Dvorkin/RockPhysics

Rock Physics
Jack P. Dvorkin

Dvorkin/RockPhysics 1

Preface
Interpretation of Seismic Data. The main geophysical tool for illuminating the subsurface is seismic. Seismic data yield a map of the elastic properties of the subsurface. This map is useful as long as it can be interpreted to delineate structures and, most important, quantify reservoir properties. Rock physics provides links between the sediment's elastic properties and its bulk properties (porosity, lithology) and conditions (pore pressure and pore fluid). What is Rational Rock Physics. Rock physics mission is to translate seismic observables into reservoir properties, e.g., translate impedance into porosity. The simplest approach is to compile a laboratory data set, relevant to the site under investigation, where, e.g., impedance and porosity are measured on a set samples. The resulting impedance-porosity trend can be applied to seismic impedance to map it into porosity. The applicability of an empirical trend is as good as the data set it has been derived from. Extrapolation outside of the data set range is possible only if the physics is understood and theoretically generalized.

MISSION OF ROCK PHYSICS

Sediment Elastic Properties (P-Impedance, Poissons Ratio) Sediment Bulk Properties (Porosity, Lithology, Permeability) and Conditions (Fluid, Pressure)

Measure Relate Understand

Transform Function From Rock Physics

Controlled Experiment k Vp P Sw Vsh Vs

LAB

LOGS

Dvorkin/RockPhysics 1

Methods of Rock Physics

Reflection and Inversion
Reflection amplitude carries information about elastic contrast in the subsurface. Inversion attempts to translate this information into elastic properties at a point in space. Point properties are important because we are interested in absolute values of porosity and saturation at a point in space.

La Cira Norte. Courtesy Ecopetrol and Mario Gutierrez.

Dvorkin/RockPhysics 1

Basics
Elasticity

x1

Stress Tensor

x1

Strain Tensor

n T u x2 x3

x2

Ti = ij n j
x3

ij =

1 ui u j ( + ) 2 x j xi

ij = ji i j ; ij = ji i j .

Hooke's law: 21 independent constants

ij = cijkl ekl ; cijkl = c jikl = cijlk = c jilk , cijkl = cklij .

Isotropic Hooke's law: 2 independent constants (elastic moduli)

ij = ij + 2 ij ; ij = [(1 + ) ij ij ] / E.
and -- Lame's constants; -- Poisson's ratio; E -- Young's modulus.

Bulk Modulus

Compressional Modulus

K = + 2 / 3

M = + 2

Youngs Modulus and Poissons Ratio

E = ( 3 + 2 ) / ( + )

= 0. 5 / ( + )
Young

X Y

Shear

zz = E zz = xx / zz xx = yy = xy = xz = yz = 0

zz = M zz yy = zz =

Compressional

[ / ( + 2 )] zz = [ / (1 )] zz

xz = 2 xz xx = yy = zz = xy = 0

xx = yy = xy = xz = yz = 0

Dvorkin/RockPhysics 1

Basics
Dynamic and Static Elasticity
WAVE EQUATION

~ 10-7
u(z)

Compressional Experiment

(z)

dz

(z+dz)

= A[ ( z + dz ) ( z )] = Adz / z 2u / t 2 = / z Adz u
2 2 = M = M u / z 2u / t 2 = ( M / ) 2u / z 2 V p u / z2

Dynamic definitions:

Vp =

M / = ( K + 4 G / 3) / ; Vs =

G / ;

2 2 2 ; G = V s2 ; K = ( V p 4 V s2 / 3 ); = ( V p 2 V s2 ) M = V p

STATIC UNIAXIAL EXPERIMENT

~ 10-2
Sample 10156-58 70 60 Axial Stress (MPa) 50 40 30 20 10 0 RADIAL -0.005 0 AXIAL 0.005 0.01 Strain 0.015 0.02

Pc = 2000 psi = 14.1 MPa

Pc = 500 psi = 3.52 MPa Pc = 0

Courtesy Ali Mese

Dvorkin/RockPhysics 2

Velocity and Saturation

Gassmanns Equations
In static (low-frequency) limit, pore fluid affects only the bulk modulus of rock Gassmann's Equations -- Basis of Fluid Substitution
Bulk Modulus of Dry Rock Bulk Modulus of Pore Fluid

Bulk Modulus of Rock w/Fluid

K Dry Kf KSat = + Ks KSat Ks K Dry ( Ks K f )

Porosity

Bulk Modulus of Mineral Phase Shear Modulus of Rock w/Fluid

GSat = GDry

Shear Modulus of Dry Rock

The bulk modulus of rock saturated with a fluid is related to the bulk modulus of the dry rock and vice versa

KSat = Ks K Dry = Ks

K Dry (1 + ) K f K Dry / Ks + K f (1 ) K f + Ks K f K Dry / Ks

1 (1 ) KSat / Ks KSat / K f 1 + Ks / K f KSat / Ks

Velocity depends on the elastic moduli and density

V p = ( KSat + Vs =

4 GDry ) / Sat 3

GDry / Sat

Sat = Dry + Fluid > Dry

Dvorkin/RockPhysics 3

Velocity and Porosity Summary of Theories

Rock Physics Models: Velocity-Porosity

Wyllie et al. (1956) Time Average (Empirical)
Total Porosity

Recommended Parameters Rock Type Sandstone Limestone Dolomite Vsolid (km/s) 5.480 to 5.950 6.400 to 7.000 7.000 to 7.925

1 1 = + V p V Fluid V Solid
P-wave Velocity Sound Speed In Pore Fluid

P-wave Velocity in Solid Phase

Raymer et al. (1980) Equations (Empirical)

V p = (1 )2 V Solid + V Fluid < 0.37

6 Consolidated CLEAN Sands SANDSTONES SANDSTONES w/CLAY 5

Raymers equation is more accurate than Wyllies. Neither one of the two should be used to model soft slow sands.

5
Vp (km/s)

Raymer Wyllie

Fast Sands

Vp Raymer Predicted (km/s)

Examples of applying Wyllies and Raymers equation to sandstone lab data

3 Soft Slow Sands 2 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 Porosity 0.4

3 3

4 5 Vp Measured (km/s)

Han (1986) Equations for Consolidated Sandstones (Empirical, Ultrasonic Lab Measurements) Pressure 40 MPa 40 MPa 30 MPa 20 MPa 10 MPa 5 MPa 40 MPa Saturation 100% Water 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Water Water Water Water Water Vp=6.08-8.06 Vp=5.59-6.93-2.18C Vp=5.55-6.96-2.18C Vp=5.49-6.94-2.17C Vp=5.39-7.08-2.13C Vp=5.26-7.08-2.02C Vp=5.41-6.35-2.87C Equations Vs=4.06-6.28 Vs=3.52-4.91-1.89C Vs=3.47-4.84-1.87C Vs=3.39-4.73-1.81C Vs=3.29-4.73-1.74C Vs=3.16-4.77-1.64C Vs=3.57-4.57-1.83C Comments Clean Rock Rock Rock Rock Rock Rock w/Clay w/Clay w/Clay w/Clay w/Clay

Room-Dry

Rock w/Clay

Vp and Vs are in km/s; the total porosity is in fractions; volumetric clay content in the whole rock (not in the solid phase) C is in fractions.

Tosaya (1982) Equations for Shaley Sandstones (Empirical, Ultrasonic Lab Measurements) Pressure 40 MPa Saturation 100% Water Equations Vp=5.8-8.6-2.4C Vs=3.7-6.3-2.1C Comments Rock w/Clay

Vp and Vs are in km/s; the total porosity is in fractions; volumetric clay content in the whole rock (not in the solid phase) C is in fractions.

Eberhart-Phillips (1989) Equations for Shaley Sandstones (Empirical, Based on Hans Data) 100% Water Saturation

V p = 5.77 6.94 1.73 C + 0.446[ P exp( 16.7 P)] V s = 3.70 4.94 1.57 C + 0.361[ P exp( 16.7 P)]

Vp and Vs are in km/s; differential pressure P is in kilobars. 1 kb = 100 MPa.

Nurs (1998) Critical Porosity Concept (Heuristic)

Solid-Phase Bulk Modulus Total Porosity Solid-Phase Shear Modulus Critical Porosity

K Dry = KSolid (1 / c ) GDry = GSolid (1 / c )

Dry-Rock Bulk Modulus Critical Porosity of Various Rocks Sandstones Limestones Dolomites Pumice Chalks Rock Salt Cracked Igneous Rocks Oceanic Basalts Sintered Glass Beads Glass Foam 36% - 40% 36% - 40% 36% - 40% 80% 55% - 65% 36% - 40% 3% - 6% 20% 36% - 40% 85% - 90% Dry-Rock Shear Modulus

1 Basalt Dolomite

Elastic Modulus / Mineral Modulus

0.8

Foam Glass Beads Limestone Rock Salt

0.6

Clean Sandstone

Compressional Modulus (GPa)

80

60

Cracked Igneous Rocks with Percolating Cracks

0.4

0.2

40

20

Pumice with Honeycomb Structure

0.2

0.4 0.6 Porosity/Critical Porosity

0.8

0.2

0.4 0.6 Porosity

0.8

Examples of using Critical Porosity Concept to mimic lab data

Contact Cement Model (Theoretical)

Cement's Critical Porosity Compressional Modulus Cement's Shear Modulus

Coordination Number

K Dry =
Dry-Rock Bulk Modulus

n(1 c ) Mc Sn 6

GDry =

3K Dry 3n(1 c )Gc S + 5 20

Dry-Rock Shear Modulus

Sn = An ( n ) 2 + Bn ( n ) + Cn ( n ), An ( n ) = 0.024153 n 1.3646 , Bn ( n ) = 0.20405 n 0.89008 , Cn ( n ) = 0.00024649 n 1.9864 ; A ( , s ) = 10 2 (2.26 s 2 + 2.07 s + 2.3) 0.079 s
2

+ 0.1754 s 1.342
2

, , ;

B ( , s ) = (0.0573 s 2 + 0.0937 s + 0.202) 0.0274 s

+ 0.0529 s 0.8765
2

C ( , s ) = 10 4 (9.654 s 2 + 4.945 s + 3.1) 0.01867 s

+ 0.4011 s 1.8186

n = 2Gc (1 s )(1 c ) / [ Gs (1 2 c )], = Gc / ( Gs );

= [(2 / 3)( c ) / (1 c )]0.5 ; c = 0.5( Kc / Gc 2 / 3) / ( Kc / Gc + 1 / 3); s = 0.5( Ks / Gs 2 / 3) / ( Ks / Gs + 1 / 3).

Elastic Modulus

S = A ( , s ) 2 + B ( , s ) + C ( , s ),

Contact Cement Model

0.30

0.35 Porosity

0.40

Uncemented Sand Model or Modified Lower Hashin-Shtrikman (Theoretical)

K Dry = [ GDry = [ K HM

1 / c 1 G 9 K + 8GHM / c + ] z, z = HM HM ; GHM + z G+z 6 K HM + 2GHM

1 1

n 2 (1 c )2 G 2 3 5 4 3n 2 (1 c )2 G 2 3 =[ P ] , G = [ P] . HM 18 2 (1 )2 5(2 ) 2 2 (1 )2

Elastic Modulus

1 / c 1 4 / c + ] GHM , 4 3 K HM + 3 GHM K + 4 3 GHM

Uncemented Sand Model

0.30

0.35 Porosity

0.40

In the above equations, K stands for bulk modulus and G stands for shear modulus. is Poissons ratio. Subscript c with a modulus means cement and subscript s means grain material. is the total porosity, and c is critical porosity. P is differential pressure. All units have to be consistent.

Constant Cement Model (Theoretical)

Elastic Modulus

Kdry = ( Gdry = (

1 / b 1 / b + ) 4Gb / 3, Kb + 4Gb / 3 Ks + 4Gb / 3 G 9 Kb + 8Gb / b 1 / b 1 + ) z, z = b . Gb + z Gs + z 6 Kb + 2Gb

Constant Cement Model

b is porosity (smaller than c) at which contact cement trend turns into constant cement trend. Elastic moduli with subscript b are the moduli at porosity b. These moduli are calculated from the contact cement theory with = b.

0.30 0.35 Porosity

0.40

Model for Marine Sediments (Theoretical)

Depth (mbsf)

60

K Dry = [ GDry = [ z=

(1 ) / (1 c ) ( c ) / (1 c ) 1 4 + ] GHM , 4 3 K HM + 4 3 GHM 3 GHM (1 ) / (1 c ) ( c ) / (1 c ) 1 + ] z, GHM + z z

80

100

120

Data This Model Suspension 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 Neutron Porosity 1.5 1.6 1.7 P-Wave Velocity (km/s) 1.8

GHM 9 K HM + 8GHM ; > c . 6 K HM + 2GHM

Consolidated Sand Model or Modified Upper Hashin-Shtrikman (Theoretical)

Bulk Modulus (GPa)

K Dry

1 / b 1 4 / b =[ + ] Gs , 4 3 Kb + 3 Gs Ks + 4 3 Gs G 9 Ks + 8Gs / b 1 / b 1 + ] z, z = s . Gb + z Gs + z 6 Ks + 2Gs

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0

Ks Modified Upper Hashin-Shtrikman

GDry = [

Elastic moduli with subscript b are the moduli at porosity b. These moduli can be calculated from the contact cement theory with = b, or chosen at some initial point as suggested by data.

(K

Phi )
b

0.1

0.2 Porosity

0.3

Non-Load-Bearing Clay Model (Theoretical)

5
Vp (km/s)

Dry Clay < 35%

3% < Clay < 18% No Clay

All Samples

The velocity (or elastic moduli) are plotted versus the load-bearing frame porosity F = t + C(1- clay ) instead of total porosity

t.

C is the volume of clay

in rock, and porosity of clay.

clay

is

the

internal
18% < Clay < 37% 3 0 0.1 0.2 Porosity 0.3 0 0.1 0.2 Porosity 0.3 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 Load-Bearing Frame Porosity

A scatter collapses onto a single trend (right frame).

Examples: Velocity-Porosity

Quartz Cement Clay Cement

CORE DATA SATURATED

Contact Cement

Constant Cement
Elastic Modulus

Contact Cement

3.5 Constant Cement

P-WAVAE VELOCITY (km/s)

Vp (km/s)

Contact Cement

3.0 Friable

Sorting

#2

Friable

Initial Sand Pack 0.40

2.5 0.25 0.30 0.35 Porosity

#1 0.40

Non-Contact Cement
0.2 POROSITY 0.3

0.30

0.35 Porosity

35 30 Friable

M-Modulus (GPa)

25 20 15 10

Contact Cement Equation

Contact Cement

7
P-Impedance

5
14 12

Unconsolidated Shale 4 Equation

Friable

Shear Modulus (GPa)

10 8 6 4 2 0

0.2

0.3 0.4 Total Porosity

Contact Cement

Han Clean Han 3-8% Clay Han >18% Clay

Han Clean Han 3-8% Clay Han >18% Clay 5

0.1

0.2 0.3 Porosity

0.4

Acae_8 Depth > 9.5 kft Caliper < 9.5

Vp (km/s)

Acae_7 Depth > 9.5 kft Caliper < 9.5

0.1 0.2 Density-Porosity 0.1 0.2 Density-Porosity

Vp (km/s)
4

Dvorkin/RockPhysics 4

Velocity and Porosity

Fluvial Sandstones -- La Cira Case Study
Interpreting Impedance Inversion

11 10
P-Wave Impedance

SHALE

9 8 7 6 5 4 0 SAND 0.1 0.2 Total Porosity 0.3

SAND CHANNEL SHALE

ALL DATA COURTESY ECOPETROL and MARIO GUTIERREZ

Dvorkin/RockPhysics 5

Vp and Vs Summary of Theories

Dvorkin/RockPhysics 5

Rock Physics Models: Vp and Vs

Castagna et al. (1985) Mudrock -- Empirical Sand/Shale -- SW = 100%
S-wave Velocity (km/s) P-wave Velocity (km/s)

V S = 0.862 V P 1.172
S-wave Velocity (km/s) P-wave Velocity (km/s)

Castagna et al. (1993) -- Empirical Sand/Shale -- SW = 100%

V S = 0.804 V P 0.856

Krief et al. (1990) -- Critical Porosity Any mineral Any fluid

2 2 2 2 VP VP _ Saturated V Fluid _ Mineral V Fluid = 2 2 V S _ Saturated VS _ Mineral

Grinberg/Castagna (1992) Empirical Any mineral SW = 100%

S-wave Velocity (km/s)

P-wave Velocity (km/s)

4 2 1 j j 1 1 V S = {[ Xi aij V P ] + [ Xi ( aij V P ) ] } 2 i =1 j = 0 j =0 i =1 4

X
i =1
i 1 2 3 4 Mineral Sandstone Limestone Dolomite Shale

=1
ai2 0 -0.05508 0 0 ai1 0.80416 1.01677 o.58321 0.76969 ai0 -0.85588 -1.03049 -0.07775 0.86735

Willimas (1990) -- Empirical SW = 100% Sand Shale

S-wave Velocity (km/s)

P-wave Velocity (km/s)

V S = 0.846 V P 1.088 V S = 0.784 V P 0.893