, apparently erratic measurements can be immediately detected and checked. Disadvantages: Equipment maintenance and start-up costs are relatively high. Being a surface test [normally suitable to a test depth of approximately (5 to 30 cm), it sacrifices the opportunity to examine the soil in depth. The density determined by this method is not necessarily the average density within the volume involved in the measurements; that is, the error can be high. The equipment utilizes radioactive materials which may be hazardous to the health of users unless proper precautions are taken.

Sand Cone Test (ASTM D1556) This method determines the density of compacted soils used in the construction of earth embankments, road fill, and structure backfill. It is often used as the basis of compaction control to check if the specified density has been achieved. A hole 15 cm deep and 15 cm in diameter is dug and the material removed stored in a sealed container for use in moisture content determination. The hole volume is measured with calibrated sand and the density calculated by using the volume measurement and the weight of the material removed from the hole. For the apparatus used, see Figure 8. This method can be used to determine in-place density of natural soil deposits, aggregates, soil mixtures, or other similar material. The use of this method is generally limited to soil in an unsaturated condition and is not recommended for soils that are soft or crumble easily or that contain materials greater than 5 cm in diameter.

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SAND CONE APPARATUS

Conversion Factor: 1 in. = 2.54 cm

Source: ASTM D1556

FIGURE 8
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Rubber Balloon Test (ASTM D2167) This method is used for determining the in-place density of compacted or natural soil using a rubber balloon apparatus. A hole is dug and the material removed stored in a sealed container. The volume of the hole is determined by inflating a thin flexible rubber membrane - the balloon - using a liquid (usually water). The in-place wet density is determined by dividing the wet mass of the soil removed by the volume of the hole. The moisture content and the in-place wet density are used to calculate the dry in-place density and dry unit weight. For the apparatus used, see Figure 9. This method is suitable for use as a means of acceptance for compacted fill or embankments constructed of fine-grained soils or granular soils without appreciable amounts of rock or coarse material. The use of this method is generally limited to soil in an unsaturated condition and is not recommended for soils that are soft or deform easily. This test method may not be suitable for soils containing crushed rock fragments or sharp edged materials which may puncture the rubber membrane used to determine the volume of the hole. RUBBER BALLOON TEST APPARATUS
Provision for Applying and Holding Constant External Pressure or Vacuum

Calibrated Vessel

Volume Indicator

Contained Liquid

Test Area Surface

Base Plate, Either Fixed or Removable

Field Test Hole, As Dug

Flexible Membrane (Rubber Balloon)

Void to be Filled when External Pressure is Applied

Source: ASTM D2167

FIGURE 9
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Calculating Percent Compaction

Example Problem: Computation of dry density for the sand cone tests. For the given data from a sand cone test, calculate the dry density of the in-place material. Given: Ms s W and w Solution: Step 1 Calculate the volume, V, of the test hole as the volume of sand needed to fill the test hole: V = Ms s = 0.0026 m3 = 4.5 1762 = 0.0026 m3 Calculate the dry weight, Ws, of the material removed from the test hole: = Weight of sand to fill the test hole = 4.5 kg = Bulk density of the test sand = 1762 kg/m3 = Wet weight of material removed from test hole = 5.4 kg = water content of material removed from test hole = 13%.

Step 2

Weight 0 W = 5.4 kg Ww Ws
W = Ww + Ws =5.4 kg w% = 13% = 0.13 = Ww Ws or Ww = 0.13 Ws

Volume A W S V = 0.0026 m 3

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Calculating Percent Compaction (Cont'd)

Substituting: W = 5.4 kg = 0.13 Ws + Ws Ws = Step 3 5.4 = 4.8 kg 1.13 Calculate the in-place wet density, w, and in-place dry density, d, of the material being tested: w = Ww V = d = Ws V = 5.4 = 2077 kg/m3 0.0026

4.8 = 1846 kg/m3 0.0026

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Matching Fill and Compaction Requirements from SAES-M-100

Select Fill Used within 0.6 m of the bottom elevation of foundations, spread footings, slabs on grade and pavements. Consists of only inorganic material, with 100% passing the 5-cm sieve and from 0 to 20% passing the No. 200 sieve. That portion passing the No. 40 sieve must have a maximum liquid limit of 35 and a maximum plasticity index of 12. Must be compacted to 70% relative density as defined by ASTM D4254 and ASTM D4253 or 95% of the maximum density as determined by ASTM D698 (Standard Proctor Test) for static pressures less than 320 kPa, and 85% relative density as defined by ASTM D4254 and ASTM D4253 or 95% of maximum density as determined by ASTM D1557 (Modified Proctor Test) for vibratory loads or static pressures greater than 320 kPa.

General Fill Used for all fills except where Select Fill material is specified. Consists of soils with a maximum size of 1/2 the lift thickness and no detrimental amounts of organic material. Must be compacted to 70% relative density as defined by ASTM D4254 and ASTM D4253 (for cohesionless materials) or 95% of maximum density as determined by ASTM D698 (Standard Proctor test for cohesive soils), for static pressures less than 320 kPa and for backfill around structures. For static pressures greater than 320 kPa and for vibratory loads, the fill material must be compacted to 85% relative density as defined by ASTM D4254 and ASTM D4253 (for cohesionless soils) or 95% of maximum density as determined by ASTM D1557 (Modified Proctor test for cohesive soils).

Dune Sand Used for either select fill or general fill. Consists of wind-deposited sand with relatively single-sized particles generally passing the No. 16 sieve (1.18 mm) and usually containing less than 10% of particles passing the No. 200 sieve (0.074 mm). Must be compacted according to the preceding guidelines. Generally requires a cap layer of oiled sand or cohesive material to prevent wind erosion.
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Matching Compaction Equipment to Soil Types

The kind of compactor or roller used on a job will depend on the type of soil to be compacted. Compaction of sands is best accomplished by impact or vibratory action, and of clays by kneading action. Equipment is available to apply pressure, impact, vibration, and kneading. Figure 10 shows the various soil types to be used with the various rollers. RANGES OF SOIL TYPES FOR SOIL COMPACTION EQUIPMENT

Rock

Sand 100%

Sand/Clay 50%

Clay 100%

Sheepsfoot/Tamping Foot Pneumatic Tire (50T and Up) Smooth Wheel (Drum) Vibratory Mesh Pattern

FIGURE 10

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Smooth-Wheel or Drum Roller and Pneumatic-Tired Roller A smooth-wheel or drum roller (Figure 11 and 12) supplies 100% coverage under the wheel, with ground contact pressures up to 380 kPa and may be used on all soil types except rocky soils. The pneumatic- or rubber-tired roller (Figure 12) has about 80% coverage and tire pressures may be up to about 700 kPa. A heavily loaded wagon with several rows of four to six closely spaced tires is self-propelled or towed over the soil to be compacted. Both the smooth-wheel roller and the rubber-tired roller may be used for both granular and cohesive highway fills. Sheepsfoot Roller A sheepsfoot roller consists of steel drums about 1.2 m long, each with a diameter of about 1.2 m. Attached to the drums are many round, or rectangular, shaped protrusions or "feet" (Figure 12). These "feet" extend about 25 cm from the face of the drum and have areas of about 30 to 80 cm2. Because of the 8% to 12% coverage, very high contact pressures are possible, ranging from 1400 to 7000 kPa depending on the drum size and whether the drum is filled with water. The sheepsfoot roller is best suited for cohesive soils. Tamping-Foot Roller Other rollers with protrusions have also been developed to obtain high contact pressures for better crushing, kneading, and compacting of a rather wide variety of soils. One such is the tamping-foot roller (Figure 12). The special "feet" of the tamping-foot roller apply a kneading action to the soil. Tamping-foot rollers are best for compacting cohesive soils. Mesh- or Grid-Pattern Roller Still another kind of roller is the mesh- or grid-pattern roller with about 50% coverage and contact pressures from 1400 to 6200 kPa. The mesh-pattern roller (Figure 12) is ideally suited for compacting rocky soils, gravel, and sands. With high towing speed, the material is vibrated, crushed, and impacted.

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SMOOTH-WHEEL ROLLER

FIGURE 11

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TYPES OF ROLLERS

FIGURE 12
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Vibration Vibration is the most effective means of compacting granular soils such as sands and gravel. For small jobs, vibration can be produced by tamping with hand or pneumatic tools or by dropping heavy weights on the soil from a height of several feet. On larger jobs, effective compaction has been obtained of coarse sand and gravel and rockfill by means of 5 to 15 ton rollers equipped with vibrators operating at a frequency between about 100 and 1500 pulses per minute. Figure 13 shows a vibratory drum on a smooth wheel roller in a towing configuration. VIBRATING ROLLER

FIGURE 13

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Identifying Problems of Field Compaction

Field compaction problems typically consist of: High compactive effort being applied, but compaction specification not being met. Low compactive effort being applied, but compaction specification being met.

Typical causes for these problems and their solutions include: Changed Materials: If the material tested in the lab is different from the material being placed in the field, then the dmax and wopt% determined in the lab will not apply to the field. Solution: Obtain proper lab values. Excess/Deficient Moisture: If the field moisture content of the soil is very different than the optimum moisture content, then it may not be possible to achieve the specified dry density. Solution: Add water or dry the soil as required. Lifts Too Thick: Fills are usually constructed by compacting the soil in layers called lifts. A lift is spread and then compacted before the next lift is placed. Lift thickness may range from 150 to 500 mm or so, depending on the size and type of compaction equipment and on the maximum grain size of the soil being used for the fill. If the lift is too thick, the compaction specification may not be achieved. Solution: Reduce lift thickness. Wrong Compaction Equipment: Use of improper equipment can prevent compaction specifications from being met. For example, use of a roller which is too light will result in lower dry density being produced than is desirable. Or if vibratory equipment is used for cohesive soils, then proper compaction will not be achieved since vibratory equipment is not effective in compacting cohesive soils. Solution: Match compaction equipment to soil type. Base Too Soft for Compaction: Whenever possible, embankments are constructed on firm, relatively incompressible subsoils. If the subsoil is soft, however, it may not withstand the weight of compaction equipment being used on the overlying fill. Typically, the soil will move out from beneath the compactor and not receive the full compaction force.

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Solution:

Remove/replace the soft soils; accept less than the specified compaction for the first lift or two.

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Describing Strength and Compressibility of Compacted Soils

Clays The strength of compacted clays is rather complex. However, for the purpose of this course, it is enough to remember that compaction increases the strength and decreases the compressibility of clays. In general, the greater the compaction, the higher the strength and the lower the compressibility. Sands Void ratio is perhaps the most important single parameter that affects the strength of sands. Generally speaking, the lower the void ratio, the higher the shear strength. Compaction of sands increases the density, thus lowering the void ratio and increasing the strength. An increase in density also results in reducing the compressibility of sands. Thus, compacted soils have high strength and low compressibility which is comparable to (or even better than) good quality natural soils.

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Correct Use of California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Values

Definition of CBR The CBR is a penetration test performed to determine the potential strength of subgrade, subbase, and base coarse material for use in road and airfield pavements. The results of this test are used as an integral part in the design of flexible pavements. CBR is primarily intended for, but not limited to, evaluating the strength of cohesive materials having maximum particle sizes less than 19 mm. The CBR value is determined by noting the stress (in psi) imposed on the soil being tested, which corresponds to 0.1 in. of penetration by a standard diameter rod. The CBR value is expressed as a percentage and is a comparison of penetration resistance of the soil being tested to the penetration resistance of a standard crushed rock at a penetration of 0.1 in. (See section on laboratory testing.) Determining CBR Values CBR Testing Methods Laboratory Testing Laboratory CBR tests are performed according to the guidelines contained in ASTM D1883. A selected sample of subgrade material is compacted in a cylindrical mold at the optimum moisture and maximum density as determined by Standard or Modified Proctor density tests. After the sample has been compacted a surcharge weight is placed on the sample and the entire assembly immersed in water for four days. At the completion of the soaking period the sample is removed and drained for 15 minutes. The sample is then subjected to penetration by a piston 1.95 in. in diameter (3 in.2 area) and the total loads corresponding to penetration of 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 in. are recorded. (See Figure 14.) A load penetration curve is then drawn, and corrections made to straighten the concave upward shape of the initial portion of the curve caused by surface irregularities. The corrected value of unit load for 0.1 in. penetration is then determined. A typical CBR curve and an example method of correction are illustrated in Figure 15. This corrected value is then compared with a value of 1000 psi which is required to effect the same penetration in standard crushed rock and multiplied by 100 to get percent. Therefore: CBR % = unit load at 0.1 inch penetration x (100) 1000

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CBR TESTING METHODS

Laboratory Testing

Load

Standard Size Rod

Soil Samples

CBR Testing Cylinder

FIGURE 14
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CBR LOAD-DEFLECTION CURVES

FIGURE 15

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Field Testing Field testing (ASTM D4429) involves penetrating a layer of soil in the field using a standard rod (plunger). The plunger is pushed into the ground against the reaction of a truck weight. Again, load versus penetration data are taken, and a load-deflection curve is drawn. See Figure 16. Field in-place bearing ratio (CBR) tests are generally performed on soils whose degree of saturation (percentage of voids filled with water) are 80% or greater; or when the soil is coarse grained and cohesionless, so that it is not significantly affected by changes in water content. CBR TESTING METHODS

Field Testing

Standard Size Rod

FIGURE 16 In both the laboratory and the field test, a surcharge load is applied to simulate confinement of the soil being tested. Laboratory test results give values for the CBR which are generally higher than those obtained with field testing. This is probably because of the effect of rigid confinement in the laboratory mold.

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Estimating CBR of In-Place Soils

CBR values vary depending on the density or compaction of the soils. Therefore, to estimate the in-place CBR for a soil, the soil is compacted in the laboratory according to the specified compaction procedure (usually Proctor or Modified Proctor) and CBR tests are performed at several different (usually three) densities. The results are used to construct a graph of CBR versus density. From measurements of density of the in-place soils, the in-place CBR can be obtained from this graph. Figure 17 shows the results of such a procedure for a soil associated with a road project in Saudi Arabia. NOTE: Specifications usually require 95% compaction (that is, a dry density which is at least 95% of the maximum dry density achievable by a standard compaction procedure), and a CBR of say 50%, in separate paragraphs. Using a similar procedure as discussed in the preceding section, we test soil in the laboratory to see if it can achieve 50% CBR. For the example shown in Figure 17, 50% CBR cannot be achieved. It is important to remember that the engineer needs to look for the specified CBR at 95% compaction, not at 100% compaction. Many contractors report CBR at 100% compaction only, which is incomplete information. CBR VERSUS DRY DENSITY

16 14 12 10 CBR % 8 6 4 2 95% d
In-Situ CBR - 12%
In-Situ Density -1810 kg/m

0 1682 1714 1746 1778 1810 1842 Dry Density, kg/m

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FIGURE 17

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Identifying Soil Excavation Equipment

Various types of equipment are used to excavate soil. Some of the most commonly used types of equipment are bulldozers, backhoes, draglines, clamshells, and scrapers. Bulldozers Bulldozers, often just called dozers, consist of a large vertically curved blade held at a fixed distance in front of a tractor. The blade can be raised or lowered, or tilted vertically, by means of cable controls or hydraulic rams. See Figure 18. The bulldozer has many uses. It can be used for clearing brush and grubbing roots and for felling trees. It is used for clearing topsoil from the area to be excavated. Roads providing initial access to the construction area are cut with the bulldozer, and it completes the building operation by backfilling and trimming slopes. The bulldozer can be used for general excavation where the soils do not require pushing farther than about 100 m. In general, dozers are used for moving small amounts of material, usually for levelling and preparing uneven areas for further work. With bulldozers, the excavation depth is usually restricted to about 0.6 m. Another common use for dozers is in a companion role to assist other excavation equipment. BULLDOZER

FIGURE 18

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Backhoes, Draglines, and Clamshells Backhoes, draglines, and clamshells are usually referred to as shovels. The characteristics of the shovel proper are very variable, depending on the nature and relative position of the soil being excavated. Figure 19 shows line diagrams of all three. TYPICAL TYPES OF SHOVELS

FIGURE 19

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Backhoes, Draglines, and Clamshells (Cont'd) The backhoe, hoe, pull shovel, or drag shovel, as it is variously called, is the most versatile rig used for trenching and general excavation. Backhoes are also frequently used for small pit excavations. Figure 20 shows the basic elements of the backhoe. The bucket of the backhoe has cutting teeth at its lip. The basic cutting action of the backhoe is accomplished by extending its bucket with its teeth pointing down and then pulling it back in. The excavated material is then placed into a vehicle (dumptruck) for removal or stockpiled adjacent to the excavation. Using a backhoe, in conjunction with a bulldozer, to push stockpiled soil away from the excavation can increase production rates by 50%. BASIC ELEMENTS OF THE BACKHOE

FIGURE 20

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Backhoes, Draglines, and Clamshells (Cont'd) The dragline is most ideally suited to handle loose-bulk excavation. The dragline is basically a scoop/bucket attached to a crane (Figure 21). The bucket is tossed out and allowed to drop. (No power is available for direct pressure on earth. The limited penetration is almost entirely derived from the weight of the bucket.) Then the bucket is dragged back, gathering material as it is pulled in by the drag cable. The dragline operates most efficiently from an elevation higher than the material being dug and is seldom used for excavating at or above its travel level. When the soil is very loose or when water occurs at some distance below the surface, the dragline is widely used in bulk-pit excavation, in preference to regular power shovels. Under most conditions, it is also ideal for handling loose, dry sands and gravels. Some of the functions performed using a dragline are shown in Figure 22. ELEMENTS OF THE DRAGLINE

FIGURE 21

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VARIOUS USES OF THE DRAGLINE

(a) Excavating Channels and Canals (b) Excavating Ditches and Trenches

(c) Excavating Underwater Soils (d) Stripping Overburden

(e) Shallow Grading (f) General Excavation

(g) Loading into Hoppers

(h) Sloping and Grading (i) Loading Haul Units

FIGURE 22
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Backhoes, Draglines, and Clamshells (Cont'd) The clamshell consists of a clamshell bucket hung from the boom of a crane. The bucket has two jaws which clamp together (like a clam closing its shell) to load by their weight when lifted by the closing line. The two halves of the bucket are dropped in the open position onto the material to be excavated and the bucket closed, encompassing material between two halves. See Figure 23. The clamshell can be used for excavating foundations, footings, pier holes, trenches, and cellars, but its production rate is low. Where the soils being dug are loose, soft, or wet and require sheathing of their banks and, consequently, vertical lifting of the excavated material, the clamshell is ideal. The clamshell is also useful for selecting rock fragments from a mixture of abundant rock fragments and soils. This last function is achieved by not closing the bucket completely and thus retaining only material greater than a certain size due to the sieve like structure formed by the interlocking teeth of the bucket. CLAMSHELL ELEMENTS

FIGURE 23

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Scrapers Scrapers are useful in moving large volumes of material quickly. Scrapers may be selfloading or only serve for transportation purposes, being loaded by a different operation. Figure 24 shows a self-loading, self-propelled scraper. Sometimes a scraper's self-loading capacity is assisted by pushing it with a tractor equipped with a bulldozer blade. The major operating components of the scraper are the bowl, the apron, and the ejector. The lip of the bowl (or scoop) is armed with a replaceable cutting edge. In operation the bowl is tilted downward until the cutting edge penetrates the soil 10-15 cm, depending on the density of the soil formation. As the scraper is towed or pushed forward, a thin layer of earth is forced into the bowl. When the bowl has been filled, it is tilted upward and the apron is dropped down to close the bowl and prevent spillage during transportation to the unloading area. The ejector plate is used to push out the earth from the bowl during unloading. SELF-LOADING, SELF-PROPELLED SCRAPER

FIGURE 24

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Estimating Soil Excavation Production Rates

Production rates for the various equipment depend on a number of factors, including: The size and dimensions of the excavation equipment. The nature of the soils. The size and depth of cut. The skill and efficiency of the operator.

Figure 25 gives the typical production rates for some of the soil excavation equipment discussed. The rates are approximate, assuming typical working conditions, and are related to the size of the equipment (by "size" we primarily mean the capacity of the scoop/bucket/shovel that is used).

TYPICAL SIZES AND PRODUCTION RATES FOR SOIL EXCAVATION EQUIPMENT

EQUIPMENT

CAPACITY (yd3) --1 1 1/2 1/2 15

PRODUCTION RATE (yd3/hr) No typical value 45 65 20 75

Bulldozer Backhoe Dragline Clamshell Scraper

1 yd3 = 0.765 m3 FIGURE 25

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Identifying Rock Excavation Equipment or Methods

Ripping Ripping is a mechanical process for loosening and breaking rock into manageable sizes so that it can be removed by standard excavating equipment, such as dozers and scrapers. As the technology and equipment improves, production ripping is being used more frequently in a wide variety of rock conditions as an alternative to drilling and blasting operations, which are always slower and more costly. As shown in Figure 26, a steel ripper which resembles an angled tooth is pulled through a rock mass by a heavy tractor (usually a bulldozer). By making continuous passes, the ripper loosens and breaks the rock to such a degree that it is easily removed with conventional equipment. Choosing the appropriate tractor and ripper should consider several factors. The tractor must have sufficient horsepower to advance the ripper once it penetrates the rock mass. The tractor must also be of sufficient weight to develop the traction to use the available horsepower. Finally, there must be enough downpressure on the ripper so that tip penetration can be obtained and maintained. Rippers may be of the fixed or hydraulically adjustable type and are available with single or multiple shanks (teeth). For additional penetration and ripping capability, impact rippers are also available. The ripper penetrates the rock using a combination of its own weight and/or hydraulics and the forward thrust from the tractor. The depth of penetration depends on a number of factors including the rock hardness, equipment used, bedding thickness and degree of fracturing and project requirements. Average penetration depths of 0.6 m are common.

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TRACTOR EQUIPPED WITH RIPPER

FIGURE 26 Determination of Rippability Excavation ease or rippability is very important in the planning, design and construction of projects where rock is involved. Factors which affect the rippability of a rock mass include: Favorable ripping characteristics: Frequent planes of weakness such as fractures, faults and laminations Weathering Moisture permeated formations High degree of stratification Brittleness Low strength Low field seismic velocity Unfavorable ripping characteristics: Massive Crystalline rock Without planes of weakness High strength High field seismic velocity

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Determination of Rippability (Cont'd) In general, igneous rocks are the most difficult to rip because of their lack of stratification and cleavage planes. Igneous rocks are usually rippable only where they are highly weathered and/or highly fractured. Metamorphic rocks vary in rippability depending on their degree of foliation or stratification. Sedimentary rock offers the best opportunity for ripping due to their stratification. Methods commonly used to assess rippability include field observation in similar materials or by using seismic velocity, fracture spacing, or point load strength index. The most accurate method is to observe a field test in similar materials or the actual material using different tractors and/or rippers. Where this is not feasible or practical, measuring the seismic velocity of the rock mass is recommended. Figure 27 illustrates rippability of surface materials related to longitudinal seismic velocity for a heavy ripper (greater than 45 tons and 350 hp for example, a D-9 bulldozer). In general the lower the seismic velocity the higher the probability the material is rippable. RIPPABILITY OF SUBSURFACE MATERIALS RELATED TO LONGITUDINAL SEISMIC VELOCITY FOR A HEAVY DUTY RIPPER (TRACTOR MOUNTED)

FIGURE 27
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Determination of Rippability (Cont'd) Figure 28 is a suggested guide for ease of rippability based on rock fracture spacing and point load strength. The closer the fracture spacing and lower the strength, the more likely the material will be rippable. This method, however, requires gathering considerable data through core drilling and laboratory testing of rock cores. Soft rock excavation by ripping is not classified as rock excavation according to the Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard (SAES-M-100) and is paid for at soil excavation rate on Saudi Aramco projects. EXCAVATION OF ROCK BASED ON POINT LOAD STRENGTH AND FRACTURE SPACING

FIGURE 28
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Determination of Rippability (Cont'd) Rippability depends not only on the seismic velocity of the rock but also on the condition and power of the equipment and the skill of the operator. Some field trials conducted by Saudi Aramco have resulted in correlations relating seismic velocities and rippability, which are listed in Figure 29. SEISMIC CORRELATIONS

MATERIAL

DRILLING METHOD

SEISMIC VELOCITY RECOVERY

EXCAVATION METHOD Hand Tools Scraper Light Back-hoe Grader

Soil Qa = 100500 kPa Highly Weathered Rock Qa = 200 kPa

Augerable - Easy

300-600 mps 600-1,000 mps

0%

Augerable - Hard Tricone - Easy Diamond Core

1,000-1,500 mps

0-15%

Medium Back-hoe Light Ripping Bulldozer

Poorly Weathered Rock Qa = 300 kPa Rock Qa = 300500 kPa

Not Augerable Tricone - Hard Diamond Core Tricone - Very Hard Diamond Core

1,500-2,400 mps

0-75%

Heavy Back-hoe Heavy Ripping Very Heavy Ripping Hydraulic Breaker Blasting

2,400-3,650 mps

25-100%

FIGURE 29 Qa = Allowable Bearing Pressure length of core recovered length of core drilled

Recovery =

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Blasting and Rock Breakers Hard rock is interpreted by Saudi Aramco as intact rock which requires breaking or drilling and blasting for removal. Hard rock excavation is also used for rock, concrete, or other intact (not granular) material requiring jackhammers to break it up for removal. When ripping methods are unsuccessful, excavation in hard rock usually involves blasting. Explosives are used to break rock masses into smaller fragments which are then loaded into trucks, using power shovels and loaders, for transportation. In situations where blasting is not feasible due to cost or safety limitations, jackhammers and hydraulic rock breakers are used. Virtually all types of blasting require drilling a hole in which explosives are placed. For general rock drilling, equipment driven by compressed air is universally employed. Most such drills are mounted on tractors. Figure 30 shows a line diagram of a tractor-mounted drill used to drill blast holes. The breakup of rock formations by blasting or other methods is not a precise operation. A number of factors need to be accounted for. These are dependent on type of rock and the kind of formation it occurs in, and the type of explosive to be used. TRACTOR-MOUNTED BLAST DRILL

FIGURE 30

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Rock Blasting Terminology Some common rock blasting terminology is discussed next. Refer to Figure 31 for illustrations of some of the terms discussed. Burden, B. The distance from the explosive charge to the nearest free or open face is called the burden. This distance is measured perpendicular to the face as illustrated in Figure 30. There are many empirical relationships for approximating the burden for various explosive-rock combinations. Burden is the most important parameter in blasting design. All other design parameters are direct functions of the initial burden. Spacing, S. Spacing is normally measured as the distance between drill holes (containing explosive charges) in a row (hole spacing) and the distance between parallel rows (spacing or row spacing) of explosive charges. Spacing is the second most important parameter in blasting design, because it effects mutual interaction of the different charges and thus controls the development of stress patterns which in turn control the method or rock breakage. Powder Factor, PF. The powder factor relates the yield of material blasted to the quantity of explosive used. For most construction, it is customarily expressed in pounds of explosive per cubic yard of material excavated (g/m3). Because of its extremely variable character, the PF is not normally a sound index upon which to design blasts. Its value will be very dependent on the displacement and fragmentation desired and especially on the properties of the explosive used and material blasted. Hole Stemming, T. The filling of part of the blast hole with inert material, such as sand, drillings, and clay to confine the explosive gases is called hole stemming. Normally, only the part above the explosive charge is filled. This is done for safety reasons as well as to ensure that most of the explosive energy is used to break the rock and is not wasted by being discharged up through the drill hole in which the explosive is placed. The amount of stemming, T, that should be used will be a direct function of the burden, B. Normally, stemming amounts equal to but not less than two-thirds of the burden are satisfactory.

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Rock Blasting Terminology (Cont'd) Delayed Blasting. Practically all blasting used in surface rock operations involves multiple explosive charges being detonated, usually with millisecond (ms) delays between each. Delayed blasting has a deciding influence on the fragmentation of rock and the reduction of seismic effects on neighboring structures. A series of charges is placed at a fixed spacing from each other and detonated in a controlled sequence. Based on experience gained on various projects, a number of engineers recommend a delay time of 10 to 30 ms. Delay time and hole spacing are often linked by empirical relationships. ILLUSTRATION OF BLASTING TERMINOLOGY

Vertical Blasthole

B T C P H Ledge

L Floor J

PC

Inclined Blasthole

B T Ledge

L PC Floor J C B' Note: B' = True Burden

Source: Surface Mining, copyright 1968. With permission from the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc.

FIGURE 31

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Trench Excavation Versus General Excavation When excavation is to be done in trenches or small areas, the definition of "Rock Excavation" may need to be modified because ripping is only possible to about 1 m depth in such situations. Some rock which could be ripped in a general excavation (soil excavation rates) may thus require a hydraulic rock breaker with a heavy backhoe to excavate the material (rock excavation rates). Type of excavation (trench versus general) is therefore as important as rock properties in determining hard-rock versus soft-rock excavation. Contract Definitions of Soil Versus Rock Saudi Aramco currently has no definition of Rock Excavation other than what is in SAES-M-100, and that definition is subject to interpretation. It is important to have clear definitions of hard rock and soft rock for every project to avoid field delays, contract claims, and change orders. Standard clauses exist so each contract must be specific for the case. Experience has shown that as long as "Rock Excavation" is clearly defined, claims for excess rock excavation are fewer and easier to evaluate. Some proposed definitions of rock excavation based on rippability and seismic velocity are: PROPOSED DEFINITIONS OF ROCK EXCAVATION TYPE OF EXCAVATION Hand excavation required: ROCK EXCAVATION DEFINITION Rock, concrete, or other intact (not granular) material requiring jackhammers for removal. Material with seismic velocities in excess of 900 mps. Trenches/small excavations: Hard rock which demonstratively cannot be excavated by a heavy backhoe in good condition without the aid of hydraulic rock breakers. Material with seismic velocities in excess of 1500 mps. General excavations: Hard rock which demonstratively cannot be ripped with a D-9 dozer in good condition without the aid of hydraulic rock breakers or blasting. Material with seismic velocities in excess of 2400 mps.

FIGURE 32

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WORK AID 1: Steps for Calculating Percent Compaction Directions: As a first step for Exercise 3, draw the moisture-density curve for the given laboratory testing data and obtain the values of the following: Optimum Moisture Content, w(opt), = Maximum Dry Density, d(max), = Next, recall the weight volume relationships you learned earlier and calculate the dry density of the compacted soil in the field using the field testing data supplied in the question: Field dry density, d(field), =

Finally, use the two dry density values obtained to calculate the percent compaction. Percent compaction =

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GLOSSARY
auger backfill backhoe blast blasthole blasthole drill borehole borrow pit/area bulking burden california bearing ratio (CBR) clamshell compaction compactive effort compactor A rotating drill having a screw thread that carries cuttings away from the surface being drilled. Earth/rock used to replace material previously removed by excavation. Self-powered excavation equipment that digs by pulling a boom mounted bucket toward itself. It also has a front bucket. To loosen or move rock/earth by means of explosives or an explosion. A drill hole used for a charge of explosives. A drill of any type used in the drilling of blastholes, usually air percussion, cable, rotary, or fusion-type. Hole drilled into rock for exploration or blasting. An excavation from which material is taken for a nearby job. Increase in volume of fine materials due to loosening or moisture content increase. The distance of a blasthole from the face or the volume of rock to be moved by the explosive in each blasthole. Penetration test performed to determine the potential strength of subgrade, subbase and base course material for use in road and airfield pavements. A bucket with two jaws, which clamp together to load by their own weight when lifted by the closing line. Reduction in volume of fill or embankment by rolling, tamping, and wetting the material. A measure of the mechanical energy applied to a soil mass. A machine for compacting soil. It can be towed or self-powered.

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embankment excavation

A fill the top of which is higher than the surrounding surface. An embankment is usually compacted. The cutting down of the natural ground surface, the material taken from the excavation, or the space formed by the removal of the material. Also known as cutting. The more or less vertical surface of rock exposed by excavation or blasting. To place earth, or the earth which has been placed. Also called embankment, especially if compacted. The soil particles passing the #200 sieve (silt and clay size particles). The final grade called for by the specifications. (1) The profile of the center of a road, channel, or natural ground area. (2) To prepare the ground by cutting and filling according to a definite plan. (3) The gradient, that is, the percentage of rise or fall to the horizontal distance. A layer of material or soil placed during filling. Excavation, in quantity, of loose, unconsolidated soils, of soils lying under water, or of soils so saturated with water as to prevent movement of equipment over their surface. Loose bulk excavation is generally performed from solid, or relatively solid, ground adjacent to the area being excavated. The highest density achievable for a given compactive effort and method. The moisture content at which maximum dry density is achieved. A graph relating dry density to moisture content. Teeth-shaped attachments added to equipment to dig through hard or rocky soil or soft rock.

face fill fines finish grade grade

lift loose bulk excavation

maximum density and optimum moisture moisture-density curve ripper

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scraper sheepsfoot roller subgrade

A digging, hauling, and grading machine having a cutting edge, a carrying bowl, a movable front wall, and a dumping mechanism. A compacting roller with feet expanded at their outer tips. Used in compacting cohesive soil. The uppermost level of material placed in an embankment or left at cuts in the normal grading of a road bed. This becomes the foundation for aggregate and asphalt pavement. A self-powered or towed compacting device which mechanically vibrates while it rolls. Used for cohesionless soils. A curve showing densities for various moisture contents if the voids are entirely occupied with water. Also known as the complete saturation curve.

vibratory roller zero air voids curve

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