ELECTRONICS mae Premier12 BARRON'S GUARANTEE: This book will improve your grades in 30 days ‘or you can return it to Barron's for a full refund. Your Key to Learning De CCL) ore uc LI eee ea DEL De Ue to) Da ae PEC DDL It was written for you.© Copyright 2002, 1995, 1988, 1984 by Barron’s Educational Series Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this boak may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography, orany other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the copyright owner. All inquiries should be addressed to: Barron's Educational Series, Inc. 250 Wireless Boulevard Hau , New York 11788 Aitp://www.barronseduc.com Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 2002016321 International Standard Book No. 0-7641-1981-8 Library oe Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Electronics the easy way / Rex Miler, Mark R. Miller, — 4th ed. Includes 1 index. ISBN 0-7641-1981-8 1, Electronics. I. Miller, MarkR. II. Title. TK7816 M53 2002 621,381—de21 2002016321 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA wWw9876543pees Sui 29 Review Questions a» 3 Inductance, Capacitance, 6 Semiconductors A Bit of Hist 93 Biodes and How The They Work 99 Biasing the Junction Diode _101 The Point Contact Diode 104 Single-Phase Power 127 jumi Review Qhuestions 136, 8 Audio Amplifiers Distortion _138 ‘Classes of persian 140 nsistor ifiers 144 Integrated Circuits 145 tion: i 146 =. yu ne and Alternating Current Review Questions 151 Alternating Current 35 9 Other Types of Amplifiers Transformer td ‘Tuned Cireuit Coupling 152 InducineReacle_a0 : fount. apacit Volare Ampliers 15 a itive. ictance 49 ea A Amph a 154 a ae iaeepe ieigs reer fons 62 ‘ational Amplifiers 157 Differential Amplifiers 160 4 Resonance Field Effect Tronsisiors—141 Resistan itance, und Inductance 54 pene Ee ions _164 tol ‘that, 7 ap the Impedance of'an RL Circuit 56 infrared Emitting Diodes 166 inee in an RC Cireul 5 als Pe oe Review Questions _160 Senet Recanes 64 10 Stereo Equipment So Rectifiers 78 Power Suyj Voltage Multipliers 88: Summ 90 Review Cusstions 92 Nature of Sound 170 Microphones "172 les Changers 7a =a Compact Dise 187 jigital Audio 194 reamplifiers 196 Power Amplifiers 196 ison of Power Amplifiers 200 204 si 208 Review Questions 209iv CONTENTS 1L1_Oscillators 16 Lasers and Fiber Optics ila Fil ee Fiber Ortics Cominunications System 22 . for Fi ics 324 Newer Oscillator Circuits 222 Review Questions 325 Summary _230 17_Radar and Microwaves Enviow Quastions 291 Principles of Operation for Radar 326 wired Elements of a Pulse: m 331 wer ents of a tem 333 Waveguides and Cavity Resonators 334 Wave Propagation, into Space 338 Radar Detector 339 Microwave Ovens 42 Summ: 344 Review Questions 345. oun Modulation 246 er of tion ‘Tone Modulation 247 18 Computers Frequency Shift Keying 247 History 346 Pulse Modulation 249 ‘Types of Computers 347 Pulse Width Modulation 250 Computer Circuits 348 Pulse-Position Modulation 251 ‘Truth Table 349 Summary 251 Microprocessors, Personal Computers, and Special- Review Questions 252 eh ttpose Computers 64 13 Transmitters, Transmission e Microprocess Lines, and Antennas ir Conti a - : Amplitude-Modulated Transmitters 253 Review Questions 361 Frequency- itters 256 B xy More 19 Applications of Electronics Antennas 261 The Phase-Locked Loop 362 . : m 34 Review Questions 269 Satellite 365 14 Recei Globsl Positioning System 368 Antennas 270 Videotape __380 aaa ee The Compact Disc 350 Amplitude-Modulated Receivers 273 « aihaiea aChip 280 Maronforts 353 Frequency-Modulated Receivers 281 8 FM Stereo 286. . Summ BES Re Tee ea Review Questions _987 Summary 291 Review Questions 202 20 Cellular Phones, Pagers, Faxes, and Printers Cellular Telephone 389 st . Inkjet Printers 400 ‘LCD Television Pictures 308 High Definition Television 311 aes. 402 Summary 318 Review Questions 314CONTENTS Vv 21 Electronics in the Future Answers to Review Questions 419 Digital Provescing 405 Appendix: Electronics Jobs 437 Automobile Electronics 406 Jobs Directly Related to the Production of Home Appliances _ 406 Jobs Directly Related to the Printed Circuit CCD Television Cameras 406 Other Electronics Jobs 455 Sinaay a Index 485 Glossary 410PREFACE neers need to know electronics, but there are also millions of employees of electrical utilities, telephone companies, the broadcast industry, and TV, radio, computer, and appliance repair industries, as well as electronic hobbyists who use their knowledge of electronics every day. Where have these people learned the electronics they know? Many have taken courses. in high school and/or college, but many others are self-taught, drawn to electronics by their interest in the field. Electronics the Easy Way is as close as you can come to getting electronics made simple enough to understand on your own. This book has been prepared both for those who have no background whatsoever in electronics and for those who already know something about it and would like to put their bits and pieces together in a logical, sequential fashion. It can serve as a supplement to any textbook you may already have, inasmuch as it will expand on some ideas and present a new approach for others. One of the most interesting points about electronics is that it is a growing field. Advances are made every year. Although the foundation of electronics never changes, new areas are always opening up. Just a few years ago, people were proud of their transistor radios that were so much more compact than those manufactured with vacuum tubes. Now transistors are old hat, and integrated circuits have made electrical circuitry even smaller. In deference to this new knowledge, this book covers microwaves, fiber optics, lasers, computers, video recorders, cable TV, and digital electronics. Traditional topics have not been neglected either. Plenty of space is devoted to audio amplifiers, radio frequency ampli- fiers, power amplifiers, and stereo amplifiers. Other chapters look at circuits, inductance, capacitance, alternating current, resonance, changing alternating current to direct cur- rent, semiconductors, oscillations, superheterodyne receivers, television, and radar, as well as motors and power. Mathematics have been kept to a minimum. Looking toward the future in electronics can be exciting, too, so the last chapters include robotics, space manufacturing, cellular phones, pagers, facsimile (fax) machines, and printers. This book is designed to give you enough information to whet your appetite so you will dig deeper into the area and become as fascinated with it as we have, so it does not neces- sarily treat electronics comprehensively, Electronics is not something you get the first time through, so you will have to concen- trate on what you read and then re-read it a few times until it soaks in. Remember, the time spent will be well worth the effort since almost any job today involves electricity or electronics in some degree. Enjoy yourself. There is no more fascinating a subject with such dynamic growth and. great promise for the future. EE: is everywhere, and it touches everyone. Everyone knows electrical engi- Rex Miller Mark MillerChapter 1 CAREERS his chapter is about opportunity: The opportunity to learn about one of the fastest growing industries today — electronics. Electronics touches all aspects of modern life. There is no sure way to master electronics. It takes time and effort on the part of the learner. Since many jobs require a knowledge of electronics, it is never something that you cannot use. The knowledge acquired can serve you in many ways. This book has been developed with you as the focus. It provides certain basic information you will need in almost any field. The information covered here will aid you in deciding whether you want to go further in studying electricity and electronics. To help you decide, this chapter previews a number of job opportunities. These opportunities are open to people who have a solid background in electricity and electronics. One or more of the positions and careers described in this chapter may interest you. If so, the opportunities you select should guide you in further study of electricity and elec- tronics. [f you choose a career in this field, be aware that further study and work will be needed. You will need to know more than you have learned in this book. You will also need more than you will learn in a single, beginning course. In each area there is a review of the requirements and the nature of the work. There are discussions about the opportunities you might find. In addition, there are names and addresses of sources of further information. Electrical Engineering Electrical engineers are concerned with jobs that relate to the generation of electricity, its transmission, and its use. They are also specialists in the many aspects of electronics with specialty areas in computers, circuit design, equipment design, manufacture of printed cir- cuits, and manufacture of semiconductor materials and devices. Electrical engineers can do any number of jobs. but most will specialize in electronics and some aspect of it. Others will specialize in the generation of electricity and work with utility companies. Some will work with the distribution of electricity, while still others spend their time in research laboratories developing new devices and processes. The electrical engineer has often been described as a practical mathematician. Therefore, the electrical engineer must have a good math background and is required to take many math courses in college. The major areas of work in this branch of engineering include electronics and electri- cal equipment manufacturing. Other opportunities lie in communications, power, illumi- nation, and transportation. Electrical engineers usually specialize in one of these areas.2 CAREERS Actually, these areas are so broad that many engineers specialize in subdivisions of one area. They may specialize in computers, or they may want to work with electrical motors and generators. Electrical engineers have many types of responsibilities, which may include research, design, and development. Other opportunities lie in manufacturing or administration. In addition, some engineers are technical sales representatives. Many are self-employed and operate their own businesses. Engineers are located everywhere there is electricity and/or electronics, and that is everywhere. Opportunities are open in many types of organizations. Electrical and electronics equipment manufacturers employ many engineers. So do the electric light and power, aircraft and missile, telephone, and broadcasting industries. Many electrical engi- neers work for government agencies, colleges, universities, or consulting firms. Some are self-employed as consulting engineers. Most jobs are located in industrial centers. These areas tend to be heavily populated. However, there are also opportunities in rural areas, with electric light and power compa- nies, telephone companies, and broadcast stations. Satellite TV and cable TV systems now employ a number of electrical engineers for aid in designing and maintaining equipment. The design of lasers for communications and fiber optics systems for telephone companies are the latest in the list of opportunities. These jobs are usually located in large cities. At present there are not enough engineers to answer the call for designing new products and researching old ones. Rapid growth is expected in this profession. Increasing demand for qualified engineers is expected in the computer field, fiber optics, and satellite communi- cations. Also growing is the area of communications and military electronics. Newer types of power generation equipment — solar, geothermal, and nuclear — will add to the new demands. Compensation in the field of electrical engineering, with a bachelor’s degree, is usually the highest of all the engineering professions. In most cases a bachelor’s degree is the minimum requirement. However, an associate degree from an accredited two-year college with a specialty in electronics is also a good starting point. These graduates are in high demand for their skills and acquired knowledge. In most cases, the employer approaches students who are still in college. Both salary and fringe benefits are discussed at that time. For more information contact: Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers 1828 L Street, NW, Suite 1202 Washington, DC 20036-5104 (http://www.ieee.org/) Newer Employment Opportunities Electronics does not stand still as a field of employment. It continues to offer more excit- ing job opportunities than any other field. In the past 50 years the job opportunities in electronics have grown very rapidly. This industry provides a job market that offers easy placement and rapid advancement for those who are willing and able to keep up with con- tinual change. For many years electronics was limited to the AM radio, After World War II, the field changed quickly and expanded to include the new fields of radar, television,ELECTRONICS ENGINEER 3 and the computer. However, the industry was still limited to a hard-wired vacuum tube technology. Technicians were required to expand their knowledge base of circuits and systems to take advantage of the expanding job market. The increased demands of new circuits required new skills for using the new and more elaborate forms of electronic test equipment. The Integrated Circuit The integrated circuit has changed the whole field of electronics. This has developed since 1960 and has continued to change every year. It has reached an amazing level of develop- ment. The cost of circuits has shrunk, and circuit reliability has developed to a very high level. Today applications are expanding. Analog instruments of a decade ago are available today in all or partially digital form and at a much lesser expense. Along with this rapid development has come some new job titles. A few of them are listed here. These are some of the titles that have developed for only printed circuit boards. There are many others associated with semiconductor production that may be found in the appendix. For a complete description of the job titles take a look at the Appendix. Supervisor, printed circuit board testing Supervisor, printed circuit board assembly Group Leader, printed circuit board assembly Group Leader, printed circuit board quality control Wave Soldering Machine Operator, printed circuit boards Functional Tester, printed circuit boards Electronic Circuit Tester, printed circuit boards Inspector, printed circuit boards Reworker, printed circuit boards Production Repairer, printed circuit board assembly Touch-up Screener, printed circuit board assembly Solder-Leveler, printed circuit boards Lamination Assembler, printed circuit boards Preassembler, printed circuit boards Electronics Engineer The electronics engineer conducts research and development activities concerned with the design, manufacture, and testing of electronic components, products, and problems, and in the development of applications of products to commercial, industrial, medical, military, and scientific uses. The engineer designs electrical circuits, electronic components, and integrated systems, using ferro-electric materials, dielectric phosphors, photo-conductive materials, and thermo-electric materials. This type of engineering may be further broken. down into job titles that may be described as Design Engineer, Products Engineer, Test Engineer, Electronics Research Engineer, Electronics Products and Systems Sales Engineer.4 CAREERS Systems Engineer, Electronic Data Processing This type of engineer analyzes data-processing requirements to determine an electronic data processing system that will provide system capabilities required for projects or work- loads. This type of job may also call for planning the layout of new system installation or the modification of an existing system. The utilization of knowledge acquired about both electronics and data-processing principles and equipment is applied. The engineer confers with data-processing and project managerial personnel to obtain data on limitations and capabilities of an existing system and the capabilities required for data-processing projects and the workload proposed. The engineer analyzes data to deter- mine, recommend, and plan layout for the type of computer and peripheral equipment, or modifications to existing equipment and system, that will provide the capability for the proposed project or workload, its efficient operation, and the effective use of allotted space. This job may call for power supply requirements and configuration. Recommendations for the purchase of equipment to control dust, temperature, and humidity in areas of system installation may also be required. This type of engineer may specialize in one area of sys- tem application or in one type or make of equipment. Consulting for equipment manufac- turers can also be part of the job description of a systems engineer. Electric Utilities There are approximately 3700 electrical utilities in the United States. Some of these are privately owned. Others are owned by federal, state, or local governments. Each utility has the ability to generate, distribute, and maintain its networks. There are power- distribution networks that make it possible for utilities to buy power from one another. How the Future Looks in the Utilities There are currently over 500,000 people working for utility companies. Many thousands of new employees enter this field every year, Some of these jobs are available because people leave the industry; other jobs open as a result of continuing growth. Because of changes taking place, excellent job potential should continue. Where the Jobs Are Located About 10 percent of the utilities’ jobs are in generating plants. About 40 percent are related to the transmission and distribution of power. About 20 percent. of the workers are involved in repair and maintenance jobs. Some 15 percent are in customer service. An estimated 9 percent of the employees hold engineering and technical positions. It is this 9 percent that we will focus on here. Power Plant Jobs. Power plant jobs are directly related to the generation of power. Responsibilities include control panel operation, checking equipment, and keeping records. Specific job titles include boiler operators, turbine operators, auxiliary equipment opera- tors, control room operators, and watch engineers. In this field promotions usually result from experience. Beginning employees start with cleanup and other simple jobs. They‘THE TELEPHONE INDUSTRY 5 advance as they become familiar with the equipment and with responsibilities of other jobs, It also helps to understand basic electricity and some electronics. Transmission and Distribution Jobs. Most of these jobs invalve physical as well as mental ability. The list includes load dispatcher, substation operator, line installer, line maintenance worker, troubleshooter, and cable splicer. ‘Consumer Service Occupations. Persons who work in consumer service jobs perform a number of technical, managerial, and office jobs. The greatest number are clerical in nature. Some technicians install, test, and repair meters. In some areas, utility employees also repair electric appliances and machinery. Administrative and office jobs include the preparation of work orders. These work orders can involve installation, maintenance, or termination of service. Other office workers are involved in billing, collection, and record keeping. For more information contact: International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers 1825 L Street, NW, Suite 1202 Washington, DC 20036-5104 (http://www.ibew.org) American Public Power Association 2301 M Street, NW Washington, DC 20037 (http://www.appanet.org/cgi-bin/wwwais) The Telephone Industry This is one of the largest industries in the country. It was previously dominated by one major company. This has now been broken up, and any number of opportunities are avail- able to those who wish to open their own phone business on any of a number of levels. Verizon is one of the larger companies in this industry. There are over 1000 other smaller companies. With competition heating up over the breakup of AT&T, many doors are being opened for entry-level and more sophisticated jobs in the business. How the Future Looks in the Telephone Industry With the advent of inexpensive automobile phones and satellite communications, the tele- phone industry will be a booming industry for some time. Complete telephone companies with their own share of satellite time and their own microwave links are being formed. These firms will need specialists in a number of electrical and electronics areas. This industry has expanded rapidly in the past, and growth is expected to continue. Where the Jobs Are Located In the telephone industry it is estimated that one-third of all employees are telephone operators. Telephone operators have opportunities to advance into other positions in traffic areas. Today, positions as telephone operators are open to men and women,6 CAREERS Some 25 percent of telephone utility workers are in installation and service positions, They install, repair, and maintain telephones. They also set up wires and cables, switching equipment, and message accounting systems. Positions in this area include central office installers, line construction crews, and installation/repair specialists. For more information contact: American Public Power Association. 2301 M Street, NW Washington, DC 20037 (http://www.appanet.org/egi-bin/wwwais) Communication Workers of America 501 Third Street, NW Washington, DC 20001-2797 (http://www.cwa-union.org) The Fiber Optic Association Box 230851 Boston, MA 02123-0851 (http://world.std.com/~foa/) Independent Electrical Contractors, Inc. 2010-A Eisenhower Avenue Alexandria, VA 22314 (http://www.ieci.org) The National Association of Radio and Telecommunication Engineers Post Office Box 678 Medway, MA 02053. (http://www.narte.org/) Optical Society of America 2010 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20036 (http://www.osa.org/) United States Telephone Association 1401 H Street, NW, Suite 600 Washington, DC 20005-2164 (http:/Awww.usta.org) TV, Radio, and Appliance Repair Thousands of people are employed at shops that service TV sets, radios, computers, stereo equipment, and a wide range of home appliances. This is a popular area for the self- employed person who likes to be his or her own boas. It is easy and relatively inexpensive to open a business in TV repair and appliance repair. The demand for quality repair work is always high,‘TV RADIO, AND APPLIANCE REPAIR: 7 A Place for the Self-Taught Many enterprising individuals in this field are self-taught. After a basic education in electricity and electronics, many have worked through manuals on their own. They have learned by buying kits and assembling their own radios, TV sets, stereo components, and even small computers. Others have specialized in the home installation of satellite TV receivers. It is customary for repairers to own their own hand tools. Employers usually fur- nish needed instruments and meters. However, many technicians own these tools as well. Formal training for TV and other electrical repair work is readily available. There are many public and private vocational and trade schools as well as many correspondence schools. Many young persons also learn basic electronic repair skills in military schools. These skills can be valuable for individuals returning to civilian life. It takes, generally speaking, two to three years of on-the-job training or vocational school training to qualify as a TV repair technician. In some states or cities, written tests are required. In some areas, individuals or businesses must be licensed to offer these services. The Future of the TV, Radio, and Appliance Repair Field The outlook is for continued growth in these fields. As more TV sets and consumer elec- tronics are sold, the need will increase accordingly. As TV sets and appliances become increasingly more complex, service requirements also increase in complexity. The future prospects for television and electronics repair may not be too good. The com- plexity of the equipment is increasing. That means more expensive and elaborate testing procedures are called for. It also means that more knowledge will be required. Another factor affecting the future of a technician is the fact that people can buy cheap new equipment that is imported, which is often cheaper than repairing the old equipment. This sets upper limits on repair bills and repair feasibility. It also presses the technician, often making him/her work cheaply to make a repair cost-effective. In effect the technician is limited as to what he/she can charge, even though the repair may be very difficult. Another consideration is parts. Parts for the many imported varieties are often difficult to obtain or prohibitive in cost. A person considering becoming a technician should be aware of some of the pressures presently in the field and slated to continue or increase in the future. For more information contact: EIA 2500 Wilson Blvd. Arlington, VA 22201-3834 (http://www.eia.org) Edison Electric Institute 701 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20004-2616 (http://www.eei.org)8 CAREERS The Broadcast Industry There are about 7650 commercial radio and 730 commercial TV stations in the United States. There are also more than 1000 noncommercial radio stations and 260 non- commercial TV stations. These broadcast facilities were all licensed to transmit signals through the air. In addition, the cable TV industry is growing rapidly. There are more than 3000 cable TV systems serving over 10,000 communities. Satellite distribution of broad- cast materials is opening new areas of opportunity. Where the Jobs Are Located There are four national networks for radio with over 900 employees. Four TV networks and cable companies employ about 20,000 people. Many thousands of additional people are employed at individual stations. A qualified, licensed technician must be present or on call whenever a radio or TV station is transmitting. Broadcasters hire many technicians to install, operate, and maintain broadcast trans- mitters. At least one person on duty at every station must have a license, To qualify for the license the person must take a test given by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). This is rapidly changing as the government is getting out of the licensing business. Thus, some special education or training is usually required to qualify as a broadcast. technician. This usually involves a high school education that is follawed by study in a vocational or technical school. How the Future Looks in the Broadcast Industry Broadcasting is limited in its opportunities. This is considered a glamor industry. So, there are usually many more applicants than there are jobs available. In addition, employment. in large stations usually requires membership in at least one union. To break into broad- casting, many individuals start at small stations in remote areas. These positions tend to be low-paying. As experience is gained, qualified people often move to larger stations or networks. The easiest way to learn more about broadcasting is to visit a radio or TV station in your area. You will usually find someone willing to discuss your interests and potential local opportunities. You may also obtain information from: Federal Communications Commission Policy Analysis Branch 1919 M Street, NW Washington, DC 20554 (http://www.fec.org) National Association of Broadcasters 1771 N Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-2891 (http://www.nab.org)REVIEW QUESTIONS 9 Society of Broadcast Engineers 8445 Keystone Crossing, Suite 140 Indianapolis, IN 46240-2454 (http://www.sbe.org) Summary Electrical engineering offers many opportunities to those qualified for the positions open- ing in the newer fields of electronics. At the present there are not enough engineers to do the work needed to be done. Electrical engineers have many types of responsibilities. They include research, design, and development of new products. Other opportunities lie in manufacturing and adminis- tration. In addition, many engineers are technical sales representatives and consulting engineers who are self-employed. Engineers work for governmental agencies, colleges, universities, private industry, and consulting firms. Electrical utilities offer positions for engineers and technicians. New opportunities are being created every day in the generation and distribution of power. Immediate expansion will not be as great as previously projected, but the future still looks bright. The telephone industry is undergoing rapid change, and many new systems are being installed. These will offer opportunities for entry-level jobs and some at the higher level. Electronics specialists will be in great demand as the telephone industry expands its port- able phone and satellite communications operations, The fields of TV, radio, and electric appliance repair seem to be in great need of quality technicians. Work is easily arranged to suit the individual. It is a good place to find self-employed individuals who can handle the business as well as the technical aspects of the field. As equipment becomes more complicated and the consumer buys more digital electronics, the need for specialists will increase rapidly. The broadcast industry is a field where job opportunities are limited since it is a glamor industry which attracts large numbers of applicants. You usually must start in an apprenticeship in a smaller station or community before you are offered a job in a larger market. Technicians and engineers in this field will find a better atmosphere as far as opportunities are concerned. The technician will have to keep up with the latest digitized equipment and become more self-educated in these newer fields of electronics. Review Questions 1. What does an electrical engineer do? 2. Where does the electrical engineer work? 8. What opportunities are there for engineers? 4. What are the opportunities in the telephone industry? 6. What are the opportunities in the TV repair field? 6. How does the broadcast industry look for the future? 7. What education do you need to be an engineer? 8, What do you need to know to become a technician? 9. Where can you obtain information on electrical engineering? 10. What does the job market look like in the electrical utilities field?Chapter 2 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS some of their experiments. While working with a piece of amber (the fossilized resin from an ancient species of tree), which is translucent and golden in color, they found that if the amber was rubbed briskly, it would exhibit an attraction for tiny bits of light- weight material. You have probably seen this happen when you run a comb through your hair on a dry day and pick up bits of paper with it. The Greeks believed that the forces of amber were at work in this phenomenon. Similarly, the Romans found that lignite (a form of coal) could be rubbed and could produce, by friction, the same reaction, However, it is the Greeks who have been given credit for the first experiments that later led in 1600 to the work of William Gilbert (an Englishman) with friction and static electricity. Gilbert wrote a book on the substances with which he had experimented. He showed that amber was not. the only such material that produced an attraction for the bits of paper. Gilbert is given credit for coining the word electrics. The Latin word electrum is derived from the Greek elektron, which in turn means “amber.” Gilbert was influenced by the Latin being studied at the time. In all probability this is how the name worked its way into print and history. Gilbert has been called the father of electricity since he was the first to classify objects that would produce an electrostatic field when rubbed. He called these substances electrics. Electronics is the application of electrical principles. Electrical principles are derived from the uses and generation of electric energy. Therefore, electricity is necessary for the proper operation of electronic devices and electronic circuits. In order to understand elec- tronics it is first necessary to know how electricity is generated, distributed, and put to work in circuits. T- Greeks are believed to have discovered electricity in the process of conducting Basic Atomic Structure Electricity is defined as the flow of electrons along a conductor. A conductor is an object. that allows electrons to pass easily. That means electrons must be organized and pushed toward a goal. This is done in a number of ways. But first, we must know what an electron is before we can start working with it. Elements are the most basic materials in the universe. There are 106 elements includ- ing some that have been made in the laboratory. Elements such as iron, copper, gold, lead,BASIC ATOMIC STRUCTURE 11 and silver have been found in nature. Eleven others have been made in the laboratory. Every known substance — solid, liquid, or gas — is composed of elements. An electron is the smallest part of an atom. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains all the properties of that element. Each element has ita own kind of atom. That is, hydrogen atoms are alike, and they are different from the atoms of all other elements. However, all atoms have certain things in common. They all have an inner part, the nucleus. The nucleus is composed of very small particles called profons and neutrons. An atom also has an outer part, consisting of other small particles. These very small par- ticles are called electrons. The electrons orbit around the nucleus (see Figure 2-1). Figure 2-1. Molecular structure, The negative (—) particles are electrons, Neutrons Neutrons have no electric charge, but protons are positively charged. Because of these charges, protons and electrons are particles of energy. That is, these charges form an elec- trie field of force within the atom. These charges are always pulling and pushing one another; this action produces energy in the form of movement. The atoms of each element have a definite number of electrons, and they have the same number of protons. A hydragen atom has one electron and one proton (see Figure 2-2). The aluminum atom has thirteen of each (see Figure 2-3A). The opposite charges — negative electrons and positive protons — attract each other and tend to hold electrons in orbit. As long as this arrangement is not changed, an atom is electrically balanced. Accloser look at the atom shows that the electron orbits the nucleus in shells. A shell is made by an electron orbiting the nucleus. An electron rotating around the nucleus makes wom Figure 2-2. The hydrogen atom has one electron and one proton.12 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS: Figure 2-3B, Electron orbits and shells. Note how the rotation produces the appearance of a sholl. a ring around it, and the ring may be elliptical in shape. At the same time the plane of the electron shifts a few degrees, so that another ring is produced, and then another and another, so that finally there is an electron tracing the path of a complete sphere or shell. Some electrons have a greater distance away from the nucleus and they also shift their planes or orbits of rotation. They are arranged in a similar fashion that forms a second shell (see Figure 2-3B). The maximum number of shells for any known element is seven. (see Figure 2-3C), Shells are labeled alphabetically from K through Q, starting with the innermost shell. Each shell has a definite maximum limit as to the number of electron orbits it can have. For instance, the K shel! has a maximum number of electrons of two. The second shell, L, has eight, the third shell, M, 18, and so on. Copper has 29 electrons, so it has 2, 8, 18, and 1. The 1 electron sitting out so far away from the holding force of the nucleus is easily pushed along in various directions and can be moved into an adjacent atom’s orbit. Then that atom’s electron is moved to the next, and so on. This means there is a movement of electrons. The flow of electrons is defined as electricity. Keep in mind that the electrons sitting in the last shell are called valence electrons and the electrical properties of a material are dependent on the number of such electrons. A material with eight valence electrons produces an inert material. Atoms with fewer than four valence electrons tend to give up or move electrons, and the fewer the valence elec-ELECTRIC ENERGY 13 — t — "ai ‘ NE ns 2 wed ) —f/ tlt ti 7 J val yi Figure 2-3C. Identification of atomic shells and the number of electrons in each shell. trons, the greater this tendency. On the other hand, atoms with more than four electrons in their orbits or last shell have a tendency to acquire one or more additional electrons. In. elements with atomic valences of four, adjacent atoms form into a crystal structure sharing their electrons in covalent bonds. Such bonds fill the valence shell, and the material is elec- trically inert. This creates the semiconductor properties that are the basis of solid state (transistor) electronics. Free Electrons Electrons in copper drift along in a random fashion when at room temperature. Heat is only one of the types of energy that can cause electrons to be forced from their orbits. A magnetic field can also be used to cause electrons to move in a given direction. Light energy and pressure on a crystal are also used to generate electricity by forcing elec- trons to flow along a given path. When electrons leave their orbits, they move from atom to atom at random, drifting in no particular direction. Electrons that move in such a way are referred to as free electrons. However, a force can be used to cause them to move ina given direction. That is how electricity (the flow of electrons along a conductor) is generated. A conductor is any material that has many free electrons by virtue of its physical makeup. Electric Energy So far you have read about electrons being very small. Just how small are they? Well, electrons are incredibly small. The diameter of an electron is about 0.00000000000022 (or 2.2 x 107") in. You may wonder how anything so small can be a source of energy. Much of the answer lies in the fact that electrons move at nearly the speed of light, or 186,000 miles per second (mi/s). In metric terms that is 300 million meters per second (m/s). As you can see from their size, billions of them can move at once through a wire. The combination of speed and concentration together produces great energy. As you study more about electricity, electron theory, and electronics, you will discover14 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS that the electron is thought to be a quantum mechanical pattern, rather than a little solid ball. However, for purposes of ease in understanding and definition, we will refer to it here as a particle of energy. Current Flow When a flow of electrons along a conductor occurs, this is commonly referred to as current flow. Thus, you can see that the movement of electrons is related to current electricity. Conductors A material through which electricity passes easily is called a conductor because it has free electrons. In other words, a conductor offers very little resistance or opposition to the flow of electrons. All metals are conductors of electricity to some extent. Some are much better than others, Silver, copper, and aluminum let electricity pass easily. Silver is a better conductor than copper. However, copper is used more frequently because it is cheaper. Aluminum is used as a conductor where light weight is important. Why are some materials good conductors? One of the most important reasons is the presence of free electrons. If a material has many electrons which are free to move away from their atoms, that material will be a good conductor of electricity. Although free electrons usually move in a haphazard way, their movement can be con- trolled. The electrons can be made to move in the same direction, and this flow is called electric current. Conductors may be in the form of bars, tubes, or sheets. The most familiar conductors are wire. Many sizes of wire are available. Some are only the thickness of a hair. Other wire may be as thick as your arm. To prevent conductors from touching at the wrong place they are usu- ally coated with a plastic or cloth material. This covering on the conductor is called an insulator. Insulators An insulator is a material with very few, if any, free electrons. No known material is a perfect insulator. However, there are materials that are such poor conductors that they are classified as insulators. Glass, dry wood, rubber, mica, and certain plastics are insulat- ing materials. Semiconductors So far you have looked at insulators and conductors. In between the two extremes are semiconductors. Semiconductors in the form of transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits or chips are used every day in electronic devices. Now is the time to place them in their proper category. Materials used in the manufacture of transistors and diodes have a conductivity halfway between that of a good conductor and a good insulator. Therefore, the name semi-VOLTAGE AND CURRENT 15 [/_-——— essen OHMS PER CUBIC CENTIMETER” . . & ge 2a & oHfigee_ ssdiaa § a 8 ALUMINUM IMPURE sERMANIUM a TRANSISTOR: GERMANIUM ‘TRANSISTOR ‘SIUCON GERMANIUM PURE SILICON Mica POLYSTYRENE Figure 2-4, Location of insulators, semiconductors, and conductors in relation to one another in terms of inherent resistance. "A cubic centimeter (cm!) is one centimeter (0.3937 inches) long, one centimeter wide, and one centimeter high. conductor is given them. Germanium and silicon are the two most commonly known semiconductor materials. Through the introduction of small amounts of other elements (called impurities) these nearly pure (99.999999%) elements become limited conductors. The opposite of conductors is resistors. Resistors are devices used to give a measured amount. of opposition or resistance to the flow of electrons. This opposition to current flow is measured in ohms ({) and indicates the amount of resistance a piece of material offers to the flow of electrons. Take a look at Figure 2-4 to see how these semiconductor materials are placed between good conductors and poor conductors. Voltage and Current In order to be able to measure the movement of electrons along a conductor, it is necessary to have units of measurement. This is somewhat difficult since you cannot see, taste, smell,16 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS or hear electricity. Feeling it is possible, but dangerous. This means that some way must be devised to be able to detect its presence, its direction of flow, and its magnitude. Before you can measure amount, you must have some type of unit to measure electricity in. (Electricity is defined as the flow of electrons along a conductor.) Volts We measure the difference of potential between two plates in a battery in terms of volts (V). It is actually electric pressure exerted on electrons in a circuit, A circuit is a pathway for the movement of electrons. An external force exerted on electrons to make them flow through a conductor is known as electromotive force, or emf. Tt is measured in volts. Electric pressure, potential difference, and emf mean the same thing. The words voltage drop and potential drop can be interchanged. Current For electrons to move in a particular direction, it is necessary for a potential difference to exist between two points of the emf source. If 6,250,000,000,000,000,000 (or 6.25 x 10") electrons pass a given point in one second, there is said to be one ampere (A) of current flowing. The same number of electrons stored on an object (a static charge) and not moving is called a coulomb (C). As mentioned above, current is measured in amperes. However, in electronics it is sometimes necessary to use smaller units of measurement. The milliampere is abbreviated as mA. It is one-thousandth (0.001) of an ampere. The microampere is abbreviated as A. It is one-millionth (0.000001) of an ampere. Note the Greek letter mu (ji) is used for micro. You may want to become familiar with the Greek alphabet. Table 2-1 defines the terms used in electricity and electronics and their corresponding Greek letters. Current flow is assumed to be from negative (--) to positive (+) in our explanations here. Electron flow is negative (—) to positive (+), and we assume that current flow and electron flow are one and the same. It makes explanations simpler as we progress into electronics. The conventional current flow is the opposite, or positive (+) to negative (~). An ammeter is used to measure current flow in a circuit. A milliammeter is used to measure smaller amounts, while the microammeter is used to measure very small amounts of current. (See Table 2-2 for metric prefixes.) A voltmeter is used to measure voltage. In some instances it is possible to obtain a meter which will measure both voltage and current plus resistance. This is called a multi- meter, or volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM). Power Power is defined as the rafe at which work is done. It is expressed in metric measurement. terms of watts (W) for power and joules (J) for energy or work. A watt is the power that gives rise to the production of energy at the rate of one joule per second (W = J/s). A jouleTABLE 2-1 THE GREEK ALPHABET USED IN ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS Name Capital Small Used to Designate Alpha A a Angles, area, coefficients, and attenuation constant. Beta B B Angles and coefficients. Gamma r y Electrical conductivity and propagation constant. Delta a 6 Angles, increment, decrement, and determinants. Epsilon E € Dielectric constant, permittivity, and base of natural logarithms. Zeta Zz c Coordinates. Eta H n Efficiency, hysteresis, and coordinates. Theta 8 vé Angles and angular phase displacement. Tota I t Coupling coefficient. Kappa K x Lambda A a Wavelength. Mu M Permeability, amplification factor, and prefix micro. Nu N v Xi = é Omicron oO o Pi n x Pi = 3.1416. Rho P e Resistivity and volume charge density. Sigma z o¢ Summation. Tau T t Time constant and time-phase displacement. Upsilon. ¥ v Phi o oo Magnetic flux and angles. Chi x x Anglea. Psi ” v Dielectric flux. Omega Q a Resistance in ohms and angular velocity: is the work done when the point of application of force of one newton is displaced a dis- tance of one meter in the direction of the force (J = N-m). It has long been the practice in this country to measure work in terms of horsepower (hp). Eleetrie motors are still rated in horsepower and probably will be for some time inasmuch as the United States did not adopt the metric standards for everything. Power can be electric or mechanical. When a mechanical force is used to lift a weight, work is done. The rate at which the weight is moved is power. Horsepower is defined in terms of moving a certain weight over a certain distance in one minute (e.g., 33,000 lb lifted 1 ft in 1 min equals 1 hp). Energy is consumed in moving a weight or when work is done. The findings in this field have been equated with the same amount of work done by electric energy. It takes 746 W of electric power to equal 1 hp. The horsepower rating of electric motors is arrived at by taking the voltage and multi- plying it by the current drawn under full load. This power is measured in watts. In other words, 1 ¥ times | A equals 1 W. When put into a formula it reads: Power = volts x amperes or P=ExI where E = voltage, or emf, and J = current, or intensity of electron flow.18 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS TABLE 2-2 METRIC PREFIXES AND POWERS OF TEN Metric Prefixes 1=10° 10 = 104 Multiple Prefix Abbrev. Multiple Prefix Abbrev. 100 = 10? , 1000 = 108 10000 = 10* 100000 = 10° 1000000 = 10° Likewise, powers of ten can be used to simplify decimal expressions. The submultiples of 10 from 0.1 to 0.000001, with their equivalents in powers of ten, are: 01=10" 0.01 = 107 Scientific Notation (Powers of Ten) 0.001 = 10° Large numbers can be simplified by using scientific notation 0.0001 = 10+ (powers of ten). For example, the multiples of 10 from 1 to 0.000 0: o 1,000,000, with their equivalents in powers of ten, are: 0.000001 = 10° Kilowatt. The kilowatt is commonly used to express the amount of electric energy used. or available. The term ilo (k) means one thousand (1000). A kilowatt (kW) is one thousand watts. When the kilowatt is used in terms of power dissipated or consumed by a home for a month, it is expressed in kilowatthours. The unit kilowatthour is abbreviated as kWh. It is the equivalent of one thousand watts used for a period of one hour. Electric bills are figured or computed on an hourly basis and then read in the kWh unit, The entire month’s time is equated to one hour's time. Milliwatt is a term you will encounter when working with electronics. The milliwatt (mW) means one-thousandth (0.001) of a watt. The milliwatt is used in terms of some very small amplifiers and other electronic devices. For instance, a speaker used on a portable transistor radio will be rated as 100 milliwatts, or 0.1 W. Transistor circuits are designed in milliwatts, but power line electric power is measured in kilowatts. Keep in mind that kilo means 1000 and milli means 0.001. Resistance Any time there is movement there is resistance. This resistance is useful in electric and electronic circuits. Resistance makes it possible to generate heat, contral electron flow, and supply the correct voltage to a device. Resistance in a conductor depends on four factors: material, length, cross-sectional area, and temperature. Material. Some materials offer more resistance than others. It depends upon the number of free electrons present in the material.RESISTANCE 19 Length. The longer the wire or conductor, the more resistance it has. Resistance is said to vary directly with tho longth of tho wire. ‘Cross-Sectional Area. Resistance varies inversely with the size of the conductor in cross section. In other words, the larger the wire, the smaller the resistance per foot of length. Temperature. For most materials, the higher the temperature, the higher the resistance. However, there are some exceptions to this in devices known as thermistors. Thermistors change resistance with temperature. They decrease in resistance with an increase in tem- perature. Thermistors are used in certain types of meters to measure temperature, Resistance is measured by a unit called the ohm. The Greek letter omega (Q) is used as the symbol for electrical resistance. Resistors Resistors are devices that provide measured amounts of resistance. They are valuable when it comes to making sure that the proper amount of voltage is present in a circuit. They are useful when generating heat. Resistors are classified as either wirewound or carbon-composition. The symbol for a resistor of either type is “V/\V/— Wirewound resistors are used to provide sufficient opposition to current flow to dissi- pate power of 5 W or more. A watt is a unit of electric power. A watt is equal to one volt times one ampere. Wirewound resistors are made of wire that has controlled resistance per unit length. Resistance causes a voltage drop across a resistor when current flows through it. The voltage is dropped or dissipated as heat and must be eliminated into the air. Some variable resistors can be varied but can also be adjusted for a particular setting. Resistors are available in various sizes, shapes, and wattage ratings. Carbon-composition resistors are usually found in electronics devices. They are of low wattage, They are made in #/s-W, +/,-W, 1/.-W, 1-W, and 2-W sizes. The physical size deter- mines the wattage rating or their ability to dissipate heat (see Figure 2-5). Carbon-composition resistors are usually marked according to their ohmic value with a color code. The colors are placed on the resistors in rings (see Figure 2-6). Table 2-3 shows the values for reading the color code of carbon-composition resistors. Take a close look at a carbon-composition resistor. The bands should be to your left. Read from left to right. The band closest to one end is placed to the left so you can read it from left to right. The first band gives the first number according te the color code. In this case (Figure 2-6) it is red, or 2. The second band gives the next number, which is violet, or 7. The third band represents the multiplier or divisor. If the third band is a color in the 0 to 9 range in the color code, it states the number of zeros to be added to the first two numbers. Orange is 3; so the resistor in Figure 2-6 has a value of 27,000 © of resistance. The 27,000 Q is usually written as 27 kM. The k stands for thousand; it takes the place of three zeros. In some cases, resistors are referred to as 27 MQ (which means 27,000,000, or 27 million Q), because the M stands for mega, and that is the unit for million. If there is no fourth band, the resistor has a tolerance rating of +20% (+ means plus or minus). [f the fourth band is silver, the resistor has a tolerance of t10%. If the fourth band is gold, the resistor has a tolerance of 45%.20 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS: ‘VA WATT beam ‘AWATT 1WATT = 2WATT =i Figure 2-5. Wattage ratings of carbon-composition resistors. All measurements shown here are in inches. RED WIOLET ORANGE SILVER Figure 2-6, A 27,000-ohm (12) resistor. TABLE 2-3 RESISTOR COLOR CODE 0 Black 5 Green 1 Brown 6 Blue 2 Red 7 Violet 3 Orange 8 Gray 4 Yellow 9 White Silver and gold may also be used for the third band. In this case, according to the color code, the first two numbers (obtained from the first two color bands) must be divided by 10 or 100. Silver means divide the first two numbers by 100. Gold means divide the first two numbers by 10. For example, if the bands of the resistor are red, yellow, and gold, then the value is 24 divided by 10, or 2.4 2. If the third band is silver and the two colors are yellow and orange, then the 43 is divided by 100 to produce the answer of 0.43 9. Keep in mind, though, that the fourth band will still be either gold or silver to indicate the tolerance.amweuw = 81 Resistors marked with the color code are available in hundreds of size and wattage rat- ing combinations. Wattage rating refers to the wattage or power consumed by the resistor. Ohm’s Law A German physicist by the name of Georg Ohm discovered the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in 1827. He found that in any circuit where the only opposition to the flow of electrons is resistance, there is a relationship between the values of voltage, current, and resistance. The strength or intensity of the current is directly pro- portional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance. It is easier to work with Ohm’s law when it is expressed in a formula. In the formula, E represents emf, or voltage; J is the current, or the intensity of electron flow; R stands for resistance. The formula is E =/ x R. It is used to find the emf (voltage) when the current and the resistance are known. To find the current, when the voltage and resistance are known, use Is E R To find the resistance, when the voltage and current are known, use E e I Using Ohm’s Law ‘Ohm's law is very useful in electrical and electronics work. You will need it often to deter- mine the missing value. In order to make it easy to remember the formula take a look at Figure 2-7. Here the formulas are arrived at by placing your finger on the unknown and the other two will have their relationship displayed. The best way to become accustomed to solving problems is to start with something simple, such as: 1. If the voltage is given as 100 V and the resistance is 25.Q, it is a simple problem and a practical application of Ohm’s law to find the current in the circuit. Use == R Substituting the values in the formula, 7 = 200 25 means 100 is divided by 25 to produce 4 A for the current. 2. If the current is given as 2 A (you may read it on an ammeter in the circuit), and the voltage (read from the voltmeter) is 100 V, it is easy to find the resistance. Use22 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS ® B a 6 Figure 2-7. Ohm's law. Place your finger on the unknown value and the remaining two letters will give the formula to use for finding the unknown value. _E R= T Substituting the values in the formula, 100 RS means 100 divided by 2 equals 50 © for the circuit. 3. If the current is known to be 10 A, and the resistance is found to be 50 Q (measured before the circuit is energized), it is then possible to determine how much voltage is needed to cause the circuit to function properly. Use E=IxR Substituting the values in the formula, E=10x50 means 10 times 60 produces 500 or that it would take 500 V to push 10 A through 50 9 of resistance. Circuits There are a number of different types of circuits. Circuits are the pathways along which electrons move to produce various effects. The complete circuit is necessary for the controlled flow or movement of electrons along a conductor (see Figure 2-8). A complete circuit is made up of a source of electricity, a conductor, and a consuming device. This is the simplest of circuits. The flow of electrons through the consuming device produces heat, light, or work.CIRCUITS 23 Figure 2-8, A simple circuit with a switch. Tn order to form a complete circuit, these rules must be followed: 1. Connect one side of the power source to one side of the consuming device: A to B. (See Figure 2-8.) 2. Connect the other side of the power source to one side of the control device, usually a switch: C to D. (See Figure 2-8.) 3. Connect the other side of the switch to the consuming device it is supposed to control: E to F, (See Figure 2-8.) When the switch is closed the circuit is complete. However, when the switch is open, or not closed, there is no path for electrons to flow, and there is an open circuit condition where no current flows. This method is used to make a complete path for electrons to flow from that side of the battery with an excess of electrons to the other side which has a deficiency of electrons. The battery has a negative (-) charge where there is an excess of electrons and a positive (+) charge where there is a deficiency of electrons. Yes, you read it right: the - means excess and + means deficiency. This is due to the fact that we are using the current flow and elec- tron flow as both the same and from — to + in the circuit. A single path for electrons to flow is called a closed, or complete, circuit. However, in some instances the circuit may have more than one consuming device. In this situation we have what is called a series circuit if the two or more resistors or consuming devices are placed one after the other as shown in Figure 2-9. 5a 109 O AMMETER —— Figure 2-9, A series circuit with three resistors.24 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS Using the Meter to Measure The voltmeter is placed across the resistor whose voltage drop is being measured. See Figure 2-9. If the meter is placed across the 10-0 resistor R2, the voltage indicated would be 10 V, and across resistor Ry the meter would read 15 V. Note, however, that the ammeter is placed in series with the resistors and power source. The ammeter can become part of the circuit. The voltmeter is placed across the resistor and is not a permanent part of the circuit. If the voltmeter is placed across the power source (the battery) it would read the total voltage Er of 30 V, or the sum of the individual voltage drops around the circuit loop from the - terminal of the battery to the + terminal of the battery. See the following discussion of the series circuit. Series Circuit Figure 2-9 shows a series circuit. The three resistors are connected in series, or one after the other, to complete the path from one terminal of the battery to the other. The current flows through each of them before returning to the positive terminal of the battery. There is a law concerning the voltages in a series circuit. Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the sum of all voltages across resistors or loads is equal to the applied voltage. Voltage drop is considered across the resistor. Figure 2-9 shows the current flow through three resistors. The voltage drop across #, is 5 V. Across R2 the voltage drop is 10 V. And, across Rg the voltage drop is 15 V. The sum of the individual voltage drops is equal to the total or applied voltage of 30 V. Er means total voltage. It may also be written as E, for applied voltage or Es for source voltage. To find the total resistance in a series circuit, just add the individual resistances or Ry=R, + Ra + Rs. In this instance (Figure 2-9) the total resistance is 5 + 10 + 15, or 30 Q. Parallel Circuits In a parallel circuit each resistance is connected directly across the voltage source or line. ‘There are as many separate paths for current flow as there are branches (see Figure 2-10). The voltage across all branches of a parallel circuit is the same. This is because all branches are connected across the voltage source. Current in a parallel circuit depends on the resistance of the branch. Ohm's law can be used to determine the current in each branch. You can find the total current for a parallel circuit by simply adding the individual currents. When written as a formula it reads pay In Ige-> Figure 2-10. A parallel circuit.circus = 20 The total resistance of a parallel circuit cannot be found by adding the resistor values. Two formulas are used for finding the total resistance (F7). If there are only two resistors in parallel, a simple formula can be used: R= eh Ry+R, If there are more than two resistors in parallel, you can use the following formula. This formula may also be used with two resistors in parallel. In fact it can be used for any number of resistors. tib,bi,4,4),... R, RR, RR, One thing should be kept in mind in parallel resistances: The total resistance is always less than the smallest resistance.* As branches are added to a parallel circuit, the voltage across each branch is the same. However, the current divides according to the resistance in the branch. The total current is equal to the sum of the individual currents. Inasmuch as current and resistance are inversely related, that means if the currents are added then the total or equivalent resis- tance of the parallel circuit decreases with the increase in current. In order to account for this decrease even though more resistance is added to the circuit, the mathematical answer lies in the reciprocal (I/R) formula. The reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistors in the circuit produces the desired mathematical result and Ohm’s law is satisfied when applied to the total circuit values and when used for individual values within the branch circuits, Using Ohm’s Law to Solve Circuit Problems Examples of problem solving for series circuits using Ohm's law will show how the circuits use the various physical laws of nature. Keep in mind that in a series circuit three rules aid in the solution of these circuit problems. They deal with the three factors found in any circuit — voltage, current, and resistance. Rules of Series Circuits 1. Current in all resistors is the same as the total current. T, = Ip, = Ip, = Ep, 2. Voltage divides according to the resistance of each individual resistor. Or, the sum of the individual voltage drops across the resistors equals the applied voltage. Ey = Ey, + Ep, +E, te 3. Total resistance if found by adding the individual resistances: Rr=R,+Ry+Rg+--- *This is not true if one of the resistances is negative. The condition occurs only in active circuits, so for most applications the statement is true enough to be used for quick checks of your math.26 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS Example 1 What is the total resistance of four resistors connected in series if the resistors have resistances of 10, 20, 30, and 40 02? _ . Determine what is to be found. In this case it is the total resistance. 2. Note that the formula for finding total resistance in a series circuit is Rr=Rh, + Ro+Rgt+ Ry 3. Substitute the resistances for the letters: Rr= 10+ 20+30+40 4. Sum up the resistances to produce 100 Q. Keep in mind that voltage drop refers to the voltage across an individual resistor. Example 2 What is the total resistance of the circuit shown in Figure 2-11? 1. Determine what is to be found. In this case it is the total resistance. 2. Note that the formula for finding the total resistance in a series circuit is Rp=R, + Rot Ry 3. Substitute the resistances for the letters in the formula: Rr=20 + 30+50 4, Sum up the resistances to produce 100 Q. Using Ohm’s law, it is possible to determine the voltage drop across each resistor if the total current is given. ao tpn a 00 Figure 2-11.CIRCUITS Example 3 What is the voltage drop across each resistor in Figure 2-11 if the total current is 2 amperes? 1. Determine what you know at this point. Check the circuit to see what the resistor values are: They are 20, 30, and 50 2. 2. Check what the current is. Current is given at 2 amperes total, 8. Check the rules for the series circuit for current. The total current is equal to the current through each resistor in series, which means that the current through each resistor is 2 amperes, 4. Therefore, you know the current through each resistor, and you know the resistance. The formula (Ohm’s law) for finding the voltage drop across each resistor is simply E = / x R. So, Ep, =1xR, or Ey, = 2x 200r 40 V En, =I x Ry or = Ey, = 2x30 0r60V E,,=1* Ry or = Ex, = 2x 50 or 100 V Series-Parallel Circuits The series-parallel circuit is a combination of the series and the parallel arrangement. Figure 2-12 shows an example of the series-parallel circuit. It takes a minimum of three resistances to make a series-parallel circuit. This type has to be reduced to a series equivalent before it can be solved in terms of resistance. The parallel portions are reduced to the total for that part of the circuit, and then the equivalent resistance is added to the series part to obtain the total resistance. A, Figure 2-12, A series-parallel circuit. Total current flows through the first series resistor but divides according to the branch. resistances after that. There are definite relationships which must be explored here before that type of circuit can be fully understood. This will be done in a later part of this book. Open Circuits An open circuit is an incomplete circuit. Figure 2-13 shows an open circuit that will become a closed circuit once the switch is closed. A circuit can also become open when one of the28 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS Figure 2-13, An open circuit produced by an open switch. leads is cut or when one of the terminals has the wire removed. A loose connection can cause an open circuit. Short Circuits The short circuit is something to be avoided because it can cause a fire or overheating. Ashort circuit has a path of low resistance to electron flow. This is usually created when a low-resistance wire is placed across the consuming device (see Figure 2-14). The greater number of electrons will flow through the path of least resistance rather than through the consuming device. A short usually generates an excess current flow that can result in dam- age to a number of parts of the circuit. If you wish to prevent the damage caused by short circuits, use a fuse, Figure 2-14. A short circuit. The wire has leas resistance than the lamp. Fuses Fuses are available in a number of sizes and shapes. They are used to prevent the damage done by excess current flowing in a circuit. They are placed in series with the consuming devices. Once too much current flows, it causes the fuse wire inside the fuse case to melt. This opens the circuit and stops the flow of current and prevents the overheating that occurs when too much current is present in a circuit. The symbol for a fuse is “\_,. It fits into a circuit as shown in Figure 2-15.SUMMARY 29 FUSE Figure 2-15. The location of the fuse in a circuit. Summary Electricity is defined as the flow of electrons along a conductor. Electrons are the smallest part of an atom. An atom is the smallest part of an element which contains all its proper- ties. Electrons can be directed along a given path called a circuit by means of magnetism, heat, light, or pressure. Electrons that move in a random motion are called free electrons, These free electrons when directed in a given direction make up what is called electricity. Current flow is the flow of electrons along a conductor. Current flow is from negative to pasitive. A material through which electricity passes easily is called a conductor, An insulator is a material with very few, if any, free electrons. No known materials are perfect insulators. The diameter of an electron is about 0.00000000000022 (or 2.2 x 10") in. Materials used in the manufacture of transistors and diodes have a conductivity between that of a good conductor and a good insulator. Electricity is measured in terms of volts, amps, and ohms. Meters are used to measure the flow of electrons, the voltage drop across resistors, and the opposition put up to the flow of electrons by certain materials. Resistance is the opposition to the movement of electrons. Resistance is measured in ohms. Resistors are devices which provide measured amounts of resistance. There are two types of resistors: wirewound and carbon-composition. Power is defined as the rate at which work is done. Power measured in terms of elec- trical energy is designated as watts. The watt is one volt times one ampere for one second. The kilowatt is one thousand watts. The kilowatthour is one thousand watts for one hour. It takes 746 watts to produce one horsepower. It takes a mechanical horsepower defined in terms of 33,000 pounds lifted one foot in one minute to equal one electrical horsepower defined in terms of watts or 746 watts equal one horsepower. Ohm's law states that the current in any circuit is equal to the voltage divided by the resistance. It can also be substituted so that the voltage is equal to the current times the resistance, or the resistance is equal to the voltage divided by the current. There are a number of types of circuits. The open circuit does not have a complete path for electron flow from one terminal of the voltage source to the other. A short circuit has a resistance that is too small and therefore takes all the current and bypasses it from the intended load. The series circuit consists of resistors placed end to end. The parallel circuit consists of resistors placed across the power source. The current in a series circuit flows the same through all resistors. The current in a parallel circuit divides according to the branch resistance. A combination of series and parallel circuits can be made with the use of at least three resistors.30 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS Fuses are safety devices which protect circuits from overloads and overheating. They open the circuit when overheated. Review Questions . Where does the word electricity come from? 2. What is an atom? |. How does an electron fit into an atom? . Where do you find free electrons? How big is an electron? . List five insulators. What are the two most. common semiconductor materials? . Define voltage and current. . What is the unit for measuring electric power? . How much is a kilowatt? . How many watts are there in one horsepower? . What is the symbol for ohms? . What is the symbol for a resistor? . What type of resistor uses a color code? . How much is a kilo? . What is the term used to designate one million? . State Ohm’s law. . State Kirchhoff’s voltage law. . What is the formula used to find total resistance in a parallel circuit? ). What is the purpose of a fuse?Chapter 3 INDUCTANCE, CAPACITANCE, AND ALTERNATING CURRENT esistors and resistance are very important in the study of electricity and elec- tronics. However, when two other devices are introduced into the circuits, there is the possibility of various combinations that can produce rather interesting final results. One of these devices is the inductor, which produces inductance. The other is the capacitor, which provides capacitance. Inductance Inductance is the ability of a coil, or choke, or inductor (all three mean the same thing and are interchangeable) to oppose any change in circuit current. This is not so important in a direct current (dc) circuit because the current flows in only one direction, from negative to positive, when it is first turned on, and then it stops when it is turned off. The collapsing magnetic field that was produced by the coil of wire with a current through it produces an emf in the coil when it decays or collapses, This emf is in the opposite polarity to that which caused it to be produced. This emf is called a counter emf, abbreviated as cemf. Induction Coil Michael Faraday was an Englishman who performed early experiments with coils of wire and electric current. He was born in London in 1791. His work was important in laying the foundation of the growing science of electricity. Faraday started to experiment with elec- tricity about 1805. It was not until 1831 that he performed experiments on magnetically coupled coils. A voltage was induced in one of the coils by means of a magnetic field created by current flow in the other coil. From this experiment came the induction coil, Faraday’s experiment and discovery made possible many of our modern conveniences. The auto- mobile, doorbell, automobile radio, and television are all possible because of inductance. Faraday also invented the first transformer. A transformer changes electricity into a higher or lower voltage. At that time it had very few practical uses. He made the first de32 INDUCTANCE, CAPACITANCE, AND ALTERNATING CURRENT generator. At the time Faraday was working in England, Joseph Henry was making almost the same discoveries in the United States. Henry worked in New York and discovered the property of self-inductance before Faraday. The unit of measurement for inductance is the henry (H). The symbol for inductance is L. An inductor has an inductance of one henry if an emf of one volt is induced in the inductor when the current through the coil is changing at the rate of one ampere per second. Keep in mind that the one-volt, one-ampere, and one-henry relationship deals with the basic units of measurement of voltage, current, and inductance. Inductor Inductors come in many sizes and shapes (see Figure 3-1). Air-core inductors are coils that are wound without a core. They are used in circuits where the frequencies cannot be heard, such as radio frequencies. Radio frequencies are above the human hearing range. The symbol for a radio frequency coil is aww. Note how the radio frequency air core inductor in Figure 3-1B is very small and resembles a resistor. The size of the color band to the left is larger than the others. This indicates that it is an inductor instead of a resis- tor. The color code tells the size in microhenrys (uH). SUBMINIATURE RF CHOKES « Molstura Resistant ron core RF chokes ara designed lo meat demana for high-reliability ultraminiature components. to network and filter design, delay li and computer applications. Coils are impregnated with moisture-resistant lacquer. SUPER WEE-DUCTOR: ‘THE SMALLEST SHIELDED INDUCTOR FOR HIGH-DENSITY CHRCUITS 9.10 TO 1600 yH, TIS GRADE 2 CLASS B INDUCTOR IS DESIGNED TO SOLVE DENSITY CIRCUIT APPLICATION PROBLEMS, Figure 3-1. Radio frequency chokes. Inductors are also called chokes because of the way they hold back current or choke it. They are also called coils for the simple construction technique used to make them. They are nothing more than a coil of wire. Inductors with iron cores are used in circuits where the frequencies can be heard. These are called audio frequencies and they are referred to as audio chokes or audio inductors.INDUCTANCE 33 The iron core is usually laminated sheets of iron. The iron is specially made silicon steel. Silicon steel is used because it can change its magnetic orientation rapidly without caus- ing too much opposition to the changing field or polarity reversals. The symbol for an iron core choke is 7ApArR_ (see Figure 3-2). = Figure 3-2. Audio frequency chokes. Mutual Inductance When two coils are placed near one another mutual induction occurs. A change in the flux or magnetic field in one coil will cause an emf to be induced in the other coil. The two coils have mutual inductance. The amount of mutual inductance depends on the distance between the two coils. If the coils are separated a considerable distance, the amount of flux common to both coils is small and the mutual inductance is low. If the coils are close together, nearly all the flux on one coil will link the turns of the other. The mutual induc- tance can be increased greatly by mounting both coils on the same iron core. Factors That Influence Mutual Inductance Mutual inductance of two adjacent coils depends upon five factors: . Physical size of the two coils . Number of turns in each coil Distance between the two coils Distance between the axes of the two coils . Permeability of the cores oop cop Permeability is the ease with which magnetic lines of force distribute themselves throughout a material. Self-Inductance Even a straight conductor or piece of wire has some inductance. When current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is established around that conductor. As the current changes, so does the magnetic field. An emf is induced in the conductor when the field changes. This emf is called a self-induced emf. The direction of the emf, or current, has a definite relation to the direction of the field that causes the induced emf. In a de circuit, where the current varies only when the circuit is turned on and off, it produces a curve which resembles Figure 3-3. However, when alternating current (ac) is introduced in a coil, a whole new set of rules apply (to be discussed later in this chapter).34 INDUCTANCE, CAPACITANCE, AND ALTERNATING CURRENT Figure 3-3, Time constant of a coil depends upon its inductance and resistance. Lenz's Law The direction of the induced emf is always opposite to that which induced it. That is the basis for Lenz's law. Factors That Affect the Inductance of a Coil Among the factors are: 1. The inductance of a coil is proportional to the square of the number of turns. 2. The inductance of a coil increases directly as the permeability of the core material increases. Coils with iron cores have higher permeability caused by the core material. 8. The inductance of a coil increases directly as the cross-sectional area increases. 4. The inductance of a coil decreases as its length increases. Figure 3-4A shows two coils with a fixed number of turns. Each has a different cross- sectional area, The larger coil has a greater flux, or less reluctance. Figure 3-4B shows two coils, each with a fixed number of turns. They have the same cross-sectional area. They have different lengths. The longer coil has less total flux, or greater reluctance. Therefore, it has less inductance. Figure 3-4. Factors which influence inductance of a coil.ALTERNATING CURRENT 35 Alternating Current Most of us have grown up with alternating current (ac). We are used to the 60-hertz (Hz) line current that is furnished to every house in the United States. It is much better than de when it comes to transporting power over long distances without huge losses. It is also important since electronics relies so heavily on ac. The radio frequencies which bring us radio and television are also ac. In order to get a better understanding of ac, we should look at how it is generated and distributed. Alternating current was developed by Nicholas Tesla. Its use was introduced around 1900. Niagara Falls, New York, had one of the first commercial ac generators, which was in operation until 1948 when a rock slide ruined it. Alternating current has a distinct advantage over direct current. Alternating current can be stepped up to obtain higher voltages and lower currents and still produce the same amount of power at the other end of the line. It can be transported over long distances through small wires because of the higher voltages and lower currents. Current deter- mines the size of the wire. Then it is stepped down for local distribution. Since trans- formers are very efficient machines, very low losses are experienced with ac. Usually, ac is generated at 13,800 volts (V). This is then stepped up to at least 138,000 V for distribution. The most commonly used high voltages for long-distance transmission are 138,000, 250,000, and 750,000 V. Once the power reaches its destination, it is reduced to as low as 240 V for home use. This is further split for home circuits of 120 V. Nature of Alternating Current Alternating current changes its direction of flow as it moves along a wire. It flows in one direction and then the other. Figure 3-5 shows a simple ac generator; Figure 3-6 shows the output of the generator. Figure 3-5. Simple ac generator called an alternator.36 INDUCTANCE, CAPACITANCE, AND ALTERNATING CURRENT MAK POSITION B ao ERO S POSITION itor ° “ A POSITION A OR 360" 2 PosiTion o MAR 4 ' Figure 3-6. A. The sine wave. B, Comparison of ac to de. Waveforms Alternating current is constantly changing. It changes in magnitude and direction. The ac pattern, or waveform, is shown in Figure 3-6. The time base of one second (s) is standard in the electrical field. Whenever you see 60 Hz, you know it means 60 complete sine waves are generated in 1 s. Frequency The term frequency is used to indicate how many times the alternating current changes direction. The ac you use at home changes direction 60 times per second. This means it moves back and forth 60 times per second. This current is described as having a frequency of 60 Hz. It is said to be 60-Hz ac. Frequency can be expressed in megahertz, or MHz. This is 1 million H2/s. It can also be expressed in kilohertz, which means 1000 times or hertz per second. Kilohertz is abbreviated as kHz. Note that k is a small letter. However, MHz uses M since it stands for mega, or one million. Figure 3-7 shows the difference between 4 Hz and 1 Hz. Note that both of them occur in 1s, Note how the waveform becomes closer together as it becomes part of a higher frequency. 1 HERTZ Maw Figure 3-7. 4Hz and 1Hz compared.ALTERNATING CURRENT 37 Maximum and Peak Values of AC Three values are used to describe ac: * Peak * Average * Reot-mean-square (rms) Peak The maximum point on a sine wave is the peak value. Both peaks of a single hertz may be included in a reference. If so, it becomes a peak-to-peak value. A peak value of 100 V means. that the peak-to-peak value is 200 V (see Figure 3-8). AVERAGE 0.637 PEAK RMS 0.707 PEAK PEAK TO PEAK Figure 3-8, Ac sine wave values. Average The average of all instantaneous values of a generator is measured at regular intervals. The values are taken at selected points in the generating process. The average of these is the average value of ac current (see Figure 3-8). The average value is 0.637 times the peak. This means that a peak of 100 V is equal to 63.7 V average. However, average is not often used in reference to ac. Instead, root-mean-square (rms) is used more often. Root-mean-square (rms) This is a method used for equating ac to de. Since ac is constantly changing, it forms a sine wave (see Figure 3-6). The values used for rms figuring are taken from selected points in the sine wave generating process. The ac is constantly changing and does not have the heating value of de. That is because de comes up to its peak and stays there until turned off. Therefore, if you take the ac sine wave and break it into four parts, each containing 90° of the complete cycle needed to generate 1 Hz, you will find that the instantaneous voltage and current when taken 90 times (once for each degree) and squared, then averaged (mean means average) and the square root taken of the average, you will have 0.7071 times the peak value of the sine wave. This shows that rms, effective heat, and heating effect all mean the same thing. You could also get the rms, or 0.7071 value, by taking the sine of 45°. Since 45° is one-half of the 90° to the peak of the waveform, it makes more sense mathe-38 INDUCTANCE, CAPACITANCE, AND ALTERNATING CURRENT matically. It also makes sense because the shape of the waveform is not a semicircle, but is shaped more like the mathematical equivalent to a sine value. Transformers A practical application of alternating current is its use with the transformer. It has the ability to step up and step down voltages. But, only ac. Direct current does not work with a transformer. A transformer is a device consisting of two coils that can change voltages. The voltage put into a transformer is either stepped up or stepped down. (In some instances, however, isolation transformers are used so that they have the same output as input voltage. They are used to eliminate the ground connection in conventional line current. That way you must come across both terminals to receive a shock instead of any ground and the hot side of the line.) Ground A ground in electronics is defined as a common connection such as the chassis or a copper strip on a printed circuit board. The common ground usually has a negative polarity. The chassis of an electrical or electronic device serves as a common return to the power supply and is referred to as the ground. An earth ground has a potential of zero. To maintain a good earth ground, a metallic rod 4 to 6 feet long is driven into the ground. Any wire connected to that rod is grounded. The power company installs a rod like this when they connect power to your home. The telephone and cable-TV companies wire their network interfaces (lightning protection) to the power company’s ground rod. The alternative to earth ground is a floating ground. A floating ground is simply a reference point that is not earth grounded. The negative terminal of a car’s battery is a floating ground, and any home appliance that has a two-prong electrical plug also has a floating ground. In newer homes a third ground wire is provided for wall outlets for appliances. The symbol for a ground is shown in Figure 3-9, Lo Ah Figure 9-9. Symbols used for a ground or earth. Types of Transformers Figure 3-10 shows how transformers are used to distribute electric power from the generator to the consumer. Note that the symbols used for the transformer are two coils of wire with straight lines in between to designate the iron core. A transformer has a primary winding and a secondary winding, A transformer is simply a coil when it has no load on the secondary. When a load is placed on the output side (the secondary winding), the device actually becomes a transformer.TRANSFORMERS 39 120 tT { | a|(5 66,000V 60,000 V L 4 120V 4a LONG LINE LOSSES 25:1 10:1 Figure 3-10. Using transformers to distribute ac over long distances. Transformers come in many sizes and shapes (see Figure 3-11). They may be used on alternating currents at power line frequencies of 25, 40, or 60 Hz and also on frequencies of more than 1 million Hz. The transformers used on radio frequencies do not have cores. They have air for a core, and their physical size is much smaller than power frequency transformers. Since there are no moving parts in a transformer, it can be up to 99 percent efficient. The only moving part is the current. Losses are eliminated by using silicon steel for the core laminations. The silicon steel reduces the losses due to hysteresis that are caused by changing the polarity many times per second. Eddy currents are small currents induced in the metal by the changing magnetic field. Laminations eliminate the losses caused by eddy currents. Copper losses are reduced to a minimum by using the proper size wire for the amount of current being handled. Power Transformers A power transformer can be both a step-up and a step-down unit (see Figure 3-12), The secondary windings can furnish a number of different voltages. These voltages may be either higher or lower than the primary voltage. This type of transformer is used in elec- tronics equipment where a number of different voltages are needed.40 INDUCTANCE, CAPACITANCE, AND ALTERNATING CURRENT ‘The Flat Pack" power transtormer meets the needs of law- clearance printed circult boards and solid state power for widely used power applications and can be used in sin- gle, or dual-output supplies. The Flat Pack™ is designed to pass a 2000-V HiPot test. Figure 3-11. A. Various sizes and types of transformers. B. Power transformer. Inductive Reactance Inductive reactance is the opposition put up to alternating current by a coil. The coil has a definite time or delay built in due to the ratio of inductance to resistance. This built-in delay of current comes in conflict with the ac since the current is constantly changing and not necessarily at the same rate as the natural tendency of the coil. Therefore, the reac- tion or reactance is in the form of an opposition. Since it is an opposition, it is measured in ohms. Reactance is represented by the symbol X. Inductance is represented by its symbol L. When the inductive reactance is represented, it is written as X;. It is measured. in ohms,INDUCTIVE REACTANCE 41 SIDE WINDER SPLIT BOBBIN PC MOUNT TRANSFORMERS: coc TISV 3. eee IC, sae JIC 8 5OGO HZ 1, 8 6 PIN 8 PIN TYPE SW TYPE DSW Compact transformer with primary and secondaries wound side by side is nonconcentrically wound, to reduce size. Split bobbin winding and low capacitive coupling dasign eliminates electrostatic shielding requirement. sw osw Figure 3-12. Power transformers and schematics. A number of factors determine X;. One is the frequency of ac, which affects reactance. Another is the size of the inductor. The formula used to calculate Xz, is X= 2nfL In this equation, f is the frequency, measured in hertz. L is inductance, measured in henrys (H). Pi (7) is a standard mathematical term with a value of 3.141 592 654. Thus, 2z equals 6.28 when rounded off for quick answers. By increasing the f, the X;, increases. If the f is decreased, the X;, decreases. The same is true for L, or inductance. Since the 27 is a constant, it does not change. Therefore, the only two variables for X, are frequency and inductance. Keep in mind that the voltage and current are 90 degrees out of phase whenever there is an inductor in the circuit. The voltage leads the current by 90 degrees in a purely induc- tive circuit. This property of an inductor can be useful in many applications as you will discover as you continue with the electronics part of this book. (See Figure 3-13.) Phase Shift Figure 3-13 shows voltage and current out of phase by 90°. Wave A indicates the voltage waveform and wave B indicates the 90° lag in the current caused by an inductor. There is always some resistance in an inductor since it is made of copper wire and it has resistance, so there is never a full 90° phase lag in the current. But, for most practical purposes and theoretical purposes it is assumed to be 90° if not specifically mentioned otherwise. The waveform in Figure 3-13 can be displayed on an oscilloscope.42 INDUCTANCE, CAPACITANCE, AND ALTERNATING CURRENT Figure 3-13. Voltage and current out of phase by 90°. X,, in Series Resistors and inductive reactances both produce opposition, and both are measured in ohms. This means that inductive reactances which are in series are simply added to obtain the total inductive reactance in a circuit: X, =X, +X,4+X,4-- X, in Parallel Inductive reactances which are in parallel are treated the same as resistors in parallel. You can use the product divided by the sum formula or the reciprocal formula: _ X, xX, Xt, 1 Loita srs tStSot %, XXX, x, Uses of Xz, The major use of inductance is to provide a minimum reactance for low frequencies. Inductors produce high opposition to higher frequencies, ‘One specific use of inductance is in filters. Filters are used when certain frequencies are desired and others are to be avoided. An inductor that has an X;, that passes certain frequencies and opposes others is used. The main use for inductive reactance is in electronic circuits. Such circuits, along with capacitors, tune in certain frequencies and reject others. An example is the tuner of your radio or television. Capacitors Capacitors play an important role in the building of circuits. A capacitor is a device that opposes any change in circuit voltage. That property of a capacitor which opposes voltage change is called capacitance.CAPACITORS 43 Capacitors make it possible to store electric energy. Electrons are held within a capacitor. This, in effect, is stored electricity. It is also known as an electric potential, or an electrostatic field. Electrostatic fields hold electrons. When the buildup of electrons becomes great enough, the electric potential is discharged. This process takes place in nature: clouds build up electrostatic fields. Their discharge is seen as lightning. Figure 3-14 shows a simple capacitor. Two plates of a conductor material are isolated from one another. Between the two plates is a dielectric material. The dielectric does not conduct electrons easily. Electrons are stored on the plate surfaces. The larger the surface, the more area is available for stored electrons. Increasing the size of the plate therefore increases the capacitance. NEGATIVE Figure 3-14. Design of a capacitor. Symbols for a capacitor. Operation of the Capacitor If a capacitor has no charge of electrons, it is uncharged. This happens when there is no voltage applied to the plates. An uncharged capacitor is shown in Figure 3-15A. Note the symbol for a capacitor in this drawing. This is the preferred way to show a capacitor: a Figure 3-15. Charge and discharge of a capacitor.44 INDUCTANCE, CAPACITANCE, AND ALTERNATING CURRENT. straight line and a curved line facing each other. Note that the circuit has a de source and a three-position switch that is in the open position. In Figure 3-15B, the switch has been closed to position 1. This causes current to flow. A difference in potential is created by the voltage source. This causes electrons to be transferred from the positive to the negative plate. This transfer continues as long as the voltage source is connected to the two plates and until the accumulated charge becomes equal to the potential difference of the applied voltage. That is, charging takes place until the capacitor is charged. In Figure 3-15C, the voltage has been removed. The switch is open. At this point, the potential difference, or charge, across the capacitor remains. That is, there is still a surplus of electrons on the negative plate of the capacitor. This charge remains in place until a path is provided for discharging the excess electrons. In Figure 3-15D, the switch is moved to position 3. This opens the path for discharging the surplus electrons. Notice that the discharge path is in the opposite direction from the charge path. This shows how a change in circuit voltage results in a change in the capacitor charge. Some electrons leave the excess (negative) plate. They do this in an at- tempt to keep the voltage in the circuit constant. As you can see from the foregoing, the ability of a capacitor to charge and discharge can be useful in many types of circuits. Its ability to oppose any change in the circuit voltage can also be helpful. All this will be put to work later in electronic circuits. Capacity of a Capacitor The two plates of the capacitor may be made of almost any material. The only criterion is that the material will allow electrons to collect on it. The dielectric may be air, vacuum, plastics, wood, or mica. Three factors determine the capacity of a capacitor: « Area of the plates * Distance between the plates * Material used as a dielectric Area of the Plates. Area of the plates determines the ability of a capacitor to hold elec- trons. The larger the plate area, the greater the capacity, or capacitance. Distance Between the Plates. Distance between the plates of a capacitor determines the effect that electrons have upon one another. That is because electrons poaseas a charge, or field, around them that can react with those close by. Capacitance increases when the plates are brought close together. Variable capacitors bring plates in and out of mesh and, in so doing, cause the plates to become closer or more distant accordingly (see Figure 3-16 for variable capacitors). Dielectric Materials. One of the effects of the dielectric materials is determined by its thickness. The thinner the dielectric, the closer the plates will be. A thin dielectric can thus increase capacitance. Some dielectrics have better insulating qualities than others and will allow greater voltages to be applied between the plates before breaking down. Take aCAPACITORS 45 & B Figure 3-16. Variable capacitors. TABLE 3-1 Material Dielectric Constant (X) Air or Vacuum 1 Rubber 24 Oil 25 Paper 2-6 Mica Ww Glass 8 Ceramics 80-1200 look at the dielectric materials listed in Table 3-1 to see how various materials affect the capacitance of a capacitor. Working Voltage DC The maximum safe working voltage of a capacitor in a de circuit is identified as the working voltage de, or WVDC. Above this voltage, a capacitor is expected to puncture or develop a short circuit. If the temperature in which a circuit operates reaches 60°C or higher, the voltage rat- ing is lowered. Voltage ratings for mica, paper, and ceramic capacitors are usually 200, 400, and 600 V dc. Oil-filled capacitors have voltage ratings ranging up to 7500 V. As the voltage ratings become higher, the physical size of the capacitors becomes greater. Electrolytic Capacitors The electrolytic capacitor has polarity. That is, it is marked with a + or -. It is polarized in order to be able to get large capacitances into small containers. Electrolytics are very much in evidence in transistor circuits since they need large capacitances in small packages. Keep in mind that the electrolytic capacitor has polarity. Be sure to connect it properly in the circuit, or it can explode, If ac is applied to electrolytics, it can cause an explosion, and the capacitor will pop like a firecracker seattering its debris over a wide area. Never operate a capacitor above its rated WVDC. It is customary to use a capacitor in a circuit with about 50 to 75 percent of its rated voltage. Nonpolarized electrolytics are made by placing two electrolytics in series connected46 INDUCTANCE, CAPACITANCE, AND ALTERNATING CURRENT with + to + and/or - to -. This reduces the capacitance, but it eliminates the polarity. Nonpolarized electrolytics are usually made for crossover networks or for electric motors. Electrolytics can dry up or open if not used for some time. They will also deteriorate somewhat even when used. However, electrolytics can be self-healing. They can change from an open condition back to proper operation with the passage of time, with no help from anyone or anything. The open condition is one that occurs sometimes spontaneously and is very frustrating when troubleshooting a circuit. Capacitors in Series Capacitors can be connected in series, but the series reduces the capacitance. The formula used for finding capacitance for two capacitors in series is Cc,= Gxt for two only rT C+0, Jott ty.. Cr CC, °C; As you increase the distance between the plates, effectively, when placing them in series, you also increase the WVDC rating. Just add the WVDC ratings of the capacitors to obtain the higher value created with the placement in series (see Figure 3-17). SFA Figure 3-17. Capacitors connected back to back and in series to produce a nonpolarized electrolytic. Capacitors in Parallel Capacitors can be connected in parallel if their polarity is observed in the case of elec- trolytics, For standard, nonpolarized types, it is not necessary to observe any particular connection procedure except to place the leads together in order to produce a parallel connection. Placing capacitors in parallel increases the capacitance. Just add the individ- ual capacitances to obtain the total capacitance. However, keep in mind that the WVDC will be the rating of the smallest value of voltage in the WVDC ratings (see Figure 3-18). Figure 3-18. Capacitors in parallel. Note how the polarities of electrolytics are connected.CAPACITORS 47 Types of Capacitors There are at least six different types of capacitors: Air Mica Paper Ceramic Electrolytic Tantalum fA pp The electrolytic and the tantalum have polarity. The others do not need polarity stamped on them since they will operate in both de and ac circuits. Units of Measurement Capacitance is measured in farads (F). The farad is defined as having the ability to store enough electrons to produce a voltage difference of one volt across the terminals while producing one ampere of current for one second, The farad is a very large unit of capacitance. The capacitors we use in electricity and in electronics are much, much smaller. They are measured in microfarads (0.000001 F) and in microfarads, now called picofarads (0.000000000001F). It is often necessary to interpret or change values. This occurs as you read circuit drawings or markings on capacitors. You may, for example, find yourself working with capacitors marked in terms of pF and drawings indicated in pF. Many formulas are stated in terms of the farad. To convert from microfarads or Picofarads to farads, just follow these simple rules: © To convert from microfarads, move the decimal point six places to the left: 1 uF = 0.000001 F. « To convert from picofarads, move the decimal point 12 places to the left: 1 pF = 0.000000000001 F. © To change microfarads to picofarads, move the decimal point six places to the right: 0.1 pF = 100,000 pF, or 100 kpF: Conversion Methods Keep in mind the following to make sure you get the conversion correct and that you are tuned in to the correct formulas. pF to zF, move the decimal six places to the left. HF to F, move the decimal six places to the left. F to pF, move the decimal six places to the right. HF to pF, move the decimal six places to the right. pF to F, move the decimal 12 places to the left. F to pF, move the decimal 12 places to the right.48 INDUCTANCE, CAPACITANCE, AND ALTERNATING CURRENT Capacitor Tolerances Capacitors also have tolerances with a + value that varies primarily with the price of the capacitor. The closer the + and — values, the more expensive the capacitor. General-purpose ceramic-disk capacitors usually have tolerances of +20 percent. Paper capacitors usually have a tolerance of +10 percent although some may be bought at £5 percent. Mica and ceramic tubular capacitors are used when closer tolerances are called for. Their tolerances range from 12 to £20 percent. If very close tolerances are needed, silver-plated mica units are used. These have tolerances of +1 percent. Electrolytics usually have a wide range of tolerance. For instance, a 40-yF capacitor may have a tolerance of -10 percent as well as a +75 percent tolerance. This means that the 40-yF capacitor may be between 36 and 70 uF The lower minus tolerance helps to ensure that there is enough capacitance in a circuit to prevent damage. Special-Purpose Capacitor People in electronics have long dreamed of having a source of power, other than a battery, to power devices that may require small currenta for long periods of storage time, such as the case with the memory in computers or calculators. This is now possible with the pro- duction of a capacitor of sufficient size (1 F) and both electrically and physically. The 1-F capacitor has long been thought of as a desirable thing for many uses. It is now possible to package a capacitor in the 1-F size in a 1.1-in. diameter unit only 0.55-in. high (see Figure 3-19). Coa I " OS! Figure 9-19. Electrolytic capacitor of 1 Farad fits a package of 1.1-in. diameter and 0.55-in. high. This energy source makes it possible to support digital system backup applications without batteries. It has fast recharge time, easy interface, and virtually unlimited life. It is especially well suited for applications where the energy of a battery is not required, and reliability, long life, low cost, and simple design and implementation are of primary impor- tance. The 64k bit CMOS memory can retain data while dissipating typically miniscule power of 0.1 pW. This low power consumption can be supported by the 1-F capacitor for several weeks. Other applications for this type of capacitor are: relays, solencids for starters, igniters, and actuators. Small motors and alarms for disc drives, coin metering devices, and security systems as well as toys can make use of a capacitor of this size. There are homeCAPACITIVE REACTANCE 49 appliances such as TVs, microwave ovens, dishwashers, refrigerators, energy management. controls, personal computers, thermostats, vending machines, point-of-sale terminals, telephone autodialers, and programmable controllers that can also use the capacitor with characteristics of this nature. DIP Capacitors Capacitors can now be purchased in dual in-line packages. They resemble the standard IC chip packaging. However, they contain capacitors connected between the pins as shown in Figure 3-20, 2PIN 1 capacitor = nafs pee au ee pass and coupling Rated at SOWVDC and avaliable in. 1 pF to 0.001 nF 16-PIN ‘BS capachors Figure 3-20. DIP monolythic ceramic capacitor. Separate capacitor sections are useful for by-pass and coupling applications. Capacitive Reactance Capacitive reactance is that opposition that a capacitor presents to alternating current (ac). A capacitor has a definite time period for charging: T = R x C. The time T in seconds (s) is equal to the resistance (Q) times the capacitance (F). This produces a time constant which is 63.2 percent of the maximum voltage presented to the capacitor. It takes five time con- stants for a capacitor to charge to its full, or 99.3 percent level. It also takes the same amount of time to discharge when presented with a resistance across its terminals. When ac is present across the terminals of a capacitor, it changes faster than the capacitor can charge and discharge. This reaction or reactance is determined by the fre- quency of the ac and the capacity of the capacitor, A formula used to express capacitive reactance is where / = frequency, expressed in hertz ‘C = capacitance, expressed in farads X, = capacitive reactance, expressed in ohms since it is in opposition to current flow The following are conditions which occur when a capacitor is introduced into an ac circuit.50 INDUCTANCE, CAPACITANCE, AND ALTERNATING CURRENT 1. If the capacitance decreases, the capacitive reactance will increase for the same frequency. 2. If the capacitance increases, the capacitive reactance will decrease as long as the same frequency is presented to the capacitor. 3. If the frequency is decreased and the capacitor is the same, then the capacitive reac- 4. If the frequency is increased, then the capacitive reactance will decrease provided the capacitance stays the same. As you can see from these statements and observations, the increase or decrease of the frequency or capacitance will cause the reverse reaction with the X¢. Capacitive Reactances in Series The capacitive reactances placed in series, as in Figure 3-21, are similar to resistors placed in series. The formula is the same. Just add the individual reactances to obtain the total opposition, Or, Xo, = Xo, + Xo, + Xo, te ey ac SOURCE f o Figure 3-21. ‘Three capacitors connected in series. Capacitive Reactances in Parallel Once again, use the same approach for capacitive reactances as you would for resistors in parallel (see Figure 3-22): Figure 3-22. Three capacitors connected in parallel.SUMMARY 61 The other formula for finding resistors in parallel is modified here with C instead of R, and the results are the same for two only. Xs Xe x Xe, Xe +Xo, Xc can be substituted in Ohm’s law to produce another commonly used formula: E, E, *o= or eax or E,=IpxXp Uses for Capacitors and Capacitive Reactance Capacitive reactance is useful in electronic circuits with both de and ac. X¢ offers low oppo- sition to higher frequencies of ac. In a de circuit the capacitor stops or holds the flow of current (this is referred to as blocking) while it allows the ac to flow or to appear to flow through the capacitor. If you have a circuit with both ac and de, it is possible to separate them by using a capacitor. This is done when signals are coupled from one amplifier stage to the other in an amplifier. Capacitors can also be used for their ability to shift the phase of ac. In a capacitive circuit the voltage and current are out of phase by 90°. The voltage lags the current by 90°. This is useful when starting electric motors. Capacitor-start motors have high starting torque and put-out torque when overloaded. Capacitor-start motors are used on compres- sors, refrigerators, air conditioners, and wherever the motor must start under load or pull out of a suddenly applied load. Capacitors used with inductors are used to establish frequencies that can be used to make music or broadcast television pictures and sound. When properly utilized, capacitors can be a very useful tool in electronic circuits. They are also useful in filters. Summary Inductance is the ability of a coil, choke, or inductor to oppose any change in circuit cur- rent. An inductor is a device made up of a coil of wire and, in some cases, a core. The words inductor, choke, and coil are used interchangeably to mean the same. The unit of measure for inductance is the henry (H). The symbol for inductance is L. Five factors influence the mutual inductance of coils: 1, Physical size of the two coils 2. Number of turns in each coil 8. Distance between the two coils 4. Distance between the axes of the two coils 5. Permeability of the cores Self-induetance occurs when a collapsing magnetic field around a coil induces an emf in the coil. Self-inductance and mutual inductance are both properties of a coil or choke.52 INDUCTANCE, CAPACITANCE, AND ALTERNATING CURRENT Lenz’s law says the induced current, or emf, in a coil is in the opposite direction of that which caused it. Alternating current is constantly changing in magnitude and direction. Alternating current (ac) is generated mostly in power line frequencies of 25, 40, and 60 hertz (Hz). It is also generated in three phase by large generators and separated into single phase when used by homes and stores. The term frequency is used to indicate how many times the alternating current changes direction. The unit of measurement for frequency is the hertz (Hz). Root-mean-square is abbreviated rms, and refers to ac being converted to its equivalent of de in terms of heating effect. The transformer has the ability to step up or step down ac voltages and currents. Inductive reactance is the opposition generated to the changing of direction of the ac by a coil or choke. Capacitors oppose any change in circuit voltage. They have the capacitance measured in farads (F). But in most instances they are made in microfarad (uF) (0.000001 F) and in picofarad (pF) (0.000000000001 F) size. Capacitors have capacitive reactance when they are used in an ac cireuit. Capacitive reactance is measured in ohms as is inductive reactance. Both are units of opposition to the flow of ac in a circuit. A number of different types of capacitors and inductors are available to power line dis- tributors and to those who work with electronics. They are basically the same, only the size changes. Capacitors, inductors, and transformers are very valuable items when it comes to elec- tronic circuits. They are the heart of the circuits in most instances. Review Questions 1. What is inductance? 2. What are three names given to devices which have inductance? 3. What is the unit of measure for inductance? 4, What is mutual inductance? 5. List five factors that influence mutual inductance. 6, Which four factors influence the inductance of a coil? 7. What are the advantages of ac over dc? 8. Who is responsible for ac in the United States? 9, At what voltages is ac generated commercially? 10. What is a waveform? 11. Describe peak, average, and root-mean-square as they apply to ac. 12. Why is a transformer so efficient? 13. What is eddy current? 14. What is hysteresis? 15. What are the causes of copper losses in a transformer? 16. What is a capacitor? 17, Which three factors determine the capacity of a capacitor? 18, What is meant by WVYDC? 19. How are electrolytics made nonpolarized?20. 21. 22. 23. 24, 25. REVIEW QUESTIONS 63 What happens to capacitance when capacitors are connected in parallel? How much is « microfarad? What is meant by X¢? How are capacitors and inductors used together? What is the formula for finding total Xp when the capacitive reactances are known for capacitors connected in series? What is the formula for finding total X¢ when the capacitive reactances are known. for capacitors connected in parallel?Chapter 4 RESONANCE esonance is a very important part of electronics. It is necessary for the operation of the many types of television receivers and FM and AM radios. Resonance is created through the proper arrangement of a coil and capacitor. Circuits with resistance, capacitance, and inductance behave differently from those with only one or two of these factors. For instance, a circuit with resistance reacts to alter- nating current (ac) and direct current (de) the same way. However, when both a resistor and inductor are in a circuit, another factor is introduced because ac is applied to the com- bination. It behaves completely different from the de circuit consisting of only a resistor and coil. The same is true with a resistor and capacitor combination. The ac introduces the capacitive reactance, but de causes only the charging of the capacitor at a time determined by the values of the resistor and the capacitor. It becomes important, then, for us to look closely at the combination of devices con- nected to a circuit. It is very evident that ac and de cause different things to happen in an electric circuit. These things are going to be the subject of this chapter. You will learn how circuits with resistors, capacitors, and inductors behave with both alternating and direct currents. The use of vectors will aid in the understanding of phase angle introduced by various combinations of these three devices (inductors, capacitors, and resistors). Resistance, Capacitance, and Inductance Resistance produces an opposition to current flow in a circuit. The resistor is the device that produces the opposition. It behaves the same with either ac or de. Capacitive reactance produces an opposition to current flow in a circuit. The capacitor is the device that produces the opposition. The capacitor behaves differently with ac than with de. Remember (just as in resistance) the opposition, or capacitive reactance, is measured in ohms. Inductive reactance produces an opposition to current flow in a circuit. The inductor is the device that produces the opposition. The inductor behaves differently with ac than with de. Inductive reactance is also measured in ohms. Bear in mind, also, that the capacitor opposes any change in circuit voltage. The inductor opposes any change in circuit current. These two simple statements make a great deal of difference between understanding resonance and not being able to visualize it. So reread them to make sure you have them clearly in mind. The relationship between current and voltage is vital to an understanding of elec- tronics and electric circuits.KESISTANCE, CAPACITANCE, AND INDUCTANCE BE Impedance The éofal opposition to current flow within a circuit is impedance. The symbol for imped- ance is Z. Impedance impedes or opposes current flow. It is a term used when either resist- ance, capacitive reactance, inductive reactance, or any combination of the three is used. In de circuits, opposition to voltage and current is resistance only, since capacitors and inductors do not have reactance with de — only ac. Z is measured in ohms. Impedance can be R and X;. It can be R and Xp, or it can be R and Xe and X,. Impedance (Z) can also be used when there is X;, and Xc. Any combination of these oppo- sitions can be referred to as an impedance. Leading and Lagging Remember Chapter 3, where you learned that the voltage lagged the current in a capaci- tive circuit? You also learned that the current lagged the voltage in an inductive circuit. Voltage lagged the current in a capacitor by 90° in a purely capacitive circuit. Voltage led the current in a purely inductive circuit. That is another way of saying that the current lagged the voltage by 90°. This leading and lagging is very important in any understand- ing of impedance for it takes into account the phase angle. Phase Angle The phase angle is the difference between the voltage and the current in a circuit caused by either capacitance or inductance in an ac circuit. If we want to combine these phase angles such as when a capacitor and inductor are in a circuit, we have to do it vectorially (see Figure 4-1). Figure 4-1 is a diagram of how impedance is represented by Z, resistance by FR, and reactance by X;,. Note the angle formed by lines BA and AD. Z is shown halfway between the two lines and as a result shows a phase angle of 45°. This happens when the Figure 4-1. Impedance shown in vector form.56 RESONANCE resistance (f) and inductive reactance (X;) are equal. As you can see, impedance is the vector sum of resistance and reactance. A vector is a line segment used to represent a quantity that has both direction and magnitude. Vectors are used to represent current, voltage, or any combination of the electrical quantities encountered. A vector can show direction of current flow. It can also show the magnitude, or amount, of current flowing. A vector sum is a line representing the total of two or more vectors. Impedance is stated in terms of a vector sum. Finding a Vector Sum Inductive reactance causes the current in an inductor to lag 90° behind the voltage. Therefore, a graphic way of presenting the impedance of current can be drawn as shown in Figure 4-1, In this illustration, resistance is plotted on the horizontal line AD. The length of the line AD is proportional to the amount of resistance in the circuit. Proportional means that the quantity of resistance within the circuit is represented by line AD. Zero resistance is indicated by point A. The value of resistance in the circuit is indi- cated at point D. Using the same scale, the amount of inductive reactance is plotted on a line 90° from the resistance line. This is because the voltage and current in the resistor are in phase with one another. This means that the resistance line AD can be used as the horizontal reference and everything else will be plotted up or down in reference to this horizontal reference. The vertical line AB represents the inductive reactance. This is also proportional. Zero inductive reactance is shown at point A. The value of inductive reactance is indicated at point B. The impedance Z is the vector sum of the two lines. It is represented by line AC. To find the value of C, begin by constructing a parallelogram. This is shown in Figure 4-1 by the dotted lines finishing up the figure. A parallelogram is a four-sided figure whose opposite sides are parallel and equal. In Figure 4-1, the dotted line CD is parallel to AB, and BC is parallel to AD. C is the point where the parallelogram is completed. The value of Z is found by draw- ing a straight line between C and A. This line can be measured and the value of Z found by equating it to the units used in X;, and R, The value of this graphic method is that it helps you to visualize the procedure. In practice there are faster methods for calculating impedance. This is a simple operation on most calculators. Using a calculator becomes even easier once you can visualize and understand the values involved. Finding the Impedance of an RL Circuit Figure 4-2 shows an ac circuit with a resistor and an inductor connected in series. The resistor has a value of 6 ohms (22). The inductor has a reactance of 8 Q. These values are indicated by the solid horizontal and vertical lines in Figure 4-3. InFINDING THE IMPEDANCE OF AN RL CIRCUIT 57 Figure 4-2. A series RE circuit. MARK OFF 8 UNITS: Re6o MARK OFF 6 UNITE Figure 4-3. Drawing a parallelogram to find impedance. this figure, a parallelogram has been formed, and the value of it has been plotted. The length of line BD is ten units. This is proportional with the six units in BC and the eight units in BA. Therefore, the impedance (Z) of the circuit is 10 9. Finding the Impedance of an RL Circuit Mathematically You can also use the mathematical method of finding the impedance of a series AL circuit. AL means resistive-inductive. The equation used is known as the Pythagorean theorem. The Pythagorean theorem states that the square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. The lines representing resistance and inductance in Figure 4-3 form a 90° angle, or a right triangle. The hypotenuse is the line in a right triangle that is opposite the right angle. Line BD is the hypotenuse of triangle CBD. The side opposite AB is CD, which. means that CD is the same length, and that both lines are parallel. Since CD is the same length as AB, it is also equal to 8 O. So, BC = 6 Q and represents the resistance; CD = 8 Q58 RESONANCE and represents the inductive reactance. The resulting angle made at CBD is the phase angle. It can be measured by a protractor to determine its value in degrees. If you have the unit-measuring device that you used to lay out the X, and FR on the graph, you can use the same measuring device to measure the length of BD to obtain the hypotenuse length (BD). However, if you are going to use the mathematical method to obtain the value of BD, it can be done with a formula derived from the Pythagorean theorem: B= Xi+ Re A simplified version becomes ZaVXI+R Substitute the values of the two known elements (FR and _X;,.) to find the value of Z. Or, PETE = 64 +36 = 100 =100 These steps show how the mathematical approach to the solution of the problem is handled. Use an electronic calculator to simplify the process by using the square and the square root keys to get an answer quickly. Impedance in an RC Circuit A similar method can be used to find Z in circuits that have a resistor and capacitor in series. Such a circuit is shown in Figure 4-4. Ansa Xen so Figure 4-4. A series RC circuit. Note the difference in the structure of the parallelogram in this figure. In a capacitive cir- cuit, the current leads the voltage by 90°. Expressed another way, the voltage lags the cur- rent by 90°. Because the voltage lags the current, reactance is considered to be at -90° with respect to resistance. This is indicated by having the Z vector point downward. In a series circuit, remember, the current was the stable element and the voltage the varying factor. This is still true here since it is a series circuit. The current is the stable element and the volt- age either leads or lags and is plotted accordingly: either up or down to show lead and lag. Figure 4-5 shows the downward line representing the impedance. Note also that theSERIES RCL CIRCUIT 59 (MARK OFF 6 UNITS: (MARI OFF 8 UNITS. Figure 4-5. Parallelogram method of finding the impedance. resistance line is still horizontal since voltage and current are in phase in a resistor. Line AD represents capacitive reactance. Line AD is downward to show the negative or lagging connotation assigned to the voltage lagging the current in a capacitor. The problem can be solved the same way the series RL circuit was solved: 2 2 X2+R Z=VXi+R =18'+67 = 64 +36 = 100 =100 The Pythagorean theorem is used in the same way as before to solve for the impedance where a capacitor and resistor are connected in series. Note that X¢ is substituted for X, and that the direction of the Xc is downward from point A instead of upward as shown in Figure 4-3 for X,. In either of the impedance circuits shown, the phase angle is determined by the size relationship between the impedance line and the resistance line. The phase angle of any circuit can, therefore, be between +90° and -90°. The angle depends upon whether the reactance part of the impedance is inductive or capacitive. The angle also depends upon the relative values of the reactances and the resistance. Another factor that affects the phase angle is the frequency of the ac being applied to the circuit. Frequency affects reactance in both the capacitor and inductor. By affecting reactance, the frequency can also affect the amount of impedance in the circuit. Series RCL Circuit Take a look at a series circuit consisting of a resistor, a capacitor, and an inductor. The resistor has a resistance of 12 9, while the inductive reactance of the coil is 20.9 and the capacitor presents a reactance of 4 2 (see Figure 4-6). A vector diagram can be used to express the three values in graphic form (see Figure 4-7). Note that the vertical line in Figure 4-7 is longer than the horizontal line. The hori- zontal line represents resistance. The vertical line represents reactance, as usual.60 RESONANCE Figure 4-6. A series RCL circuit. Hy Ae = 160 Xeedo ARID Figure 4-7. A parallelogram method of finding the impedance of an RCL circuit. However, there are some small differences. The inductive reactance line is longer than the other two lines. The X;, line runs from point A upward 20 units. The X¢ line runs down- ward 4 units. In order to find the resultant reactance, you subtract the Xc, which is in the negative direction, from the X,, which is in the upward direction. As a result, you obtain 20 - 4 = 16 units of reactance. These 16 units are plotted as shown in the dotted lines of Figure 4-7. The parallelogram is constructed and bisected to produce the two right triangles. By using the information already learned, you can arrive at the impedance mathematically or measure it on the graph paper where it has been plotted. The formula is Z = R4+(X,-Xp) X;, - Xc is now one leg of the triangle. That means you can obtain an answer by further reducing the formula to 2=VR'4(X,-X.)PHASE ANGLE 61 and then substituting the values into the formula. This produces z=(19y + (16) = (144 + 256 Phase Angle In ac circuits, reactance and resistance change the phase differences between current and voltage. In a resistor, the voltage and current are in phase. In an inductor, the voltage leads the current by 90°. In a capacitor, the voltage lags the current by 90°. When these devices are placed in a circuit with ac, they produce a resulting phase angle somewhere between 0 and 90°. The relationship between the resistance, inductive reactance, and capacitive reac- tance determines the phase angle. If you refer to Figure 4-6, you will see that a resistor, a capacitor, and an inductor are connected in series. The phase angle for this circuit is graphed into a vector diagram in Figure 4-8. The phase angle is between the lines for Z and R. It is marked as angle theta (8). xno £00 313" * Figure 4-8. Series RCL circuit diagram of impedance. As you can see from the drawing in Figure 4-8, the angle is less than 90°. The circuit represented in the diagram has more inductive reactance than capacitive reactance. Thus, the circuit tends to be inductive. That means the voltage is leading the current in the cir- cuit. And this also means that the Z or impedance line will be above the horizontal line used to represent resistance. In the case of capacitive circuits where there is more capaci- tive reactance than inductive reactance, the Z, or impedance line, will be below the hori- zontal line which represents resistance. Remember, the R line represents resistance and is horizontal simply because voltage and current are in phase in a resistor, and this means it can then serve as a reference line in respect to the voltages leading or lagging the current in the other devices in the circuit that cause a phase shift.62 RESONANCE Other Circuit Values in a Series RCL Circuit Figure 4-9 presents a schematic drawing with a series resistor, capacitor, and inductor. The values of the components are given as 5000 2 of resistance, 10 henrys (H) of inductance, and 20 microfarads (uF) of capacitance. Am soo OK 70 yr 120 V @ HO Hr Figure 4-9. Series RCL circuit. Formulas can be used to determine several values of voltage and current in the circuit. We do know that 120 V at 60 hertz (Hz) is applied to the circuit. What we can do nowis find how the voltage is distributed across each component and how much current flows through each. We can also find the power factor and the phase angle of the circuit. Inductive reac- tance, capacitive reactance, and impedance can also be found using formulas and the infor- mation already at hand. For instance, the current in a series circuit is the same in all parts of the circuit. Thus, if we find the current, we know the value of current through each com- ponent. The formula used to find current is Jp = E4/Z. We know the applied voltage, but we do not know the impedance, That means we must find the Z, or impedance, before we can obtain the total current. Keep in mind that Ip = Zp =I, = Ic. To find the impedance we must know the inductive reactance and the capacitive reac- tance. These we can find by using the formulas already developed in a previous chapter. X, = 2afL and Xc = W(2nfC). Since we know the frequency (60 Hz) and the inductance (10 H), and the value for 27 (= 6.28), we can begin here: X= 6.28 x 60 = 10 = 3768 2 The next step is to find X¢. Use the formula and substitute. Convert the 20 uF into farads (F) for the formula. 1 6.28 x 60 x 0.00002 = 132.6962 To calculate the impedance we use the two values just found and combine with the resis- tance in the Z formula: Z=VR°+(X,-X,)° = ¥5000? + (3768 -192.696)" = 125,000,000+ 18,215,43523 = V38, 215,495.23 =6181.860POWER FACTOR 63 Now it is possible to find the total current in the circuit. 1-54 _ 120 ~ 6181.86 =0.0194 A Finding the Voltage Across Each Component It is now possible to find the voltage drop across each of the components in the circuit. Voltage E = current / times resistance R, or E =I x R. Ep = 0.0194 x 5000 = 97 V E,, = 0.0194 x 3768 = 73.1 V Ec = 0.0194 x 132.696 = 2.57 V If you added the voltages you would get 172.67 V, which is more than was applied (120 V). This is because a phase angle was introduced, and the voltage and current were out of phase in this circuit. Power Factor In a circuit with ac applied to a capacitor, a resistor, and an inductor, there is a difference between the actual power dissipated or used and that which appears to be used if the volts- times-amps formula is used. Remember that in a previous chapter power was measured in watts and was found by multiplying the voltage times the current? Well, that is still pos- sible, but only if you have purely resistive circuits or dc applied to the circuit. Power is measured in watts. We now must further identify this power measured in watts. We call it true power (TP) to differentiate it from the apparent power (AP) that is obtained when the voltage is multiplied by the current in an ac circuit with an inductor or capacitor. Apparent power is measured in voltamperes (VA). In order to find the true power, you must multiply the apparent power by a power factor (PF). The power factor is found by utilizing the phase angle. In Figure 4-8, you saw that the angle @ was 53.13°. If you use a calculator with trigonometry tables or if you use a trigonom- etry table in a book, you will find that the angle is found by dividing the resistance by the impedance, or R/Z. This produces 0.6000 which, if located in the trig table, produces an angle of 53.13°. This 0.6000 is also the PF since the cosine of R/Z indicates the percentage of power actually being consumed in the circuit. In this case it can be referred to as 0.6000, or 60 percent. Power factor, then, is used to determine the actual power used in a circuit. The apparent power times this power factor produces the true power: AP x PF = TP. In this instance (see Figure 4-8), the total voltage was 120. The current was found by Iy = 120/20 = 6 A. This means that you take the voltage times the current times the power factor to produce the true power. For that circuit it would be 120 x 6 x 0.6000 = 432 W con- sumed. If you wanted the apparent power, you would simply multiply the voltage times the current, or 120 x 6 = 720 VA. As you can see, the difference between the amount of power that is paid for (in this case64 RESONANCE 720 VA) and the power actually consumed are quite appreciable. The total amount can become rather huge in large factories. This is why the synchronous motor is used as a rotating capacitor to bring the phase angle back close to zero in these plants. Of course, it would not be practical, yet, to do the same for home use. However, some motors are made to run as capacitor-start and capacitor-run types in order to take advantage of the phase angle correction. This is very helpful when you have a large home air conditioner which pulls a lot of current. Series Resonance Resonance is observed when the inductive reactance and capacitive reactance are equal. Since the current in the circuit is the same, the current through the capacitor and the inductor is also the same. (Technically, it is what appears to be current flow through a capacitor. Actually, having current flow through a capacitor is the same as having no capac- itor in the cireuit. It is just easier to say or read current flow through a capacitor) This means that the current times the inductive reactance and the current times the capacitive reactance would produce the same result, and the voltage across the inductor and the volt- age across the capacitor would also be equal. At resonance, then, we can say these things: 1. Current through both components is the same. 2, X, is equal to X¢. 3. Ec is equal to E;. The circuit in Figure 4-10 has an inductor and capacitor connected in series. The induc- tive reactance and the capacitive reactance are the same, or equal. When this occurs, the two reactances tend to cancel one another. That leaves only the resistance in the circuit for opposition to current flow. A resonant circuit occurs only when there is one frequency that will cause each component to produce the same reactance. Since there is no resistance in the circuit (theoretically), it presents a short circuit to the resonant frequency. Current in a series LC circuit is theoretically infinite as the impedance is theoretically zero. Actually, there is always some resistance, and so you refer to the current as maximum and to the impedance as minimum. Inductance of the circuit in Figure 4-10 is 0.704 H, or 704 millihenrys (mH). Internal resistance is 100 9. This is the resistance of the windings or copper wire that make up the coil. The coil is connected in series with a 10-.F capacitor. Applied voltage is 120 at 60 Hz. 704 mH 10pF 120V-@ 60 Hr Figure 4-10. Series LC circuit.SERIES RESONANCE 65 In order to solve this problem for inductive and capacitive reactances, as well as for impedance, the following procedure should be followed: Xz = 2nfL = 6.28 x 60 x 0.704 = 265.2672 0 Then solve for the capacitive reactance: 1 Nee ao 1 ~ 6.28 x 60 x 0.000 01 = 265.393 7813.2 The next step is to find the impedance: Z=VR4X,-X,)° = 4100" +0126 581 3° = ¥10,000+0.016 022 825.5 /10,000.016 022 825 5 = 100.000 0819 (for all practical purposes, 1002) From this answer you can see that the X; and Xc were cancelled (only 0.1265813 differ- ence between the two), and the only thing actually left in the circuit was the resistance of 100.9, Plotting a Curve for Resonance The impedance for this circuit is at its minimum point at the resonant frequency of 60 Hz. Look at Figure 4-11. The value of impedance at the frequency applied to the circuit in Figure 4-11. Series resonant circuit curve.66 RESONANCE, Figure 4-10 is shown in Figure 4-11. The x's indicate frequency readings in a range from 55 to 65 Hz. A curve is drawn through the frequency marking points to produce what is referred to as a resonant curve. The lowest point is located at 60 Hz. With the impedance at its minimum point, the current in the circuit will be at its maximum. This characteristic of a series resonant circuit means you must carefully choose the capacitor. The voltage is very high, and the current is very high. This means that the capacitor must be able to withstand the current and voltage. The current in the circuit can be found by a Fa Z _ 120 1000 =L2A This current means that the inductor must be wound with wire that is capable of handling 1.2 A. When you refer to a wire table, you will find that the wire size should be no smaller than no. 20 (see Table 4-1). I, TABLE 4-1 WIRE TABLE (COPPER) AWG (B&S) Current Gage Ohms! Capacity @ Single Formvar Heavy Formvar Number in.) Mills —_1,000'700.CM/amp. DIAM. TURNS/IN. TURNS/IN.? DIAM, TURNA/IN, TURNS/INT No.8 0.1285 16,509.65 0.6282 25.5859 (0.1908 7 49 0.123 7 49 No.9 0.1144 15,092.75 0.7921 «18.7058 = 0.1165 8 640.1181 8 64 No. 10 0.1019 10,383.02 0.9988 = «14.8329 (0.1039 a B1 0.1055 8 81 No. LI 0.0907 8,234.11 1.2595 11.7690 © 0.092710 190 0.04210 100 No, 12 0.0808 6,520.85 1.5882 «9.3285 0.0827 12 14400842, 121 No. 13 0.0720 617848 20027 79978 «00738 «= 18. 169 0.075318 169 No. 14 0.0841 4,108.72 2.5254 5.8667 0.0859 5 225° «(00673 4 196 No. 15 0.0571 3,258.78 3.1844 = 4.6525 = .0588 7 239 «0.060216 256 No, 16 0.0503 2,582.74 4.0156. 3.6896 0.0524 19 361 (0.0538 18 324 No. 17 0.0453 2,048.21 5.0834 = 2.9260 0.048921. 441 0.048220 400 No. 18 0.0403 1,624.20 6.9849 «= 2.8204 «0.041828 529 (0.043123 529 No. 19 0.0359 1,288.13 6.0512 «e402 0.087428 676 (0.0386 «2B 625 No, 20 0.0820 1,021.53 10.1524 1.4583 0.0334 29 B41 (0.0346 28 784 No, 21 0.0285 810.11 12.8018 1.1873. 0.0289 33 1,089 = 0.0310 1,024 No, 22 0.0253 «= «4245 16.1422 © 0.9178 «0.0288 = 1,369 0.027786 1,296 No. 23 0.0226 «508.49 20.9558 «0.7278 = 0.0288 a2 1,764 0.024840. 1,600 No. 24 0.0201 «404.04 25.8882 © O.8772,—0.0218 48 2116 0.022844 1,086 No. 26 0.0179 © «82042 82.8870 04877 «= 0.01802 2,704 0.020060. 2,500 No. 26 0.0189 = 254.10 40.8141 0.3630 «0.0169 3,481 0.017965 3,026 No. 27 0.0142 201.51 51.4856 = 0.2879 0.01525 4225 (0.0181 62 8.844 No. 28 0.0128 «= «159.81 64.8969 «= 0.2288 0.018574 5476 0.014568 4,624 No. 29 O.01LS 126.73 81.8335. 0.1B10 0.0122 81 6,561 0.0131 76 5,776 No. 30 0.0100 100.50 103.1901 0.1496 «0.01082 8164 0.0116 BS 7,396 No. 31 0.0089 = 79.70 190.1204 0.1198 0.008703 10,609 0.010496 9,215PARALLEL RESONANCE 67 Deriving the Resonant Frequency Formula In order to obtain the resonant frequency of an inductor-capacitor combination (either in series or parallel combinations), it is best to have a formula where the values of the com- ponents can be plugged in and an answer arrived at using a calculator. Remember, at resonance, X;, is equal to Xc. This provides a basis for developing the formula for f,, or resonant frequency. Start with X, =X¢. That means 1 Oa ie Cross-multiply to produce 1=4n°FLO Divide each side by f: 1 _anif'ie Po ff That produces 7 4x LC Take the square root (V_) of each side of the equation. Invert both sides of the equation to obtain the formula f= 1 ” OnJLe Parallel Resonance Figure 4-12 has a capacitor and inductor connected in parallel. In order to find the reso- nant frequency (f,) of the inductor-capacitor combination, simply plug in the values of the components into the formula just derived, Or, Figure 4-12. A parallel LC circuit, otherwise known as a tank circuit.68 RESONANCE 1 fe Qnvex1x10° l ~ 0.0140425069 = 71.21235596 Hz At the resonant frequency of a parallel resonant circuit, an action takes place that is known as the flywheel effect. The flywheel effect is a continuing oscillation in a resonant circuit between pulses of electric energy. These circuits are sometimes called tank circuits. They are used to tune in radio stations and television stations. Take a closer look at the tank circuit. The operation of a tank circuit is shown in Figure 4-13. In Figure 4-13A, a current flows from the external circuit through the inductor and also onto the plates of the capacitor. The capacitor is charged to the supply voltage. The current flowing through the inductor causes it to have a magnetic field surrounding it. The external source is effectively removed because the capacitor is charged to the source voltage. The capacitor then sees the inductor as a means of discharging and equal- izing the charge on its plates (see Figure 4-13B). At the same time, the inductor will keep the current flowing through its windings since its initial reactance to current flow has been overcome. The current that was supplied by the source overcame the opposition of the coil. Once the capacitor is charged, the magnetic field of the capacitor starts to collapse for there is no longer a current flow in the circuit. This collapsing magnetic field cuts across the windings of the coil and induces an emf in the coil. This emf is in the opposite direc- HG Figure 4-13. Tlustration of the flywheel effect of a * rate LC circuit.PARALLEL RESONANCE, 69 tion from that which caused it. This coil becoming a source of emf adds to the capacitor charge. As the magnetic field weakens, the capacitor is charged to its maximum point. Then the capacitor sees the inductor windings as a low-resistance path to discharge or try to equalize the charge on both its plates. That means the discharging of the capacitor produces a current flow through the coil windings which produces a magnetic field, and the whole process is repeated. This charge-discharge continues until the resistance of the circuit (made up mainly of the windings of the coil and the connections) dissipates the energy. If the source is still active and putting the same frequency into the circuit, it will add whatever is needed to keep the circuit going back and forth, or oscillating. The external source is effectively removed as no more current flows once the circuit. gets started, that is, of course, if there is no resistance whatever in the circuit. Zero resis- tance occurs only theoretically since there is always some resistance (the coil has resistance and so do the connections and connecting wires). Figures 4-13C, D, and E show the steps followed by the circuit in producing the flywheel effect. Makeup current (to overcome the inherent resistance) is drawn from the source. This makeup current keeps the circuit going at its resonant frequency. That also means the resonant circuit presents a maximum cir- cuit impedance to the source voltage. A maximum impedance draws a minimum of current. So, at resonance (in a parallel LC circuit), the impedance is maximum (theoretically infinite), and the current is minimum (theoretically zero). The circulating current in the tank circuit is at its maximum. The flywheel action produces a pure sine wave as its output if energized and it the source of voltage is removed immediately (see Figure 4-14). If the source is used to charge the capacitor and is then removed, the circuit will produce a damped oscillation such as shown in Figure 4-15. A damped oscillation is one that has the waveform gradually grow Figure 4-14, Sine wave, Figure 4-15. Damped oscillation.70 RESONANCE FREQUENCY fa Figure 4-16, Parallel resonant circuit impedance curve. smaller until it is dissipated over the resistance of the circuit. Finally, the energy is dis- sipated and the oscillations cease. Figure 4-16 shows the impedance curve for a parallel resonant circuit. Series Resonance Versus Parallel Resonance Note some of the characteristics of each of the series and the parallel resonant circuits, Each has value in electronic circuits. Each has its own way of doing a job. These specific characteristics lend themselves to making a radio or television set operate properly. The series resonant circuit offers a high impedance to frequencies other than the resonant frequency. The parallel resonant circuit offers a low impedance to all fre- quencies other than its resonant frequency. This allows for most of the uses of the parallel resonant circuit. Parallel resonant circuits may be used for filters. Filters separate one frequency from another. Figure 4-17 shows a diagram of a simple parallel resonant circuit with an inductor, a capacitor, an antenna, and a ground connection. The antenna receives radio waves of suf- ficient amplitude and conducts them to the parallel resonant circuit. Frequencies other than the resonant frequency find a low-frequency path to ground by way of the inductor. Frequencies higher than the resonant frequency find a low-impedance path to ground by way of the capacitor. Only the resonant frequency meets with a high impedance. It is conducted on to the detector circuit consisting of a diode and a headset as shown in Figure 4-18. At series resonance, the circuit:SERIES RESONANCE VERSUS PARALLEL RESONANCE 71 = ba = gADUND Figure 4-17. Antenna attached to a parallel LC circuit. Figure 4-18. Crystal set radio receiver. Has Jow impedance Resembles a resistance of low value Has high voltages developed across each element At parallel resonance, the circuit: Has high impedance Resembles a resistance of high value Has high currents through each element Ground Ground is usually thought of as earth. In electronics and electrical work the ground is a common connection to which one side of the power supply is connected. The common12 RESONANCE ground may be a copper rod 4 to 6 feet into the soil, or it may be the chassis of a radio, TV set, or other electronics device. Earth ground is used by power companies and telephone companies to protect their equipment from lightning. The alternative to the earth ground is the floating ground, which is simply a reference point that is not earth grounded. The negative terminal of the automobile is connected to the chassis, which then becomes ground, but it does not touch the earth because of the rubber tires. Newer homes have a third connection point — usually a round hole in the wall receptacle — that is actually connected to the earth, most often through the copper cold water pipes. Practical Uses for This Information In making a choice of radio receivers, whether it is AM, FM, or television, do not buy more than you need or want. A communications receiver is rated according to its sensitivity. The rating indicates how weak the signal can be and stil] be heard. If you want to use your receiver for local stations only, sensitivity is not critical. Do not pay for more sensitivity than you need. If the receiver you are buying has a squelch control for easier listening on weak sta- tions, you may miss some of the weaker ones if the squelch is not disabled. Make sure you can turn it off when tuning so that you can pick up the weak stations and then put it back ‘on once the station has been located. Just make sure the squelch control is adjustable. The more tuned cireuits the radio has, the better its selectivity. Selectivity is the ability to separate stations that are close together. Selectivity is usually easily identified by counting the number of little IF cans (small shiny metal containers) on the printed circuit board. The more IF cans, the better the selectivity of the TV set, FM receiver, or AM receiver. Do not settle for fewer than three in an AM receiver or for fewer than four in an FM set, There are many more in the TY set. Usually the more it has, the more expen- sive the set is, This is very important when you live in an area that has many TV stations to choose from or when you use cable with its many channels that need separating. Summary In this chapter you have learned about the performance and values of circuits with com- bined properties. You have learned about resistance and capacitive reactance in series plus resistance and inductive reactance in series. You have also learned about the combination. of all three in both series and parallel. Some of the things you should know now: * Impedance is the total opposition to the flow of current in a circuit, Impedance is the vector sum of resistance and reactance. Vectors are used to represent. two dimensions of current — direction and magnitude. What the electrical properties of series and parallel resonant circuits are. What the effect on phase angles of both resistance and reactance is. What the properties of a tank circuit are. How to figure phase angle and power factor. How resonant circuits are used to pick one frequency from a number present at a given, point.REVIEW QUESTIONS. 13 Review Questions 1. What is the symbol for impedance? 2, What is a vector sum? 3. In what unit is impedance measured? 4. Why do capacitors and inductors present opposite reactance values? 5. What is a phase angle? 6. What is the formula for finding the impedance of a series RCL circuit? 7. What is the formula used for determining the current in an RCL circuit? 8. How is Ohm’s law for ac circuits useful in RCL circuits? 9. What condition exists when X; is equal to X¢ in a circuit? 10. What conditions must be present for a resonant circuit? 11. What is the impedance of a series LC circuit when the voltages across each compo- nent are equal? 12. What is the impedance of a parallel LC circuit when X, = Xc? 13. What is the formula used to find the resonant frequency? 14. When does the flywheel effect take place? 15. What is a tank circuit? 16. What is a damped oscillation? 17. At what point is impedance the highest in a tank circuit? 18. What is the phase angle of a series resonant circuit? 19. In a parallel resonant circuit, what is the impedance presented to frequencies higher than the resonant one?Chapter 5 CHANGING ALTERNATING CURRENT TO DIRECT CURRENT be stepped up or stepped down by using a transformer. It is a versatile type of power that can easily be changed to fit the voltage or current needs of particular circuits. However, direct current (dc) is also useful for many devices. Electronics depends upon de for many of its circuit components. This dependence upon de requires a source of inexpensive direct current for a variety of voltages and currents. Historically, the changing of ac to de began around the turn of the century when ac became available at Niagara Falls, New York, but was not easily transported to Buffalo (26 miles away) where it was needed by the milling industry. The demand for soap products became rather important in our country around 1900 when the newly “arrived” middle class was demanding the cleanliness of everything, and it beeame apparent that de current could be used to produce any number of soap products from various cheap chemicals. Niagara Falls with its inexpensive source of falling water-generated ac would easily become one of the chemical centers of the country if only the ac could be converted to de. The change was vital because de was much more easily used in the chemical processes of the time, Large copper oxide rectifiers were designed to change the ac to de. One side of the rec- tifier disk was copper, and the other was copper oxide. The copper allowed the current to flow easily, but the copper oxide side put up a great opposition to the flow of current in the other direction. This meant the ac could be rectified since the copper oxide rectifier allowed the current to flow in only one direction. This produced pulsating de which was useful for a number of chemical processes and for driving motors which were being developed at the time. In the copper oxide rectifier (see Figure 5-1) the oxide is formed on the copper by par- tial oxidation of the copper by a high temperature. In this type of rectifier the electrons flow more readily from the copper side to the oxide than from the oxide to the copper. Ss ince alternating current (ac) is inexpensive, it is used in thousands of devices. It canSELENIUM RECTIFIERS 75 COPPEA-OMIDE Figure 5-1. Construction of the metallic rectifier. External electrical connection may be made by connecting terminal lugs between the left pressure plate and the copper and between the right pressure plate and the lead washer. For the rectifier to function properly, the oxide coating must be very thin. Thus, each individual unit can stand only a low inverse voltage. Rectifiers designed for moderate- and high-power applications consist of many of these individual units mounted in series on a single support. The lead washer enables uniform pressure to be applied to the units so that the internal resistance may be reduced. When the units are connected in series, they normally present a relatively high resistance to the current flow. The resulting heat developed in the resistance must be removed if the rectifier is to operate satisfactorily. Many commercial rectifiers have copper fins between each unit to dissipate the excess heat. The useful life of the unit is extended by keeping the temperature low, below 140°F (60°C). The efficiency of this type of rectifier is generally between 60 and 70 percent. They are found in older types of equipment. No one uses this type of rectifier today in newly designed equipment with inexpensive present-day semiconductor devices with over 90 percent efficiency readily available. Selenium Rectifiers Selenium rectifiers are similar to and function much the same as copper oxide rectifiers. Figure 5-2 indicates the similarities between the two rectifiers. The selenium rectifier is made up of an iron disk coated with a thin layer of selenium, In this type of rectifier, the electrons flow from the selenium to the iron. Commercial types of selenium rectifiers were used in early models of television sets. They were designed to pass 50 milliamperes per square centimeter (mA/cm’) of plate area. This type of rectifier may be operated at a somewhat higher temperature than the copper oxide type. The efficiency is between 65 and 85 percent. Many units may be bolted together to increase the voltage rating when connected in series. Larger element disks and larger cooling fins must be used if higher currents are drawn. Forced-air cooling is required in some instances to keep them cool. Metallic rectifiers may be used in battery chargers, instrument rectifiers, and many76 CHANGING ALTERNATING CURRENT TO DIRECT CURRENT. Figure 5-2, Construction of the selenium rectifier. other applications including welding and electroplating. Commercial radios and television sets have been designed to utilize the selenium type of metallic rectifier. One caution: If you are going to reuse one of these units, and you overheat the selenium type, a pungent odor will be quickly detected. It smells something like rotten eggs, or hydrogen sulfate, or like molten sulfur. Thus, one easy way to tell if the selenium rectifier is “gone” is by the odor. It can be replaced in most instances with a newer type of semiconductor diode. Solid State Rectifiers Semiconductor materials are used to make a diode. A diode is a device which allows current to flow in one direction and not the other. Germanium and silicon are used as the materials for semiconductor diodes. Crystals of germanium or silicon are grown from a mei? which includes small quantities of impure substances such as phosphorus, indium, boron, and other impurity atoms. The crystal structure of the resulting metallic chips or wafers permits current flow in one direc- tion only. Historically, the crystal diode dates to the crystal set used by the first amateurs who worked on making their own receivers of radio signals. Figure 5-3 shows how a crystal set may have looked in the early days of radio. Note particularly the crystal and cat whisker. This was the forerunner of today's crystal diodes. The first use of the crystal semiconductor as a rectifier (detector) was in the early days of radio. A crystal was clamped in a small cup or receptacle and a flexible wire (cat whisker) made light contact with the crystal. Tuning the receiver was accomplished by operating the adjusting arm until the cat whisker was positioned on a spot of the crystal that resulted in a sound in the headset, Tuning the variable capacitor provided maximum signal in the headset. Trying to find the correct or loudest point on the crystal was quite time- consuming. Today's point contact diode is identical to the crystal diode of yesteryear (see Figure 5-4). The development of the point contact transistor was announced in 1948. The physical construction of the point contact transistor is similar to that of the point contact diodeSOLID STATE RECTIFIERS V7 wasune ednaz tte 9 anton Figure 5-3. Early receiver consisting of a crystal, cat whisker, coil, and capacitor, known as the crystal set to early radio buffs. SEMICONDUCTOR METAL Ld EXTERNAL LEAD OxTENMAL METALLIC POINT CONTACT WELOED WELDED TO TO BASE EXTERNAL LEAD Figure 5-4. Physical construction of the paint contact diode. except that a third lead with a metallic point contact is placed near the other metallic point contact on the semiconductor. The junction diode was first announced in 1949. The junction diode consists of a junction between two dissimilar sections of semiconductor material (see Figure 5-5). One section, because of its characteristics, is called a P semiconductor. The connections to the junction diode consist of a lead to the P semiconductor material and a lead to the N semi- conductor. The P material has a deficiency of one electron for every covalent bond of the material. The N material has an extra electron [therefore the (-) or N designation] for every covalent bond of the material. Covalent means that the atoms share electron orbits with adjacent atoms. ‘PN JUNCTION Figure 5-5. Physical construction of the junction diode.18 CHANGING ALTERNATING CURRENT TO DIRECT CURRENT The junction diode handles larger power than the point contact diode, but the junction diode has a larger shunt capacitance. More about the exact construction of the diode and its different types will be presented. in Chapter 6. Many types of semiconductor diodes are available. They vary in size from so small that they are hard to see to as large as 2 in. in diameter. They can withstand high voltages and carry large currents. The improvement of the semiconductor material creates better- quality diodes. Power Supply Rectifiers There are three types of rectifier circuits discussed in this chapter: the half-wave, the full- wave, and the bridge rectifier. Half-Wave Rectification A half-wave rectifier is a device by means of which ac is changed to pulsating direct current (pde) by permitting current to flow through the device during one-half of the power supply hertz. This one-way current is controlled by a semiconductor device known as a diode. Figure 5-6 shows a number of different packages for diodes. These are general purpose rectifiers. Figure 5-7 shows how a diode is inserted in a circuit with a transformer, This is a simple half-wave rectifier circuit, The main reason for the transformer is to increase or decrease the 120 V to a higher or lower level to be rectified. Note that the resistor (R) is connected in series with the cathode (+) of the diode. The Joad resistor (R) is there for a purpose. The operation of the half-wave rectifier circuit is shown in Figure 5-7. The alternations of the input voltage e are reproduced by the transformer with an increase in voltage e2 in the secondary windings. The waveforms indicate a 180° difference in phase between e, and eg. The difference is characteristic of induced voltages. The induced secondary voltage ez is impressed across the diode and its series load resistance. This voltage causes current 7 to flow through the diode and its series resistor on the positive half of the hertz. The resultant voltage e3 across the load resistor has a pulsating waveform, as shown in Figure 5-7. This pulsating waveform is referred to as a ripple voltage. Refer to Figure 6-7 and locate points 1 and 2 on the drawing. When point 2 is positive and point 1 is negative, electrons will flow from the ground (point 1) junction, through the load resistor (R), to the cathode and thus to the upper terminal, point 2, of the transformer. The secondary winding acts as the immediate source of voltage for the current flow. Because current flows in only one direction (point 1 to point 2) through the diode and its load, the polarity of the voltage across the load resistance is always as shown. The voltage drop across the diode is quite small when compared with that across the load resistance. The diode has very little forward resistance so there would be a very small voltage drop across it since E =I x R. The half-wave rectifier uses the transformer during only one-half of the hertz, and therefore for a given size transformer, less power can be developed if the transformer werePOWER SUPPLY RECTIFIERS 79 GENERAL PURPOSE RECTIFIERS ee 5 ae Figure 5-6. General-purpose diodes used in high-current rectification circuits. The T70, TO-93, R72, DC-8 are package designations. Figure 5-7. Half-wave rectifier circuit with waveforms, utilized on both halves of the hertz. If any considerable amount of power is to be developed in the load, the half-wave rectifier’s transformer must be relatively large compared with what it would have to be if both halves of the hertz were utilized. This disadvantage limits the use of the half-wave rectifier to applications that require a very small current80 CHANGING ALTERNATING CURRENT TO DIRECT CURRENT drain, The half-wave rectifier is widely used in small commercial receivers and in some early television receivers and oscilloscopes. It is also used in some battery charging circuits since the battery has a tendency to act as a filter and smooth out the pulses. Full-Wave Rectification A full-wave rectifier is a device that has two or more elements so arranged that the cur- rent output flows in the same direction during each half-hertz of the ac power supply. Full-wave rectification may be accomplished by using two diodes, such as shown in Figure 5-8. The end of the load resistor is connected to the center tap (Figure 6-8) of the transformer. The diode is a device that allows current to flow in only one direction. + ho b 1h OUTPUT WAVEFORM PEAK VOLTAGE. AVERAGE VOLTAGE Eyy= O86 E pax —— Te ————> Figure 5-8. Full-wave rectifier circuit with waveforms. The two halves of the secondary winding, AC and BC, may be a center-tapped winding as shown, or they may be separated windings. In either case the load circuit is returned to 4 point midway in potential between A and B so that the load current is divided equally between the two diodes. The part of the secondary winding between A and C may be considered a voltage source that produces a voltage of the shape shown in @ in Figure 5-8. This voltage is impressed across D, in series with the load resistor #. During the half-hertz marked f;, the electrons flow in the direction indicated by the arrow. This flow of electrons from the ground up through the load resistor R makes the cathode positive with respect to ground. Thus, the load veltage is developed across R between cathode and ground. During this same half- hertz the voltage across BC is negative, as shown in Figure 5-8A and D2 is nonconducting.POWER SUPPLY RECTIFIERS 81 A half-hertz later, during interval és, the polarity of the voltages on the diodes is reversed. Dz now conducts, and D, is nonconducting. The electron flaw through Dj is in the diree- tion indicated by the dotted arrow. This current flow also flows from the ground up through F and makes the cathode positive with respect to ground. Thus another half-hertz of load voltage is developed across R. Close examination of the drawing shows that only one diode is conducting at any given instant. Because there are two pulsations of current in the output for each hertz of the applied ac voltage, the full-wave rectifier uses the power supply transformer for a greater percentage of the input hertz. Therefore, the full-wave rectifier is more efficient than the half-wave rectifier. The full-wave rectifier has less ripple effect, and it may be used for a greater range of electronic devices and circuits. The de load current flows equally through the two halves of the transformer secondary and in opposite directions. Thus the ampere turns are equal and act in opposite directions so that there is no tendency to orient the molecules of the iron core in any one direction. Therefore, the transformer inductance is not reduced as it is in the half-wave rectifier and both the voltage regulation and efficiency are improved. The full-wave rectifier is widely used in radio transmitters, receivers, and television receivers. Bridge Rectification Take a look at. Figure 5-9 for a four-diode arrangement referred to as a bridge rectifier cir- cuit. This is a full-wave rectifier; the output is full-wave as shown in the previous two-diode circuit. In Figure 5-9A the diodes, D,, D2, D3, and D, are a semiconductor bridge arrange- ment. Notice how the negatives and the positives are tied together to produce a (-) and a (+) output from the arrangement. Where the — and + are connected indicates there is no polarity, and the ac can be input there. In reality, the diodes will have a black body with a white ring around one end. The white ring indicates the + end (called cathode in semicon- ductor parlance). In some instances the body of the diode may be white and a black ring around one end to denote the +, or cathode connection, During one-half of the hertz of the applied ac voltage, point A becomes positive with respect to point B by the amount of the voltage induced in the secondary of the trans- former. During this time, the voltage across AB may be considered to be impressed across a load consisting of D,, load resistor #, and Ds in series. The voltage applied across these diodes allows them to conduct in one direction. See the solid arrows. The waveform of this current is shown in @ and ®. One half-hertz later, D, and Ds are nonconducting, and an electron stream flows through D,, R, and Dz in the direction indicated by the dotted arrows. The waveform of this current is shown in © and ©. The current through the load FR is always in the same direction. As this current flows through R, it develops a voltage having the waveform shown at ®. The bridge rectifier is a full-wave rectifier because cur- rent flows in the load during both halves of each hertz of applied alternating voltage. There are a few advantages to the bridge rectifier over the regular semiconductor full- wave rectifier. First, the bridge arrangement allows for twice the voltage output from the same power transformer. Second, a bridge rectifier is so designed that it has only half the inverse voltage as the full-wave rectifier with only two diodes, Peak inverse voltage (piv) is a negative voltage applied across the diode when there is no current flowing through the diode.82 ‘CHANGING ALTERNATING CURRENT TO DIRECT CURRENT |oos INTIN Dy | wo on @e*e To make 1 bridge circu into a center tap circuit, connect to ternirals as shone Carter Soge Genter Ts ‘common Cathode Frese Bee common Aree paper clip for comparison purposes. HEXFET Hybrids B Figure 5-9. A. Bridge rectifier with waveforms. B. Single-phase molded diode bridges — 10 to 35 amps. Another advantage of the bridge rectifier is that it can be packaged easily into molded units for ease in handling and replacement if necessary (see Figure 5-9B). These HEXFET transistors feature all of the advantages of MOSFETs (See p. 161), such as voltage control, freedom from second breakdown, fast switching and temperature stability of electrical parameters. They are designed for a wide range of applications. The full bridge configuration makes hybrids suitable for motor drives, power supplies, and reversing switches among other applications. HEXFET design achieves low on-state resis- tance, high transconductance, and rugged, long-term usage. The copper film on alumina substances gives increased packaging density and improved field reliability. HEXFET transistors have the same standard configurations as found with modular plug-in units.FILTERS 83 Filters Up to this point we have discussed the making of pulsating de from ac. This is fine for some uses, but for most electronic circuits it is not pure enough de for proper operation of the circuits. Too much pulsating will make a high level of hum, and in some — computer cir- cuits, for instance — it will give unreliable results. That, then, calls for something a little purer in the way of making the de usable and of the proper form to do the work. Filter cir- cuits are the answer to smoothing out the ripple and pulsations of full-wave and half-wave rectifiers. The unfiltered output of a full-wave rectifier is shown in Figure 5-10. The polarity of the output voltage does not reverse, but its magnitude fluctuates about an average value as the successive pulses of energy are delivered to the load. In Figure 5-10, the average voltage is shown as the line that divides the waveform so that area A equals area B. The fluctuations of voltage above and below this average value is called the ripple. The frequency of the main component of the ripple for the full-wave rectifier shown in Figure 5-10 is twice the frequency of the voltage that is being rectified. In the case of the half-wave rectifier the ripple has the same frequency as the input ac voltage. Thus, if the input voltage is obtained from a 60-Hz source, the main component of ripple in the output of a half-wave rectifier is 60 Hz, and in a full-wave rectifier it is 120 Hz. PEAK VOLTAGE es ena Egy = 0.837 epcan Tae Figure 5-10, Unfiltered output voltage of a full-wave rectifier. The output of any rectifier is composed of a direct voltage and an alternating or ripple voltage. For most uses, the ripple voltage must be reduced to a very low amplitude. The amount of ripple that can be tolerated varies with different uses of the semiconductors. The percentage of ripple is 100 times that ratio of the rms value of the ripple voltage at the output of a rectifier filter to the average value, Eo, of the total output voltage. Figure 5-11 indicates graphically how the percentage of ripple may be determined. It is assumed that the ripple voltage is of sine waveform. The formula for determining the percentage of ripple is BEAK-RIPPLE VOLTAGE (ap) 7 Manenauna oF ouTeuT VOLTAGE VOLTAGE, Ceax? VOLTAGE Figure 5-11. Percentage of ripple.84 CHANGING ALTERNATING CURRENT TO DIRECT CURRENT Percent of ripple = Fen «100 where Eyms = 0.707 of ep @, = peak value of ripple voltage A circuit that eliminates the ripple voltage from the rectifier output is called a filter. Filter systems in general are composed of a combination of capacitors, inductors, and, in some cases, resistors. Capacitor Input Filter The load in a rectifier circuit has the voltage supplied in pulses from the changing of ac to de by the diode action. The fluctuations can be reduced if some of the energy can be stored in a capacitor while the rectifier is delivering its pulse and is allowed to discharge from the capacitor between pulses. Figure 5-12A shows the output of a half-wave rectifier. This pulsating voltage is applied to a filter capacitor represented by C in Figure 5-12B, Note that the capacitor is placed across the load. This means the capacitor will react to any change in circuit voltage. Because the rate of charge of the capacitor is limited only by the reactance of the trans- former secondary and the plate resistance of the diode or tube in the rectifier, the voltage across the capacitor can rise nearly as fast as the half sine wave voltage output from the rectifier. In other words, the RC charge time is relatively short. The capacitor, therefore, is charged to the peak voltage of the rectifier within a few hertz. The charge on the capacitor represents a storage of energy. When the rectifier output drops to zero, the volt- age across the capacitor does not fall immediately. Instead, the energy stored in the capac- itor is discharged through the load during the time that the rectifier is not supplying energy. This occurs when the voltage on the vacuum tube diode plate is negative or the cathode of the semiconductor is negative. Bear in mind that diodes have a (+) sign to indi- cate the cathode of a semiconductor. The voltage across the capacitor (and the load since it is in parallel with the capacitor) falls off very slowly if it is assumed that a large capacitance and a relatively large value of load resistance are used. In other words, the RC discharge time is relatively long. The amplitude of the ripple therefore is greatly decreased, as seen in Figure 5-12C. aN fonda LAN Stet fhdla pet WITHOUT FILTERING OuTUT FoR HUE MAE INPUT Exy = 0.638 Exar oso) REN YE = VY + FALTER = he a OUTPUT FOR FULL-WAVE INPUT WITHOUT FILTERING: Figure 5-12, Capacitor-input filter with waveforms.FILTERS 85 Figure 5-12D shows the input voltage to the filter when a full-wave rectifier is used, and Figure 5-12E shows the resulting output voltage waveform. After the capacitor has been discharged (with either the half-wave or full-wave output), the rectifier does not begin to pass current until the output voltage of the rectifier exceeds the voltage across the capacitor. Thus, in Figure 5-12C and E, current begins to flow in the rectifier when the rectifier output reaches a voltage equal to the capacitor voltage. This occurs at some time, ¢), when the rectifier output voltage has a magnitude Ey. Current flows in the rectifier until slightly after the peak of the half sine wave, at time fz. At this time the sine wave voltage is falling faster than the capacitor can discharge. A short pulse of current, beginning at ¢, and ending at f2, is therefore supplied to the capacitor by the power source. The average voltage of the rectifier output is shown in Figure 5-12A and D. Because the capacitor absorbs energy during the pulse and delivers this energy to the load between pulses, the output voltage can never fall to zero. Hence, the average voltage of the filter output (see Figure 5-12C and E) is greater than that of the unfilter output (see Figure 5-12A and D). However, if the resistance of the load is small, a heavy current is drawn by the load and the average or direct voltage falls. For this reason, the simple capacitor filter is not used with rectifiers that must supply a large load current. Also the input capacitor acts like a short circuit across the rectifier while the capacitor is charging. Because of this high peaked load on the rectifier tubes, the capacitor input filter is seldom used with gas tubes in high-current installation, This high peaked load can also ruin semiconductor diodes. Inductor Input Filter The capacitor was placed in parallel across the load since it reacted to variations in volt- age. The inductor is a device that reacts to changes in current. The inductor causes a delay in current. Since the current is the same in all parts of the series circuit, the inductor is placed in series with the load it is to filter (see Figure 5-13C). The inductor is placed in series with the load to prevent abrupt changes in load current. An inductor filter is shown in Figure 5-13. The input waveforms from a half-wave rectifier and a full-wave rectifier are shown in the other parts of the figure. When no induc- tor is used in series with R, the output current waveforms are indicated by dotted lines. The solid lines indicate the output current waveforms when an inductor is placed in the circuit. The use of an inductor prevents the current from building up or dying down too quickly. If the inductance is made large enough, the current becomes nearly constant. The inductance prevents the current from ever reaching the peak value that is reached without the inductance. Consequently, the output voltage never reaches the peak value of AA 3 MALE-wavt quTPuT Low CURRENT FOR SITHOUT FILTERING HALF-WavE INBUT i THE - i tere vaweme ram LS eared — LOAD CURRENT FoR FULL-WAVE INPUT Figure 5-13. Inductor-input filter with waveforms.86 CHANGING ALTERNATING CURRENT TO DIRECT CURRENT the applied sine wave. Thus, a rectifier whose output is filtered by an inductor cannot produce as high a voltage as can one whose output is filtered by a capacitor. However, this disadvantage is partly compensated because the inductance filter permits a larger current drain without a serious change in output voltage. Pi Filter The pi (x) filter is used to improve the filtering action of rectified current and voltage. The capacitor alone or the inductor alone cannot do the job properly. However, if both the capacitor and the inductor are combined, they have a better chance of producing a high- quality de for use by electronics circuits. The function of the capacitor is to smooth out the variations in voltage while the induc- tor is used to smooth out the variations in current produced by the pulsating de output of a rectifier. The result is a voltage having a nearly constant magnitude. Figure 5-14 is a pi filter used to smooth the full-wave output of a rectifier. This type is used with receivers and transmitters. Besides being referred to as a pi filter, it is also called a capacitor-input filter. The first or input capacitor, C), in Figure 5-14, acts to bypass the greatest portion of the ripple com- ponent to ground. In all filters the major portion of the filtering action is accomplished in this first component. The series choke in the pi filter serves to maintain the current at a nearly constant level during the charging and discharging cycles of the input capacitor. At the bottom of Figure 5-14 are shown the waveforms of current through the diodes and the voltage across C). The other capacitor, Cz, acts to bypass the residual fluctuations existing after filtering by the input capacitor and inductor. The current flow through the rectifier tubes is a series of sharp peaked pulses, because the input capacitor acts as a short circuit across the rectifier while the capacitor is charging. THROUGH D, CURRENT THROUGH 0; Figure 5-14. Waveforms of current and voltage in rectifier with C pi (x) filter.FILTERS 87 ———encnenrnananararar—————————————~—————— Because of this high peaked load on the rectifiers, the pi filter is used only in low- current installations such as radio receivers and television receivers. You can hear the difference if the capacitors open while in a receiver. If the signal on the radio is very weak with a strong hum, it means C, is open. If the signal is very strong, but has a low-level hum that is annoying, it is C2 that is open. Electrolyties do dry up and appear as open when they are not used for some time. Most pi filters use a resistor instead of the inductor. That is because for tubes the volt- age is more critical than the current. Filtering the voltage makes a difference in the hum level of the output of the receiver. The resistor keeps the two capacitors from causing a “motorboating” sound in the output of the receiver or amplifier. The filter resistor does, however, drop some voltage, and the output voltage is less than if an inductor were used instead. However, this is acceptable in most circuits that use the pi filter. Once you learn about the power supplies and how they perform, you will be able to look at a schematic of a receiver or piece of electronics equipment and know if the circuit you are getting is worth the money you are spending. This type of information makes you a wiser consumer of electronics. L Filter Another, not so often used, filter is the L type. It uses an inductor (in cheaper circuitry a resistor is used instead of the inductor) and a capacitor to filter the pulsating de output of a rectifier. It is used primarily in high-current applications (see Figure 5-15). MERCURY VAPOR RECTIFIERS. RECTIFIER OUTPUT ‘VOLTAGE APPROXIMATE VOLTAGE Figure 5-15. Current and voltage waveforms in full-wave rectifier with an LE filter.88 CHANGING ALTERNATING CURRENT TO DIRECT CURRENT The components perform the same functions as they do in a pi filter, except that the inductor, or choke, input reduces the voltage output of the filter. This filter is also referred to as a choke input filter. The input choke allows a continuous flow of current from the diodes rather than the pulsating current flow demanded by the capacitor input filter. The L filter is seldom used with half-wave rectifiers because there is no device to maintain the current flow between the half-hertz. Because of the uniform flow of current, the Z filter has uses in most high-power cir- cuits. It is used primarily with mercury-vapor rectifier tubes. It also has the advantage of voltage regulation. The inductive reactance (X;) of the choke reduces the ripple voltage without reducing the de output voltage. Two L filters are sometimes used in series to produce a higher degree of filtering action. Voltage Multipliers High voltage is needed in many circuits and devices. For instance, cathode ray tubes used in oscilloscopes, radar displays, and video displays call for a typical voltage of 2 kV up to 20 kV. They need only a few milliamperes of current and a regulation of +1%. Photomultiplier tubes are used in scintillation counters, flying spot scanners, as well as low-level photometry. The typical voltages for this type of tube is 1 to 3 kV at about one-half a milliampere up to as much as 5 mA. Required regulation is within the 0.1% range. The voltage supply to the tube must be held constant since the electron gain of a photomultiplier tube is dependent on the applied voltage. A change of only 1% in voltage results in about 10% change in the tube gain. Other uses for high-voltage supplies include the photocopier. These lamps require a typical voltage of 5 to 10 kV with about 5 mA current and a regulation of less importance than photomultiplier tubes. These are but a few uses for high-voltage power supplies. Camera tubes, electron microscopes, and image intensifier tubes also require high voltage at comparatively low currents. Voltage doublers, multipliers, and quadruplers are used to produce the high voltage needed for these devices. Inasmuch as the current requirements are low, it is possible to make an arrangement such as in Figure 5-16A. This is a doubler circuit that uses two diodes and two capacitors to increase the input voltage. It is also possible to increase the line voltage (120 V) without the use of a transformer if about 240 V is sufficient for the device. This type of “keep-alive” voltage is sometimes employed in a strobe circuit where the xenon flash tube is held near ionization by a valtage just below the flash point. Voltage Doublers The simple doubler circuit is nothing more than two half-wave rectifiers with the outputs summed by using two capacitors. D, conducts on the positive half-cycle to charge C, to the peak value of the ac secondary, Vp, and then on the negative half-cycle, Dz conducts to charge C2 also to Vp. Since these two capacitors are in series, the voltage available across the two of them is additive and can be taken off from the top and bottom points of the two- capacitor string. By taking the output from A-B it produces the sum of the two charges. AsVOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS 89 Yo 120 « 1.414 = 169.68 RMS x V2 = Peak value 2 Peak 2 x 169.66 = 399.36V. Figure 5-16. Voltage doublers. A. Using a transformer to step up voltage and then doubling it. B. Using the line voltage and then doubling its peak value. with other rectifiers of this type, the regulation is poor so that only a relatively light load of a few milliamperes can be supplied. Another doubler commonly used is also shown (see Figure 5-16B). In this circuit C, must be a larger capacitance than C2. On the negative half eycles, D, conducts and C, charges to peak voltage, Vp. On the second positive half-cycle, the left-hand plate of C, goes positive and D, conducts carrying C2 to almost 2 times the Vp. Typically C, is twice the value of C2 to allow correct charge-sharing between the two capacitors. Voltage Triplers A voltage tripler can be constructed by adding an exra half-wave rectifier as shown in Figure 5-17. The tripler uses three diodes and three capacitors to achieve producing three times the peak voltage of the secondary of the transformer. The polarity of the diodes is critical in the tripler arrangement as is also the case in doublers. As the number of multipliers is increased, the output impedance increases by the cube of the number of stages. The high values of output impedance limits the available output current. The high impedance also degrades the load regulation. Voltage Quadruplers The voltage quadrupler delivers approximately four times the voltage of the input second- ary. The well-known Crockcroft-Walton “ladder” circuit is utilized to produce both triplers90 CHANGING ALTERNATING CURRENT TO DIRECT CURRENT Figure 5-18, Voltage quadrupler circuits. A. Quadrupler. B, Crockcroft-Walton Multiplier. and quadruplers (see Figure 5-18). A quadrupler has an output impedance of about eight times greater than a doubler. As you can see, then as the impedance is increased with the higher voltages, lower amounts of current are available for use from this circuit design. Summary Alternating current is available commercially at low cost. Direct current is more expensive to produce; therefore, a method of changing ac to de is needed as an inexpensive source of de for electronic circuits. This is what the rectifier does. The rectifier is composed ofSUMMARY 91 either a vacuum tube diode, a semiconductor diode, or a metallic diode. Copper oxide and selenium are used as metal-disk rectifiers. Silicon and germanium are used to make semiconductor diodes which allow current to flow in one direction only. Metallic rectifiers may be found in older equipment such as battery chargers, instru- ments, welders, and electroplating power supplies. The semiconductor diodes are made in either the point contact or junction configura- tion. Each has its particular purpose. The point contact is used to rectify small ac signals while the junction diode is used for power supply frequencies. Three types of rectification are discussed in this chapter. In half-wave rectification the ac waveform has half its hertz or cycle utilized. Full-wave rectification makes use of both halves of the ac hertz or cycle. The two halves are made into pulsating de. The bridge rectification method produces full-wave also. All three types of output have to be filtered before they are of any value to electronic circuits. However, either full- or half-wave recti- fication can be used to charge batteries without a filter. The battery produces the filtering action. The bridge rectifier has an advantage over the regular full-wave rectifier since it allows for twice the voltage output from the same power transformer. The bridge rectifier circuit can withstand twice the full-wave rectifier's peak inverse voltage. Filters are used to smooth out the pulsating de current produced by rectifying ac power line frequencies. There are a number of filter circuits which can be used to produce a smoother de output. The capacitor input filter produces an average voltage that is greater than that put into it. However, if the resistance of the load is small, a heavy current is drawn by the load. and the average or direct voltage falls. For this reason, the simple capacitor filter is not used with rectifiers that must supply a large load current. The purpose of the inductor input filter is to filter out the variations in current that are pulsating as a result of the rectification action. The inductor is placed in series with the load to prevent abrupt changes in load current. The capacitor input filter utilized the eapacitor directly across or in parallel with the load. A rectifier whose output is filtered by an inductor cannot produce as high a voltage as one whose output is filtered by a capacitor. However, this disadvantage is partly offset because the inductance filter permits a larger current drain without a serious change in output voltage. The pi filter is used to improve the filtering action of rectified current and voltage. It is a combination of both inductor and capacitor filters. The arrangement looks like or resembles the Greek letter pi (7), hence its name. It is also referred to as a capacitor input filter since it uses two capacitors and an inductor to separate them. However, the input is considered from the rectifier and output from where the load is connected, Most pi filters use a resistor instead of an inductor. The inductor ia heavy, is more expensive, and is of limited value to circuits which draw low currents. The L filter is used infrequently. It uses an inductor and a capacitor to filter the pul- sating de output of a rectifier. It is used primarily in high-current applications. Because of the uniform flow of current, the L, or inductor input, filter has uses in most high-power circuits, It is used primarily with mercury-vapor rectifier tubes. It also has the advantage of voltage regulation. Voltage multipliers are used in many electronic devices that use high voltage but need low currents.92 CHANGING ALTERNATING CURRENT TO DIRECT CURRENT Review Questions . When did a need for rectification arise? . What were a couple of the early metal-disk rectifiers made of? . What is the purpose of a rectifier? . Where does pulsating de come from? . What is the difference between a selenium rectifier and a germanium rectifier? Where are, or were, metallic rectifiers used? What are the two materials most often used to make semiconductor diodes? . What is the difference between a junction and a point contact diode? . What is meant by the term reverse-biased? . What is meant by peak inverse voltage (piv)? . What is the difference between half-wave and full-wave rectification? . What is ripple voltage? . How is the ripple smoothed out? . What is a bridge rectifier? . How does a bridge rectifier differ from a full-wave rectifier? . What is the major advantage of the bridge rectifier over the full-wave rectifier? . What is the purpose of a filter? . Describe the capacitor input filter. . What is the disadvantage of using a capacitor input filter? . Describe the inductor input filter. . What is the disadvantage of using the inductor input filter? . Describe the pi filter. What is the advantage of using a pi filter over the inductor-input and capacitor-input filters? . What does percentage of ripple mean? . Which capacitor has the greatest filtering effect in a pi filter? Why do most pi filters use a resistor instead of an inductor? . Where are L filters used? . What is the disadvantage of using a resistor instead of an inductor in a pi filter?Chapter 6 SEMICONDUCTORS he term semiconductor is applied to both diodes and transistors as well as to certain ‘special types of electronic devices. The word comes from the fact that germanium and silicon perform somewhere between a conductor and an insulator in terms of opposition to current flow. The amount of opposition is programmed into or manufactured into the device by means of controlling the impurities introduced into a pure germanium or pure silicon atom. Germanium and silicon can be purified to better than 99.999 999 per- cent. Therefore, any introduction of another element is called an impurity, or doping agent. By controlling the amount of doping agent introduced into each crystalline struc- ture, you can control the amount of opposition to current flow. A Bit of History In 1833 Michael Faraday, an English scientist, made a contribution to the crystalline amplifier by working with silver sulfide. He learned that the resistance of silver sulfide varies inversely with the temperature. As the temperature increases, the resistance decreases. This was noted as being different since most conductors will have an increase in resistance along with an increase in temperature. It took over a hundred years before the Faraday discovery was utilized in any mean- ingful way. The development of the erysta! amplifier (the transistor's original name) by three Bell Laboratory scientists utilized the work of Faraday and expanded on it. In June of 1948 John Bardeen, William Shockley, and W. H. Brattain shared an office and rode to work together at Bell Labs in New Jersey. Their work on the development of the transistor led to Nobel Prizes for each. From the announcement day to the present, there has been no letup in the research and development of the semiconductor and solid state physics. Present-day computers and space communications devices are outgrowths of the development of a crystal that would amplify and switeh. Diodes and How They Work Semiconductor technology is called solid state. This means that the materials are solid as opposed to the vacuum that separates the electrodes in a vacuum tube. Since the vacuum tube was the forerunner of the transistor and diode, it is used as a standard of comparison many times. The uses of the vacuum tube were many, and the purpose of the solid state devices was to replace the vacuum tube and its need for many more watts of energy to heat its filaments and to have the heat dissipate before it causes excess problems for the circuit94 SEMICONDUCTORS designer. One of the reasons why Bel] Labs worked on the crystal or solid state amplifier was so they could bury the device in a cable, toss it overboard, and let it stay on the bottom of the ocean for overseas communications. Pulling up the cable and repairing the old vacuum tube amplifier had been very expensive and time-consuming. The ideal device was the type of material they developed in the solid state amplifier. Other companies were allowed to manufacture it, after court battles, and develop better-quality devices. Figure 6-1 shows two types of diodes. The diode comes in many packages and can be bought for almost any purpose. They may be individually packaged or they may be made by the hundreds on a chip. Let us take a look at an individual diode to see how it operates, and then we can look at more details of its packaging and use. en 4) A Figure 6-1, A. Point contact diode. B. Junction diode. There are many types of semiconductor materials. We use only two of these for transistors and diodes — silicon and germanium. In their pure forms, both germanium and silicon have properties close to insulators. By nature, both these materials are hard, brittle crystals. They have a type of structure known as a /aétice (see Figure 6-2). Outer electrons (called valence electrons) of individual atoms of these materials have special traits. They are bonded in pairs to adjacent atoms. Therefore, semiconductor materials are normally poor conductors. To free the outer electrons, it is necessary to apply higher temperatures or strong electron force or pressure in the form of a battery voltage. Impurity Donors and Acceptors In the pure form, germanium and silicon crystals are of no use as a semiconductor device. However, as stated at the beginning, when a certain amount of impurity is added, the crystal can be made to conduct a current. In order to accomplish this, both the quantity and the quality of the impurity must be carefully controlled. Added impurities will create either an excess or a deficiency of electrons, depending on the kind of impurity added. The impurities that are important in semiconductor materials are those which align themselves in the regular lattice structure whether they have one valence electron too many or one too few. The first type loses its extra electron easily, and in so doing increases the conductivity of the material by contributing a free electron. This type ofDIODES AND HOW THEY WORK 95 Figure 6-2. Germanium crystal lattice showing the bonding of electrons and the sharing with adjacent atoms. impurity has five valence electrons and is called a pentavafent impurity. Arsenic, antimony, bismuth, and phosphorus are pentavalent impurities. Because these materials give up or donate one electron to the material they are also called donor impurities, The second type of impurity tends to compensate for its deficiency of one valence electron by acquiring an electron from its neighbor. Impurities of this type in the lattice structure have only three electrons and are called trivalent impurities. Aluminum, indium, gallium, and boron are trivalent impurities. Because these materials accept one electron from the material they are also called acceptor impurities. Semiconductors that have no impurities are called intrinsic semiconductors. Semiconductors that have either acceptor or donor impurities are called extrinsic semiconductors. N Germanium When a pentavalent impurity like arsenic is added to germanium it will form covalent bonds with the germanium atoms (see Figure 6-3A), The arsenic (As) atom in a ger- manium lattice structure is shown in this illustration. The arsenic atom has five valence electrons in its outer shell but uses only four of them to form covalent bonds with the germanium atoms, leaving one electron relatively free in the crystal structure. Because this type of material conducts by electron movement, it is called a negative carrier, or N semiconductor, Pure germanium may he converted into an N semiconductor by doping it with any element containing five electrons in its outer shell. Other pentavalent elements which may be used in place of arsenic as dopants are phosphorus, antimony, and bismuth. The amount of the impurity added is very small. It is in the order of ane atom of impurity in 10 million atoms of germanium. The same type of explanation of the manufacture of semiconductors made of silicon is applicable. Just substitute the word germanium for silicon, and the explanation remains the same. Germanium was used here since it was the first of the semiconductors to be developed into diodes and transistors.96 SEMICONDUCTORS ‘OF HOLE [rat oF cuectnon FILLING HOLE COVALENT EXCESS COVALENT HOLE BONDS ELECTRON ‘BONDS a 5 c DONOR IMPURITY ADDED =» ACCEPTOR IMPURITY ADDED HOLE MOVEMENT Figure 6-3. A, Another way of showing the sharing of germanium electrons in the lattice with a donor impurity added. B. An acceptor impurity added. C. Hole movement. P Germanium A trivalent impurity element can also be added to pure germanium to dope the material. In this case the impurity has one less electron than it needs to establish covalent bonds with four neighboring atoms. Thus in one covalent bond there will be only one electron instead of two. This arrangement leaves a hole in that covalent bond. Figure 6-3B shows the germanium lattice structure with the addition of an indium atom (In). The indium atom has one electron less than it needs to form covalent bonds with the four neighboring atoms and thus creates a hole in the structure. Gallium and boron also exhibit these characteristics. The holes are present only if a trivalent impurity is used. Note that a hole carrier is not created by the removal of an electron from a neutral atom, but is created when a trivalent impurity enters into covalent bonds with a tetravalent (four valence electrons) crystal structure. Because this semiconductor material conducts by the movement of holes which are positive charges, it is called a positive carrier, or P semiconductor. When an electron fills a hole (see Figure 6-3C), the hole appears to move ‘to the spot previously occupied by the electron. Both holes and electrons are involved in conduction. The holes are called positive carriers and the electrons are called negative carriers. The one present in the greatest quantity is called the majority carrier. The other is called the minority carrier. In N material the electrons are the majority carriers, and the holes are the minority carriers. In P material the holes are the majority carriers, and the electrons are the minority carriers. Pure germanium is an insulator, or a very poor conductor. However, even at room tem- perature there is enough heat present in the germanium to produce some electron move- ment. An electron moving out of a covalent bond leaves a hole in the bond. The hole will attract an electron from a nearby atom. This produces a hole in that atom. Thus, both the holes and the electrons appear to move. The holes are positive carriers, and the electrons negative carriers. Conduction in germanium due to the formation of hole-electron pairs is called intrinsic conduction. It occurs even though no voltage is applied across the crystal. It is a random movement (diffusion). Holes and electrons may move in any direction. Intrinsic conduction is kept at a minimum by holding the operating temperature down and shielding the semiconductor from light and from other forms of electromagnetic radiation.DIODES AND HOW THEY WORK 97 Current Flow in N Material Current flow through N material is shown in Figure 6-4. Conduction in this type of semiconductor is similar to conduction in a copper conductor. That is, the application of voltage across the material will cause the loosely bound electron to be released from the impurity atom and mave toward the positive potential point. ie Figure 6-4. Current flow in N material. However, certain differences exist between the N semiconductor and a copper conduc- tor. For example, semiconductor resistance decreases with a temperature increase, because more carriers are made available at higher temperatures. Increasing the temperature releases electrons from more of the impurity atoms in the lattice, causing increased con- ductivity (decreased resistance). In the copper conductor, increasing the temperature does not increase the number of carriers but increases the thermal agitation or vibration of the structure so as to impede the current flow further (increase the resistance), Current Flow in P Material Current through P material is shown in Figure 6-5. Conduction in this material is by positive carriers, or holes. For the hole to appear to move, an electron in a nearby lattice site must shift to the position where the hole existed originally. Thus the hole moves from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. Electrons from the negative terminal can- cel holes in the vicinity of the terminal, while at the positive terminal, electrons are being removed from the covalent bonds, thus creating new holes. The new holes then move LATTICE HOLES ELECTRONS © SITES HOLES Figure 6-5. Current flow in P material.98 SEMICONDUCTORS: toward the negative terminal (the electrons shifting to the positive terminal) and are cancelled by more electrons emitted from the negative terminal. This process continues as a steady stream of holes (hole current) moving toward the negative terminal. In both N and P material, current flow in the external circuit is out the negative ter- minal of the battery and into the positive terminal. Semiconductor Diodes A semiconductor diode is made by joining a piece of the P material with a piece of N material. The place where the two materials are joined is referred to as the junction. This junction is very thin, and each end has a piece of wire attached for connecting the diode thus made into acircuit. Figure 6-6 shows how the two pieces of material form a diode junction. Figure 6-6, Pictorial representation of a PN junction diode. Both holes and electrons are involved in conduction in the PN junction diode. There are minority carriers in both regions: holes in the N material and electrons in the P material. The holes produced in the N material near the junction are attracted by the negative ions on the P side of the junction and pass across the junction. These holes will tend to neutralize the negative ions on the P side of the junction. Similarly, free electrons produced on the P side of the junction will pass across the junction and neutralize positive ions on the N side. This action is an example of intrinsic conduction, which is undesirable. This flow of minority carriers weakens the potential barrier around the atoms that they neutralize. When this happens, majority carriers are able to cross the junction at the location of the neutral atom. This means that holes from the P material will cross over to the N material, and electrons from the N material will cross over to the P material. This action results in both holes and electrons crossing the junction in both directions, These motions cancel each other and the net movement contributes nothing toward the net charge or current flow through the junction. Because of intrinsic conduction, the junction is no longer a rectifier when an external voltage is applied across it. It is analogous to an electron tube diode in which not only the cathode emits electrons, but the plate is heated to the point where it also will emit enough electrons to break down the rectifying properties of the diode. Operation of the Junction Diode When an electron leaves the donor atom in the N region and moves aver to the P region (see Figure 6-7), the atom has fewer electrons than it needs to neutralize the positiveSEMICONDUCTOR DIODES 99 JUNCTION PUR |—- Figure 6-13. Symbol for a diode. Note the (+) end is the cathode. The schematic symbol for the diode is the same (see Figure 6-13). Unlike the junction diode, the point contact type depends on the pressure or contact between a point and a semiconductor crystal for its operation. One section consists of a small rectangular crystal of N material (either germanium or silicon) and a fine beryllium-copper, phosphor-bronze, or tungsten wire called the cat whisker (see Figure 6-12). The cat whisker presses against the semiconductor material and forms the other part of the diode. The reason for using a fine-pointed wire instead of a flat metal plate is to produce a high-intensity electric field at the point of contact without using too large an external voltage source. The opposite end of the cat whisker is used as the diode terminal for connection purposes. Both contacts with the external circuit are low-resistance connections. During theZENER DIODES =- 105 manufacturing process of the point contact diode, a relatively large current is passed through the cat whisker to the silicon erystal. The result of this large current is the formation of a small region of P material around the crystal in the vicinity of the point contact. Thus, there is a PN junction formed which behaves in the same way as the PN junction described in the junction diode operation. This very small contact area has a reduced capacitance effect (over the junction type with two pieces of material actually touching along a wide surface) that can be used for rectifying higher frequencies than the junction diode. However, since the size of the cat whisker is limited, the amount of current the diode can handle is also limited. Zener Diodes Reversing voltage can destroy semiconductor diodes under certain conditions. In other situations, the effect of a reverse-biased voltage can make diodes useful. Zener diodes a re devices built around the effects of reverse voltage bias. There are several important conditions and functions that you should understand in. connection with zener diodes. These include Avalanche breakdown Zener effect Voltage regulation Switching eeee Avalanche Breakdown This is a condition in which the junction of the diode breaks down. As a result of the break- down of the barrier put up at the junction, the electrons can then move easily across the junction. This increase in current through the diode is beyond what it can handle, and the diode is damaged beyond repair or recovery in most instances. Figure 6-14 shows the curve for average current voltage of a PN junction of a germanium diode. The curve has been exaggerated to show the biasing. As the electrons streaming across the junction collide with the electrons in the N region of the crystal, the collisions release valence electrons, and the high current through the diode becomes a reality. Figure 6-15 shows the barrier region of a PN junction of a diode. The polarity is also reversed to make the diode reverse-biased. With a sufficiently high voltage across the diode junction, it breaks down into what is referred to as an avalanche. This condition is very dangerous for the circuit since the diode will serve as a short-circuited device and allow excess current to flow in other parts of the circuit causing overheating and damage. The avalanche will occur when there is not enough space area surrounding the semiconductor material to actually dissipate the heat buildup resulting from the breakdown. When a diode reaches the breakdown point, holes are quickly neutralized. Neutralization results as electrons from the negative bias terminal quickly fill the holes. ‘This means that the opposition represented by the barrier region has broken down. The diode then acts as a path of low impedance, Large currents are allowed to flow in either direction.106 SEMICONDUCTORS (CURRENT (A) ey = REVERSE BIAS Figure 6-15. Schematic representation of a reverse-biased PN junction. Zener Effect The zener effect is produced by a special type of diode. The zener diode is designed pur- posely to break down. The breakdown takes place when reverse bias exceeds a diode’s rated value. At the point of breakdown, the reverse current increases rather rapidly. This is demonstrated by Figure 6-16. A zener diode is not damaged during breakdown for it is designed during manufacture to make sure it can operate at a certain point. Zener diodes are available with ratings of 2 to 200 volts (V). Wattage ratings are 400 milliwatts (mW) to 50 watts (W). The wattage rating is important, because the physical size determines the amount of heat dissipated. If the heat is not rapidly dissipated, the junction impedance is lowered. If this happens, the current increases more rapidly than specified by the manu- facturer of the device. The manufacturer will designate the operating temperature of the zener.TUNNEL DIODES 107 Figure 6-17. Zener diode circuit. Note the symbol for the zener diode. Zeners are used for voltage regulation. A resistor is needed in series with the diode. This prevents the diode from reaching its breakdown point and then exceeding it because it does not have a limiting device in series with it, That is why the resistor is used in series with the diode — to take care of the excess current that would flow if it were not limited by the resistor's opposition in the circuit. Check Figure 6-17 and consider what would happen in a circuit of this type if the current demand is increased by the load. Note that the symbol for the zener diode is slightly different from the standard diode symbol. As the current flows through the diode, it causes a voltage drop across the series resistor equal to the excess voltage. Once the voltage has decreased to below the zener’s breakdown point, the zener returns to its nonoperating condition, Once another increase of voltage causes the zener effect, the same process is repeated. This way the zener can keep the voltage across it and the load the same or below or at its rated value. Another use for the zener is in computers. Switching requires rapid changes at high speeds. For instance, some switching operations are in the 100-megahertz (MHz) range. This requires a device that can complete its switching function in 0.01 microseconds (jis). Within this time, the diode must return to its original condition. That makes it a very valuable device in high-speed switching circuits as well as in voltage regulation circuits. Tunnel Diodes The diodes are somewhat different in their manufacture and their usefulness. The zener diode made use of the breakdown point, and the regular junction diode made use of the fact108 SEMICONDUCTORS it did not break down under reverse biasing. However, we now have another entirely different diode. This new type resembles the other diodes in packaging, but performs differently. Figure 6-18 shows that the bias on the tunnel diode is strictly forward in polarity. Keep in mind that a tunnel diode is made by doping the silicon with an unusually large amount of impurities. The doping leads to high concentrations of charge carriers. This leads to a reduction of the critical voltage for an avalanche effect. Actually, the avalanche breakdown point is reduced to below the zero voltage level. The breakdown point moves into the region of small forward-bias voltages, Figure 6-18. Characteristic curve for a tunnel diode. Electrons are said to tunnel through the barrier almost instantly. This is partly because the barrier is extremely small. Its thickness is less than 0.000001 in. (0.0000254 cm). Electrons move through the barrier at rates approaching the speed of light. Check Figure 6-18. Current is reduced with increases in forward bias over a portion of the diode’s operating range. This indicates a negative resistance characteristic. The same behavior is also observed in a tetrode vacuum tube where it has a large dip at certain volt- ages and currents. Figure 6-18 shows the negative resistance also in the form of the down curve. This takes in the line from points B to D. A junction diode does not behave this way. This down curve has been produced here intentionally in the tunnel diode. This has an added advantage since the diode can be used as an amplifier, an oscillator, or a very fast switching device. From point E upward the tunnel diode behaves in the same way as a normal junction diode. Tunnel diodes can be used in extremely small spaces such as part of an integrated cireuit (IC) or chip. They can switch at very high rates (2 to 10 GHz). A gigahertz (GHz) is 1000 MHz. A megahertz is I million times per second, and a gigahertz is 1000 times faster than that. Tunnel diodes are doped by using gallium arsenide, gallium antimonide, and indium antimonide. Doping changes the reaction of the diodes to produce the operating patterns that were visible in the curve in Figure 6-18.‘THE SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER 109 When forward voltage is increased, the current flow rises to a maximum or peak cur- rent value. See point B. A greater increase in forward bias voltage causes the current to decrease. The move- ment is from points C to D. This is the negative resistance feature of the tunnel diode. After the current reaches a minimum at point D, it again starts to increase. This is the same behavior as a junction diode. When an increase in the forward-biased voltage is applied, the behavior is shown by point £ upward. ‘The voltage range over the negative resistance portion is called the voltage swing. The ratio of peak current (point B) to the valley current (point D) is called the peak-to-valley ratio. Remember the negative resistance portion of the curve. These changes take place with small voltage variations, in millivolts (mV). The peak-to-valley current ratio is usually around 10. The Silicon Controlled Rectifier Another type of specialized rectifier or diode is the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). It has another name, but the SCR was coined by General Electric (GE) and has persisted. It was originally the thyrister. Inasmuch as GE dominated the marketplace, it soon became known by GE’s abbreviated version. The SCR is a four-layer device. That is, it has either an NPNP or PNPN arrangement for the semiconductor materials. It is a specialized type of device used for the control of current through its cathode-to-anode path. A gate is used to control the resistance between the cathode and anode. By applying a small voltage between the gate and the cathode, it is possible to control that resistance and, as a result, the amount of current flow through the device. An SCR conducts current in the forward direction only. The symbol for the device is shown in Figure 6-19. iE @... CATHODE Figure 6-19, Symbol for SCR, or thyrister. Figure 6-20 shows a circuit with an SCR. The function of an SCR is current control. Examples of this are the light dimmer or the speed control for a small hand drill or other handtool that is electrically powered. The resistor is a rheostat. This adjustable resistor is used to contro] the amount of voltage delivered to the gate of the SCR. The greater the voltage, the less the anode-to-cathode resistance and the more current is allowed to flow through the cathode-anode connection. By adjusting the rheostat, it is possible to control the amount of current flow through the device. As the current increases, the load — if a lamp — will get brighter. As the current increases, the load — if a drill or electric motor — speeds up. Thus, the SCR can be used to control either type of circuit. Other control110 SEMICONDUCTORS Figure 6-21. Two packages used for SCRs. circuits also use the SCR for their main operating device. Figure 6-21 shows two of the design packages for SCRs. Transistors The word transistor comes from two other words: transfer and resistor. Thus, it is a transfer resistor or a device that has more impedance (resistance) in the input than in the output, or the other way around depending on its use. By having a difference in impedance between the input and output, it is able to amplify. There are two ways in which transistors are used. One is switching, and the other is amplifying a signal. The switching ability of a semiconductor has previously been discussed under the diode section of this chapter, However, we will mention it briefly here in the study of transistors. Main emphasis will be on the ability of the transistor to amplify and thereby serve as a replacement for the vacuum tube. Transistors are made from N and P materials, such as the semiconductor diode, Once they are joined, they resemble two diodes back to back (see Figure 6-22). Transistors have an emitter, a base, and a collector. These are the connections to the N and P materials that make up the device. We will look at two types of transistors here: the point contact and the junction transistor. The point contact was developed first. The junction transistor followed later. Transistors are classified as PNP or NPN according to the arrangement of the impurit in the crystal. Symbols used for transistors are shown in Figure 6-23. The point contact transistor is similar to the point contact diode except that it has two eat whiskers instead of one. The two cat whiskers are placed with their point contacts veryTRANSISTORS 111 P-TYPE ‘EMITTER ‘REGION INOIUM ‘GERMANSUM ALLOY Figure 6-22. PNP transistor junction formation. Figure 6-23. Transistor symbols. Figure 6-24. Point contact transistors. close together (about 0.002 in.). The diameter of the contacts is about 0.005 in. The con- tacts are arranged to provide a springlike pressure on the flat surface of the crystal (see Figure 6-24), The crystal may be either N or P germanium, During the manufacturing process a large current is passed from the cat whiskers into the crystal. This action forms a small region around the point contacts of P material when the material is N germanium, or around N material when the crystal is P germanium. The same action oceurs in the manufacturing process of the point contact diode previously described. Both point contact transistors consist of two PN junctions indicated as semicircles in the vicinity of the cat112 SEMICONDUCTORS whiskers in Figure 6-24. The base (B) forms a common connection between the two junc- tions and the external circuit. One cat whisker is called the emitter (E), and the other is called the collector (C), Thus one PN junction is between the collector and the base. The point contact transistor is called either a PNP or an NPN according to which material was used for the common or base connection. The other junction in the transistor is between the base and emitter. This emitter-base junction in both transistors is forward-biased. The collector-base junction is reverse-biased. ‘The emitter-base junctions in both transistors are forward-biased; this means that the barrier potential is lowered, and the flow of majority carriers is increased across the junc- tion. The emitter gets its name from the fact that it emits majority carriers across the june- tion. In this manner, it is similar to the cathode of the vacuum tube which emits electrons. Check Figure 6-24 with the PNP transistor. The positive terminal of the left-hand battery is connected to the P material in contact with the emitter, The negative terminal of the battery is connected to the N material in contact with the base of the crystal. In accordance with the previously described action of forward bias across a PN junction, holes are emitted from the P material across the PN junction as electrons are emitted from the N material. Some of these holes will enter the N material as minority carriers. They have an important effect on the reverse-biased collector-base PN junction. The holes will attract electrons assisting them across the collector-base PN junction, increasing the collector cur- rent proportionately. The movement of holes from the emitter region into the collector region is known as hole injection. As holes are injected into the collector region of the N material, they exert an attractive force on the electrons, assisting them across the PN barrier around the col- lector and increasing the collector current. The effect is to neutralize the barrier potential in proportion to the hole injection so that more electrons can flow across the barrier. The action is analogous to that of a space charge or cloud of positive ions in a conducting gas tube, The positive ions neutralize a portion of the negative space charge around the cathode, thereby increasing plate current. In the transistor, the holes injected from the emitter attract additional electrons across the collector PN barrier and increase the flow of collector current. Current Gain In the circuit we have been describing, the total collector current is greater than the emitter current. The emitter is considered the input, and the collector the output. Thus, the action is the same as amplification since it represents a gain caused by the transfer action of the transistor. Current gain is the ratio of change in collector current resulting from a given change in emitter current for a constant collector-base voltage. The symbol for current gain is ace and is read “alpha-c-e.” The Greek letter a represents the gain. The current gain for point contact transistors is in the order of 2 or 3 ace. Current gain is com- pared to the vacuum tube amplification factor or the small change in grid-cathode voltage can cause a larger change in cathode-to-plate voltage. Junction Transistor Figure 6-25 shows the current flow in the external circuit of a PNP junction transistor. The junction transistor uses the same semiconductor materials as the point contact transistorTRANSISTORS 113 DONOR iNPURITIES COLLECTOR PN JUNCTION ACCEPTOR IMPURITIES. ELECTRONS COLLECTOR ELESTRON FLOW coRcuT Ee Figure 6-25. Current flow in a PNP junction transistor. but is arranged in the form of a sandwich. The basic PN junction is used. However, such a junction cannot be made satisfactorily by simply bringing two surfaces together because of the difficulty in achieving the necessary smoothness and cleanliness of the surface to be joined. Instead, the junction is formed by a diffusion, or alloy, process. Current flow in the external circuits consists of electron movement in a counterclock- wise direction in both the emitter and collector circuits. Current flow within the P mate- rial of the transistor consists of the movement of holes through the P material from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. Current flow in the N material of the transis- tor consists of the movement of electrons from the collector PN junction to the base and from the base to the emitter PN junction. Figure 6-26 consists of a transistor with NPN, or the opposite configuration. This means that the polarity of the power source is opposite to that of the PNP transistor. The silicon transistor is usually NPN. A few are made with the PNP but in most instances the PNP is the germanium. The paths for current flow in the NPN junction transistor are shown in Figure 6-26, The barrier potentials across the two junction planes are opposite to those of the PNP junction transistor. The dotted battery symbols represent these potential hills. The emitter circuit is biased in the forward direction and the collector circuit is biased in the reverse or high-resistance direction. Electrons flow in the external circuits of the emitter and the collector in a clockwise direction, or the opposite of the PNP type. The emitter bias neutralizes the barrier potential across the emitter PN junction, allowing electrons to be injected from the emitter through the barriers into the collector P region. The majority carriers in the P material are holes. As electrons move across the narrow P region of the NPN junction transistor, a certain amount of recombination of electrons with holes will occur. This action somewhat reduces the available current gain of the transistor by causing less increase in collector current for a given increase in emitter current.114 SEMICONDUCTORS BARRIER POTENTIALS ACCEPTOR IMPURITIES DONGR IMPUATIES ELECTRON FLOW ELECTRON FLOW HOLEFLOW | Tite nee Figure 6-26. NPN junction transistor. The voltage and power gains of the NPN junction transistor are of about the same magnitude as those of the PNP junction transistors. Like those of the grounded base PNP transistors previously described, these gains are principally because of the high resistance of the collector circuit compared to the low resistance in the emitter circuit. Other Types of Transistors A wide variety of types of transistors have evolved during the short period of time that they have been available. In addition to the types just discussed you should be aware of three or four other main types in your study of electronics. Alloy Transistors These transistors are made by alloying metal into opposite sides of a thin piece of semi- conductor. The process produces emitter and collector regions (shown in Figure 6-27A). To achieve uniformity in transistor characteristics, the thickness of the metal pellet must be controlled. Also critical is the quality of the metal. Further, the area of contact between metal and semiconductor and the alloying temperature must be closely controlled. Each of these variables affects the electrical characteristics of the transistor. Grown-Junction Transistors Development of this type of transistor is shown in Figure 6-27B. The grown-junction transistor has one important difference from the alloy type. The junctions are created during the growth of the crystal rather than by alloying after the crystal is grown.TRANSISTORS 115 INDIUM "e WLU PERE wowwaccemuoin Se ee Sayeed HEAT APPLIED P-TYPE GERMANIUM P-TYPE P-TYPE ANTIMONY SA Oe ae c a a “ann HEAT HEAT Figure 6-27. A. Alloy transistor. B, Rate grown crystal transistor. C. Junction formation by diffusion. Microalloy Transistors These transistors are a variation of the alloy transistor. Figure 6-27C shows the formation of one type of microalloy transistor, The transistor being formed in the illustration is a microalloy-diffused type. Germanium Mesa and Silicon Planar Transistors These transistors use a different construction technique (see Figure 6-28). Use of the diffusion masking materials and photolithographic techniques is shown. This produces. a silicon planar structure. All the PN junctions are buried under a protective, passivating layer. The use of a separate collector-contact diffusion reduces the electrical series resistance in the collector. In the germanium mesa and silicon planar transistors, the original semiconductor wafer serves as the collector. The base region is diffused into the wafer. The emitter dot ALUMINUM STRIPE (GATTER AND GOLD STRIPE EMITTER CONTACT) (ate ® cont P-TYPE PELLET jaan) {COLLECTOR} COLLECTOR MEGA se SUNCTION (SUNCTION Figure 6-28, A. Germanium mesa transistor. B. Silicon planar transistor.116 SEMICONDUCTORS region is alloyed or diffused into the base region. A mesa, or flat peak, may then be etched. This reduces the collector areas at the base-collector junction, plus the construction tech- nique is rugged. It has large power-dissipating capacity. It can also operate at very high frequencies. This type of construction is also employed in transistors made for use in inte- grated circuit configurations. Field-Effect Transistors FETs, as they are called, are small in size and are mechanically rugged. They have low power consumption and high input impedance similar to a vacuum tube. FETs are unipolar. They operate as a result of one type of charge carrier. These are holes in the P-channel carriers and electrons in the N-channel types. Other types are bipolar and require both holes and electron carriers. The term MOS means metat-oxide semiconductor. The metal control gate is separated from the semiconductor channel (see Figure 6-29). An FET is not affected by the polarity of the bias on the control gate. Changes in temperature affect the FET. They are used in voltage amplifiers, RF amplifiers, and voltage-controlled attenuators. To attenuate means to reduce. Figure 6-29, The PN junctions of FET transistors. There are four distinct types of MOS transistors. These classifications are based on sources of conduction. The units make use of either electrons (N channel) or holes (P channel) for conduction. Symbols for the four types of MOSFET transistors are shown in Figure 6-30A. Direction of the arrowhead in the symbol indicates the difference between N- and P-channel types. A solid channel line in the symbol indicates normally on. A dotted line indicates normally off. MOS field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) are used in broadcast band receivers in low- power circuits. Their use can be seen in RF amplifiers and converters. They are also used in IF stages and the first audio. In other words, they are used in almost all the circuits in 4 broadcast receiver except the output stage that drives the speaker. Figure 6-30C consists of a circuit with a MOSFET transistor. Note the parts and how they are connected in the circuit. They can be used in FM receivers as well as AM receivers. The FM receiver uses FETs in the RF amplifier, conversion stages, [F stages, and limiter stages. They are as versatile as the vacuum tube and substitute almost directly in the circuits designed for tubes. However, the voltages are different, and there is no need for a filament in an FET.INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 117 P-CHANNEL P-CHANNEL, DEPLETION TYPE © ENHANCEMENT TYPE CB GB (G— GATE, D ~ DRAIN, B ~ ACTIVE BULK, § ~ SOURCE), one Figure 6-30. A, Symbols for FET transistors. B. MOS (metal-oxide semiconductor) transistor. C. An FET transistor in a circuit configuration. Integrated Circuits The integrated circuit (IC) is a single, monolithic chip made of semiconductor material. It was first designed and developed in 1958 a short time after the transistor was introduced and made available for experimentation. J. S. Kilby was responsible for the fabrication of the first IC, or integrated circuit. He was able to make both active and passive circuit elements become part of the chip by using diffusion and deposition techniques. Shortly after his success, Robert Noyce made a complete circuit on a single chip. This led the way to the modern, inexpensive IC. Transistors, diodes, resistors, and capacitors can now be deposited on a chip. Diodes ean be made in many groups to do different things. Photolithography, a combination of photographic and printing techniques, has been used to make the complete circuit. This type of printing has made it possible to produce some very sophisticated ICs with very high reliability. Figure 6-31 shows how an IC has the resistor, capacitor, diode, and transistor etched on its surface and turned into a complete circuit on a flat surface which can be easily pack- aged and protected. Figure 6-31A shows how a resistor is placed on the chip. ‘The resistor is made in the form of a thin filament of conductive material. Contacts are made. It is insulated by a reverse-biased junction. It is possible to create a few ohms (2) or up to 20,000 © on ICs. Figure 6-31B shows how a low-loss capacitor is formed. This is done by depositing a thin insulating layer of silicon dioxide on a conducting region. It is then given a metallized layer to form the second plate. It is possible to reverse-bias a diode to form a capacitor with up to 50 picofarads (pF) of capacitance. Note how capacitors require more space on the chip than resistors. The transistors and diodes require less space. They are connected118 SEMICONDUCTORS ALUMINUM ‘CONTACTS. ie piooe IC TRANSISTOR Figure 6-31. Making an integrated circuit by placing a resistor, a capacitor, and a diode as well as a transistor on a chip. to terminals and then brought out to the outside where rigid packaging methods aid in their long life (see Figure 6-32 for packages of ICs). IC Configurations There are three standard packages for integrated circuits (ICs). The multipin circular type is the same as a regular transistor package, but it has more leads than the transistor. A chip can held more than a thousand transistors in a space that once held only one. The flat pack is a hermetically sealed package, which means it is vacuum-packed and heat-sealed (see Figure 6-32). The DIF or dual in-line package, is also shown in Figure 6-32. It has many legs like a caterpillar. Each leg is connected to some spot inside that is critical to the functioning of the chip. In most instances, the cost of the packaging can well outstrip the Figure 6-32. A. Flat-pack IC with 14-pin connection. B. DIP package with 8-pin and 14-pin configurations. C. TO-5 package with 8 leads.SUMMARY 119 actual cost of the chip itself. Modern manufacturing technology has improved the quality and reliability of the chip. Uses for ICs ICs are now relatively standardized (see Figures 6-33 and 6-34). This is partly because mass production equipment is available to everyone who wants to buy it. If you want to keep the price low and meet competition, you have to standardize so that your product can be used by a variety of users. ICs are used in great numbers in computers. They are also used in control circuits, television sets, FM receivers, and in almost every electronic device manufactured today where the latest technology is in demand. Toys and guided missiles use the same types of chips, They have a multitude of applications and the list is growing every day, limited only by the imagination of the engineer and designer. Summary The term semiconductor applies when used to deseribe diodes and transistors as well as some other devices which use germanium or silicon as the basic material. Semiconductor technology is called solid state. Impurities are inserted into the pure silicon or germanium. to control the amount of donors or acceptors each semiconductor will have and thus control its ability to handle current flow. Impurities used to make semiconductors of silicon and germanium may be arsenic, antimony, bismuth, phosphorus, indium, and aluminum. N semiconductors have an extra electron in each controlled amount of material. The P semiconductors have one electron. missing in every four covalent bonded atoms. Pure germanium and silicon are insulators. They have holes or electrons introduced in their four-atom groups in order to control the flow of electrons through the material and thus current flow. Conduction in a P material is by way of the positive carriers, or holes. Conduction in an N material is by way of the negative carriers, or electrons. A covalent bond is formed when. four neighboring atoms share an electron in the outer shell, or orbit. Both holes and elec- trons are involved in the conduction process in the PN junction diade. When an electron leaves the donor atom in the N region and moves over to the P region in a junction diode, the atom has fewer electrons than it needs to neutralize the positive charge on the nucleus, and it becomes charged. It has one extra positive charge equal to the negative charge of the electron which it lost. This is how the PN junction diode operates. Forward. bias means that the diode is connected to the proper polarity to allow it to conduct current. Reverse bias means the dicde puts up a high resistance to the flow of electrons and holes and thereby prevents current flow when the polarity is reversed. This is one of the ways a diode operates. A diode has a high resistance in one direction and a low resistance in the opposite direction. The point contact diode has a small piece of N or P material with a cat whisker making contact with it. The junction is formed when a large surge of current is passed through the point where the cat whisker makes contact with the semiconductor material. Point contact120 SEMICONDUCTORS ‘SYMBOLS, TERMS, AND DEFINITIONS BLOM TeFE LALARCTON ‘TAANEISTOA (UT) sauciv-TePE ‘UUM ‘THANRTOR (A) g © ® ® ® ® é aigcurtas mm Deane Sl oe amt ® rt vom . a be a Bw GE) | rome GR} BR te SINGLE GATE yy A a SOHAIL fn ™ Eee wane That PrcroreARSTOR sm woere erste waase au weet SNCLE OATS ¥ a ANECTION jp Powe eas, Cal ‘ nvamactvene wace ‘anuaoesa, & Pecrormanssron, ‘W soementag wos FET ‘aR Wer a " be or ‘SINGLE GATE: oO e00E} Conic Tite wow, ta | sun a | oon OUPUTICN MOO CTRL: wre Fanaa a ont a a west CEEED |B jan ae YY | siete! oar Ptr, 2X | suo OPTIBCLATOR fen wooe foetus wm = MRerorssron SLY | tom, bureau sue] A Soares oe = | men, Meat wnt am. ws . erteregaon ot @®) | Bees Eawcre ‘OOP rRNT OF MOTOR Wa, USED AY PORGTCN,SUMMARY 121 Diodes, Rectifiers, Thyristors TesCreegmren Toe To Sa pa Cassia erases = Mase Ge Charge OF Coren en Te = Mate CF Cnanga OF Vitae Vere Te reat uct Cae Yha Fava EOC Carr Ph hwy Teg Berta eae Ren Be mo Pared ~ Foss Fone Cue asrtin Pa Tea Pah tas OF Tha Forrest Comet hewing At esata Pemeas Coe ~ Ferwert Berge Bee DC Cavan tama Pua! Gage Fama Seog ee A Bananas einem Ana a Shan Seta Tar Sam ~ Se Tipo coms eens OC Cutten Te to0 Mae = = : am en ren Mame nr a ue = Nag Een se ort Sy Te OB Tate Atte Be Foe Coe Tage Be Reem Coc Vek oF Cort Pe oe Fis Senn fre Arora Orci. tounge Carre = Mer Hevone SE Corr Th angi Caan SERinaiioomts eres = Coreen Ovi Canoe ‘Sei topel at On Sear Soy Cit = Begs bares Te caren Set Ts Foe 8 Pe = Past Arca ange - Manmm Repaoees Paseo ‘Yarage That May Bt Azpd Te Tou Anece Coags 8 The ig ‘te? er pegpgrer = fees ‘ van Ta eae as A Seca is ie e ' Wut = Chane Figure 6-34. 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Sigum— Gee Te Cotoce Rewrae Bema ape ‘=D Cart Ce «Ras OF BE Ceti Cet Te Th DC eat i oc «thass ~ Hocireos Pom Boars Cans 60 — neat ~ Masirare Penerae Broce Carrs. * '= Vatu OF The: Cart Ta iw fe rier eerie oe tence fee = Toure core ™ = Yates set « The ty Cree Th Un Cam At Th a = henres Sore OF Foe Remo Have | Te Haw Resirree With Coen Eoine, Yan Annie Te Conde Vag: Th Santas Vain OF Yonge ‘SSpase bemcnan Anas Ln Come Wat Fone Yomcre Fewer deemzer Vonage. Veal = haewas treonour vonage Wp Rowe tomate Yamags, 1¥q = Aree ten Vege, Yat = Ga Rape Wonage OUTPUT (~) t Figure 9-11, An op amp operated as a closed-loop amplifier. Closed-loop gain can be expressed in the formula E, =< Aa = z The E, is the signal voltage output while Z, represents the input signal voltage. There is positive and negative feedback. Negative feedback can be used for a number of purposes. In this closed-loop op-amp circuit, it is used to increase the circuit stability and to reduce distortion. The negative feedback is 180° out of phase with the input signal. This cuts or drops the input signal. This reduces the output signal, and it has a better quality since some of the distortion was present in the upper peaks of the input signal. Op amps are used in equipment that has many uses in commercial, medical, industrial, and educational fields. One of the advantages of the op amp over other devices is its compactness and ability to have a high gain. The sensitivity to weak signals and even to de makes it a desirable device for many applications. Op amps can be used for sensors in many types of instruments and as signal generators. One of the most popular op amps today is model 741 made by Fairchild Semiconductors (see Figure 9-12 for its internal circuitry). It has eight pins in a DIP. The first op amp was produced by Fairchild in 1965. Figure 9-12. The 741 op-amp schematic and connections.160 OTHER TYPES OF AMPLIFIERS Differential Amplifiers The differential amplifier does not include capacitors in its composition. It is a linear amplifier and is abbreviated as diff amp. Figure 9-13 shows the symbol used for the diff amp. Note the differences between this symbol and that in Figure 9-9 for the op amp. NONINVERTING s— > OUTPUT INVERTING Figure 9-13. Differential amplifier (diff amp) symbol. The two inputs of the differential amplifier make it capable of distinguishing between the two sources. A difference output is generated from the two inputs. Components inside the amplifier respond to the differences between the two signals. The like signals are sup- pressed. A variety of differential amplifiers are available from manufacturers. Differential amplifiers require two transistors as nearly identical as possible. Thus, a commercially available method whereby they are made together is preferable to one that makes the two transistors separately and then tries to match them. IC manufacturers have the ability to make two transistors nearly identical or at least close enough to operate properly in circuits that demand close tolerances. Figure 9-14 shows how two transistors are connected in order to produce a differentiating circuit. Many of this type circuit can be reproduced in one chip and enclosed in a single package. Figure 9-15 shows how three diff amps are connected in sequence and enclosed in a single package. The circuits are connected in what is referred to as cascade. Cascade means in series or one after the other. The output of one circuit is fed directly to the input of the other with maximum utilization of the coupling process. Integrated circuits have millions of applications. More of these applications will be dis- cussed as we progress further in your exposure to the study of circuits. Figure 9-14. Circuit for a differential amplifier.FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS =©=- 161 NONINVERTING INVERTING (OUTPUT Figure 9-15, Three differential amplifiers connected in cascade. Field Effect Transistors The field effect transistor (FET) has high input impedance compared with the low input impedance of the bipolar transistor. The FET operates on low de supply voltages. This type of transistor is used in many consumer devices inasmuch as it is lightweight, rugged, and very small in size. The FET has three terminals with slightly different names from those encountered with transistors. It has a gate (G), drain (D), and source (S). The drain could be called the anode and the source called the cathode, with the gate being the current controlling con- nection (see Figure 9-16). FETs can be classified as to two major types: junction FET (JFET) and metal oxide semiconductor (MOSFET). Sometimes the MOSFET is also referred to as the insulated gate FET (IGFET). The JFET is further classified according to the type of material that makes up its channel. The channel is either P-type or N-type material. However, the MOSFET is classified according to its mode of operation — that could be either depletion mode or the enhancement mode. Figure 9-17 shows the schematic for MOSFETs. Figure 9-16. Single gate FET circuit configuration.162 OTHER TYPES OF AMPLIFIERS: (B) Figure 9-17, A. Depletion Mode MOSFET. B. Enhancement Mode MOSFET. The most commonly used of the field effect transistors is the MOSFET. It was designed to be used in circuits that were originally vacuum tube types. The MOSFET matches the characteristics of the tubes pretty well in regard to input and output impedances. The MOSFET also has a drain, source, and gate and operates much the same as the JFET, The drain is connected to the positive voltage power source and the source is connected to the negative voltage source. The substrate that makes up the transistor is connected to the source voltage supply. The device is biased to set up an electron flow between the source and the drain. Current flows through the narrow channel created by the substrate (see Figure 9-18 for both JFET and MOSFET). Depletion Mode In order to understand the functioning of the FET it is best to recall your knowledge of capacitors. The gate and N-type material are likened to the two plates of a capacitor. The metal oxide then would be the dielectric material between the plates. By applying a negative voltage to the gate, a negative charge is developed on the gate. Using the capacitorFIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS 163 P-matarial impurities: hack inva Neb (8) Figure 8-18. A, Structure of an N-channel JFET. B. Structure of an N-channel MOSFET.164 — oTHER TYPES OF AMPLIFIERS similarity again, we see that this assembly acts as a capacitor and the other plate develops a positive charge. That means the positive plate creates a depletion area. That in turn restricts current through the narrow channel. The more negative the gate voltage, the wider the depletion region between the N channel. When enough negative voltage is applied to the gate, current between the source and the drain can be cut off. The N channel is depleted of electrons by this action of the positive charge. This is the type of operation that gives the MOSFET its depletion mode of operation. Enhancement Mode Note that the gate of the MOSFET is insulated from the channel. That means a negative or positive voltage can be applied to the gate. A positive voltage is applied in the enhance- ment mode of operation, and a positive voltage is also applied to the gate. In the depletion mode, the gate, insulator, and channel acted as a capacitor. Note though that in this case the gate has developed a positive charge. This means that the channel has a negative charge. Negative charges that develop in the channel are current carriers in the N material. They improve the conditions so more electrons reach the drain. That means the current increases and the current flow in the channel is enhanced. As the gate voltage becomes more positive, it increases the current flow through the drain. Common FET Configurations Transistors with common emitter, common base, and common collector circuits are used for different purposes and so are FETs. Circuits are designed to be used for various purposes with a common source, common drain, and common gate. Acommon source configuration is shown in Figure 9-19, This is the most common type of circuit used in consumer products. This configuration provides a high input impedance, a medium to high output impedance, and a voltage gain greater than one. The input signal is between the gate and the source. The output of the amplifier is between the drain and the source. The fact that the source is common to the input and the output signal gives this configuration its name. A common gate circuit is also shown in Figure 9-19. This is a configuration with an input signal applied between the source and gate. The amplifier made with this arrange- ment develops a medium input impedance. The output signal is taken from between the gate and the drain. This means a high output impedance for this particular arrangement. One important characteristic of this type of stage is that it can operate at high frequencies. Because of its high frequency operation and medium input impedances, this amplifier offers low gain to the signal. That is one reason why the amplifier does not need large amounts of neutralization that would be provided by feedback capacitors. A common drain circuit is shown in Figure 9-19. It is also known as a source fol- lower. The name comes from the vacuum-tube-type circuit that was a cathode follower and was used to match impedances and not amplify. The input impedance is high in this configuration. It is higher than in the common source circuit. The output impedance is very low. There is no signal shift between the input and the output. The voltage gainGALLIUM-ARSENIDE FET 165 Figure 9-19. A. Common Gate. B. Common Source. C. Common Drain. for this type of amplifier is less than one, and it is used primarily for impedance-matching purposes. Gallium-Arsenide FET There are a number of devices that use a gallium-arsenide field effect transistor (GASFET). They are constructed for special purposes such as the triac driver output coupler. It is optically coupled to a silicon bilateral switch designed for applications requir- ing isolated triac triggering such as interfacing from logic circuits to 110/120 V rms line voltage. These devices offer low current, isolated ac switching, and high output blocking voltage and are small in size and low in cost (see Figure 9-20). The digital logic coupler is a gallium-arsenide IRED (infrared emitting diode). It is opti- cally coupled to a high-speed integrated detector. And, it is designed for applications that require electrical isolation, fast response time, and digital logic compatibility such as inter- facing computer terminals to peripheral equipment, digital control of power supplies, motors, and other servo machine applications. It is intended for use as a digital inverter;166 OTHER TYPES OF AMPLIFIERS 1 6 2 5 ahr 3 4 Figure 9-20. Triae driver output coupler. Copyright of Motorola, Ine. Used by permission, Figure 9-22. Optically isolated ae linear coupler. Copyright of Motorola, Inc. Used by permission. the application of a current to the IRED input results in a low voltage. With the IRED off the output voltage is high (see Figure 9-21). The optically isolated ac linear coupler is a gallium-arsenide [RED optically coupled to a bipolar monolithic amplifier. It converts an input current variation to an output voltage variation while providing a high degree of electrical isolation between the input and output. It can be used for telephone line coupling, peripheral equipment isolation, and audio applications (see Figure 9-22). Infrared Emitting Diodes Infrared (wavelength is 900 nm) gallium-arsenide emitters are available for use in light modulators, shaft or position encoders, punched card and tape readers, optical switching and logic circuits. They are spectrally matched for use with silicon detectors (see Figure 9-23).SILICON PHOTO DETECTORS 167 Figure 9-23. Infrared emitting diodes. Copyright of Motorola, Inc. Used by permission. Silicon Photo Detectors A variety of silicon photo detectors are available for a wide range of light-detecting appli- cations. Devices are available in packages offering choices of viewing angle and size in either low-cost, economical plastic cases, or rugged, hermetic metal cans. Their advantage over phototubes are high sensitivity, good temperature stability, and proven silicon reli- ability. Applications include card and tape readers, pattern and character recognition, shaft encoders, position sensors, counters, and others. Maximum sensitivity occurs at approximately 800 nm. Photodiodes are used where high speed is required [1.0 nanosec- ond (ns)) (see Figure 9-24), Phototransistors are used where moderate sensitivity and medium speed (2 ns) are required, Figure 9-25 shows what they look like packaged. Actual Size e im Actual Size If cnszann © Flat Lans Figure 9-24, Photodiodes. Copyright of Motorala, Inc. Used by permission. Bova © A Actual Size Actual Size Benrsin ®@ Figure 9-25. Phototransistors. Copyright of Motorola. Ine. Used by permission.168 OTHER TYPES OF AMPLIFIERS Photodarlingtons are used where maximum sensitivity is required with typical rise and fall times of 50 microseconds (4s). They are also packaged in metal and plastic eases such as that shown in Figure 9-25. Photo triac drivers contain a light-sensitive IC acting as a trigger device for direct inter- face with a triac (see Figure 9-26). As can be observed, this is the same case used for the phototransistor and the photodarlington. It is impossible to tell which is which unless you know which device is used in a particular type of circuit. Physically they look the same. Act ‘Case 82-05. Figure 9-26 Photo triac driver. Copyright of Motorola, Inc. Used by permission. Summary Radio frequency amplifiers are used in receivers and transmitters. Transmitters are used to generate a signal that can be broadcast, and receivers are designed to receive trans- mitted signals and process them for any intelligence on the received waves. A circuit that amplifies frequencies that are above human hearing is referred to as a radio frequency (RF) amplifier. VHF frequencies are located between 30 and 300 MHz. UHF frequencies are located between 300 and 3000 MHz. RF stages are coupled by tuned stages in IF amplifiers and similar circuits. Double-tuned transformer coupling has some advantages. Resonant conditions of the tank circuit result in a gain in signal voltage that is very selective. This type of coupling is frequently used in IF amplifiers in receivers and in output stages of transmitters. The arrangement is also available in a stage with only one tuned circuit, The RF amplifier deals primarily with tuned circuits. Tuned circuits used as inputs to grounded-emitter and grounded-base amplifiers have a very low input impedance. Power amplifiers that boost radio frequencies are needed for use in transmitters. In almost all eases they require larger input signals. If a transistor is used as an RF amplifier, it is usually operated at class C. This means for most of the input hertz only a small amount of cutoff current flows in the collector circuit. It conducts only during the positive peaks of the input signal and only then in bursts. The emitter is positive biased with respect to the base. There are two types of feedback to look for in amplifiers — regenerative and degenera- tive. These are also called positive and negative, or inverse, feedback. Regenerative means positive, and degenerative means negative, or inverse. Regenerative produces a higher out- put signal. Degenerative, or inverse, feedback produces better fidelity and less distortion. Integrated circuits (ICs) are used in all types of modern electronic equipment. Integrated circuits are just what the name implies: they are made up of a number of tran- sistors, diodes, resistors, and capacitors — all located on one chip and housed in a complete package. There are three categories of IC packages — small-scale, medium-scale, and large-scale integration. Each type designates the number of components that are housed in the enclosure or package. Integrated circuits can be used to do any number of things electronically. They are classified further according to their function. The two broadREVIEW QUESTIONS ==—- 169 categories of classification are digital and linear. The op amp is the most popular of the integrated circuits. The op amp produces very high gains in a frequency range from 0 to 1 MHz. The symbol for an op amp is the triangle. It ean be connected in an open- or closed-loop arrangement. The closed loop has a feedback circuit externally connected. The differential amplifier (diff amp) is a linear amplifier with two inputs. They use two identical transistors. They can be produced commercially identical on an IC chip. The field effect transistor has high input impedance compared with the low input impedance of the bipolar transistor. The FET operates on low de supply voltages just like any other transistor. It has three terminals labeled gate, drain, and source. The FET can be classified as to two major types: JFET or junction FET and MOSFET, which is a metal oxide semiconductor. The JFET is further classified according to the type of material that makes up its channel. It is either a P-type or N-type. The MOSFET is classified according to its mode of operation. FETs can be connected into three configurations. These are the same, basically, as any other transistor: common gate, common source, and common drain, The configuration varies according to the job the FET is expected to perform. Gallium-arsenide FETs are called GASFETs. They are made for use in a number of current high-technology circuits and perform various functions according to their construction. Review Questions 1. Where are radio frequency amplifiers used in electronics? 2. What is the name of the frequency range above human hearing? 3. What is the range of frequencies designated VHF? 4, What is the range of frequencies designated UHF? 5. Decribe tuned circuit coupling. 6. What is a double-tuned amplifier? 7. What type of circuits does the RF amplifier contain? 8. How do you obtain low-impedance inputs for RF amplifiers? 9. Where are power amplifiers used in RF circuits? 10. What class of operation do RF power amplifier stages have? 11. Why is the emitter reverse-biased in a transistor power amplifier stage? 12. What are the two types of feedback employed in RF amplifier circuits? 13. What is the difference between positive and negative feedback? 14, What is a DIP? 15. How many components can you put into an MSI package? 16, What is a linear amplifier? 17. What is an op amp? 18. Why are op amps so popular? 19. What does closed loop mean? 20. What is a differential amplifier used for?Chapter 10 STEREO EQUIPMENT sound which has good fidelity to the original, giving you a feeling of being there when the music was recorded. Recording and reproducing high-quality sound dates back to the 1930s when Edwin Armstrong transmitted high-fidelity musical programs over his FM station. Some record companies, such as Victor, produced long-playing 33'/5 records during the thirties. They were available to those who wanted to pay the high prices and had the equipment to play them. World War II stopped the development of high-fidelity equipment until about 1946 when the FM band was shifted, and people were able to hear the better-fidelity sound pro- duced by FM equipment. In 1947 the variable reluctance pickup for the phonograph gave the high-fidelity movement a boost forward. Diamond- and sapphire-tipped styli replaced the old-fashioned steel needle for record players in 1948 when Columbia produced the Jong-playing (LP) microgroove record, and plastic records replaced the shellac. The development of the Williamson amplifier and the use of two-speaker systems launched the movement toward today's high-quality sound. The word stereo is derived from the Greek meaning “solid,” or “three-dimensional,” space. When properly reproduced, stereophonic sound creates an aural perspective and produces a feeling of presence and an illusion of depth. It causes the ear to reject distor- tion and helps it to hear a wider range of frequencies. A primitive attempt to demonstrate stereo sound reproduction was made at the Paris Exposition of 1881 when engineers used two telephone circuits for the transmission of programs from the stage of the Paris Opera. For a better understanding of stereo equipment and the task it is called upon to perform, we must take a closer look at the basics of sound. F: a “stereo” effect, we need at least two amplifiers and two speakers to reproduce Nature of Sound The origin of sound is always a vibrating body. A good example of a vibrating body which produces a sound is a tuning fork. When a tuning fork is struck, the tines begin to vibrate (see Figure 10-1). When the tine marked A moves to the right, it pushes the molecules in that region to the right, thereby producing a compression of air molecules. When the same tine moves to the left, it produces an area of reduced pressure called a rarefaction. Every sound wave is composed of these compressions and rarefactions of air. If the tines are permitted to vibrate continuously, a continuous sound would be generated. The frequency of the sound produced by the tuning fork is dependent upon the length and mass of the tines. The longer they are, the lower will be the frequency of the sound produced. When the compressions and rarefactions produced by the tuning fork reach theNATURE OF SOUND 171 RAREFACTION THES (( ; JN CONPRESSIONS Figure 10-1. Tuning fork and its tines, eardrum of the listener, they produce small inward and outward motions of the eardrum. The process of hearing the sound is thus begun. The velocity at which the sound waves travel is dependent upon the medium through which they travel. If the medium is air, the velocity of sound is approximately 1080 feet per second (ft/s). The response of the human ear to sound frequencies is given as from 16 Hz to 16 kilohertz (kHz). It is an especially good ear that can hear above 16 kHz. The sound produced by the tuning fork is composed of many frequencies. There is the normal vibrating frequency, which is called the fundamental frequency, and other frequencies, which are called overtones. In musical instruments, the overtones are usually multiples of the fundamental. These multiples are called harmonics (see Figure 10-2). Figure 10-2. Note how the second and third harmonies relate ta the fundamental frequency. Asound may be described as having three characteristics: pitch, loudness, and quality. The pitch of a sound generally depends on the frequency of the fundamental. As the frequency increases, the pitch also increases. Loudness describes the magnitude of the auditory sensation produced by the sound. The sound may be so loud as to produce physical pain and permanently damage the ear. Quality is a comparison of different notes. A note is defined as a tone of a definite pitch. ‘The pitch, or note, can be played on a guitar and a trumpet, and the listener will be able to distinguish between them. The reason for this is that both the guitar and the trumpet produce a note that is not only composed of the fundamental frequency but also includes the harmonics, When the two notes differ in quality they also differ in the harmonic fre- quencies produced and the relative intensity of their various overtones.172 STEREO EQUIPMENT In order to make these sounds useful to the field of electronics you must be able to convert them to electric impulses. A microphone is a device that converts sound waves to electric impulses. Various types are available and used for different types of recording or as inputs to audio amplifiers for public address systems. Microphones Sound energy can be converted to electric energy by the use of a microphone, There are a number of types of microphones available today, but we will limit our discussion to three basic types so that you can see the principles on which they work (see Figure 10-3). Figure 10-3. General-purpose microphones. When you speak into a microphone, the audio pressure causes a diaphragm to move in accordance with the pressure applied to it. The diaphragm is attached to a device that causes current to flow in proportion to the instantaneous pressure applied to the diaphragm. Figure 10-4 shows the construction of a carbon microphone where the diaphragm moves the carbon granules back and forth to compress them and change the internal resistance of the carbon material. This in turn causes the current through the resistance (carbon granules) to vary with the pressure generated by the audio striking the diaphragm. Microphones are rated according to their frequency response, impedance, and sensitiv- ity. For good quality, the electric waves from the microphone must correspond closely to the magnitude and frequency of the sound waves that cause them, so that no new frequencies are introduced. The frequency range of the microphone (range of frequencies over which the microphone is capable of responding) need be no wider than the desired overall response limits of the system with which it is to be used. The microphone response should be uniform, or flat, within its frequency range, and free from any sharp peaks or dips. The actual impedance of a microphone is of importance chiefly because it is related to the load impedance into which the microphone will operate. If the load has a high impedance, the microphone should also have a high impedance, and vice versa. Of course, impedance-matching devices may be used between the microphone and its load (see Figure 10-5).MICROPHONES 198 DOUBLE-BUTTON TYPE Figure 10-4, Carbon microphone construction. fF Figure 10-5. Microphone line transformer matches the low-impedance microphone to high-impedance input of amps. The sensitivity or efficiency of a microphone is usually expressed in terms of the power level which the microphone delivers to a terminating load. It is important to have the microphone sensitivity as high as possible. High sensitivity means a high-power output level for a given input sound level. High microphone output levels require leas gain in amplifiers used with them and thus provide a greater margin over thermal noise, amplifier hum, and noise pickup in the line between the microphone and the amplifier. Microphones presently available make use of the properties of resistance, inductance, and capacitance. Microphones that make use of the piezoelectric effect are also available. The types of microphones that will specifically be discussed in this chapter are the carbon microphone; the moving coil, or dynamic, microphone; the velocity microphone; and the crystal microphone. The function of any of these microphones may be expressed graphically as shown in Figure 10-6. MIKE ‘SPEAKER =P AMPLIRED SOUND PUT SOUND OUTPUT Figure 10-4. Block diagram of an audio system.174 STEREO EQUIPMENT Carbon Microphone The carbon microphone is made of a diaphragm that vibrates with the impulses of sound and turns the vibrations into electric energy. It turns the electric current through the cir- cuit into electric impulses by compressing the carbon granules. As the density of the granules changes, so does its electrical resistance. As the resistance changes, so does the current flow through the carbon deposit. Figure 10-4 shows the construction of the carbon microphone. If the source of the pressure variations is the human voice, the compressions and rarefactions of air applied to the carbon pile will cause its resistance to vary. In fact under these conditions, the resistance of the pile will vary at an audio rate. In the single-button type of carbon microphone, the carbon granules are placed in a cup or button and are permitted to make contact with the suspended perpendicular element, which is the diaphragm. If a stress is placed on the diaphragm, the pressure exerted on the carbon granules is increased, and the resistance of the carbon piles decreases. In the double-button microphone, there is more of a push-pull action. Any movement. of the diaphragm increases the pressure in one cup while decreasing the pressure in the other cup by approximately the same amount. The word approximately is used here because it is highly unlikely that the two cups would be filled with exactly the same amount of carbon granules. Figure 10-7 shows how the carbon microphone is connected in a circuit. Any current flowing in the microphone circuit will also flow through the primary of the transformer, With no movement of the diaphragm, there will be no change in the resistance of the cup. Under these conditions, the de flowing through the cup will be constant, and the resulting magnetic field about the primary of the transformer will not fluctuate. Thus, no voltage will be induced in the secondary of the transformer. SOUND WAVES DIAPHRAGM, : ‘TRANSFORMER OuTPUT,,| VOLTAGE a SINGLE-BUTTON CARBON MICROPHONE SOUND WAVES OUTPUT VOLTAGE BATTERY a [DQUBLE-EUTTON CARBON MICROPHONE Figure 10-7, Circuit for a carbon microphone.MICROPHONES 175 When the diaphragm is compressed, the resistance of the cup is decreased, and the cur- rent flow through the circuit is increased. The field that was stationary about the primary will expand and cut the secondary windings. A voltage is induced in the secondary of the transformer. If the pressure on the diaphragm is reduced, the resistance of the carbon pile increases, and circuit current decreases. The voltage induced in the secondary of the transformer is then of a reverse polarity. If the diaphragm is moved at an audio rate, the voltage induced in the secondary of the transformer will also vary at an audio rate. Therefore, the amount of voltage induced in the secondary is dependent on the pressure applied to the microphone diaphragm. The frequency of the output voltage is dependent on the frequency of the input. The frequency limitations of the microphone are governed by the ability of the carbon granules to change their density. When the double-button microphone is used, the amount of possible distortion realized through the constant shuffling of the carbon granules is reduced. The push-pull effect realized by the use of the double-button microphone and the center-tapped transformer tends to cancel the even-order harmonics. The operating range of the carbon microphone is between 100 and 5000 hertz (Hz). The carbon microphone is used in the mouthpiece or transmitter of the telephone (see Figure 10-8). The felt washers in the microphone furnish damping. The low frequencies applied to the microphone are usually more intense. The tendency of the diaphragm to maintain the low-frequency vibrations after the force is removed is very great. By using the felt washers, the vibrations after the force has been removed are minimized or damped. Figure 10-8, Carbon microphone: cross-sectional view. It will be seen that the carbon microphone possesses certain advantages that make it a valuable device. In comparison to other microphones that will be discussed, the carbon micro- phone produces a relatively large output. It also has the advantage of being lightweight, inexpensive, portable, and rugged. It is used in places where wide frequency response may be sacrificed for good sensitivity, In voice communications, the quality of the speech is not critical. Therefore, the carbon microphone enjoys wide popularity in telephones. Because of the low impedance of the carbon microphone, an im ce-matching transformer is required when it is desired to send the output of the microphone to the high-impedance input of a speech amplifier (see Figure 10-5). However, since the output is in the order of about -50 decibels (dB), the amplification required for the carbon microphone is less than that required by other types of microphones. One disadvantage176 STEREO EQUIPMENT apparent with the use of the carbon microphone is the noise generated by the loosely packed carbon granules, One other disadvantage of the carbon microphone is that it does require an external de source, Dynamic Microphone The dynamic microphone is really a moving-coil type. The name dynamic comes from the fact the microphone has a moving part (see Figure 10-9). The coil winding that is wound around the pole piece is able to move up and down the pole. It is attached to the flexible diaphragm and is caused to move by sound waves striking the diaphragm. As it moves, it passes through the magnetic field set up between the poles of the magnet. Since the diaphragm will move at an audio rate, the voltage induced into the coil when it moves will also vary at an audio rate. The diaphragm in Figure 10-9 shows a cross section of the moving-coil microphone. Figure 10-9. Moving-coil microphone. In Figure 10-10 the diaphragm is located close to the pole piece. The diaphragm is held in place by the ring and washer. The area under the diaphragm is completely enclosed except for the narrow slit designated S,. This slit serves to control the response of the microphone by imposing a load on the diaphragm as a result of the increased air resistance of the enclosed air spaces designated as 0, and Oz. The cavity marked C improves the damping action and the frequency response. It also serves to increase the faithfulness of signal conversion. At the low frequencies, the stiffness of the diaphragm governs its motion Figure 10-10. Moving-coil microphone: cross-sectional view.MICROPHONES 177 and results in a response that normally decreases as frequency applied decreases. The decreased frequency response begins at about 200 Hz, and if left uncorrected, the sensi- tivity of the microphone falls off rapidly below 200 Hz. However, if the effective force on the diaphragm is increased at a rate corresponding to the decreased motion, caused by stiffness, a uniform response is obtained. In this moving-coil microphone, the uniform response is obtained by having an air passage provided by the tube which connects the diaphragm to the air chamber within the magnet. The tube length and diameter can be proportioned to make it possible to reduce the internal preasure at the desired frequency. Therefore, at low frequencies, the effective force on the diaphragm increases to offset the increased stiffness. This type of microphone has low impedance between 50 and 100 ohms (Q). With this type of microphone, an impedance-matching transformer is used. The microphone can be designed so that its frequency response is from 30 Hz to 18 kHz. Jt has an output in the order of about -85 dB. The sensitivity of the moving-coil microphone is high. It is light, rugged, moisture-proof, and small, and is not subject to the effects of temperature and humidity. It does not require an external source of de voltage. Keep in mind that a permanent-magnet speaker can also be used as a dynamic-type microphone. As we examine speakers you will see the similarity, This is why the speaker can be used as a microphone in an intercom system. Velocity Microphone Microphones do pick up noise, The two previously discussed microphones are subject to picking up noise. That makes them limited for use in some cases. This disadvantage of noise pickup can be eliminated by using a velocity microphone (see Figure 10-11 to see how it operates), The operation of the velocity microphone is fundamentally the same as that of the moving-coil type. Instead of the moving coil, a strip of metal is caused to vibrate in the magnetic field (see Figure 10-11). This is because the metal strip, called the ribbon, PERMANENT MAGNETS: POLE PIECES: FLEXIBLE METAL RIBBON ‘CORNECTING WIRE Figure 10-11. Velocity microphone: cross-sectional view.178 — sTEREO EQUIPMENT performs the function of the diaphragm. The metal strip is arranged in such a way that its length is perpendicular to, and its width is in the plane of, the magnetic lines of force. Notice that the pole pieces are constructed in such a way that air may pass freely through the microphone. The ribbon passes through the magnetic field as it is caused to vibrate by the sound waves striking it. An emf is induced in the ribbon in proportion to the strength of the magnetic field that strikes the ribbon, the velocity that the ribbon cuts through the field, and the length of the ribbon in the field. Since the ribbon is caused to move through the field at an audio rate, the voltage induced in the ribbon will also vary at an audio rate. This type of microphone is subject to damage by sudden gusts of wind, That is why it is covered by a fine mesh of silk and protected physically by having a screen wire covering its outer surface. It also has to be protected from materials that may be attracted by the strong permanent magnets. The name velocity microphone comes from the ability of the very thin ribbon to move rapidly with any small amount of wind pressure or with any pressure created by the human voice. This is a bidirectional microphone since it can respond to air pressure changes from either the front or back. The ability of the ribbon to respond to various pressure changes causes it to have a very good frequency range or response of between 20 Hz and 15 kHz. This is a very sensitive microphone and can pick up very weak sounds. A person talking into the microphone can stand about 18 in. from it easily without having to shout or talk in a loud voice. The impedance is very low but can be raised with a transformer to between 20 and 600 Q. Output is about -90 dB. Crystal Microphone The piezoelectric effect is used to. advantage when the erystal microphone is used. The piezo effect refers to certain crystals that give off a small current when pressured. By taking the characteristics of the crystal (Rochelle salts or quartz) and having a diaphragm attached so that it touches the crystal, it is possible to utilize this electric generator as a microphone (see Figure 10-12). There are two types of crystal microphones: the directly actuated and the diaphragm- actuated. In the directly actuated type, the sound acts directly on the erystal (see Figure 10-12). Figure 10-13 shows the diaphragm-actuated crystal microphone. In the directly actuated type, thin pieces of metal make contact with the crystal and the foil on each side, causing the crystal to be activated directly by the pressure waves of the voice. This is not a very efficient arrangement. When the sound waves strike the surface of the crystal, the force is dissipated over its entire surface. To obtain higher efficiency, a diaphragm is used. CRYSTAL SOUND WAVES s ourPuT WOLTAGE ELECTRODES. Figure 10-12. Directly actuated erystal microphone.TURNTABLES AND RECORD CHANGERS = =—-1.79 SOUND WAVES DIAPHRAGM ELECTRODES Figure 10-13, Diaphragm-actuated crystal microphone. In the diaphragm-actuated microphone, the full force of the diaphragm is exerted on a small area of the crystal. Therefore, as the diaphragm moves back and forth, the voltage produced by the crystal varies at the same rate. Since the diaphragm is mechanically con- nected to the crystal, considerable stress will be placed on the crystal. The output of the diaphragm-actuated microphone is higher than that of the directly actuated type. Frequency response of crystal microphones is not very uniform. This is due to the inertia of the crystal. However, for applications such as amateur radio or any noncritical application, they are widely used. Because of its high impedance, the crystal microphone may be directly connected to the input of the speech amplifier. The output of the crystal microphone is in the order of -55 dB. The diaphragm type has a frequency response of 80 to 6000 Hz. The type of crystal most widely used is Rochelle salt because of its sensitivity. The disadvantages of the crystal microphone are its sensitivity to temperature and humidity change and its susceptibility to damage from rough handling. Turntables and Record Changers Every stereo system has more than one type of input. The ability to play records was once paramount to most people purchasing a stereo system. That meant the person had to choose between a record changer and a turntable. Certain distinctions made a real differ- ence in the quality of sound. Record Changers Record players came in many sizes and shapes. It all depended upon what you wanted for quality of sound and how well you treated your records. A record changer not only played the records, but it also had the ability to play more than one record, This is an outgrowth of the days when records ran for only 2 min., and it took a stack of them to last 24 or 265 min. With the advent of the long-playing (24 to 30 min.) 33'/y rpm record and its acceptance, the turntable became the choice of people who really wanted to take care of their records and who were concerned about the quality of sound reproduction. Figure 10-14 is a typical record changer. The pickup arm is rather short in comparison with a turntable. This causes some distortion due to the way the stylus is held in reference to the grooves in the record. This record changer has four speeds: 16, 33, 45, and 78. The needle has to be changed for the 78 rpm records since the grooves are wider than those in the other records with lower speeds. The stacking of records on top of one another can cause damage to the surface of the records. Dropping the records also can scratch or180 STEREO EQUIPMENT CONTROL ARM PICKUP ARM }) ‘STYLUS SELECTOR CENTER LEVER SPINDLE ‘ 7 STARTING LEVER TURNTABLE ‘SPEED SELECTOR LEVER Figure 10-14. Record changer with four speeds. damage the surfaces of both records at the time of impact. Then, there is the possibility of slippage between the two surfaces. Some models had a cueing and pause control. The device allowed you to manually raise and lower the stylus under positive control at any desired point on the record. The pressure exerted by the stylus on the record should be adjusted with a pressure gauge. Turntables Turntables and record players have been included for their historical significance and are seldom used today. In an argument as to whether a turntable is better than a record changer, it is the turntable that wins in most instances (see Figure 10-15). Here are some of the advantages of the turntable over the record changer: The record changer has a problem with its shorter pickup arm inasmuch as tracking error and distortion are produced by it. The stacking of records can cause damage to them. Loading the records on the changer can get to be time consuming, and damage can result in record surfaces. The stylus is designed to contact the record groove at an angle of 90°. As records pile up on the changer, the stylus contacts each succeeding record with a different angle of incidence and with a different amount of stylus pressure. This increases the amount of wear on both the record and the stylus, and produces distortion. The speed of the turntable can be adjusted in most of the more expensive devices. Figure 10-15, for instance, has an adjustment for obtaining the proper speed so that the turntable will rotate precisely at the right speed and reduce wow and noise. Figure 10-15B shows the strobe that is used to adjust the speed. An adjustment is made to obtain the cor- rect speed when the marks seem to be stationary. Placing only one record at a time aids in eliminating some of the problems associated with record changers. Handling the records by the edges also keeps fingerprints and dust from accumulating and causing damage to the recording. In order to obtain a constant speed turntable, a frequency generator servo de motor is used. It can be adjusted slightly as shown in Figure 10-15. Most turntables have only two speeds: 331/ and 45 rpm.TURNTABLES AND RECORD CHANGERS 181 &&rpm 33-1/3rpm|_SOHz The strobe-line for 60 Hz, 33-1/3 rpm seemstobestationary ~~. In the U.S.A, and CANADA use 60 Hi lines, ‘The 50 Hz lines are for European countries. a 5 c Figure 10-15. A. Turntable, B. Speed adjustment. C. Speed selection. Pickups There are at least six types of record pickups or styli (see Figure 10-16). Note how each one of the methods uses the movement generated by the needle following the grooves in the record to produce a small emf which can be amplified by the stereo amplifier. Construction details on the moving-coil dynamic pickup (Figure 10-17) shows how this popular device uses the moving coil in a magnetic field to generate an ac voltage which can be amplified. Figure 10-18 shows the simple magnetic principle that uses an air gap reluctance as a means of generating an output for the amplifier. More details on this type of pickup are shown in Figure 10-19. Details on how the crystal pickup is made and how it is able to produce a higher output than most other types are shown in Figure 10-20. Newer ceram- ie pickups use barium titanate in place of Rochelle salts to produce a flat response from 20 to 20,000 Hz. Zirconium dioxide has also been used to make some ceramic pickups. In good tone arms a tracking force of only 2 to 4 grams (g) is needed for full output. All these record players and pickups are designed to be used in conjunction with an amplifier. They may be monaural, or one-channel, output, or they may be stereo with two channels. They all serve as another source of input to an amplifier. However, another type of input is the tape recorder. It may be of the reel-to-reel type, cassettes, or cartridges.182 STEREO EQUIPMENT MAGNETIC MOVING COIL RIBBON WE a Shs moat ndetosle ——Siyus moves sidetose Sep wm and causes armature to and recks coil in “vibrate between magnets magnate field, inducing hina chan ‘and induce audio in coil, ‘antio in exil. induces ato in risbon FREQUENCY MOVING MAGNET CRYSTAL OR CERAMIC MODULATED Stylus, through lever, ‘varies tuning of racio- audio due to bending. frequency mocutation. Figure 10-16, Different types of pickups. Figure 10-18, Variable reluctance pickup.TAPE RECORDERS 183 Figure 10-19. Variable reluctance pickup with construction details, CRYSTAL CASE DLE CRYSTAL NEEDLE HOLDER SUPPORT Figure 10-20. Two types of crystal pickups with construction details, Tape Recorders Tt was in Denmark in 1898 that Valdemar Poulsen patented the first workable magnetic recorder. The quality was poor, but the heavy piano wire used for the recording was later improved and served during World War IT as a means for pilots to keep track of their victories while dog fighting. Poulsen'’s machine used a magnet that was moved along a length of wire. It was set up so that one pole of the electromagnet surrounded the wire. When the microphone produced the electric impulses from a voice or loud noise, they were fed to the electromagnet and recorded on the wire in the form of a continuous series of transverse magnetizations varying in polarity and strength. Playback of the recording was accomplished by connecting the electromagnet to a telephone receiver, and the electromagnet was moved along the wire. During World War II the Germans developed the magnetic recorder to such a degree that it allowed Hitler to record his messages and have them played back at various places over the air when he was actually somewhere else in hiding. The German recorders used a plastic tape coated with a thin layer of fine particles of iron oxide. Today’s recorders are a direct result of those early models. The tape used in tape recorders may have an oxide coating that is about 0.0006 in. thick. Most of the plastic is a Mylar made by DuPont Corporation. Acetate is also used as the film for tape. Take a look at Figure 10-21 to see how the tape is recorded. The record- ing head is an electromagnet that has the sound energy converted to electric impulses fed to it. This varying magnetic field causes the iron filings or particles on the tape to become small magnets, The output of the tape player can be reproduced by pulling the magnetic184 STEREO EQUIPMENT Figure 10-21. A. Magnetic type with construction details, B, Magnetic head recording. C. Producing a sine wave voltage onto a magnetic tape. tape over a playback head. An erase head with ac fed into it causes the tape to be erased before it is rerecorded (see Figure 10-22B). Uses for tape recorders are unlimited. Medicine, industry, business, and computers all use magnetic tape recorders in one form or another. They are very much present today in video recorders where programs from the air can be taped, and played back later on the television set at the viewer's leisure. Tapes Tapes are available in cassettes and reels. Cassettes are very much in evidence when portable tape decks are used by young people to take their music with them wherever they go. Some very small cassettes are becoming popular and may replace the larger ones (see Figure 10-23). Figure 10-24 shows how information can be recorded on tape that is easily read by computers. Storing computer information on tape was common in the 1980s; however, with today’s improvements in technology, microcomputers now use disk storage. However, some commercial use is made of tape storage. Tapes come in '/,-, '/p-, and 5/y-in. sizes, while broadcasting stations use 1- and 2-in. widths. The 1/,-in. tapes can record stereo or two tracks in one direction and two tracks in the other. Figure 10-25 shows how they are recorded so that they are not subject to adjacent channel cross talk. There has to be some spacing between channels to protect the output from stray signals. Keep in mind that speed and tape quality make a difference in themaperecorpers 185 Figure 10-22. A. Reproducing sound from tape. B. Reel-to-reel tape recorder-playback machine. C. Tape widths and more space to record various tracks. Up to 126 tracks can now be recorded on 1-in. tape.186 STEREO EQUIPMENT Hs Figure 10-23, Four-track cassette ready to drop into the recorder. ‘Putaes received by ‘Record current changes ‘Signais am recorded at recorder are dighal when the binary sige ‘(ape saturation level, \evel-change type changes. 7 ie “7 TL SIL BW ‘Digital pulse input ad Record-currest polanty ‘Signats are recorded at received by Me record ‘Changes each tre a pulse TUpe-SURIFIBON Weve Io amolitier tram computer ‘sigeitying a “ore” ia 10 ‘bten Maxine output Or otter digital device: ‘be retonded. This is now wae ie Figure 10-24, Early methods of recording computer information. A. The PCM method. B. The NRZ (nonreturn-to-zero) method. ‘Only tha raquired stare trek are haar (1 and the otha tom temo wre sent ‘Tw tee trac (4 ard 2} mre played. ‘racks 1 and 3 an now ent mate Figure 10-25. Four-track stereo recording as used on cassettes.compactpisc —- 187 fidelity of the output. Wider tapes used by video recorders, both home and commercial types, allow for more signal to be recorded and less interference between the various information sources. No matter what is recorded, it has to be played back through an amplifier — and, in most instances, a preamplifier. Compact Disc How It Works The compact disc has all but displaced the record as the primary source of recorded music. Record companies are now in the business of producing discs instead of records, All this rapid displacement of the record as a means of entertainment came about with the development of a compact dise player that could be transported with little or no effort and adapted to use in automobiles and home stereo systems with little or no additional expense, As in almost all electronics equipment revolutions the price goes down as the volume or demand increases. Advantages of the compact disc over the record are many. The compact disc is not as susceptible to the accumulation of dust on its surface (as it is sealed between two layers of transparent plastic) as are the tiny grooves in the record. The disc is smaller, not subject to breaking or cracking, and has a smooth surface. The CD player has the ability to repro- duce sound free of hiss, record pops, and noises of various kinds associated with needles riding over plastic. Now that multiple CD playing equipment has been developed with the easy disc-handling capability, it is possible to play hours of music without interruption. The Disc Today's compact disc looks something like the old 45 rpm records. The CD hole (15 mm) is in the middle and has a 120 mm outside diameter (less than 5 inches). The dise is 1.2 mm thick. It is possible to place a little more than an hour of music on one disc (see Figure 10-26). There is also a 3-in. CD, but due to the lack of space here, we can only describe one. Therefore, we will concentrate on the 5-in. size. Some dise players will play both the 3- and 5-in. discs. The silver CD has a pickup stylus rather than grooves. A laser beam is used in the stylus to aid in the pickup of the music on the disc. The CD inside diameter speed is around 500 rpm but slows down to approximately 200 rpm at the outside rim, This compares to the old 45 rpm record's speed being constant. The stylus starts reading the information on HOLE LABEL PLASTIC PROTECTIVE COATING ALUMINUM VAPOR- _ ‘DEPOSITED LM TRANSPARENT PLASTIC Figure 10-26, Construction details of the compact disc.188 STEREO EQUIPMENT the disc near the center hole and moves outward toward the edge. The phonograph records did the opposite by starting at the outside edge and coming inward toward the center hole. Comparison of Phonograph Records and CDs Phonograph records use a needle against the plastic disc to pick up the recorded informa- tion that has been placed in grooves. Instead, the CD stylus’s laser beam rides through a groove that has been coded with varying amplitudes that correspond to the sound signal. The CD information groove is sealed between two layers of transparent plastic. The information is embedded in an aluminum vapor deposited film that is then coated with two layers of plastic, one on top and one on the bottom. Compact discs have a track of microscopic indentations called pits, instead of grooves. These pits and the space between the pits are the encoded digital representation of the original audio information that was in analog form. The high-density information on the tracks is read by a laser pickup device. The pickup has no physical contact with the surface of the dise (see Figure 10-27). The phonograph record has the music recorded or embedded in the plastic in grooves that have been distorted in an analog manner. The CD utilizes digitized coding to record the music. By digitizing the music signals it is possible to eliminate both deterioration of the signals through the recording process and playback process as well as the mechanical restrictions or physical wear (see Figure 10-28). The CD incorporates a high density and high fidelity that could not be achieved with conventional systems (see Figure 10-29). Phonograph records contain two channels of information. One channel of information is placed on each side of the groove. One stylus is used to pick up both channels of infor- mation. There is a great amount of cross talk between channels. With the compact disc method of recording, right and left channel information are in serial sequence. That means PROTECTIVE PLASTIC FILM ‘ALUMINUM VAPOR- DEPOSITED FILMA \, PLASTIC (transparent) 12mm Ree ee EEE SST ENLARGED GROOVE ON LP RECORD ENLARGED GROOVE OW (note lett and right charnets) COMPACT DISC PIT Figure 10-28. Comparison of the LP record groove and the compact dise groove with pits.‘COMPACT DISC 189 faromaarion | encooime | | ooutarion| | RECORDER | AUDIO SIGNAL SAMPLING EAROR CORRECTION ‘QUANTIZING: SIGNAL ENCODING ‘SYNC SIGNAL ‘AUDIO SIGNAL TIME CYCLE WS = TIME AB GC OD TIME SAMPLING (44.1 kt SAMPLING © QUAMTIZING (QUANTIZING AT FREQUENCY) 12" ACCURACY) e100 107 190 011 BINARY NUMBERS 4 + & @ (ACTUALLY, 16 DIGITS) 45 4 3 DECIMAL NUMBERS w EAAR CORRECTION ERROR CORRECTION g, SIGNAL MAL 4 i} fl ‘SYNC SIGNAL 7 6 60 tme Ls ENCODING (BINARY METHOD *-8arb-.° CONVERSION IMTS 16 DaITS) fund RECORDING FORMAT Figure 10-29. Step-by-step procedure for the recording of a CD. one channel is recorded and then the other, in series or one after the other. This produces channel separation that is extremely good. Good channel separation is important for accu- rate stereo reproduction. Digitizing the Audio Digital electronics is a field of study all its own. It has developed rather rapidly with the advent of computer technology being applied to the audio recording and playback field. The following is an attempt to explain in detail in simple terms some of the aspects of the process. By studying Figure 10-29 you should be able to decipher the process. The audio signal to be recorded is a smoothly changing or analog waveform that is sampled at a 44.1 kHz rate (see Figure 10-29). The analog audio signal is converted to a digital pulse train without any loss in information. This happens as long as the sampling rate is at least two times the highest frequency to be reproduced. Sampled audio is con- verted to 1's and 0's using 16 bits of resolution. This conversion provides 65,536 (or 28) possible voltage level representations. The dynamic range of the system using 16-bit resolution is greater than 90 dB. It is possible that some sampled voltage levels might fall between two steps of the 65,536 combinations. Then the voltage level is rounded off to the closest 16-bit level. Keep in mind that 65,536 is also 27°, Encoding In order to make sure the recording and playback of the music is exactly the same, a very complex encoding scheme is used to transform the digital data to a form that can be placed on the dise. Each 16-bit word is divided into 8-bit symbols (see Figure 10-29). These190 STEREO EQUIPMENT symbols are arranged in a predetermined sequence with error correction, sync, and sub- code information added. The subcode is used to store index and time information. This information is then modulated by a process known as eight-to-fourteen-bit modulation (EFM). The 8-bit data is changed to 14-bit data through the use of a ROM-based (read-only memory) IC (integrated circuit or chip). The EFM reduces the disc system's sensitivity to optical system tolerances in the disc player. The three merging bits are added to each word to produce a 17-bit unit that contains the sync and subcode data. The encoded data is then recorded onto the disc as a series of small pits of varying lengths. During the playback process, the laser pickup reads the transition between the pit and the mirror — called the island — not the pit itself. A dise can hold up to 2.6 billion pits. The pits are about 0.5 microns wide. A micron is one-millionth of a meter. The Laser Pickup Needless to say, the laser pickup is rather delicate. It has to be, in order to track correctly the small bits of embedded information in the disc. There are bascially two types of laser pickups. One type is the arc, or swinging-out arm mechanism, and the other is the slide or sled mechanism that glides along metal rods straight out from the center of the disc. The pickup assembly is made up of the objective lens, focus-tracking coils, collimating lens, beam splitter, semitransparent mirror, photodetectors, monitor, and laser diode (see Figure 10-30). Figure 10-30, Identification of the optical path and the parts of a CD stylus or pickup.COMPACT DISC 191 Optical Selection There are two types of optical pickups. They can have either one or three beams. There is very little difference in the sound output of the player, but most players use the three-beam system that is slightly more complicated in design. The semiconductor laser light source has a wavelength from 750 to 850 nm. A nanometer, nm, is one-thousandth of a millionth of a meter, or 0.000000001 meter, also read as 1 x 10°. The path of the laser beam and the arrangement of the optical elements in the optical system shown in Figure 10-30 uses the semiconductor laser to emit a beam of light with a wavelength of 780 nm. It is barely within the range of visibility. The beam is produced from an extremely small point and has an elliptical distribution. It is dispersed in a conical shape. The beam used to detect tracking error is produced by having the beam pass through a diffraction grating that splits it into three separate beams. The beams are the primary beam or zero order and two side beams (plus or minus order). Some higher order elements are also produced, but they are lost and not used. Then the beams are passed through a half prism where 50 percent of the energy is lost (see Figure 10-30). The collimator lens produces a completely collimated or parallel beam (Figure 10-31). The collimated beam diameter is large enough to cover the movement of the objective lens. The beam is then condensed to a spot with an extremely small diameter by the objective lens before it is radiated to the disc. Part of the beam is then reflected back from the disc, diffracted, and then routed back through the objective lens to be re-collimated and condensed. When the reflected beam reaches the half prism, 50 percent passes through the grating and returns to the laser diode. The other 50 percent is reflected by the prism to the Figure 10-31, Focus and tracking coils control the laser parallel beam.192 STEREO EQUIPMENT multiple Jens that has the functions of both a concave and cylindrical lens. This beam then goes to the photodiode alley where an electrical signal with a strength proportional to the intensity of the beam is produced. Video and Audio CDs Compared The optical path of the compact disc can be compared to that of the video dise player. The first feature is that the outgoing path is a straight line, so no auxiliary parts are needed to alter the light path. This way, overall tolerances can be minimized. The development of the double shaft activator for use in the parallel drive method allows the objective lens unit to be reduced in size. This makes it possible to maintain very satisfactory performance while using compact optical parts. Another feature is the half prism. In the video disc player optical system, the outgoing and incoming light paths are separated by a '/, wavelength panel and polarizing beam splitter. The primary reasons the half prism can be used in a CD player, but not in a video disc player, are: © The semiconductor laser diode is much smaller than the HeNe laser. However, it has a fairly high optical power output. That means the energy loss caused by the half mirror is not a problem. * The video and compact discs have a tendency to polarize light because they are made of a resin-based material that is not perfectly flat. In video discs, the amount of polarization is carefully checked against an established standard. In compact discs, the limitation is not very strict. Because of the lack of a strict standard, CD players normally use an extremely accurate /, wavelength plate. In actual use, however, this plate cannot function properly due to polarization of the laser beam caused by the disc. Since a half prism is not affected by polarization of the laser beam, a very stable optical path can be made. Variations in compact discs make it necessary to pay close attention to the optical section of a CD player, The most important concern is accommodating any differences between various compact discs. This can be done by using a very short wavelength. The 780-nm wavelength is used because this is the shortest wavelength possible today with mass-produced pickups. Laser Beams A very smal] beam is needed to reproduce signals encoded as a series of tiny pits. CD players use a laser beam spot of about 1.6 micrometer (1.6 millionths of a meter) in diameter. By rotating the disc and shining the laser beam on the series of pits, an optosensor or photodetector can be used to detect the presence or absence of the pits within a fixed period of time. Changes in the reflected light correspond to the recorded signals. The laser beam is produced by a /aser diode with a 780-nm wavelength and a 3-nW optical output (see Figure 10-32). The output of 3-nW is three-thousandth of a millionth of a watt. The beam from the laser diode is divided into three beams. All three beams pass through a half mirror and become a parallel beam. The collimator lens makes it parallel, then it gets refracted by a prism, passes through the objective lens, and focuses on the disc.COMPACT DISC 193 Figure 10-32, A three-beam pickup assembly. Light focused on the dise reads the disc data and is reflected. It then passes back through the objective and collimator lens, through the half mirror and the flat concave cylindrical lens, then the beam strikes the photodetector, In order to be in line with the vertical fluc- tuations and aberrations of the disc, the objective lens moves up, down, left, and right so that the series of pits on the disc are always in focus, One-Beam and Three-Beams The one- and three-beam lasers both use the objective lens, collimator, laser, and photo- diodes. The one-beam system can have a semitransparent mirror and optical wedge besides those components already mentioned. The three-beam system can also have a subbeam, quarter-wave plate, polarization beam, splitter, diffraction grafting, and cylindrical lens besides those elements common to both systems. All of these components are located in the optical pickup section. Nevertheless, very little difference in sound is noticeable between the two systems. Most commercially available units utilize the three-beam system. Handling the Disc The compact disc is a little more delicate than most people realize. It should be handled with care, Small pinholes in the aluminum coating can cause dropout, or errors in playing.194 STEREO EQUIPMENT These small pinholes are hard to see. Hold the disc up to a strong light and take a look. Of course, the label might obstruct some holes, but return the disc if you see several pinholes. Always hold the compact disc by the edges. Do not touch or scratch the rainbow side (opposite the label). Some players can play through a smear of fingerprints, but don’t take any chances. Keep in mind that the side of the dise with the rainbow reflection is the side where the audio information is stored. Keep it clean. Do not stick paper or adhesive tape on the label side. Don’t write on it. Keep the compact disc free of dirt and dust. To clean a record, you wipe it with a cireu- lar motion. Do not try to clean off the CD with this method. If fingerprints and dust stick to the disc, wipe it with a soft cloth. Start from the center out, Excessive dust in the player can gum up the disc drive and its delicate mechanism. Prevent scratches from covering a large area where the data bits are located. Do not go around the disc in a circular wiping motion. If it is hard to remove the smudges, wipe them off with a moist cloth dipped in clear water. Discs can become scratched when they are wiped clean with a dry cloth. Excessive cleaning of dust can even grind particles into the soft plastic. If it's not visibly dirty, leave it alone. You can blow off dust with a can of photo dust spray. Do not clean the dise with benzene, alcohol, thinner, record cleaner, or antistatic agents. There are many different types of CD cleaners on the market. Some might do more damage than good, so you have to judge for yourself. Some of these units suggest that you clean in a circular motion, but this should be avoided. Make sure the commercial CD cleaner wipes outward on the disc surface. However, simply cleaning the disc with water and a soft cloth does an acceptable job. Do not bend the disc. Do not store the disc where there is excessive heat or cold. Cold can cause the disc to become brittle and too much heat can cause it to warp. Keep the disc in its plastic case. Protect it from direct sunlight and humidity. The disc can be stored vertically or horizontally. However, keep it in its case. Digital Audio Tape Digital audio tape (DAT) recording has taken some direction from video tape recording. By using digital electronics so readily available from ICs, the world of recorded music has become much better. The R-DAT system that Sharp has developed has a tape transport system, Figure 10-33, that works just like that of a video cassette recorder. Once inserted in the deck, the cassette’s protective lid opens and the tape is extracted and wrapped 90° around the head bearing drum. As the tape moves past the drum from left to right at 0.815 cm (*/s-inch) per second, the drum rotates counterclockwise at 2000 rpm. This com- bination yields a recording speed of 3.133 meters (123 inches) per second, which is 65 times faster than analog cassette decks. Because the tape is held at an angle to the drum in a hel- ical pattern, the drum's two magnetic heads “write” and “read” information in diagonal tracks across the width of the tape instead of longitudinally along its length, as in analog recording (see Figure 10-34). This space-saving arrangement can produce two hours of information on a matchbox size cassette. Because each of the two heads is mounted at a different azimuth, the information bearing tracks are laid down in an alternating pattern (see Figure 10-35).picrtaLaAupio Tape =— 195 Figure 10-33. Tape transport for digital audio tape. Tape (seen from back side) Guard band (0.1mm) Rotating head ‘direction Guard band (0.1mm) AS EDS | Optional track-4I (0.4mm) ‘Tape direction (seen from magnetic coating side) Figure 10-35. How the digitized information is recorded on the tape.196 STEREO EQUIPMENT How It Works DAT decks sample the music at a rate of 48 kHz or 48,000 times per second and then assign each sample a 16-digit code comprised of ones and zeros, The results are just as good as anything available today. It has a frequency response from 4 Hz to 22 kHz. Recording studios use digital recording for many special effects. Some boards have the ability to take as many as 56 inputs from microphones and similar sound sources. By using multitrack mixing systems, new avenues of creativity for recording stars and technicians have been created. Preamplifiers Most signals from record players, tape heads, and microphones need to be amplified before they can be heard or used. This is the job of the preamplifier. The preamplifier amplifies the weak signals so that they are strong enough to drive the regular power amplifier. The power amplifier is used to drive the speaker or headsets, or whatever output is desired. In some cases that would be the computer. The schematic shown in Figure 10-36 includes a good example of a preamplifier. It has Q) and Q: as the two transistors used to amplify the input from the tape head or from the microphone or auxiliary input. Q; is the phase splitter or driver stage since it drives the transformer which causes that part of the input signal to Q, to be different from that presented to the base of Q;. The first two transistors are needed to amplify the signal sufficiently to cause Q3 to operate properly. The push-pull arrangement of Q, and Qs are sufficient to drive the speaker connected to the transformer T;. This complete circuit is typical of a portable tape recorder. Note how the switches, SI-1 and Si-2 are attached to the same shaft and are moved at the same time. In the position shown, they are in tape position. When they are up, they put the microphone jack into the circuit. When no out- side microphone is attached, the capacitor microphone is in the circuit. When S1-1 and Si-2 are in the up position, the output of the bottom half of the output transformer T2 is fed to the record head of the recorder. The microphone jack is con- nected to the input of @ by the action of SI-1, If the microphone jack is not used, the capacitor microphone built into the recorder unit is activated as a source of input. This is a single preamplifier and one tape head, one microphone jack, and one auxiliary jack. If you use a stereo tape recorder, you will find that the schematic has twice the equip- ment this one does, It will need two tape heads, two microphone jacks, and two auxiliary jacks for other inputs such as record players, and a duplication of the five transistors and their associated component parts. There will, of course, be the need for two speakers to produce the two separate signals to give the stereo effect. Power Amplifiers Power amplifiers take many variations. They can be used to drive speakers, relays, and other equipment. In this chapter we are primarily concerned with driving speakers to produce the stereo effect. In order to produce the stereo effect, we must have two amplifiers