PLEA2005 - The 22

nd
Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture. Beirut, Leanon, !"-!# $ove%er 2005 !&5
Assessing Ventilation Rates Using CO
2
Concentration Decay Method
Maria Konstantoglou, Felipe Durn, Nic !aer and Richard Cochrane
The 'artin Centre, (niversity of Ca%ridge
# Chaucer )oad
Ca%ridge
CB2 2EB
Te*. +,--. !22" ""!/00
E%ai*s0 '.1onstantog*ou.0-2canta.net & 3.4uran.0-2canta.net & nic5va5er2ao*.co% &
rc!0022g%ai*.co%
AB6T)ACT0 This 7a7er descries a %ethod used to e8a%ine the 7erfor%ance of oth natura* and
%echanica* venti*ation, ased on an e87eri%enta* 7rocedure using artificia**y introduced C92. The
accessii*ity of this techni:ue is %ain*y due to the *ow cost of the C92 sources and the %onitoring
e:ui7%ent. Through the C92 decay %ethod, airf*ow %easure%ents were carried out using a se*f-
contained *ogger, which recorded the C92 *eve*s. The accuracy of these resu*ts was e8a%ined
through a co%7arison with f*ow rates ca*cu*ated with standard for%u*ae. The e87eri%ent descried
was conducted as 7art of a research ai%ing to investigate the re*ation etween noise, air 7o**ution
and indoor air :ua*ity in two identica* roo%s with natura* and %echanica* venti*ation. The who*e
7rocedure *ed to conc*usions aout the 7erfor%ance of the various venti*ation %odes and sti%u*ated
7ro7osa*s for etter use of the natura* and %echanica* venti*ation syste%. The roader ai% of this
7a7er is to 7oint out the 7otentia* a77*ication of this %ethod and discuss its accessii*ity and
effectiveness in assessing venti*ation syste%s.
Conference To7ic0 ;,!0 Education and Techno*ogy Transfer, Case 6tudies
1eywords0 venti*ation, %ethods, e87eri%enta* 7rocedures, C92
"N#RODUC#"ON
The i%7ortance of indoor air and the ro*e of
venti*ation in %aintaining acce7ta*e conditions has
een understood for so%eti%e. <istorica**y,
%easure%ent of the venti*ation of our ui*dings,
7articu*ar*y natura**y venti*ated s7aces, has een
e87ensive. <owever constant reductions in the cost
of e:ui7%ent has %eant that a :uantitative
understanding of the airf*ow through our ui*dings is
significant*y %ore accessi*e.
1ey 7ara%eters inf*uencing indoor air :ua*ity
inc*ude the interna* 7o**utant source and the re%ova*
7rocesses. The *ater is deter%ined y the venti*ation
and infi*tration rates of the s7ace. =hi*st increasing
the re%ova* rate wi** genera**y i%7rove the indoor air
:ua*ity for indoor 7o**ution sources, an increase in air
e8change rates can have considera*e i%7act on the
ui*ding>s s7ace heating de%and. Conse:uent*y, air
e8change and venti*ation rate re:uire a carefu*
consideration.
This 7a7er de%onstrates the accessii*ity of the
C92 concentration decay %ethod a77*ied to a case
study and e8a%ines its roustness co%7aring the
resu*ts with ca*cu*ations using standard for%u*ae. The
initia* research target to e8a%ine the re*ationshi7
etween noise, air 7o**ution and indoor air :ua*ity *ed
to %onitoring the C92 concentration 7roduced y
individua*s in the occu7ied s7ace under given
conditions. 9servations concerning the *ogarith%ic
decay %ethod and the venti*ation rate sti%u*ated the
a77*ication of e87eri%ents ased on artificia**y-
introduced C92 concentration decay %ethod, which
e8a%ined the 7erfor%ance of different %odes of
venti*ation.
2$ #%&OR&#"CA' !ACK(ROUND
2.! E87eri%enta* ac5ground
Three techni:ues are used for %easuring
infi*tration0 tracer gas, fan 7ressurisation, and
effective *ea5age area. The for%er of these %ethods
can e a77*ied to the e8a%ination of venti*ation rates
as we**. Tracer gas concentration decay %ethod is a
direct %easure%ent, which re:uires the *east
so7histicated e:ui7%ent to 7erfor% a test. ?t is an
effective way of e8a%ining venti*ation rates a*though it
%ain*y 7rovides one-ti%e %easure%ents under given
conditions @!A.
An inert gas is inBected into the test s7ace, it is
unifor%*y %i8ed with the air and then its concentration
is %onitored over a re:uired 7eriod. Co%%on tracer
gases are he*iu% +<e., nitrous o8ide +$29., caron
dio8ide +C92., caron %ono8ide +C9. and su*fur
he8af*uoride +63#. @2A. These gases are inert, can e
easi*y detected and they are non-to8ic at
concentrations nor%a**y used in such studies.
Tracer gas %ethod can e a77*ied with two
different techni:ues. ?n the first %ethod, a 5nown
a%ount of gas is re*eased and %onitored at
s7ecified interva*s +decay %ethod., whi*e the second
one is a constant re*ease rate techni:ue. This 7a7er
descries the a77*ication of the tracer gas decay
%ethod using C92. The accessii*ity of this techni:ue
is %ain*y due to the *ow cost of the C92 sources and
the %onitoring e:ui7%ent.
2.2 Theoretica* ac5ground
6evera* si%7*ified 7rocedures have een
deve*o7ed to ena*e ca*cu*ations of venti*ation rates.
The British 6tandard 'ethod and the $9)'A-
si%7*ified theoretica* %ode* were chosen to e
a77*ied in that e87eri%ent @"A.
The British 6tandard 'ethod 7ro7oses for%u*ae
shown in Ta*e ? a77*ica*e to sing*e-sided and cross-
venti*ation configurations. $or%a @-A, which is
a77*ica*e to a sing*e- Cone ui*ding 7ro7oses
for%u*ae to ca*cu*ate the airf*ow in the sa%e
venti*ation %odes.
#a)le "* British Ca*cu*ation 'ethod
3or%u*ae for sing*e sided venti*ation
Due to +ind

where A is the o7ening surface and u is the wind ve*ocity
Due to te,perature di--erence +ith t+o openings
where Cd is the discharge coefficient, = 1+2,
3or%u*ae for cross venti*ation
Due to +ind
#a)le ".* $9)'A 'ethod
3or%u*ae for sing*e sided venti*ation

w h Q
5 . 1
790

+ ) ( 1590
2 1
A A K Q
H ESDCPV K Q 3600
1

where hD o7ening height, wD o7ening width

A1=Area of the *ower o7ening,A2 = Area of the higher o7ening
1D Correction 3actor
64CPD wind 7ressure coefficient data
<D Eertica* distance
/$ &01&R"M&N#
".! Case study
The %ain oBective of the case study was to
investigate the inf*uence of venti*ation, noise and
e8terna* 7o**ution to indoor air :ua*ity. A series of
e87eri%ents were 7erfor%ed using artificia**y
introduced C92 in order to e8a%ine the 7erfor%ance
of venti*ation %odes, whi*e noise and 7o**ution *eve*s
were recorded.
The e87eri%ent was carried out in two c*assroo%s
of the 4e7art%ent of Architecture of the (niversity of
Ca%ridge. The ui*ding, a terrace house ui*t on
!F";, re7resents a ty7ica* uran situation0 on one
side a usy road and on the other side a :uiet
ac5yard. Two identica* rectangu*ar c*assroo%s were
chosen to 7erfor% the e87eri%ents, one *ocated on
the ground f*oor and the other one *ocated on the first
f*oor. The vo*u%e of each roo% is 255 %
"
+/.5 %eters
width y !0 %eters *ength and ".- %eters high.. ?n the
ground f*oor *ecture roo%, windows are sea*ed to
iso*ate it fro% the noise and the %echanica*
venti*ation syste% constitutes of two fansG 9ne that
draws air in the s7ace and another, which e8tracts air.
The first f*oor c*assroo% can e natura**y venti*ated
using three windows that face the street and using
one that *oo5s at the ac5yard.
9servations during %onitoring of the occu7ied
s7aces in addition to co%%ents co**ected on a
distriuted :uestionnaire, *ed to conc*usions as far as
the %ost co%%on venti*ation %ode is concerned. 9n
the first f*oor the accessii*ity of the windows facing
the noisy street encourages occu7ants to use these
on*y. The window facing the :uiet ac5yard is rare*y
used due to its difficu*t access. 9n the ground f*oor
%echanica* venti*ation is nor%a**y not use during the
*ectures due to its high noise *eve*s. 6ince the roo% is
sea*ed, the indoor air :ua*ity is nor%a**y very 7oor.
Figure 20 C*assroo% on the ground f*oor
Au Q 025 . 0
2 / 1
1
2 / 1 2
) 1 )( 1 (
2

,
_

1
]
1

+ +

p w d w
C u A C Q
Figure 20 C*assroo% on the first f*oor
The e:ui7%ent used was a C92 source, a C92 %eter,
a data *ogger and a %ova*e fan. The C92 cy*inderHs
siCe was chosen according to the concentration *eve*s
to e achieved, the vo*u%e of the roo%, and the
nu%er of e87eri%ents to e 7erfor%ed. The Telaire
C92 %eter, was wired to a HOBO data *ogger. The
co%ination gives an instant readout of the C92
concentration as we** as the ai*ity to *og recordings
at chosen interva*s.
Figure /0 +*eft. C92 cy*inder with the fan on the first
f*oor c*assroo%, +right. C92 %eter and data *ogger
".2 C92 *eve*s
The e87eri%enta* 7erfor%ance was ased on
%onitoring of the concentration *eve*s of a re*eased
a%ount of C92. The *eve* of 2000 7arts 7er %i**ion
was chosen in order to ena*e a c*ear assess%ent of
the venti*ation 7erfor%ance. A7art fro% that, it was
oserved that during 7revious %onitoring in the s7ace
under e8a%ination, C92 *eve*s reached re*ative*y
easy this va*ue. 67ecifica**y, during a %eeting of "0
7eo7*e on the 2-
th
and 25
th
of A7ri*, the C92
concentration rose u7 to !F00 77% after the first hour
of occu7ancy.
The i%7act of C92 *eve*s on occu7antsH co%fort
has een the suBect of e8tensive research.
According to 3anger, C92 concentration over !000
77% is re*ated to a !#I occu7ants dissatisfaction @5A.
At the sa%e ti%e, a concentration of !000 77% is
used as a dividing *ine etween ade:uate and
inade:uate fresh venti*ation rates. Concentration
*eve*s over 5000 77% %ight occasiona**y cause
sy%7to%atic effects such as headaches. The
e87osure *i%its fi8ed y B9C @#A are 5000 v7% for
*ong ter% e87osure +LTELD 5000 v7%. and !5000
v7% for short ter% e87osure +6TELD!5000 v7%..
"." Procedure of each e87eri%ent
The C92 was initia**y inBected into the s7ace fro%
a cy*inder and then it was a**owed to %i8 in the air
assisted y a fan. The ho%ogeneous concentration
distriution in the roo%s was chec5ed in different
*ocations in the roo%s using the C92 %eter. 9nce
the concentration reached a *eve* of 2000 77% the
inBection 7rocedure was sto77ed.
The C92 data *ogger, *ocated in the center of the
roo% at a height of ;0 centi%eters, was then set u7 to
record the C92 concentration fro% the %o%ent it
dro77ed 7ast a at *eve* of !;00 77%.
This 7rocedure was re7eated in the two
c*assroo%s for each of the venti*ation %odes under
e8a%inationG %echanica*, sing*e-sided with one
o7ening, sing*e-sided with two o7enings and cross
venti*ation, re*easing and %onitoring the
concentration *eve*s of C92.
6ing*e sided venti*ation with one o7ening +ac5yard.
Cross venti*ation
6ing*e sided venti*ation with one o7ening +street.
6ing*e sided venti*ation with two o7enings
Position of the data *ogger
Figure 30 P*an of the first f*oor c*assroo%. Eenti*ation
%odes that were e8a%ined
=eather conditions +Ta*e ??. such as e8terna*
te%7erature and wind s7eed s*ight*y changed during
the who*e 7rocedure that *asted a77ro8i%ate*y three
hours.
#a)le """0 =eather conditions @/A and area of the
o7enings for the different natura* venti*ation %odes.
?nt.
TJ
CJ
E8t. TJ
CJ
=ind
s7eed
%&s
=ind
directio
n
Area
o7ening
%
2
6ing*e-sided
9ne o7ening
street
!;.5 !-.! 2.0 = 0.##
6ing*e-sided
9ne o7ening
court
!;.5 !!.F 2.;
=
0.##
6ing*e-sided
Two o7ening !;.5 !2." 2.!
$=
2 8 0.""
Cross
venti*ation !;.5 !".2 2.5 = 2 8 0.""
After different readings were 7erfor%ed using the
C92 data *ogger, a 7*ot of the concentration decay
was 7roduced.
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Time
CO 2
(ppm)
Figure 4* 6ing*e-6ided venti*ation +one o7ening to
the street.. 3irst f*oor c*assroo%
ac5yard
CDCo e87
0.0002!t
street
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Time (secs)
CO 2
(ppm)
Figure 50 6ing*e-6ided venti*ation +one o7ening to
the ac5yard.. 3irst f*oor c*assroo%
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Time (secs)
CO 2
(ppm)
Figure 60 6ing*e-6ided venti*ation +two o7enings to
the ac5yard.. 3irst f*oor c*assroo%
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Time (secs)
CO 2
(ppm)
Figure 70 Cross venti*ation. 3irst f*oor c*assroo%
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Time (secs)
CO 2
(ppm)
Figure 80 'echanica* venti*ation. Kround f*oor
c*assroo%
9serving the decay curve and assu%ing a
constant airf*ow, the ne8t e:uation was a77*ied to
assess the different f*ow rate during the %easure%ent
7eriod @FA.
t V Q c c ) / ( ln ln
0

A*ternative*y the e:uation can e written as
] ) / ( exp[
0
t V Q c c
3ro% the e87onentia* 7*ot an e:uation was
dis7*ayed for each venti*ation %ode. Thus, 5nowing E
+vo*u%e of the roo%. air f*ow L was ca*cu*ated.
#a)le "V0 E:uations for each venti*ation %ode
c D co e87
@-(Q/V)tA
E87eri%ent
LD%
"
&s
6ing*e-sided
+street.
y D !FF-.5e
-0.0002!8
0.05
6ing*e-sided
+court.
y D !/F#./e
-0.000258
0.0#
6ing*e-sided
+two o7enings.
y D !;-5.;e
-0.000F#8
0.22
Cross
Eenti*ation
y D 20#0.;e
-0.00!0!8
0.2#
'echanica*
y D !;#-.Fe
-0.000/08
0.!F
".- Air distriution
?n order to e8a%ine the air distriution in the first
f*oor c*assroo%, further e87eri%ents were carried out.
Ten successive readings ta5en every "0 seconds
a*ong the cross section of the roo% in !!0 c%
distance fro% each other were recorded for three
venti*ation %odes. The short 7eriod of -,5 %inutes for
the co%7*etion of the series of readings a**owed the
assess%ent of air distriution in the case of sing*e-
sided venti*ation. The re*ative*y s%a** dro7 of C92
concentration during 2/0 seconds 7er%its the% to e
considered as Msi%u*taneousN.
Figure 290 C92 concentration 7rofi*e for sing*e sided
venti*ation with one o7ening on the *eft.
#a)le V0 C92 concentration in 77% +*eft to right.
!!;F !0F; !0/- !0#; !020 !005 ;"0 ;!" F"0
CDCo e87
0.00025t
CDCo e87
0.000F#t
CDCo e87
0.00!0!t
CDCo e87
0.000/0t

?n the case of cross venti*ation though, the air
distriution is harder to %easure due to the short
ti%esca*e of the e87eri%ent.
Figure 220 C92 concentration 7rofi*e for cross
venti*ation. )ise in concentration on the *eeward side
+*eft. of the roo%.
#a)le V"0 C92 concentration in 77% +*eft to right.
!052 !0#5 !0;# !!!; !!;# !2-0 !!F/ !0/! ;/0
3$ R&:U'#: ANA';:":
Co%7arisons of the e87eri%ent resu*ts with
ca*cu*ations fro% the for%u*ae of the British
Ca*cu*ation 'ethod and the $9)'A 'ethod have *ed
to conc*usions as far as the roustness of this
techni:ue is concerned0
0.00
0.05
0.!0
0.!5
0.20
0.25
0."0
6ing*e-sided
one o7ening
street
6ing*e-sided
one o7ening
ac5yard
6ing*e-sided
two
o7enings
Cross
Eenti*ation
LD%"&s
Bristish %ethod $9)'A %ethod E87eri%ent
Figure 22* )esu*ts co%7arison
Cross venti*ation 7roved to e the %ost effective
venti*ation %ode whi*e f*ow rates given y the
*ogarith%ic decay curve are very c*ose to those
ca*cu*ated y the for%u*ae.
6ing*e sided venti*ation with two o7enings on the
sa%e side +stac5 effect. shows a re*ative*y higher
airf*ow 7erfor%ance than this esti%ated y the
for%u*ae.
4ue to the weather conditions, such as wind
s7eed, wind direction and te%7erature difference
etween the e8terior and interior s7ace, during
the 7eriod that the e87eri%ent too5 7*ace, airf*ow
rates ecause of sing*e sided venti*ation fro% the
ac5yard are s*ight*y higher than those fro% the
street.
A*though %echanica* venti*ation is efficient in air
f*ow ter%s due to the noise *eve*s 7roduced y
the fans 5" dB+A., which are s*ight*y higher than
the noise %onitored with the windows o7en
5!dB+A., it is not a good so*ution in order to
%aintain the ?AL and ade:uate noise *eve*s.
?ronica**y occu7ants often switch off the fans to
reduce noise and are *eft worse off than in the
other roo%.
CONC'U:"ON:
The a77*ication of the techni:ue descried in this
7a7er high*ights its accessii*ity for the assess%ent of
natura* and %echanica* venti*ation. Low cost of the
C92 cy*inder and the %onitoring e:ui7%ent in addition
to a re*ative*y short 7eriod that each e87eri%ent too5
7*ace +%a8i%u% -5 %inutes., are the %ain
advantages of this techni:ue in co%7arison to %ore
co%7*icated and ti%e-consu%ing tracer gas
e87eri%ents. The C92 concentrations eing used are
far fro% e8ceeding any safety *i%its 7ro7osed.
The 5ey assu%7tions of its a77*ication are that
C92 is unifor%*y %i8ed in the s7ace and factors *i5e
window o7enings, which affect the f*ow rate, re%ain
unchanged.
A*though this techni:ue is a one- ti%e
%easure%ent, it ena*es a co%7arison of different
%odes of venti*ation and *eads to usefu* conc*usions
aout either the use of an e8isting s7ace or the
design 7rocess of a new one.
As far as its wider a77*ication is concerned, the
siCe of a s7ace doesnHt constitute a restriction. ?n
cases where the vo*u%e of the s7ace is *arger than
the e8a%7*e descried +255 %"., it %ight e usefu* to
use %ore than one C92 source and fan in order to
achieve a unifor%*y distriuted initia* C92
concentration %ore :uic5*y.
AKNO<'&DM&N#
=e wou*d *i5e to than5 1oen 6tee%ers for his
su77ort and Keorge Lind*ey for his technica* he*7.
)E3E)E$CE6
@!A O. E. Poco% and 6. '. 'cCarthy, +!;;!.,
MMeasuring Indoor Air QualityN, Oohn =i*ey Q 6ons,
=est 6usse8, 7. !22-!2".
@2A O. E. Poco% and 6. '. 'cCarthy, +!;;!.,
MMeasuring Indoor Air QualityN, Oohn =i*ey Q 6ons,
=est 6usse8, 7. -#--F.
@"A '. 6anta%ouris and 4. Asi%a5o7ou*os, +!;;#.,
MPassive cooling of uildings!" Oa%es and Oa%es,
London, 7. 2"#-2"F.
@-A '. 6anta%ouris and 4. Asi%a5o7ou*os, +!;;#.,
MPassive cooling of uildings!" Oa%es and Oa%es,
London, 7. 2FF-"0#.
@5A P.9., +!;FF ., MIntroduction of t#e olf and deci$ol
units to %uantify air $ollution $erceived y
#u&ans!"Energy and Bui*dings,!2, 77. !-#.
@#A www.ocindustria*.co.u5&
@/A ATQT offices, htt70&&www.u5.research.att.co%&cgi-
in&weathergauges-ht%*-cgi&
@FA <. B. Awi, +B. <aCi%., +!;;!., MVentilation of
Buildings!" Cha7 Q <a**, London, 7. F2-F".