Bob’s Atonal Theory Primer1

Pitch and pitch-class (pc)

(1) Pitch space: a linear series of pitches (semitones) from low to high modeled by integers.
(2) Sets of pitches (called psets) are selections from the set of pitches; they are unordered in time.

(3) Pc space: circle of pitch-classes (no lower or higher relations) modeled by integers, mod 12 (see below).
(4) Pcs are related to the pitches by taking the latter mod 12. Pitches related by any number of octaves map to the same pitch-class.

(5) Sets of pcs (called pcsets) are selections from the set of pcs; they are unordered in time (and pitch).

(6) Pcsets must be “realized” (or “represented” or “articulated”) by pitches. To realize a pcset in music, it must be ordered in pitch and
in time. Every musical articulation of a pcset produces a contour. Many different psets may represent one pcset. Pcsets may model
melodies, harmonies, mixed textures, etc.

Definitions from Finite Set Theory

(6) The set of all the pcs is called the aggregate and is denoted by the letter U; the set of no pcs is called the empty or null set, and is
denoted by the sign ∅

(7) Membership: If a is a member (or element) of the set B, we write a ∈ B.

(8) Inclusion: If A and B are sets and A is contained in B, we write A ⊂ B.
(9) The union of two sets A and B (written A ∪ B) is the content of both of them.
(10) The intersection of two sets A and B is their common elements (written A ∩ B).
(11) Two sets are disjoint if their intersection is ∅.
(12) B is the complement of A, if B contains all elements of U not in A. We show the complement of A by A′.
NB: A ∩ A′ = ∅ (A and A′ are disjoint) and A ∪ A′ = U.

1
We do not use the usual (but inappropriate) name “Set Theory” for this subject.

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 Definitions and relations

entity ordered unordered series; written collections; transposition

interval interval within < and > written within
{ and }
pitch 0 = middle C = C4; from a to b “distance” pseg pset Let pitch b = the
-24 cello C = C2; = (b-a) between Example Example pitch transposition of
6 = F#4; etc. pitches <7,7,7,3> {-3, 1,4} pitch a by n
a and b = |b-a| semitones:
= |a-b| We write b = Tna .and
b = a + n.
Example:
3 = T7(-4)
pc 0 = C, from a to b “distance” pcseg; pcset, or pc Let pc b = the pc
1 = C#,Db, B##; = (b-a) between pcs Example collection transposition of pc a
2 = D, take mod- a and b = |b-a| <0,3,11,2> Example by n.:
3 = Eb, D#, 12; varies = |a-b| (NB: rows = {0157} We write b = Tna .and
etc., from 0 to taken mod 12; ordering of all b = a + n, mod 12.
10 = A#, Bb; 11; varies from 0 12 pcs without Example 3 = T7(8)
11 = B, Cb. to 6. duplication)
Pc unordered
intervals are
called
interval
classes (ics).

remarks and explanation:

The pc 10 is written as “A” (or” a” or “T” or “t”)
The pc 11 is written as “B” (or “b” or “E” or “e”).
mod 12: If a number n is outside the range of 0 to 11, reduce or augment n by 12s until it falls within that range. –3 = 9 mod 12; 35 = B mod 12. Mod 12 models
octave equivalence.
|x| = is called the absolute value of x. |x| = |-x|. (Absolute value models distance, because the distance from a to b = the distance from b to a.)
T0 has no effect on a pitch, pc, pset, or pcset; T0 is the called the identity operator.
The elements in a pset or pcset can be written in any order, so {024} = {204} = {402}. etc. We just usually put them in ascending order for easy reading.

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 inversion transposition after inversion invariance types of collections (sets of
collections)
pitch Let pitch b = pitch Let pitch b = the transposition of the if pset X = TnIX, we say X is pset-class is a set of
inversion of pitch inversion of pitch a by n semitones; invariant. (NB: no pset is all psets related by pitch space
a: We write We write TnIa and b= n-a invariant under T0, where n is transposition and/or inversion
b = Ia and b = -a Example not 0).)
Example -1 = T6I7 Example
4 = I-4 Let X = {-3,1,5};
-22 = I22 X is invariant under T2I.
pc Let pc b = pc Let pc b = the transposition of the if pcset X = TnX and/or TnIX, Set-class (abbr. SC) or
inversion of pitch inversion of pitch a by n semitones; we say X is invariant. collection-class or
a: We write We write TnIa and b= n-a Example set-type; there are names for a
b = Ia .and b = -a, Example X = {0167}; X is invariant set of
mod 12. B = T6I7 under: all psets related by pitch-class
Examples T6, T1I and T7I. transposition and/or inversion
4 = I8; 9 = I3.
remarks This is inversion (1) If b = Tna then (1) All sets are invariant (1) Set-classes are represented
“around” 0 (pitch b = n-a and b+a = n under T0 by one of their members called
C4 or pc C) n is called the inversional index. (2) The degree of invariance a prime-form or normal order
(2) If b = Tna then a and b are disposed of a set is the number of representative.
“around” n/2. operations, which produce (2) We can write set-classes as
(3) There are two kinds of inversions, invariance. All sets have at sets of pcsets: The set-class
where the index n is even or odd. If least 1 degree of invariance. containing the major and
even, then n/2 is a pitch or pc; if odd, Others have more; pset {- minor chord can be written:
then n/2 is inbetween two pitches or pcs. 3,1,5} has a degree of { {037} {148}{259}
invariance of 2; pcset {0167} {36A}, etc., {047}
has a degree of invariance of {158}{269}{37A}
4. etc., {A25}{B36} }
(3) sets related by (3) The number of sets in a
transposition and/or inversion set-class = 24 divided by the
have the same degree of degree of invariance of any of
invariance. its members.
Example.
The set-class including
{0167} has 6 members, since
its degree of invariance is 4
and 24/4 = 6.

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 Interval-class vectors

The interval-classes in a pcset can be registered in a construct called an interval-class vector (IVC). An ICV consists of seven
successive numbers within brackets. The leftmost number gives the number of interval-classes of size 0 (and thus, the cardinality of
the SC's members), the second number from the left gives the number of interval-classes of size 1, and so forth until we get to the last
(seventh, rightmost) number, which indicates the amount of ic6s in any set within the set-class. For example, [3011010] indicates that
any set within the set-class with which it is associated has 3 pcs, no ic1s, one ic2, one ic3, no ic4 or 6, and one ic5. The ICV helps
profile the “intervallic sound” of a set as well as determine the number of common tones shared by a pcset and any of its
transpositions (see below)

All pcset members of a SC share the same ICV because an ic does not change under transposition and/or inversion.. The musical
realizations of the members of a SC therefore have a similar sound.

Set and set-class relations

Relations among pcsets are called literal. They can be described and notated with the elementary concepts and notations given above
in “Definitions from Finite Set Theory.”

Relations among set-classes are called abstract.

(to next page)

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 inclusion complementation Z-relation
literal For pcsets A and B: For pcsets A and B: For pcsets A and B:
if B includes all pcs in A, If B includes all pcs not in A, If and A and B are not both members of the same
then A ⊂ B. then B = A′. SC, and the ICV of A = the ICV of B, then A and
Example: Example B are Z-related.
A = {035}; B = {03459} A = {03479}; B = A′.= {12568AB} Example
A = [1257}; B = {1349}; both have ICV[4111111]
abstract SC X is included in SC SC X is the complement of SC Y, if, SC X is Z-related to SC Y, if, for A ∈ X and B ∈
Y, if, for A ∈ X and B ∈ for A ∈ X and B ∈ Y, B = A′. Y, A is Z-related to B.
Y, A ⊂ B.
remarks One of two complementary SCs, (1) Z-relations only relate pairs of pcsets or SCs.
possesses the complements of the (2) Z-related pcsets have a similar intervallic
pcsets in the other. The two SCs have sound, even though they are not related under
the same number after the hyphen in transposition and/or inversion.
their names. (3) If one member of a pair of Z-related pcsets or
Example SC 3-2[013] and SCs does not contain or is not contained in the
SC 9-2[012345679A] are complement of the other, the two are designated
complementary SCs. ZC-related.

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 Three basic theorems

1. Transpositional Common Tone Theorem: Let A and B be pcsets. The number of common pcs between A and TnB is equal to the
number of instances of interval n spanning from A to B.

Corollary: The number of common pcs between A and TnA is equal to the number of ics n in the ICV of A (except for ic 6,
where the number of common pcs is twice the numbers of ic 6s).)

2. Inversional Common Tone Theorem: The number of common pcs between A and TnIB is equal to the number of instances of sums
a+b = n, where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.

Corollary: The number of common pcs between A and TnIA is equal to the number of instances of sums a+b = n, where a and
b ∈ A. NB: instance a + b is distinct from instance b + a, unless a = b.

3. Complement Theorem: For pcsets A and A′, the ICV of A′ is a transformation of the ICV of A: for each entry in the ICV of A
except the entry for ic6, add k (for the entry of ic6, add k/2). k = 2a –12, where a is the number of elements in A.
(NB: k = a – (12-a)).

Corollary (the Hexachord Theorem): If A is a hexachord, then k = 0, so complementary hexachords have the same ICV, as do
their SCs.

Remark. While complementary hexachords share the same ICV, they are not obliged to be members of the same SC; and if
they are not, then they (and their SCS) are Z- and ZC-related.

—Robert Morris (2004)

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