Comparative Stylistics

This is the way J.P. Vinay and J. Darbelnet called their approach in a book which has, by now, become a classic in the field of translation studies,
Stylistique comparee du frangais et de Eanglais (19 !, "n#lish $ersion 199%&. 'n the authors( opinion, there are two directions translators may choose between in their enterprise) that of the direct*literal decodin# and that of the indirect*obli+ue one. The use of the direct procedures creates a direct correspondence between the two lan#ua#es. 'n this case, translatin# in$ol$es no semantic or #rammatical restructurin#. ,s to the indirect techni+ues, they #enerate more comple- recasts in the structure of the translated units. The modifications may $ary from chan#es of the #rammatical classes to the adoption of a different perspecti$e on the surroundin# reality,

Direct translating procedures

'n this case, some of the solutions the translator adopts are no more than refle- .answers. throu#h which the sense unit is directly percei$ed as a translation unit. /o formal restructurin# on lin#uistic or e-tralin#uistic #rounds is necessary. ,ccordin# to Vinay and Darbelnet there are three basic direct translatin# procedures) loan transfer (also called borrowing), loan translation (also known as calque) and literal translation

The use of loans in translation implies a transfer of the 01 term into the T1, as the latter has no e+ui$alent
for it. ,t the same time, loans may occur in order to preser$e, in the translated te-t, the characteristically .e-otic. atmosphere of the ori#inal, e.#. dollar, party,

saris, turbans-, .. (2. 0. te-t&,

tequilla,

tortillias (3e-ico, 0pain&, glasnost and perestroika instead of .openness. and .reconstruction. (0o$iet*4ussian te-ts&, etc. 5inally, loans may be deliberately chosen by translators, in $arious conte-ts, so as to con$ey a sound effect. 6rand names are also fre+uent cases of borrowin# for ob$ious economic reasons.

, loan translation (calque) is a particular way of usin# loans. The 0ubcomponents as such are retained, but they
are literally translated. 'n other words, cal+ues are literal translations at the le$el of the phrase. Thus, the "n#lish) shadow

cabinet-cabinetul din urma, iron curtain - cortind de fier.

Backbencher- !"#$%""&!'$, shuttle diplomacy

-&"(!)&!* '+()%,'*, shadow cabinet- ,"!"-). $/'!",, 0hite 1ouse7 2"(3. )%.

,s referential errors, loan translations may fre+uently de#enerate into .translationese. or nonsensical constructions in cases in which obli+ue $ariants are compulsory, e.#.
autoser4ire - self ser4ice

*#%))/#(56'-!'" (used in different conte-ts&. "$en the loan translation into 4omanian

of the name of translation studies as an independent discipline 7studii de traducere or studii asupra traducerii8 has not (yet& met with the widespread appro$al of 4omanian speakers. Perhaps it is also here that the techni+ue which ,nthony Pym calls the double perspecti4e should be inte#rated. 't occurs whene$er both 01 and T1 $ersions are used in the tar#et te-t (TT&, functionin# as #losses to each other. 3any such instances could be found in tourist #uides in which the techni+ue is used when 01 proper nouns ha$e a .su##esti$e. meanin# in the T1, but the source name also needs to be known for ob$iously practical reasons, e. #. the 9erry :emetery 7:imitirul 4esel8, ;alatul :ulturii -

-)<"= $5(>,5<3 ?@he ;alace of

:ulture, etc. Literal translations in$esti#ated here from a strictly lin#uistic perspecti$e imply a one7to7one transfer of the 01
structure, which is possible in cases of direct word correspondence and identical syntactic order. This is the case of .perfect. lin#uistic e+ui$alence, which is $ery rarely met and whose rele$ance for similar communicati$e situations should always be checked up)

@hey will take a taAi. Ei 4or lua un taAi. D!' -)>%5, ,$#'

Boi Cucam fotbal. 0e play football.

E3 'F<"% - G5,/)(.

,lthou#h formally this seems to be the ideal case, the situations in which these utterances could be used in different tar#et lan#ua#es do not always coincide. @he president said that the new-found brotherhood between the two countries had caused a maCor
change in the balance of forces in the region. @he two countries agreed to end their bitter feud and work towards unity.

H<"' "!, *-'(, &,) !)-))/<","!!)" /<,#,-) %"6 5 #,<!%' -3-() #"<>"!5I +"<"%"!5 - #)),!)J"!'' #'( - K,)% <.)!". D/" #,<!3 #)F(#'('#> +<"$<,',> )6"#,)&"!!5I -<6 5 %"6 5 #)/). ' !&,> </),5 - !+<-("!'' )#,'6"!'* " '!#,-.

Indirect /oblique translating procedures The further one #ets from the 01 structures, the wider the ran#e of

solutions and the de#ree of

restructurin# of the ori#inal messa#e. ,lthou#h Vinay and Darbelnet adopt a predominantly lin#uistic bias, they admit that obli+ue translations re+uire, besides lin#uistic competence (idiomatic le$els of lan#ua#e included& socio7cultural competence as well. This actually pro$es that no lin#uistic in$esti#ation in translation can actually isolate lan#ua#e from its socio7cultural component. The indirect procedures which the 8anadian authors su##est are) transposition, equi!alence, and adaptation. odulation,

Transposition (Tr& is an obli+ue procedure, which consists in replacin# a #rammatical class by another
without alterin# the meanin# of the messa#e. 0imple transpositions affect a sin#le sense unit. The #rammatical classes in$ol$ed in such operations could be)

9$erbs replaced by nouns) :e deli!er - "i!r#ri la domiciliu. $%&' ! 9ad$erbs replaced by $erbs) ;e 9
erel( nodded. 7 Se

)%.

ul)u i sL Mncu4iinNeOe.

ad<ecti$es replaced by nouns)

in the earl( PQth century 7 la *nceputul secolului al RSR-lea.? T +,- PQ-F) -"$ S met him in translation8 9ad$erbs replaced by nouns) St is popularl( supposed that 7 "u
&,)?c?X&',",#*Y. late autumn 7 U-am MntMlnit la s.ar/itul toamnei.

V +)!$)%'(#* # !'% & '%0-

)#"!'. 7V +)!$)%'(#* # !'% 1%23-4 )#"!>I. W as a possible $ariant - literal

ea crede cL..?53 #&',I,,

9 $erbs replaced by prepositions)

Zeports reaching here indicate that > 6on.or

rapoartelor primite aici? 7%8,% +)(5&"!!3% ),&",%

double transposition ($erbs and ad$erbs replaced by nouns&) 1e success.ull( dealt with the situation - a reOol4at situaNia cu succes ? a a!ut succes ?n re9ol!area situaNiei ?D!
:1-;%< #+<-'(#* # #',5='".

Transposition through expansion

instrumental words, which do not re+uire further support

occurs when the meanin# of a translated word appears as

incomplete and has to be backed by other terms. Thus, it is necessary for 4omanian to reinforce by a noun certain "n#lish

in this lan#ua#e because of their tonic stress. The areas in which e-pansions most fre+uently occur are those of the prepositions, particles, demonstrati$e pronouns and con<unctions) A e-pansion of a preposition by means of) 1& a noun) ;assengers to ;aris 7 8alatorii cu destinatia Paris *BCDDCEFGH -4 (IFJFKLM&7BCGFE =&
a $erb) S[ll call for you. 7 =oi trece sa te iau. ?V 243: ,)/)..

@hey called o.. the meeting.- D!' %<-, #" !'". She came for the glasses. 7 \ 4enit sa ia paharele.? D! +<'J( &2>? #,$!3. A e-pansion of demonstrati$e pronouns by means of nouns) @Ais
in itself presented a difficulty . 7 Bperatia in sine preOinta o dificultate.

* C1-0> #% +) #"/"

/3( #()6!)..
Ae-pansion of an ad<ecti$e by means of a relati$e clause)

@he resultant financial benefits will be 4ery high. 7 Beneficiile financiare care !or re9ulta 4or fi foarte mari. D%,:+-> & -2:,?- NFKCKDOMCP MHQORC STRLU OVLKW SOXWJOY. St was as ]eneral de ]aulle[s heir that the ^rench president got a .loEerFEa!ing Eelco e in
;eking.

_<!=5#$)F) +<"' "!, &-+, - H"$'!" 0&-< '%"!!) +),)%5, &,) "F) #&',I,
+<) )(6,"("% +)(','$' " `)((*. .loEerFEa!ing

=-",%'a got (a welcome) impersonal form7 -#,<"&('.

Zne should notice, howe$er, a& that some of the transpositions are compulsory whereas some others are optional[ b& that particular lan#ua#es pri$ile#e different #rammatical classes that seem to be
more fre+uently e-posed to transposition than others. Thus, for instance, 4omanian and 4ussian tend to fa$our nominal constructions, whereas "n#lish fa$ours $erbal constructions) 1e eAplained what he belie!ed in and Aoped .or W Ssi eApuse con!ingerile si sperantele.

*D! )/b*#!'( #-)' :-G3-> ' 3-G3.

modulation (3& is both

2nlike transposition, which relies on formal modifications,

subtler and more comple- since it entails a recastin# of the semantic perspecti$e. 3ore particularly, it determines shifts in focus and in point of $iew. 1ike transpositions, modulations may also be compulsory or optional. The translation of .:hat time is it\. by .:it e ceasulc d),)<3. &#c is compulsory, whereas the translation of a ne#ati$e sentence by an affirmati$e one is an optional kind of modulation. ,ccordin# to the le$el on which translation is performed there are leHical odulations and essage odulations. 'n the case of lexical modulations the followin# situations may occur)

A #eo#raphical modulation) to take IrencA lea4e 7 a o ^ter#e engleOeetea - 5.,' +)-!F('.#$'a Ja!o( cabba#e 7 .$ar_a crea`a. *$5 <*-* $+5#, 7#-).#$* $+5#,8a
A a concrete may stand for an abstract)

ulti ul etaC 7 the top floora 7+)#("

generala/

!'. K,68

aintenance grant 7 pensie ali entara/

('%"!,3a

repetitie

F"!"<(>!* <"+",'='* - dress rehearsala *GCDDUGLXWKCP bOcCKRC W.iring party

A A

a result may stand for its means) pluton de eHecutie the part for the whole)

to wash one[s Aair 7 a se spala pe cap/ cHUW F)()-5a AandFto Aand fight 7 lupta corp la corp /':,+4 /). Aone part for another) fireman - pompiera to clear one[s tAroat - a-ei drege glasul Achan#es of symbols or comparison terms) as white as a sAeet 7 alb ca !arul,/ /"(3. K,-34L $$ 1%,%%K<-,LM as good as gold - bun ca piinea calda,
)(),). &"()-"$ a as rabbits in a warren - $$ #"(> ' - /)&$" etc. etc.

!odulated messages are another touchstone for the translator and they also re+uire e-tra7lin#uistic
competence. 3odulation is, simultaneously, a product of both thou#ht and structure. The di$er#ence between two lan#ua#es e-pressed throu#h modulation ultimately refers to an incompatibility between two mental attitudes towards the same situation. 3odulated messa#es are an instance when rhetorical fi#ures come into play as well) 1e shut the door in my .ace - 9i-a trintit uea in nas. (synecdoche&*

D! f()+!5( -"<> +"<" %)'%

%%<. ^orget itg 7 Nu te mai gindig h" OitA s

all hope of -.#r# prea 5%. )/ K,)%g 7i/5 >g8

ari speranNe * +% !" ! "*#>.

To bear in

ind - a nu pierde din !edere

*j,)/3 '%",> - &3:.

She is ratAer plain. - Bu e prea .ru oas#, (litotes& *D! - %+-? '&>. /C 1%%&.L

The last two translation procedures mentioned by the 8anadian lin#uists clearly focus on the idiomatic area of lan#ua#es.
This is also the case with equivalence , which in a narrow, technical sense, implies

maintenance in the T1 of

the 01 situation by usin# utterly different structural and stylistic means. 't in$ol$es the messa#e as a whole and not only parts of it. 3ost e+ui$alences are set phrases, cliches, idiomatic phrases,
refle- formulae, etc. Pro$erbs are #ood e-amples for illustratin# the way in which the whole messa#e is affected)

Uupul Mei schimbL pLrul, dar nLra4ul ba. k @he foA may go grey but ne4er good. ?`)</,)F) %)F'( '#+<-',.

lou could ha4e knocked me down with a feather. - \m rLmas lampL.? X()-!) +3(>!3% %"J$)% +) F)()-" 5 <'('

OVLKW TRFMFUW bOQO7XFSO Bu se auOea nici musca. * X(3J!), $$ %5f +<)(",',. - lou could ha4e heard a pin drop. @o kill two birds with one stone -3#,<"()%. 9ake hay while the sun shines.kd5. 6"("), +)$ F)<*&).
0hen pigs fly - Ua ;astele cailor. .- d)F <$ #-'#,!",. - \ ochi doi iepuri dintr-un foc.?

m/',> -5f .="- ) !'%

,ccordin# to Vinay and Darbelnet, the .e-treme. techni+ue of adaptation, a term that they use with a
specific meanin#, may occur whene$er the 01 situation is non7e-istent in the T1 and has, for $arious reasons, to be replaced by another. ;ere are some e-amples) the 4omanian polite #esture 7 and the related $erbal e-pression 7 of kissin# a lady(s hand may be replaced in an "n#lish translation 7 unless a footnote or other e-planations are added 7 by a #esture and #reetin# more likely to take place in "n#land in a similar situation (e.#. a bow, etc.&. 0imilarly, the 4omanian /ew dear custom called .the small plou#h. 7;lugueor8, non7e-istent in the 6ritish culture has been replaced, for instance, in the translation of a literary piece where the tradition is present by the commonly shared 8hristian e$ent of 8hristmas.

The followin# is an e-ample of pure cultural adaptation. 'n 6ritish 'sles folklore, Jack 5rost appears as an elfish creature who personifies crisp, cold, winter weather. 0ome belie$e this representation ori#inated in eermanic folklore specifically in the ,n#lo7 0a-on and /orse winter customs. Tradition holds Jack 5rost responsible for lea$in# frosty crystal patterns on windows on cold mornin#s. ,s for Ded 3oro_, it is a fictional character who plays a role similar to that of 0anta 8laus in the 4ussian culture. The literal translation of the name would be f ]randfather ^rostn. ,s for Ded 3oro_, he is said to brin# presents to children, so his role resembles the function of 0anta 8laus. ;owe$er, thou#h Jack 5rost and Ded 3oro_ are resemblin# but essentially different folklore characters, the translator rendered foack ^rostn as f " -%)<)n, performin# cultural adaptation) Y the only thing PacQ Irost did for us was put a thin skin of ice on the watering trough, and that rarely. Y " '!#,-"!!)", &,) 3-3F<%%2 <'( !%, - K,) ,)!"!>$5I $)<)&$5 (> - +)'(>!). $)() ", ' ,) - $)' -"$' <.
Vinay and Darbelnet were also the first to introduce the techni+ue of explicitation, which they define as .the process of introducin# information into the tar#et lan#ua#e which is present only implicitly in the source lan#ua#e, but which can be deri$ed from the conte-t or the situation.. /ida (19%]& adopts a broader perspecti$e and refers to it as

addition, includin# it amon# the main techni+ues of ad<ustment that translators ha$e to use in their enterprise. 3ore recently, gin#a glaudy, drawin# on the research carried out by 0. 6lum7gulka, 1. 6arkhudaro$, 8. 0e#uinot and ,. Pym, has pro$ided a ta-onomy of e-plicitations that she re#ards as dictated by linguistic (.obli#atory. and .optional.&, pragmatic ?cultural and psychological (that she calls .translation7inherent.& reasons.

Compulsory linguistic

e-plicitations are the result of the inherent morpho7syntactic and semantic

differences between the lan#ua#es in$ol$ed in the translatin# process, whereas optional ones consist in the use of .different te-t7buildin# strate#ies and stylistic preferences.. (199!) !@&

3ary blew into the police station with a lau#h to this man and a wa$e of the hand to that. 9ary apLru 79od8 pe nea/teptate 7pEApl8 la comisariatul de poliNie r*9*nd 7@r8 ei .#c*nd
7@r8 cu mMna Mn dreapta ei-n stMnga 79od8. EK<' -%G3% +)*-'(#> - +)('=".#$)% 5&#,$", :,>? ) !'% ' 1&-&:> <5F'f.

B!er tAe lobster qebby asked me how things were going. In ti

p ce *nca Ao ar (:E8 qebby 4ru sL etie 798 cum o mai duceam 798. 5, "(.

D%' < -, ,%- r"//' #+<)#'( %"!* ) ,)%, $$ '

"ragmatic#Cultural e-plicitations occur whene$er culture7bound terms need e-planatory additions in the translated te-t, which otherwise risks tobe too obscure and opa+ue for the members of a different cultural community. The amount of information that is added remains to be decided by the translator, but it tends to be e-tremely concise)

\Cungem in continuare la Rutna, ctitorie a lui Jte.an cel Sare > pur neAt stop is Rutna
]reat8. onaster(, which was founded by the famous Solda!ian prince Stefan eel 9are 7Stephen the

sSt is the 4ery best, first number, PoAnnie OalQer. ph, yes.s t,) #%3. (5&J'. &', T$G% U%'-u, -3#J'. $(##. There is also no doubt that e$ery ,merican citi_en , hearin# <ust f the qeclarationn immediately understands that the declaration implied is the Declaration of 'ndependence, the proclamation made by the second ,merican 8ontinental 8on#ress on July ], 1hh%, which asserted the freedom and independence of the 1@ 8olonies from ereat 6ritain. 6ut the tar#et reader mi#ht not ha$e enou#h le$el of education to know that which is why the translator adds f!"-'#'%)#,'n to the e+ui$alent of fqeclarationn. 3oreo$er, the translator replaces f3r.i with f,brahami for further e-plicitation. 9aybe they ne4er eAisted, but if there e4er were the ;eople, that[s the commodity the Declaration was talking about, and Sr. Uincoln. E)6", /3,>, h<) # /)(>J). /5$-3 ' !" #5v"#,-5",, !) "#(' )! "#,>, ,) ) !"% ' F)-)<'( $-',0> -2&<%, ) !"% ' F)-)<'( V&< w'!$)(>!.

The techni+ue of e-plication *addition is linked to that of

implicitation # subtraction

#omission$ :hen usin# this de$ice (:olfram :ilss& translators make implicit what was e-plicitly e-pressed in the source for lin#uistic reasons, or because they re#ard the information in the bri#inal as redundant, or because of ideolo#ical reasons.

Compensation

is also mentioned by the two 8anadian lin#uists as a techni+ue meant to replace, throu#h stylistic

means, a certain (ine$itable& translation loss. The popularity en<oyed by Vinay and Darbelnet(s (te-t&book to#ether with the interest raised by other attempts of translation scholars to pro$ide ta-onomies of translation techni+ues (/ida and Taber, Vas+ue_ 7,yora, 0h$eitser, 3alone, ;er$ey and ;i##ins, etc.& show that, in spite of more comple- recent de$elopments in the discipline, the lin#uistic model is (still& rele$ant for the purposes of translation trainin#. Definin#, classifyin# and de$elopin# an awareness of the techni+ues translators make use of allows, at the same time, for a systematic display of ways of copin# with translation problems anticipatin# many such instances in the trainees( future careers.