The design process

This chapter is intended to assist the designer determine all the design
information required prior to embarking on detailed element design. It
covers design life, actions on structures, load arrangements, combinations
of actions, method of analysis, material properties, stability and
imperfections, minimum concrete cover and maximum crack widths.
The process of designing elements will not be revolutionised as a result
of using Eurocode 2
1
, although much of the detail may change as
described in subsequent chapters.
Similarly, the process of detailing will not vary significantly from current
practice. Guidance can be found in Chapter 10 or in Standard method of
detailing
2
. With regard to specification, advice can be found in Chapter 1,
originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes
3
. Concept designs
prepared assuming that detailed design would be to BS 8110 may be
continued through to detailed design using Eurocode 2.
In the long-term it is anticipated that Eurocode 2 will lead to more
economic structures.
Design life
The design life for a structure is given in Eurocode: Basis of structural
design
4
. The UK National Annex (NA) to Eurocode presents UK values
for design life; these are given in Table 1 (overleaf). These should be used
to determine the durability requirements for the design of reinforced
concrete structures.
Actions on structures
Eurocode 1: Actions on structures
5
consists of 10 parts giving details of
a wide variety of actions. Further information on the individual codes
can be found in Chapter 1. Eurocode 1, Part 11: General actions
Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings
6
gives the densities and
self-weights of building materials (see Table 2 overleaf).
The key change to current practice is that the bulk density of reinforced
concrete has been increased to 25 kN/m
3
. The draft National Annex to
this Eurocode gives the imposed loads for UK buildings and a selection is
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2
2. Getting started
O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE
02_Getting Started (amended).qxd 21/12/06 13:34 Page 1
A J Bond MA MSc LlC lhL MlCl Clng
O Brooker blng Clng MlCl MlSt|uctl
A J Harris bSc MSc LlC MlCl Clng lCS
T Harrison bSc lhL Clng MlCl llC
R M Moss bSc lhL LlC Clng MlCl MlSt|uctl
R S Narayanan lklng
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low to Les|gn Conc|ete
St|uctu|es us|ng lu|ocode 2
A cement and concrete |ndust|y ,u|||cat|on This chapter is taken
from The Concrete
Centres publication,
How to design
concrete structures
using Eurocode 2
(Ref. CCIP006)
10
reproduced in Table 3. It should be noted that there is no advice given
for plant rooms.
At the time of writing not all the parts of Eurocode 1 and their National
Annexes are available; it is advised that existing standards are considered
for use where European standards have not yet been issued.
Load arrangements
The term load arrangements refers to the arranging of variable actions
(e.g. imposed and wind loads) to give the most onerous forces in a
member or structure and are given in Eurocode 2 and its UK NA.
For building structures, the UK NA to Eurocode 2, Part 11 allows any
of the following sets of load arrangements to be used for both the
ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state:
Load set 1. Alternate or adjacent spans loaded
The design values should be obtained from the more critical of:
Alternate spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads
with other spans loaded with only the design permanent load (see
Figure 1). The value of
g
G
should be the same throughout.
Any two adjacent spans carrying the design variable and
permanent loads with other spans loaded with only the design
permanent load (see Figure 2). The value of
g
G
should be the
same throughout.
Load set 2. All or alternate spans loaded
The design values should be obtained from the more critical of:
All spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads
(see Figure 3).
Alternate spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads
with other spans loaded with only the design permanent load (see
Figure 1). The value of
g
G
should be the same throughout.
Generally, load set 2 will be used for beams and slabs in the UK as it
requires three load arrangements to be considered, while load set 1
will often require more than three arrangements to be assessed.
Alternatively, the UK NA makes the following provision for slabs.
Load set 3. Simplified arrangements for slabs
The load arrangements can be simplified for slabs where it is only
necessary to consider the all spans loaded arrangement (see Figure 3),
provided the following conditions are met:
In a one-way spanning slab the area of each bay exceeds 30 m
2
(a bay means a strip across the full width of a structure bounded
on the other sides by lines of support).
The ratio of the variable actions (Q
k
) to the permanent actions (G
k
)
does not exceed 1.25.
The magnitude of the variable actions excluding partitions does not
exceed 5 kN/m
2
.
2
Figure 2
Adjacent spans loaded
Figure 3
All spans loaded
Figure 1
Alternate spans loaded
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2
Table 1
Indicative design working life (from UK National Annex to Eurocode)
Design life (years) Examples
10 Temporary structures
1030 Replaceable structural parts
1525 Agricultural and similar structures
50 Buildings and other common structures
120 Monumental buildings, bridges and other civil
engineering structures
Table 2
Selected bulk density of materials (from Eurocode 1, Part 11)
Material Bulk density (kN/m
3
)
Normal weight concrete 24.0
Reinforced normal weight concrete 25.0
Wet normal weight reinforced concrete 26.0
02_Getting Started (amended).qxd 21/12/06 13:34 Page 2
10
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2
11
2. Getting started
3
Combination of actions
The term combination of actions refers to the value of actions to be
used when a limit state is under the influence of different actions.
The numerical values of the partial factors for the ULS combination can
be obtained by referring to Eurocode: Basis of structural design or to
Chapter 1.
.(
There are three SLS combinations of actions characteristic, frequent
and quasi-permanent. The numerical values are given in Eurocode: Basis
of structural design.
Material properties
Concrete
In Eurocode 2 the design of reinforced concrete is based on the
characteristic cylinder strength rather than cube strength and should
be specified according to BS 8500: Concrete complementary British
Standard to BS EN 2061
7
(e.g. for class C28/35 concrete the cylinder
strength is 28 MPa, whereas the cube strength is 35 MPa). Typical
concrete properties are given in Table 4.
Concrete up to class C90/105 can be designed using Eurocode 2.
For classes above C50/60, however, there are additional rules and
variations. For this reason, the design of these higher classes is not
considered in this publication.
It should be noted that designated concretes (e.g. RC30) still refer
to the cube strength.
Reinforcing steel
Eurocode 2 can be used with reinforcement of characteristic
strengths ranging from 400 to 600 MPa. The properties of steel
reinforcement in the UK for use with Eurocode 2 are given in
BS 4449 (2005): Specification for carbon steel bars for the
reinforcement of concrete
8
and are summarised in Table 5 (on page 4).
A characteristic yield strength of 500 MPa has been adopted by the
UK reinforcement industry. There are three classes of reinforcement,
A, B and C, which provide increasing ductility. Class A is not suitable
where redistribution of 20% and above has been assumed in the
design. There is no provision for the use of plain bar or mild steel
reinforcement, but guidance is given in the background paper to the
National Annex
9
.
Table 4
Selected concrete properties based on Table 3.1 of Eurocode 2, Part 11
Table 3
Selected imposed loads for buildings (from draft UK National Annex to Eurocode 1, Part 11)
For members supporting one variable action the ULS combination
1.25 G
k
+ 1.5 Q
k
(derived from Exp. (6.10b), Eurocode)
can be used provided the permanent actions are not greater than
4.5 times the variable actions (except for storage loads).
Symbol Description Properties
f
ck
(MPa) Characteristic cylinder strength 12 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 28
a
32
a
f
ck,cube
(MPa) Characteristic cube strength 15 20 25 30 37 45 50 55 60 35 40
f
ctm
(MPa) Mean tensile strength 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1 2.8 3.0
E
cm
b
(GPa) Secant modulus of elasticity 27 29 30 31 33 34 35 36 37 32 34
Key
a Concrete class not cited in Table 3.1, Eurocode 2, Part 11
b Mean secant modulus of elasticity at 28 days for concrete with quartzite aggregates. For concretes with other aggregates refer to Cl 3.1.3 (2)
Category Example use q
k
(kN/m
2
) Q
k
(kN)
A1 All uses within self-contained dwelling units 1.5 2.0
A2 Bedrooms and dormitories 1.5 2.0
A3 Bedrooms in hotels and motels, hospital wards and toilets 2.0 2.0
A5 Balconies in single family dwelling units 2.5 2.0
A7 Balconies in hotels and motels 4.0 min. 2.0 at outer edge
B1 Offices for general use 2.5 2.7
C5 Assembly area without fixed seating, concert halls, bars, places of worship 5.0 3.6
D1/2 Shopping areas 4.0 3.6
E12 General storage 2.4 per m height 7.0
E17 Dense mobile stacking in warehouses 4.8 per m height (min. 15.0) 7.0
F Gross vehicle weight 30kN 2.5 10.0
02_Getting Started (amended).qxd 21/12/06 13:34 Page 3
11
2. Getting started
12 4
Structural analysis
The primary purpose of structural analysis in building structures is to
establish the distribution of internal forces and moments over the
whole or part of a structure and to identify the critical design
conditions at all sections. The geometry is commonly idealised by
considering the structure to be made up of linear elements and plane
two-dimensional elements.
The type of analysis should be appropriate to the problem being
considered. The following may be used: linear elastic analysis, linear
elastic analysis with limited redistribution, and plastic analysis. Linear
elastic analysis may be carried out assuming cross sections are
uncracked (i.e. concrete section properties); using linear stress-strain
relationships, and assuming mean values of elastic modulus.
For the ultimate limit state only, the moments derived from elastic
analysis may be redistributed (up to a maximum of 30%) provided
that the resulting distribution of moments remains in equilibrium with
the applied loads and subject to certain limits and design criteria (e.g.
limitations of depth to neutral axis).
Regardless of the method of analysis used, the following principles apply:
Where a beam or slab is monolithic with its supports, the critical
design hogging moment may be taken as that at the face of the
support, but should not be taken as less than 0.65 times the full
fixed end moment.
Where a beam or slab is continuous over a support that may be
considered not to provide rotational restraint, the moment
calculated at the centre line of the support may be reduced by
(F
Ed,sup
t/8), where F
Ed,sup
is the support reaction and t is the breadth
of the support.
For the design of columns the elastic moments from the frame
action should be used without any redistribution.
Bending moment and shear force co-efficients for beams are given in
Table 6; these are suitable where spans are of similar length and the
other notes to the table are observed.
Minimum concrete cover
The nominal cover can be assessed as follows:
Where c
min
should be set to satisfy the requirements below:
safe transmission of bond forces
durability
fire resistance
and D c
dev
is an allowance which should be made in the design for
deviations from the minimum cover. It should be taken as 10 mm,
unless fabrication (i.e. construction) is subjected to a quality assurance
system, in which case it is permitted to reduce D c
dev
to 5 mm.
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2
Table 6
Bending moment and shear co-efficients for beams
Table 7
Exposure classes
Class Description
No risk of corrosion or attack
X0 For concrete without reinforcement or embedded metal where there
is no significant freeze/thaw, abrasion or chemical attack.
Corrosion induced by carbonation
XC1 Dry or permanently wet
XC2 Wet, rarely dry
XC3/4 Moderate humidity or cyclic wet and dry
Corrosion induced by chlorides other than from seawater
XD1 Moderate humidity
XD2 Wet, rarely dry
XD3 Cyclic wet and dry
Corrosion induced by chlorides from seawater
XS1 Exposed to airborne salt but not in direct contact with sea water
XS2 Permanently submerged
XS3 Tidal, splash and spray zones
Freeze/thaw with or without de-icing agents
XF1 Moderate water saturation without de-icing agent
XF2 Moderate water saturation with de-icing agent
XF3 High water saturation without de-icing agent
XF4 High water saturation with de-icing agent or sea water
Chemical attack (ACEC classes)
Refer to BS 85001 and Special Digest 1
11
Table 5
Characteristic tensile properties of reinforcement
Class (BS 4449) and designation (BS 8666) A B C
Characteristic yield strength f
yk
or f
0.2k
(MPa) 500 500 500
Minimum value of k = ( f
t
/f
y
)
k
1.05 1.08 1.15 < 1.35
Characteristic strain at maximum force e
uk
(%) 2.5 5.0 7.5
Notes
1 Table derived from BS EN 199211 Annex C, BS 4449: 2005 and BS EN 10080
10
.
2 The nomenclature used in BS 4449: 2005 differs from that used in BS EN 199211
Annex C and used here.
3 In accordance with BS 8666, class H may be specified, in which case class A, B or C
may be supplied.
Moment Shear
Outer support 25% of span moment 0.45 (G + Q)
Near middle of end span 0.090 Gl + 0.100 Ql
At first interior support 0.094 (G + Q) l 0.63 (G + Q)
a
At middle of interior spans 0.066 Gl + 0.086 Ql
At interior supports 0.075 (G + Q) l 0.50 (G + Q)
Key
a 0.55 (G + Q) may be used adjacent to the interior span.
Notes
1 Redistribution of support moments by 15% has been included.
2 Applicable to 3 or more spans only and where Q
k
G
k
.
3 Minimum span 0.85 longest span.
4 l is the effective length, G is the total of the ULS permanent actions, Q is the total
of the ULS variable actions.
c
nom
= c
min
+ D c
dev
Exp. (4.1)
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12
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2
13
2. Getting started
5
Minimum cover for bond
The minimum cover to ensure adequate bond should not be less than
the bar diameter, or equivalent bar diameter for bundled bars, unless
the aggregate size is over 32 mm.
Minimum cover for durability
The recommendations for durability in Eurocode 2 are based on
BS EN 2061
12
. In the UK the requirements of BS EN 206 1 are
applied through the complementary standard BS 8500. The UK
National Annex (Table 4.3 (N) (BS)) gives durability requirements that
comply with BS 8500, but which significantly modify the approach
taken in Eurocode 2. To determine the minimum cover for durability
(and also the strength class and minimum water cement ratio) either
the UK National Annex or BS 8500 can be used.
The various exposure classes from BS 8500 are given in Table 7. Selected
recommendations are given in Table 8 (on page 6) for the concrete
strength, minimum cement ratio, minimum concrete cover and maximum
cement content for various elements in a structure based on the exposure
of that element. This is taken from Chapter 11, originally published as
How to use BS 8500 with BS 8110
13
.
Design for fire resistance
Eurocode 2 Part 12: Structural fire design
14
, gives several methods
for determining the fire resistance of concrete elements; further
guidance can be obtained from specialist literature. Design for
fire resistance may still be carried out by referring to tables to
determine the minimum cover and dimensions for various elements,
as set out below.
Rather than giving the minimum cover, the tabular method is based
on nominal axis distance, a (see Figure 4). This is the distance from the
centre of the main reinforcing bar to the surface of the member. It is
a nominal (not minimum) dimension. The designer should ensure that
a c
nom
+ f
link
+ f
bar
/2.
There are three standard fire exposure conditions that may be satisfied:
R Mechanical resistance for load bearing
E Integrity of separation
I Insulation
Tables 9 and 10 give the minimum dimensions for columns and slabs
to meet the above conditions. The tables offer more flexibility than
BS 8110 in that there are options available to the designer e.g. section
sizes can be reduced by increasing the axis distance. Further information
is given in Eurocode 2 and subsequent chapters, including design
limitations and data for walls and beams.
Table 9
Minimum column dimensions and axis distances for columns with
rectangular or circular section method A
Standard fire Minimum dimensions (mm)
resistance Column width ( b
min
)/axis distance (a) of the main bars
Column exposed on more Exposed on one side
than one side (
m
f i
= 0.7) (
m
f i
= 0.7)
R 60 250/46 155/25
350/40
R 120 350/57* 175/35
450/51*
R 240 295/70
Notes
1 Refer to BS EN 199212 for design limitations.
2
m
fi
is the ratio of the design axial load under fire conditions to the design resistance
of the column at normal temperature conditions. Conservatively
m
fi
may be taken
as 0.7
* Minimum 8 bars
Method B indicates 600/70 for R 240 and
m
fi
= 0.7 and may be used.
See EN 199212 Table 5.2b
Standard Minimum dimensions (mm)
fire
One-way Two-way spanning slab Flat slab Ribs in a two-way spanning ribbed slab
resistance
spanning slab
l
y
/l
x
1.5 1.5 < l
y
/l
x
2 (b
min
is the width of the rib)
REI 60 h
s
= 80 80 80 180 b
min
= 100 120 200
a = 20 10 15 15 a = 25 15 10
REI 120 h
s
= 120 120 120 200 b
min
= 160 190 300
a = 40 20 25 35 a = 45 40 30
REI 240 h
s
= 175 175 175 200 b
min
= 450 700
a = 65 40 50 50 a = 70 60

Notes
1 Refer to BS EN 199212 for design limitations.
2 a is the axis distance (see Figure 4).
3 h
s
is the slab thickness, including any non-combustible flooring.
Figure 4
Sections through structural members, showing nominal axis distance, a
Table 10
Minimum dimensions and axis distances for reinforced concrete slabs
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13
2. Getting started
14 6
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2
Table 8
Selected
a
recommendations for normal-weight reinforced concrete quality for combined exposure classes and cover to reinforcement for at least a
50-year intended working life and 20 mm maximum aggregate size
Exposure conditions Cement/
combination
designations
b
Nominal cover to reinforcement
d
Typical example Primary Secondary
15 +Dc
dev
20 +Dc
dev
25 +Dc
dev
30 +Dc
dev
35 +Dc
dev
40 +Dc
dev
45 +Dc
dev
50 +Dc
dev
Strength class
c
, maximum w/c ratio, minimum cement or combination
content (kg/m
3
), and equivalent designated concrete (where applicable)
Recommended that this exposure is not applied to reinforced concrete
Internal mass
concrete
Internal elements
(except humid
locations)
Buried concrete
in AC-1 ground
conditions
e
Vertical surface
protected from
direct rainfall
Exposed vertical
surfaces
Exposed horizontal
surfaces
Elements subject
to airborne
chlorides
Car park decks and
areas subject to
de-icing spray
Vertical elements
subject to de-icing
spray and freezing
Car park decks,
ramps and external
areas subject to
freezing and
de-icing salts
Exposed vertical
surfaces near coast
Exposed horizontal
surfaces near coast
X0
___
XC1
XC2
XC3
&
XC4
XD1
f
XD3
f
XS1
f
___
AC-1
___
XF1
XF3
___
___
XF2
XF4
XF4 (air
entrained)
XF4
XF1
XF3 (air
entrained)
All
All
All
All except IVB
All except IVB
All except IVB
All except IVB
All
IIB-V, IIIA
CEM I, IIA,
IIB-S, SRPC
IIIB, IVB-V
IIB-V, IIIA
CEM I, IIA,
IIB-S, SRPC
IIIB, IVB-V
CEM I, IIA,
IIB-S, SRPC
IIB-V, IIIA, IIIB
CEM I, IIA,
IIB-S, SRPC
IIB-V, IIIA
IIIB
CEM I, IIA,
IIB-S, SRPC
C20/25,
0.70, 240 or
RC20/25
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
<<<
___
C40/50,
0.45, 340 or
RC40/50
C40/50,
0.45, 340 or
RC40/50
C40/50,0.45,
340
g
or
RC40/50XF
g
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
<<<
C25/30,
0.65, 260 or
RC25/30
C30/37,
0.55, 300
or RC30/37
C30/37,
0.55, 300
or RC30/37
<<<
C32/40,
0.55, 300
plus air
g,h
C40/50,
0.45, 360
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
<<<
<<<
C28/35,
0.60, 280 or
RC28/35
C28/35,
0.60, 280 or
RC28/35
<<<
C28/35,
0.60, 280
plus air
g,h
or PAV2
C32/40,
0.55, 320
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
See
BS 8500
See
BS 8500
C32/40,
0.40, 380
See
BS 8500
<<<
<<<
C25/30,
0.65, 260 or
RC25/30
<<<
<<<
C25/30,
0.60, 280
plus air
g, h, j
or PAV1
C28/35,
0.60, 300
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
C35/45,
0.45, 360
C32/40,
0.45, 360
C25/30,
0.50, 340
C40/50,
0.45, 360
g
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
C35/45,
0.40, 380
See
BS 8500
C32/40,
0.40, 380
C35/45,
0.40, 380
See
BS 8500
C32/40,
0.40, 380
See
BS 8500
C28/35,
0.40, 380
g, h
C32/40,
0.50, 340
C28/35,
0.50, 340
C25/30,
0.50, 340
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
C32/40,
0.45, 360
C40/50,
0.40, 380
C28/35,
0.45, 360
C32/40,
0.45, 360
C40/50,
0.40, 380
C32/40
0.45, 360
C40/50,
0.40, 380
g
C28/35
0.45, 360
g, h
<<<
C25/30,
0.55, 320
C25/30,
0.55, 320
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
C28/35,
0.50, 340
C35/45,
0.45, 360
C25/30,
0.50, 340
C32/40,
0.50, 340
C35/45,
0.45, 360
C32/40,
0.50, 340
<<<
C28/35,
0.50, 340
g, h
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
___
Not recommended
<<< Indicates that concrete
quality in cell to the left
should not be reduced
Key
a This table comprises a selection of common exposure class combinations.
Requirements for other sets of exposure classes, e.g. XD2, XS2 and XS3 should
be derived from BS 8500-1: 2002, Annex A.
b See BS 8500-2, Table 1. (CEM I is Portland cement, IIA to IVB are cement combinations.)
c For prestressed concrete the minimum strength class should be C28/35.
d Dc
dev
is an allowance for deviations.
e For sections less than 140 mm thick refer to BS 8500.
f Also adequate for exposure class XC3/4.
g Freeze/thaw resisting aggregates should be specified.
h Air entrained concrete is required.
j This option may not be suitable for areas subject to
severe abrasion.
02_Getting Started (amended).qxd 21/12/06 13:34 Page 6
14
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2
BS 8500 for building structures
3
Table 2
Selected
a
recommendations for normal-weight reinforced concrete quality for combined exposure classes and cover to reinforcement for at least a
50-year intended working life and 20 mm maximum aggregate size
Exposure conditions Cement/
combination
designations
b
Nominal cover to reinforcement
d
Typical example Primary Secondary
15 +Dc
dev
20 +Dc
dev
25 +Dc
dev
30 +Dc
dev
35 +Dc
dev
40 +Dc
dev
45 +Dc
dev
50 +Dc
dev
Strength class
c
, maximum w/c ratio, minimum cement or combination
content (kg/m
3
), and equivalent designated concrete (where applicable)
Recommended that this exposure is not applied to reinforced concrete
Internal mass
concrete
Internal elements
(except humid
locations)
Buried concrete
in AC-1 ground
conditions
e
Vertical surface
protected from
direct rainfall
Exposed vertical
surfaces
Exposed horizontal
surfaces
Elements subject
to airborne
chlorides
Car park decks and
areas subject to
de-icing spray
Vertical elements
subject to de-icing
spray and freezing
Car park decks,
ramps and external
areas subject to
freezing and
de-icing salts
Exposed vertical
surfaces near coast
Exposed horizontal
surfaces near coast
X0
___
XC1
XC2
XC3
&
XC4
XD1
f
XD3
f
XS1
f
___
AC-1
___
XF1
XF3
___
___
XF2
XF4
XF4 (air
entrained)
XF3 or
XF4
XF1
XF3 (air
entrained)
All
All
All
All except
IVB-V
All except
IVB-V
All except
IVB-V
All except
IVB-V
All
IIB-V, IIIA
CEM I, IIA,
IIB-S, SRPC
IIIB, IVB-V
IIB-V, IIIA
CEM I, IIA,
IIB-S, SRPC
IIIB, IVB-V
CEM I, IIA,
IIB-S, SRPC
IIB-V, IIIA, IIIB
CEM I, IIA,
IIB-S, SRPC
IIB-V, IIIA
IIIB
CEM I, IIA,
IIB-S, SRPC
C20/25,
0.70, 240 or
RC20/25
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
<<<
___
C40/50,
0.45, 340 or
RC40/50
C40/50,
0.45, 340 or
RC40/50
C40/50,0.45,
340
g
or
RC40/50XF
g
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
<<<
C25/30,
0.65, 260 or
RC25/30
C30/37,
0.55, 300
or RC30/37
C30/37,
0.55, 300
or RC30/37
<<<
C30/37,
0.55, 300
plus air
g,h
C40/50,
0.45, 360
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
<<<
<<<
C28/35,
0.60, 280 or
RC28/35
C28/35,
0.60, 280 or
RC28/35
<<<
C28/35,
0.60, 280
plus air
g,h
or PAV2
C32/40,
0.55, 320
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
See
BS 8500
See
BS 8500
C32/40,
0.40, 380
See
BS 8500
<<<
<<<
C25/30,
0.65, 260 or
RC25/30
<<<
<<<
C25/30,
0.60, 280
plus air
g, h, j
or PAV1
C28/35,
0.60, 300
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
C35/45,
0.45, 360
C32/40,
0.45, 360
C25/30,
0.50, 340
C40/50,
0.45, 360
g
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
C35/45,
0.40, 380
See
BS 8500
C32/40,
0.40, 380
C35/45,
0.40, 380
See
BS 8500
C32/40,
0.40, 380
See
BS 8500
C28/35,
0.40, 380
g, h
C32/40,
0.50, 340
C28/35,
0.50, 340
C25/30,
0.50, 340
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
C32/40,
0.45, 360
C40/50,
0.40, 380
C28/35,
0.45, 360
C32/40,
0.45, 360
C40/50,
0.40, 380
C32/40
0.45, 360
C40/50,
0.40, 380
g
C28/35
0.45, 360
g, h
<<<
C28/35,
0.55, 320
C25/30,
0.55, 320
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
C28/35,
0.50, 340
C35/45,
0.45, 360
C25/30,
0.50, 340
C32/40,
0.50, 340
C35/45,
0.45, 360
C32/40,
0.50, 340
<<<
C28/35,
0.50, 340
g, h
<<<
<<<
<<<
<<<
___
Not recommended
<<< Indicates that concrete
quality in cell to the left
should not be reduced
Key
a This table comprises a selection of common exposure class combinations.
Requirements for other sets of exposure classes, e.g. XD2, XS2 and XS3 should
be derived from BS 8500-1: 2006, Annex A.
b See BS 8500-2, Table 1. (CEM I is Portland cement, IIA to IVB are cement combinations.)
c For prestressed concrete the minimum strength class should be C28/35.
d Dc
dev
is an allowance for deviations.
e For sections less than 140 mm thick refer to BS 8500.
f Also adequate for exposure class XC3/4.
g Freeze/thaw resisting aggregates should be specified.
h Air entrained concrete is required.
j This option may not be suitable for areas subject to
severe abrasion.
___
11_BS8500.qxd 10/4/07 12:47 Page 3
15
a) Bracing system b) Floor diaphragm c) Roof diaphragm
2. Getting started
7
Figure 5
Examples of the effect of geometric imperfections
Stability and imperfections
The effects of geometric imperfections should be considered in
combination with the effects of wind loads (i.e. not as an alternative
load combination). For global analysis, the imperfections may be
represented by an inclination y
i
.
y
i
= (1/200) x a
h
x a
m
where
a
h
= (2/Rl), to be taken as not less than 2/3 nor greater than 1.0
a
m
= [0.5 (1 + 1/m)]
0
.
5
l is the height of the building in metres
m is the number of vertical members contributing to the horizontal
force in the bracing system.
The effect of the inclination may be represented by transverse forces at
each level and included in the analysis along with other actions (see
Figure 5):
Effect on bracing system: H
i
= y
i
(N
b
N
a
)
Effect on floor diaphragm: H
i
= y
i
(N
b
+ N
a
)/2
Effect on roof diaphragm: H
i
= y
i
N
a
where N
a
and N
b
are longitudinal forces contributing to H
i
.
In most cases, an allowance for imperfections is made in the partial
factors used in the design of elements. However for columns, the effect
of imperfections, which is similar in principle to the above, must be
considered (see Chapter 5, originally published as Columns
15
).
Steel
stress
(s
s
)MPa
OR OR
Table 11
Maximum bar size or spacing to limit crack width
w
max
= 0.4 mm w
max
= 0.3 mm
Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum
bar bar bar bar
size (mm) spacing (mm) size (mm) spacing (mm)
160 40 300 32 300
200 32 300 25 250
240 20 250 16 200
280 16 200 12 150
320 12 150 10 100
360 10 100 8 50
Note
The steel stress may be estimated from the expression below (or see Figure 6):
s
s
= f
yk
mA
s,req
g
ms
n A
s,prov
d
where
f
yk
= characteristic reinforcement yield stress
g
ms
= partial factor for reinforcing steel
m = total load from quasi-permanent combination
n = total load from ULS combination
A
s,req
= area of reinforcement at the ULS
A
s,prov
= area of reinforcement provided
d = ratio of redistributed moment to elastic moment
Crack control
Crack widths should be limited to ensure appearance and durability
are satisfactory. In the absence of specific durability requirements
(e.g. water tightness) the crack widths may be limited to 0.3 mm in
all exposure classes under the quasi-permanent combination. In the
absence of requirements for appearance, this limit may be relaxed (to
say 0.4 mm) for exposure classes X0 and XC1 (refer to Table 7). The
theoretical size of the crack can be calculated using the expressions
given in Cl 7.3.4 from Eurocode 211 or from the deemed to satisfy
requirements that can be obtained from Table 11, which is based on
tables 7.2N and 7.3N of the Eurocode. The limits apply to either the
bar size or the bar spacing, not both.
Figure 6
Determination of steel stress for crack width control
To determine stress in the reinforcement (s
s
), calculate the ratio G
k
/Q
k
,
read up the graph to the appropriate curve and read across to determine s
su
.
s
s
can be calculated from the expression: s
s
= s
su
A
s,req
A
s,prov
1
d
( ( ) )
02_Getting Started (amended).qxd 21/12/06 13:34 Page 7
15
2. Getting started
16
References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. BSI (4 parts).
2 INSTITUTION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS/THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. Standard method of detailing. ISE/CS. 2006.
3 NARAYANAN, R S & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Introduction to Eurocodes (TCC/03/16). The Concrete Centre, 2005.
4 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1990, Eurocode: Basis of structural design. BSI, 2002.
5 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. BSI (10 parts).
6 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures Part 11: General actions Densities, self-weight, imposed loads
for buildings. BSI, 2002.
7 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 85001: Concrete Complementary British Standard to BS EN 2061 Part 1: Method of specifying and
guidance for the specifier. BSI, 2002.
8 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 4449: Specification for carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete. BSI, 2005.
9 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Background paper to the UK National Annex to BS EN 199211. BSI, 2006.
10 BRITISH STAND ARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 10080: Steel for the reinforcement of concrete Weldable reinforcing steel General. BSI, 2005.
11 BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT. Special Digest 1: Concrete in aggressive ground. BRE, 2005.
12 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 2061: Concrete Part: Specification, performance, production and conformity. BSI, 2000.
13 HARRISON, T A BROOKER, O. How to use BS 8500 with BS 8110 (TCC/03/11). The Concrete Centre, 2005.
14 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 199212, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules structural fire design, BSI, 2004.
15 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Columns, (TCC/03/20). The Concrete Centre, 2006.
2. Getting started
02_Getting Started (amended).qxd 21/12/06 13:34 Page 8
16
2. Getting started
All advice or information from The Concrete Centre is intended for those who will evaluate the significance and limitations of its contents
and take responsibility for its use and application. No liability (including that for negligence) for any loss resulting from such advice or
information is accepted by The Concrete Centre or its subcontractors, suppliers or advisors. Readers should note that publications from
The Concrete Centre are subject to revision from time to time and they should therefore ensure that they are in possession of the
latest version. This publication has been produced following a contract placed by the Department for Trade and Industry (DTI); the
views expressed are not necessarily those of the DTI.
Ref: TCC/03/17
ISBN 1-904818-27-7
First published December 2005, revised December 2006
The Concrete Centre

Published by The Concrete Centre

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For more information on Eurocode 2 and
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Acknowledgements
The content of this publication was produced as part of the project Eurocode 2: transition from UK to European concrete design standards. This
project was part funded by the DTI under the Partners in Innovation scheme. The lead partner was the British Cement Association. The work was
carried out under the guidance of the Concrete Industry Eurocode 2 Group, which consists of representatives from:
Alan Baxter and Associates Arup British Cement Association British Precast Building Research Establishment Clark Smith Partnership
Concrete Innovation and Design Construct Department for Trade and Industry Office of the Deputy Prime Minister The Concrete Centre
The Concrete Society Quarry Products Association.