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Practical Analytic Geometry With Applications To Aircraft 1

% PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY WITH APPLICATIONS TO AIRCRAFT THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher.

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100% found this document useful (2 votes)

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Practical Analytic Geometry With Applications To Aircraft 1

% PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY WITH APPLICATIONS TO AIRCRAFT THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher.

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STS

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

WITH APPLICATIONS TO AIRCRAFT

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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO DALLAS

ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO

MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited

LONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTA . MADRAS

MELBOURNE

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

OF CANADA, Limited

TORONTO

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

WITH APPLICATIONS TO AIRCRAFT

ROY A. LIMING

Head of Engineering Loft Mathematics

North American Aviation, Inc.

Special Lecturer in Engineering Mathematics

University of Southern California

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK

1944

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By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

AII rights reservedno part of this book may be re-

produced in any form without permission in writing

from the publisher, except by a reviewer who wishes

to quote brief passages in connection with a review

written for inclusion in magazine or newspaper.

PR1NTED 1N THE UN1TED STATES OF AMER1CA

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568811

FOREWORD

By J. L. At wood

Executive Vice President

North American Aviation, Inc.

The aircraft industry is rapidly closing up the many dis-

continuities and eliminating the inconsistencies which have

i existed in design and manufacturing techniques.

It has been remarked that the airplane designer has been at

te> a disadvantage in years gone by in comparison with the boat

^ designer because he was unable to see the spray. More re-

K cently, scientific testing and analysis have brought forth the

i beautifully faired modern shapes, and tooling technology has

} made possible uniform quantity production.

In this book, Mr. Liming presents a comprehensive study of

the application of analytic geometry to a practical mathe-

^--

matical definition of airplane contours and structure. Since the

structure and the contours are intimately related to a degree

probably not encountered in any other form of cambered con-

struction, the advantage of complete dimensional information

in mathematically accurate tabular form is obvious.

Both Mr. Liming and The Macmillan Company are to be

congratulated on the publication of this significant book.

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PREFACE

The object of this textbook is twofold: to answer the need

for a practical system of analytic calculation techniques for

direct use in the aircraft, automotive, and marine industries;

to provide the student of mathematics, particularly of analytic

geometry, with the motivation that comes only with seeing his

subject significantly alive and creative in industrial fields of

activity.

Organization. A good technique in elementary algebra and

trigonometry is indispensable to success in the study and appli-

cation of analytic geometry. This text therefore incorporates

in the Appendix certain basic formulas from algebra and trigo-

nometry, emphasizing the closely integrated nature of these two

subjects as tools in the use of the analytic techniques presented.

The main body of the text is organized into three parts.

Part I analyzes the applications of analytic geometry to two-

dimensional space;. Part II develops the application of rec-

tangular coordinates to three-dimensional space; Part III

develops and applies a system of analytic analysis to curves

commonly required in the lofting of streamline bodies.

In Parts I and II organization of material follows this typical

pattern:

(a) Statement of analytic principle and formula.

(b) An academic example with complete solution to illus-

trate (a).

(c) An additional example for solution by the student.

(d) An application to aircraft, with illustration and complete

solution.

(e) A list of practical problems at the end of the chapter,

with answers in the Appendix.

Unity. In the interests of unity, applications have been con-

fined exclusively to aircraft structure; however, except for

portions of Chapters V and VI, the principles developed apply

vii

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viii

PREFACE

with equal force and effectiveness to related industrial fields,

particularly to certain engineering, lofting, and tooling problems

in the automotive and marine industries.

Unity in the presentation of the analytic principles is achieved

by keeping the chapters tied together through the cumulative

use of material from previous chapters. This is especially true

in the case of the more difficult problems. Each list of problems

has been graded as to difficulty where the range of complexity

of material warrants such a procedure.

Flexibility. The organization of the material adapts the text

to the following specific uses:

(a) Direct application by the engineering designer, loftsman,

and draftsman to practical problems.

(b) Convenient reference by both teacher and student for

supplementary material in conventional mathematies and

engineering curricula.

(c) Home study reference, for which the text is particularly

well adapted through the unusual number of illustrated

applications.

Special Features. The principles of analytic geometry dis-

cussed in this text constitute the basis of a complete calculation

system of dimensional controls successfully applied to the

engineering, lofting, and tooling of aircraft. Illustrations and

applied data are drawn from actual experience, without modi-

fication except as policies governing data of a confidential nature

have required.

Such data reveal the fact that trigonometric functions and

equation constants have commonly been employed to eight

decimal places. In actual practice, no tolerances are taken in

calculations. Data derived from such procedures are submitted

to be used to the customary degree of precision, with conven-

tional tolerances assumed about the calculations as are pre-

scribed for the application at hand.

Successful solution of problems by analytic techniques, par-

ticularly from the viewpoint of economy of time and effort,

requires the use of a coordinated system of charts adapted for

use with an automatic calculating machine. The special charts

illustrated in this text are especially designed for use with a

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PREFACE

calculator featuring cumulative addition and subtraction of

products. Such specialized equipment, however, is desirable

only for use in the preparation of technical data for actual

practical use, and is not necessarily required by the student or

teacher, whose primary objective is the mastery of principle

and procedure.

Acknowledgments. The author is indebted to many of his col-

leagues for numerous and timely suggestions and constructive

criticisms, and takes this opportunity to express his sincere ap-

preciation.

In connection with the chapters devoted to the use of conic

lofting techniques in the laying out of aircraft fuselage lines,

special acknowledgment is made of the suggestions of Carter M.

Hartley, Chief Loftsman.

Credit for pioneering the use of conic sections in the develop-

ment of such lines in the aircraft industry belongs to Edgar

Schmued, Chief Designer.

To his wife, Betty Louise Liming, who assisted so painstak-

ingly in the preparation and proofreading of the manuscript;

and to his brother, Ora Clark Liming, aircraft technician and

professional pilot, who originally inspired his professional interest

in aviation, the author extends his heartfelt appreciation.

R. A. L.

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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

Chapter I. Analytic Geometry Applied to Certain Engineer-

ing, Lofting, and Tooling Problems

PART I

APPLIED PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Chapter II. Cartesian Coordinates in One Plane

1. Length of a Line Segment, 7

2. Mid-Point of a Line Segment, 9

3. Slope of a Line, 10

4. Inclination of a Line, 11

5. Parallelism of Lines, 13

6. Perpendicularity of Lines, 14

7. Angle Between Two Lines, 15

8. Distance of a Point from a Line, 17

9. Graphs of Equations in Rectangular Coordinates, 17

Chapter III. Analytic Equations of a Line

1. Point-Slope Form, 21

2. Two-Point Form, 21

3. Slope-Intercept Form, 22

4. Intercept Form, 23

5. Normal Form, 23

PART II

APPLIED SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Chapter IV. Cartesian Coordinates in Space

1. Coordinates of a Point, 29

2. Direction Numbers of a Line, 30

3. Direction Cosines of a Line, 31

4. Length of a Line Segment, 34

5. True Angle Between Two Lines, 35

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xii

CONTENTS

6. Parallelism and Perpendicularity, 37

7. True Distance of a Point from a Line, 40

8. True Distance Between Two Skew Lines, 41

9. Direction Ratios of a Line Perpendicular to Two Given

Lines, 43

Chapter V. Typical Coordinate Axis Conventions 48

1. Fuselage Reference System, 48

2. Wing Reference System, 49

3. Empennage Reference System, 51

4. Major Assembly and Sub-Assembly Systems, 51

a. Fuselage, 52

1. Forebody (cowl), 52

2. Centersection, 52

3. Afterbody, 52

b. Wing, 52

1. Inner Panel (centersection), 52

2. Outer Panel, 52

3. Tip Section, 52

4. Nacelle, 52

5. Front Spar Assembly, 52

6. Rear Spar Assembly, 52

7. Flap Assembly, 52

8. Aileron Assembly, 52

c. Empennage, 52

1. Horizontal Stabilizer-Elevator Assembly, 52

2. Vertical Stabilizer-Rudder Assembly, 52

5. Transformation and Translation of Coordinates by Rotation

Techniques, 52

a. Rotation in One Plane, 52

1. Conversion of Wing Coordinates, 52

2. Conversion of Empennage Coordinates, 54

b. Rotations in Space, 55

1. Wing Rear Spar Sub-Assembly, 60

2. Aileron Assembly, 63

Chapter VI. Analytic Analysis of Basic Lines 71

1. Equations of a Straight Line, 71

2. Reduction of General Equations of a Line to Standard Form, 73

3. Transformation of the Equations of a Line, 74

4. Basic Wing Percentage Lines, 77

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CONTENTS

xiii

5. Calculation Techniques for Canted Wing Sections, 83

a. Single Cant Front View, 84

b. Single Cant Plan View, 84

c. Double Cant, 85

d. Single Cant (Front View) Calculation, 85

e. Single Cant (Plan View) Calculation, 89

Chapter VII. Analytic Equations of a Plane 92 ,

1. Equation of a Plane-Standard Form, 92

a. Plane Through Three Non-Collinear Points, 92

1. Case 1. By Determinant Formula, 92

2. Case 2. "Point-Normal" Method, 95

b. Plane Through a Line and an Exterior Point, 97

c. Plane Through Two Parallel Lines, 99

d. Plane Through Two Intersecting Lines, 100

e. Equation of a Plane Through a Given Point with Direction

of Normals Given, 102

f. Through Two Given Points and Normal to a Given Plane1

102

1. Case 1. By Determinant Formula, 103

2. Case 2. "Point-Normal" Method, 103

2. The Intercept Equation of a Plane, 105

3. Equation of a Plane-Normal Form, 105

4. Reduction of the General Equation of a Plane to Normal

Form, 106

5. Transformation of a Plane Equation, 108

Chapter VIII. Analytic Analysis of Basic Line-Plane

Relationships 113

1. True Distance from a Point to a Plane, 113

2. True Angle Between Two Planes, 114

3. Perpendicularity of Planes, 115

4. Parallelism of Planes, 116

5. Intersection of a Line and a Plane, 117

6. Line of Intersection of Two Planes, 118

7. True Angle Between a Line and a Plane, 121

8. True Angle Between a Given Line and a Reference Plane, 122

9. True Angle Between a Given Plane and a Reference Plane, 124

10. True Angle Between a Given Plane and a Reference Axis, 125

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xiv

CONTENTS

Chapter IX. Special Analytic Applications 129

1. Landing Gear Kinematics, 129

a. Transformation and Translation Relationships, 131

b. Basic Linear Equations (Wing Reference System), 133

2. Analytic Derivation of Engine Mount Basic Data, 136

3. Calculations of Canted Wing Sections, 142

a. Single Cant (front view), 143

b. Single Cant (plan view), 143

c. Double Cant, 148

PART III

ANALYTIC ANALYSIS OF CURVES USED IN LOFTING

Chapter X. Conic Lofting 151

1. Introduction, 151

2. Advantages of Mathematical Analysis, 152

3. Application of a Second-Degree Curve Development to Cowl-

ing, 154

4. Laying Out Fuselage Lines, 156

5. Graphical Construction Technique for the General Conic, 157

6. Choice of a Suitable Mathematical Technique, 158

7. Derivation of a Specific Conic Equation, 160

8. Application to a Specific Curve, 161

9. Formulas for Equation Constants for Varying Curve Posi-

tions, 169

10. Keel Curve, 173

11. Curve Positions for Development of Body Plan View, 173

12. Curve of Cowling Development, 176

13. Other Types of Curves, 176

14. Proportional Curve, 176

15. Equation of Proportional Curve, 177

16. Developing Equation of Proportional Curve, 177

17. Determining Points of Tangency on Proportional Curve, 178

18. Curve Equation by Second-Degree Method, 179

19. Results of Analysis, 180

20. Applications of Proportional Curve, 181

Chapter XI. Conic Lofting Continued 185

1. Matching of Second-Degree Curves, 185

2. Methods of Approach, 187

3. Correlation, or Matching, Technique, 188

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CONTENTS

4. Summary of Matching Technique, 190

5. Lack of Adequate Lofting Technique, 191

6. Application of Matching Second-Degree Curves, 192

7. Application of Matching Technique to Cowling Curves, 195

8. Other Applications of Matching Technique, 196

9. Construction of Tangent to Second-Degree Curve at a Given

Point, 197

10. Construction of Tangent to Second-Degree Curve at Two

Given Points, 199

11. Development of Canted Sections, 200

12. Determining Second-Degree Curve Tangent, 201

13. Parametric and Other Formulas, 204

14. Application of Parametric Formulas to Keel Curve Develop-

ment, 205

15. Formulas for Calculations Relating to Slope and Curvature,

206

Chapter XII. Special Conic Techniques 211

1. Calculation of Canted Fuselage Sections, 211

2. Calculation Technique, 211

a. Single Cant-Side View, 212

b. Single Cant-Plan View, 215

c. Double Cant, 215

3. Fuselage Coordinate Data Based on Conic Techniques, 218

4. Types of Fuselage Coordinate Data, 218

a. Waterline-Buttock Line Coordinates, 219

b. Longeron Coordinate Data, 223

c. Stringer Coordinate Data, 224

5. Development of a Cockpit Enclosure, 224

a. Calculation of Fuselage-Enclosure Intersection, 225

b. Basic Conies to Be Calculated, 229

6. Development of a Radiator Air Scoop, 230

a. Calculation of Basic Scoop Contours, 230

b. Shoulder Point Coordinates, 232

Chapter XIII. Special Conic Techniques Continued 234

1. Graphical Construction of the General Conic, 234

2. Three Points and the Slopes at Two, 234

a. Graphical Procedure, 235

b. Mathematical Description, 235

3. Four Points and the Slope at One, 237

4. Five Points, 239

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CONTENTS

5. Two Points and the Slope at Each Plus a Third Slope, 240

6. One Point and the Slope at That Point, Plus Three Slopes, 241

7. Five Slopes, 242

8. Graphical Construction of Special Conies, 243

9. Tangent-Lines (Proportional) Method of Constructing a Para-

bolic Curve, 243

10. Application to a Duct Elbow Fairing Development, 245

11. Development of a Wing Fillet, 245

12. Development of a Second-Degree Curve to Enlarged or Re-

duced Scale, 248

13. Fairing of Basic Control Lines, 250

a. Special Projective Relationships of Conies, 250

b. Special Analytic Relationships, 252

APPENDIX

Basic Formulas from Algebra and Trigonometry

259

Answers to Problems

Natural Trigonometric Functions

283

Index

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INTRODUCTION

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CHAPTER I

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY APPLIED TO CERTAIN

ENGINEERING, LOFTING, AND TOOLING PROBLEMS

Analytic geometry is that branch of the geometries which con-

cerns itself with the algebraic solution of problems involving

space relationships. The language of analytic geometry is

symbolic, including the use of numbers, letters, and related

symbols. This symbolic language is perhaps best illustrated by

the subject matter of algebra and the calculus.

Descriptive geometry concerns itself with the graphic solution

of problems involving space relationships. It has for its lan-

guage the tools of drawing, and is therefore based, fundamen-

tally, upon points and lines.

It is the purpose of this book to apply algebraic techniques to

problems involving space relationships through the use of a

system of rectangular cartesian coordinates. By this means it

is hoped to suggest a correlation of algebraic with graphic tech-

niques in the solution of certain engineering, lofting, and tooling

problems.

Since orthogonal projection is the standard method of present-

ing engineering information, the system of rectangular cartesian

coordinates employed in this book is adapted perfectly to con-

ventional engineering drawings. Each of the regular orthogonal

projection or picture planes, whether plan, profile, or front eleva-

tion, has its exact counterpart in the form of a coordinate projec-

tion plane in such a cartesian coordinate system.

Elementary trigonometry has long constituted the traditional

mathematical complement of descriptive geometry in engineering

drafting and layout practice. Such mathematical applications

appear fairly adequate when limited to views based upon right-

angle rotations. However, developments involving a multipli-

city of auxiliary or oblique views reveal all too quickly the

inadequacies of simple applications of elementary trigonometry.

Furthermore, as soon as fundamental basic data have been

calculated and established by a system of analytic geometry

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

techniques, a compactly organized body of basic equations is

available for all subsequent calculations. A coordinated body

of dimensional data is assured at all stages of the calculation

process.

The lofting process emphasizes the application of descriptive

geometry with special stress placed upon accuracy and precision

of results. Obviously, while a graphic solution represents an

approximate answer to a problem, the mathematical solution

represents an exact answer; hence, the latter method is indispen-

sable to securing accurately established data in a basic lofting

development.

The nature of lofting calculations is such that analytic geom-

etry is ideally adapted to the resolution of lofting problems. At

the same time, since the loft represents a permanent source of

master dimensional authority, analytic equations and formulas,

systematically charted, constitute an easily established perma-

nent source of such dimensions.

Of greatest significance to the tooling program is the avail-

ability of master dimensions establishing the coordination of

engineering releases and loft layouts. The calculation of addi-

tional data with the same basic analytic equations which were

developed in the engineering and lofting stages, assures the

highest practical degree of dimensional integrity throughout

subsequent tooling procedures.

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PART I

APPLIED PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

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CHAPTER II

CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN ONE PLANE

Cartesian or rectangular coordinates may be used to locate

points, lines, and curves in a given plane.

The point P (see Fig. 1) is located in terms of the distances of

that point from two mutually perpendicular lines called the

coordinate axes. The two

axes, OX, the X-axis, and

OY, the F-axis, intersect

perpendicularly at a point 0

called the origin. N ip

The perpendicular dis- j

tance from P to the F-axis -x j ^.

is called the abscissa (X-dis- M

tance); from P to the X-axis

is called the ordinate (F-dis-

tance).

The abscissa of P is posi-

tive (+) if P Jies to the

right of the F-axis, nega- Fig. 1

tive ( ) if to the left; the

ordinate of P is positive (+) if P lies above the X-axis, nega-

tive ( ) if below.

Any pair of real numbers (coordinates) determines a point;

every point determines a pair of real numbers. The coordinates

(5, 7) locate a point which is five units to the right of the F-axis

and seven units below the X-axis.

1. Length1 of a Line Segment

The length of the line segment (Fig. 2) joining the points

Pi(xi, yO and P2(x2, y2) is given by the formula:

d = V(x2 - Xl)2 + (y* - yO2.

Example 1:

Find the length of the line segment (see Fig. 3) joining the

points Pi(2, 3) and P2(5, 4) by the use of the distance formula.

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

PA*t,y2)

Solution:

d = V(s-2) + [4- (-3)]2

d=f

d = V58 = 7.616.

Example 2:

Find the length of the line segment joining the points

Pi(-8, -5) andP2(-5, -1).

Application:

Find the true length of the aileron hinge line (Fig. 4) between

the inboard and outboard hinge points (Pi and P2).

134.5 214.5

Fig. 4

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CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN ONE PLANE

Solution:

The hinge points Pi and P2 have as coordinates (134.5, 40.25)

and (214.5, 28.35) respectively.

Upon substitution of these values in the distance formula, the

following expression results:

d = V(214.5 - 134.5)2 + (28.35 ~ 4Q-25)2

d = V802 + (-11.9)2

d = V6541.61 = 80.880.

S. Midpoint of a Line Segment

The coordinates (Xo, Yo) of the midpoint of the segment

(Fig- 5) whose end-points

are (Xu Y{), (X,, Y2) are

given by the following for-

mulas:

P2U2,y,)

Xo =

Yo =

Xi + X2>

F, + F2

Example 1:

Find the coordinates (Xo,

Yo) of the midpoint of the

line segment whose end-

points are (-2,3) and (5, 7).

Fig. 5

Solution:

Xo =

-2 + 5

Yo =

3+7

(Xo, Yo) = (1.5, 5)

Example 2:

Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment whose

end-points are (3, -7) and (5, 3).

Application:

The center of the main landing gear wheel (Fig. 6) when

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

retracted is to lie on the midpoint of the line PiP2 which is normal

to the rear spar. Find the midpoint Po (Xo, Yo) of this line,

-245.000

Fig. 6

Solution:

Xo = 248-384 + 245-000 = ^6 ^

Yo 18-3?8 + 64-o86 = 41.232

Fig. 7

3. Slope of a Line

The slope of a line (Fig. 7) is the

trigonometric tangent of the angle

which the line makes with the posi-

tive axis of X:

Slope (m) = tan 6 = vr -

A2 A1

X Example 1:

Given two points Pi(2, 3) and

P2(7,6) as the extremities of any

directed line segment on the line. Find the slope of the line.

Solution:

Slope (m) = = I = 0.6

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CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN ONE PLANE

Example 2:

Given two points Pi(8.5, 6) and P2(3, 7) as the extremities of

any directed line segment on the line. Find the slope of the line.

Application:

Given the trace of the plane of the centerline of the rear wing

spar on the wing reference plane, with the coordinates of the

intersection of this trace with the root station (y-axis) and the

tip station given as (o, 49.5) and (214.5, 20.0) respectively (see

Fig. 8).

Find the slope of the trace of the

rear spar plane.

Solution:

Slope (m) =

20 - 49.5

-29.5

214.5 - o 214.5

= -0.13752914

4. Inclination of a Line

The inclination of a line may be

defined as the least positive angle

through which the X-axis may be rotated (counterclockwise)

to coincide with the given line.

In Fig. 9, angle a is the angle of inclination of line /.

Fig. 9

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12 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Example 1:

Given the points Pi(3, 4) and ^2(9, 7) on the line /. Find the

angle of inclination.

Solution:

m = tan a; a = inclination

m = = \ = 0.5; tan a = 0.5; a = 260 33' 6"

Example 2:

Given the points Pi(j, 3) and P2(4, 5) on the line /. Find

the angle of inclination.

Application:

Given the intersections of the plane of the centerline of the

front spar (see Fig. 10) with the upper and lower mold lines of

P, (32.247,-9.370)

P2(3l.l 25, -7.100)

Fig. 10

wing station 0 at the centerline of ship, points Pi and P2 defined

respectively as (32.247, 9.370) and (31.125, 7.100).

Find the angle of inclination with the fuselage reference line

(X-axis).

Solution:

7.1OO 9.370 16.470 . 0

m = ?-3- = 11 - 14.67914438

31.i25-32.247 -1.122 ^ ^ w

a (inclination) = 860 6' 10"

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CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN ONE PLANE 13

5. Parallelism of Lines

If two lines k and k (see Fig. n) have the same inclination,

and therefore the same slope, they are parallel; the converse is

also true. Thus if h and h have

inclinations ai, a2 respectively,

and slopes Wi and m2 respect-

ively, then

cti = <*2 and Wi = mi.

Conversely, if two lines have

equal inclinations (or slopes) they

are parallel.

Example 1:

Given h - ( 3, 4) and (6, 18)

and h '. ( 18, 24) and (36, 108)

Determine whether these lines are parallel.

Fig. 11

Solution:

Slope (wi) of line h =

18-4

6- (-3)

Slope (nh) of line h = ^ (Z^j = ^

Therefore lines h and h are parallel.

Example 2:

Given

h : (-2", -3) and (7, 10)

h '. ( 12, 18) and (10, 7)

h '. ( 8, 12) and (28, 40).

Determine which, if any, of these lines are parallel.

Application:

Two canted fuselage bulkheads supporting bomb bay doors

are shown in side elevation by the data of Fig. 12.

Determine whether the centerlines of these bulkheads are

parallel in this view.

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

225 - 223

Solution:

Slope (mi) Bulkhead #4 =

Slope (m2) Bulkhead #5 =

0.01647786

121.375

331-17173 - 330.01828

= 0.01647786

Therefore mi = m2, and the bulkhead centerlines are parallel.

Fus. Sta. "8"

Fus. Sta. A

Sta * 223)

W.L*121.375

}in-\

*--Tan. .01647786

Sta. #330.01828

-W.L#70-

- <L Bulkhead

Fus. Sta. "O"

Sta. #225-

Tan. .01647786

Sta.#331.1717:

Fig. 12

6. Perpendicularity of Lines

If two lines h and h of slopes mi and w2, respectively, are per-

pendicular to each other, the product of their slopes is equal to

1 (see Fig. 13). Thus

OT1W2 = 1.

The converse is also true. That

is, if the product of the slopes of two

lines equals 1, the lines are per-

pendicular.

Example 1:

Given

Fig. 13 Zi : (3.325, 7.5) and (6.825, 5-o)

and h : (-1.5, 1.625) and (3.5, 8.625).

Determine whether the lines h and k are mutually perpendicular.

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CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN ONE PLANE

Solution:

Slope (mi) of h = 7T7T = ^

F v lJ 6.825 - 3.325 3.5

Slope (m2) of h =

8.625 1.625

minh

3.5 - (-1.5)

Therefore the lines are perpendicular

Example 2:

= 1

Given

(6.65, 15) and (13.65, 10)

(-3- 3.25) and (7, 17.25)

(-15- 7.5) and (3.5, 5).

Determine which, if any, of these lines are perpendicular.

Application:

Determine which of the following percentage lines are normal

to the root chord line (the y-axis):

h : (99, 21.275) and (605, 44.145)

h : (o, 111.216) and (661.1875, 8l-754)

h : (21, 64.344) and (331, 64.344).

7. Angle Between Two Lines

The formula for the angle between two intersecting lines h and

h, which is defined as the positive angle through which h must be

rotated in order to coincide with l2, is given as

tan 6 =

w2 Wi

1 + WiW2

where Wi and w2 are the slopes of h and /2

(see Fig. 14).

Example 1:

Find the angle between two lines h and

h whose slopes are ml = 0.485 and m2

= -0.318.

Solution:

O.318 0485 O.803

tan 6 =

1 + (0.485) (-0.318)

0 = 1360 29' 9"

1 - 0.15423

Fig. 14

= -O.949430

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Example 2:

Find the angle between two lines whose slopes are 0.767 and

0.0875 respectively.

Application:

Given the centerline of aileron hinge and the centerline of the

rear wing spar, defined by coordinates as shown in Fig. 15.

Y- 28.3005

Sta. 214.6441

Sta. 0

PLAN VIEW

Fis- 15

Required to find the angle between the centerline of aileron

hinge and the centerline of the rear wing spar in plan view.

Solution:

Slope (mi) < rear spar

Slope (m2) $ aileron hinge =

39-7371 - 28.3005

134.0335 - 214.6441

11.4366

-80.6106 = -o-14187464

31.7328 - 21.0472

134-0335 - 214.6441

10.6856

-80.6106 " -o-13255825

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CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN ONE PLANE

-0.13255825 + (+0.141,87464)

tan 6 =

1 + (-.13255825X-.14187464)

0.00931639

1.018806654

o0 31' 26"

0.00914441

8. Distance of a Point from a Line

Let P(xi, yi) be a given point, and let the equation of a given

line I (see Fig. 16) be

Ax + By + C = o.

The distance (d) of P from I is

given as

_ ^xi + ffyi + C

d ~ + 52"

Example 1:

The distance of the point

(5> 3) from the line

2>x + 4y 6 = o

J=db3(5)+4(Z3)-6

V32 + 42

Fig. 16

Z_3.

V25

Example 2:

Find the distance of the point ( 3, 5) from the line

4^ + 2>y - 12 = o.

9. Graphs of Equations in Rectangular Coordinates

The locus, in rectangular coordinates, of an equation (in two

variables, x and y) is the locus of all points whose coordinates

(x, y) satisfy the equation.

The picture of such a locus may be obtained by plotting a

number of its points and connecting them with a smooth curve.

Such a picture is called a graph of the equation.

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Example 1:

Draw a graph of the linear equation (see Fig. 17)

y = 2>x - 2.

Solution:

Solve for y, letting x assume the

values shown in the table below.

Example 2:

Draw a graph of the equation

V2 = r>

-1

-2

-5

-8

Solution:

Solve for x in terms of y; this

results in

x = 2 y2.

Let y assume the values shown in

the table below, and calculate the

corresponding values bf x.

Plot the points indicated in the

table. The resulting curve smoothed

Fis. 17

through these points (see Fig. 18) is a parabola.

Example 3:

Plot the equation

x2 + y2 = 0.5.

The curve thus obtained is a circle.

Example 4:

Draw the graph of the equation

gx2 + i6y2 =81.

The resulting curve is an ellipse.

Example 5:

Draw the graph of the equation

x2 y2 4JC + 2y 20 = o.

The resulting curve is an hyperbola.

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CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN ONE PLANE 19

-7

-2

1.75

-2

-7

-3

-2

-1

-5

Fig. 18

PROBLEMS

1. Find the true length of a wing spar whose basic plan view co-

ordinates are (o, 50.25) and (215, 21).

2. Find the midpoint of the trace of the plane of an aileron spar

upon an aileron rib section if the upper and lower coordinates of the

trace are (73.154. 3.275) and (73.154, -1.763) respectively.

3. Find the slope (plan view) of a wing percentage line whose co-

ordinates are (o, 16.8) and (331, 31.7605).

4. Find the angle of inclination of the trace of the plane of a wing

spar upon wing station 0 at centerline of ship, if coordinates of two

points on the trace are (16.845, I6-735) and (16.771, 10.710) re-

spectively.

6. Which of the following straight line elements in the plan view

of a wing is parallel to the x-axis?

1 : (o, 1.05) and (341,21.568)

2 : (o, 33.6) and (75, 792)

3 : (o, 64.344) and (661.1875, 64.344)

6. The trace of the plane of a support beam in the -plane is deter-

mined by two points whose coordinates (yz) are (13.2746, 4.325) and

(14.3279, o) respectively. The trace of the centerline of a landing

gear trunnion in the same plane is determined by the points (7.5, o)

and (17.380, 3.2673). Are the two traces normal in this plane?

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

7. The coordinates of the upper mold line of a flap spar in the

front view are (o, 4.379) and (135.5, 2-977)- Find the slope of the

mold line in this view.

8. Find the slope of the hinge line of a landing gear wheel well

door if two basic points on the line have the coordinates (108.75,

33.3389) and (132, 34.0262) respectively.

9. The basic points locating the centerline of a longeron in the

side view are determined by the coordinates (174.4375, 12-5) and

(315-3125, 6.5) respectively. Find the slope of the longeron.

10. The plane of the front face of a firewall (a straight line in the

side view) is determined by two points whose coordinates are

(111.3492, o) and (113.199, 12.50) respectively. Find the slope of

the firewall in this view.

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CHAPTER III

ANALYTIC EQUATIONS OF A LINE

1. Point-Slope Form

The equation of a line which has the slope (m) and which

passes through the point Pi(xi, yi) is (see Fig. 1)

y yt = mix

*0-

Example 1:

Find the equation of the line

through P( 3,4) with slope (m)

equal to 6.

Solution:

0*x

y - 4 = 6[x - (-3)]

y 4 = 6x + 18

y = 6x + 22

Fis-1

Example 2:

Find the equation of the line through P(7, 3) with slope (m)

equal to ( 5).

Application:

Find the point slope equation of the wing stringer (plan

view) passing through the point (17.5, 18.684) with a slope of

( 0.04711). Calculate the ^-coordinate of the point of

the stringer with the normal wing rib at wing station 61.5

(x = 61.5).

2. Two-Point Form

The equation of the line (see Fig. 1) passing through two given

given points Pi(*i, y{) and P2(x2, y2) is:

yi - yi, x

y-y^xV^(x-xi)-

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Example 1:

Find the equation of the line passing through the two points

Pi(i02, 1.74) and P2(2i6, 2.41).

Solution:

y _ (_174) = --41 -(-i-74) (x _ 102)

J ^ 2:6 102

0.67 ,

y + 1.74 = - (x - 102)

y + 1.74 = .00588* - .5995

y = .00588* 1.1405

Example 2:

Find the equation of the line passing through the points

JM37.5. -2.02) and P2(8o.265, 1.75).

Application:

Find the equation of the leading edge of a wing, given the

intersection point of the leading edge with basic station #0 as

Pi(o, 26) and the intersection with the basic tip station as

/M213.75, 13.50).

3. Slope-Intercept Form

The equation of a line whose slope is (m) and whose intercept

on the F-axis is b is (see Fig. 2):

y mx + b.

Example 1:

x Find the equation of the line whose

slope is 2/z and whose ^-intercept is*/3.

Fig. 2 Solution:

2x 4 2x 4

y = -, or y =

'3 3 ' 3

Example 2:

Find the equation of the line whose slope is 4.5 and whose

^-intercept is 7.35.

Application:

The slope (m) of a canted fuselage nose frame (single cant,

profile view) is given as 0.98843 with an intercept on the Z-axis

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ANALYTIC EQUATIONS OF A LINE

of o (see Fig. 3). Find the equation of the centerline of the

frame in this view.

Solution:

By substitution,

z = o.98843V + o

z = 0.98843^.

Origin

(OB)

fig. 4

Fig. 3

4. Intercept Form

The equation of a line whose intercept on the X-axis is a, and

whose intercept on the F-axis is b, is (see Fig. 4):

- + ?-'.

Example 1:

Find the equation of a line whose intercepts are a = 4,

b = - 5/5.

Solution:

a; v

4/5

- 53>

Example 2:

Find the equation of a line whose intercepts on the X-axis and

F-axis are a = J>,b = 7/d respectively.

5. Normal Form

The normal form of a straight line equation is the equation

with its coefficients expressed in terms of the length of the

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

perpendicular from the origin to the line, and the angle from the

X-axis to the perpendicular.

In Fig. 5, OQ is the perpendicular from the origin intersecting

the line /. The normal intercept is p and the normal angle is a.

The equation of the line / in

the normal form is:

x cos a + y sin a p = O.

A linear equation, in the form

Ax + By + C = o, may be re-

duced to normal form by mul-

tiplying each term by K =

l/VA2 +--B2; the sign of K

is determined as follows:

Fig. 5

1. If C 3* o, K is opposite in sign to C.

2. If C = o and B ^ o, K has the same sign as B.

3. If C = o and B = o, K = i/A.

Example 1:

Find the equation of a line whose normal intercept is 8, and

whose normal angle is 6o0.

Solution:

In this case p = 8, cos a = Yi, sin a =V$/2 and the re-

quired equation is thus:

X+

\2jy

Example 2:

Find the normal intercept and the normal angle for the line

whose equation is $x + \y 5 = o.

Solution:

This equation reduces to normal form through multiplication

by i/V32 + 42 = y5- by Rule 1 above K is + i/f-2- The

required equation is thus:

Therefore, cos OC = sin a = */5, and p 1. a = 530 7' 5".

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ANALYTIC EQUATIONS OF A LINE 25

Application:

Given a point of tangency A, a shoulder point D, through

which a conic is to be developed tangent to the given circle (0)

at the point Pi. The normal angle is 6o0. Required to estab-

Fig. 6

lish the tangent (/2) to circle 0 at Pi to complete the conditions

governing the conic (see Fig. 6).

Solution:

The normal equation of the required tangent (t2) at point

Pi is:

*(.5) + y(-866) - io = o

or, in general form,

x + 1.7323/ 20 = o.

The points Pi and B on the tangent (t2) may now be deter-

mined by simultaneous solution of the equation above with the

equation of circle 0 and of tangent h respectively.

PROBLEMS

1. Find the equation of the line of intersection of a double canted

brace strut section with the wing reference plane, if the plane of the

brace strut passes through the X-axis at the point (49.245, o), and the

line of intersection has a slope of 0.026285.

2. Find the equation of the line of intersection of the plane of a

front wing spar with the wing reference plane if two basic points on

the line are (o, 6.25) and (190.50, 3.00).

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

3. Find the equation of the centerline of a rudder control cable

. between the two points (122.135, 6.72) and (369.628, 3.267) on the

centerline.

4. Reduce the equation of Problem 1 to normal form.

5. The basic lines (plan view) in a given wing diagram are deter-

mined by basic points as indicated below. Write the equation of each

line, expressing y as a function of x.

(a) Expanded leading edge

: (0,

-33.290) and

(50

-22.860)

(b) Main leading edge

: (0,

-26.000) and

(215

-12.50 )

(c) Centerline front spar

: (0,

7.25 ) and

(190.5 .

2-75 )

(d) Centerline rear spar

: (0,

50.25 ) and

(215

22.50 )

(e) Flap hinge line

: (0,

55.275) and

(135-5 ,

53.125)

(f) Aileron hinge line

: (0,

58.635) and

(215

27-875)

(g) Trailing edge

: (0,

78.00 ) and

(215

38.25 )

(h) Centerline aileron trim

tab hinge line

: (0,

72.753) and

(215

33.43o)

(i) Centerline of flap spar

: (0,

55.035) and

(125

37-975)

(j) Centerline of aileron

spar

: (0,

58.635) and

(215.070,

28.240)

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PART II

APPLIED SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

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CHAPTER IV

CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN SPACE

1. Coordinates of a Point

The rectangular coordinates of plane analytic geometry may

also be applied to three-dimensional space relationships.

To establish such a system, assume three mutually perpendic-

ular coordinate planes XY, YZ, XZ (see Fig. i) intersecting

Fig. 1

at 0, the origin. These coordinate planes intersect by pairs in

three mutually perpendicular lines X'X (the X-axis), Y'Y

(the F-axis), and Z'Z (the Z-axis).

The coordinates of a given point P (Fig. 2) are its distances

from these three planes, and are designated x, y, and z respec-

tively. The point P may thus be described as P(x, y, z).

Distances measured along the axes in the directions of the

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

arrows (Fig. 1) are positive; those measured in the opposite

direction are negative.

2. Direction Numbers of a Line

If Pi(xi, yi, Zi) and P2(x2, y2, z2) are two points on a given

line PiPi then the direction numbers (ratios or components) of

the line are

a = k(x2 xi)

b = k(y2 - ji)

C - k(z2 Zi)

where k is any finite constant other than zero. A given line may

thus have an infinite number of sets of direction numbers.

Example 1:

Given the points Pi(3, 8, 4.5) and P2(9, 4, 6). Find four

sets of direction numbers for the line P1P2.

Solution:

Let k equal unity. Then a : b : c = (9 3) : (4 + 8):

(6 4.5) = 6 : 12 : 1.5. By varying the value of k, at least

one of the numbers may be made equal to unity. Thus, if

k = }/, and % successively, then a : b : c = 1 : 2 : 0.25

= 0.5 : 1 : 0.125

= 4:8:1.

Example 2:

Given the points Pi(7, 3, 8) and P2(2, 12, 7). Find four

sets of direction numbers for the 1 ine PiP2 corresponding to the

sets established in Example 1.

When the direction ratio expresses the projection' of the line

on the X-axis as unity, i.e., when (1:2: 0.25), the number 2

expresses the slope of the projection (on the XF-plane) of the

line with respect to the X-axis; the number 0.25 expresses the

slope of the projection (on the XZ-plane) of the line with respect

to the X-axis.

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CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN SPACE

3. Direction Cosines of a Line

Direction numbers are useful in determining the direction

cosines of a line. Direction cosines of a line are the cosines of

the angles which the line makes with the reference axes. Since

a given line will rarely intersect all or even one of the reference

axes, such an angle is usually construed as being the angle be-

tween the line and an intersecting line parallel to the axis in

question.

In Fig. 2, line PtX' is parallel to the X-axis; therefore a is the

angle which line PiP2 makes with the X-axis.

Pi(x,,yvz,)

-X'

Fig. 2

It is obvious that a line may have only one set of direction

cosines. If a : b : c represent direction numbers of a line, and

I, m, and n respectively represent direction cosines of the line,

then

a : b : c = / : m : n.

If a, /3, 7 are the direction angles which line PiP2 makes with

the X-, Y-, and Z-axes respectively, and Pi(xi, yi , Zi) and the

Pi(x2, y2, z2) are any two points on the line, then the formulas

for the direction cosines of the line may be expressed directly in

terms of the coordinates as follows:

Let

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32 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Then

= COS a

x2 -

= COS 0

y* -

= COS 7

It can also be shown from these relationships that the sum of

the squares of the direction cosines of a line equals unity.

Thus

I2 + m2 + n2 = 1.

This constitutes a direct check upon the accuracy of calculated

direction cosines.

Example 1:

Given the points Pi(7, 4, 5) and P2(2>, 2, 9), calculate the

direction cosines of the line PiP2.

Solution:

By substitution,

d = V(3 - 7)* + (2 - 4)2 + (9 - 5)2 = v^6 = 6.

Therefore

2 12

(= , m = , n = -.

333

Check:

c-iy-(-iy-ciy=-

Example 2:

Given the points Pi(2, 8, 7) and P2(i, 9, 5), calculate the

direction cosines of the line PiP2-

If a : b : c represent any given set of direction numbers of a

line, the formulas for the direction cosines of the line may be

expressed thus:

+ b2 + c2

Va2

+ b2 + c2

Va2

+ b2 + c2

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CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN SPACE 33

Example 1:

If direction numbers of a given line are (1.075 : 2.170:

3.640), find the direction cosines of the line.

Solution:

By substitution,

I = I-75 = 0-2458846

4.3719703 * *

-2.170

m = = 0.406^4.^6

4.3719703 ^

^.64.

n = ^ 7 = 0.8325766.

4.3719703 6 a/

Check:

(0.2458846)2 + (-0.4963437)2 + (0.8325766)2 = 1

Example 2:

If direction numbers of a given line are (2.375, 1-797, 2-785),

find the direction cosines of the line.

The ratios of the projections of a given line in space upon the

coordinate axes may be expressed as the reciprocals of the respec-

tive direction cosines of the line. If p, q, and r represent the

ratios of a given line to its projections on the X-, Y-, and Z-

axes respectively, then

ddd

p=,q=,r=

x2 xi y2 yi z2 - zi

in which

d = V(x2 - Xly + (y2 - y,Y + (z2 - Zl)2.

The values p, q, and r may be designated as direction secants

of the line, since they represent the reciprocals of the direction

cosines of the line. Thus

ill

P = 1, q = , r = --

Example:

Given the direction cosine (/) of a line (L) with respect to the

A'-axis. Calculate the direction secant of the line with respect

to the same axis, and find the true length along the line between

two points on the line whose values are 11.715 and 29.375.

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34 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Solution:

D.S. (X-axis) of L = ) = >965^7Io = 1.035575.

True length = 1.035575 (29.375 - n.7I5) = 18.288.

The direction secants of a given line may also be calculated in

terms of direction ratios. Thus

D.S. (X-axis) = Vi2 + b2 + c2

D.S. (7-axis) = Va2 + I2 + 2

D.S. (Z-axis) = Va2 + b2 + i2.

Example:

Given direction ratios of a line as (1 : .23755 : .03276).

Calculate the direction secant of this line with respect to the

X-axis.

Solution:

D.S. (X-axis) = Vi2 + (-.23755)2 + (.03276)2

= 1.028350.

4. The Length of a Line Segment

Let two points Pi(xi, yu Zi) and P2(x2, y2, z2) be given on a line

(see Fig. 2). A rectangular box, of which PiP2 is a diagonal, is

formed by passing planes through each point parallel to each of

the three coordinate planes.

It follows that PiA, PiB, and PiD are edges parallel to the

X-, Y-, and Z-axes respectively. From these relationships it

follows from the Pythagorean theorem that the distance from

Pi to P2 is

= d = V(x2 - Xl)2 + (y2 - yO2 + (z2 - Zl)2.

Example 1:

Given the pointsPi(3, 1, 7) and P2( 2, 9, 14). Find the

distance between Pi and P2.

Solution:

d = V[(-2) - 3]2 + [9 - (-1)]2 + [(-14) - 7?

d = V(-5)2 + (10)2 + (-21)2

d = V566 = 23.791

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CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN SPACE

Example 2:

Find the distance between the points Pi ( 7, 2, 5) and

P,(6, -3, 21).

Application:

Find the true length of an aileron hinge line if the coordinates

of the inboard and outboard hinge points are (134.034, 39.737,

0.480) and (214.644, 28.301, 0.763) respectively.

5. True Angle Between Two Lines

Let Li and L2 be two directed lines in space. To find the angle

between these two lines it is convenient to develop an expression

for the cosine of the angle between them.

Since the two lines Li and L2 do not necessarily intersect, the

required angle is defined as the angle between directed rays OPi

and OP2 (see Fig. 3) originating at the origin 0, these rays being

-x

Fig. 3

parallel to and directed the same as Li and L2.

Given the direction cosines of Li and L2 as li , mi, ni and

h, m2, n2 respectively, then

COS 6 = IJ2 + ttiW2 + M]M2.

Example 1:

Required to determine the angle between the lines Li and L2

whose direction cosines are (0.16845, 0.19932, 0.92767) and

(0.24651, 0.20684, o-91475) respectively.

Solution:

cos 6 = (0.16845) (0.24651) + (0.19932) (0.20684)

+ (0.92767) (0.91475)

cos 6 = 0.93134

6 = 210 21' 19"

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36 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Example 2:

Required to determine the angle between the lines Li and L2

whose direction cosines are (0.08715, 0.01186, 0.99612) and

(0.08716, 0.00178, 0.99619) respectively.

If for two lines Li and L2 direction ratios ai : bi : Ci and

a2 '. b2 : c2 are given respectively, then

aid<i + bib2 + CiC2

cos 8 = . .

Val + b\- cl-Vai + b22 + cl

and lines Li and L2 are perpendicular if

aia2 + bibi + CiC2 = o

and the converse.

Example 1:

Required to find the angle between two lines Li and L2

whose direction ratios are 1 : 0.41625 : 0.92943 and 16.813:

1.9438 : 1 respectively.

Solution:

(1X16.813) + (-041625) (1.9438) + 0.92943(1)

cos 6 = / =/- -==

V2.03710419 V287.45530761

- 16.93332325

cos 6 =

(1.427272) (16.954507)

cos 6 =. ^3||23 =

24.198693

9 = 450 35' 33"

Example 2:

Find the angle between two lines Li and L2 whose direction

ratios are (0.4651 : 1 : 0.9872) and (1 : 13.7134 : 1.9537)

respectively.

Application:

It is desired to determine the angle between the line of inter-

section of a brace strut with a main wing spar and the line of

intersection of the strut with a horizontal plane. The equation

of the plane of the brace strut is given as

0.98766812* 0.1072284OV 0.02611297Z = 48.98966183

and the equation of the plane of the front face of the main spar as

y = 0.02046512z + 8.40.

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CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN SPACE 37

Li,

0.10722840 0.02611297

Solution:

The line of intersection of the strut and spar is defined by

direction numbers as

.02611297 0.98766812

o 0.02046512

0.098766812 0.10722840

0.02046512 1

from which are derived direction numbers

Li, (+0.02611297 : 0.000534405 : +0.98986256).

The line of intersection of the strut with the wing reference

plane is defined by direction numbers as

0.10722840 0.02611297

0.02611297 0.98766812

1 0.98766812 0.10722840

from which are derived direction numbers

L2, ( 0.10722840 : 0.98766812 : o).

Upon substitution,

cos 0 = 0.00230978

6 = 890 52' 4".

It should be noted that signs are chosen to secure lines directed

so as to establish the particular angle desired.

6. Parallelism and Perpendicularity

Two lines Li and L2 are parallel if their direction cosines are

equal, i.e., if

h = k, mi = m2, tii = 2-

Example 1:

Determine which, if any, of the lines determined by the

following pairs of points are parallel:

U : Pi(7, 67, 5.5), Ps(i5, 106, 8)

U : ^3(7. 9. 8.5), ^4(9. 3. 2.5)

Ls :P6(3, 2.5, 6.25), P6(7, 22, 7.5).

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38 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Solution:

(a) Direction ratios of these lines are

U: (8: 39 : 2.5 )

L2: (2 : -6 :-6 )

L4:(4: 19.5: 1.25).

(b) Direction cosines of these lines are thus:

Li : (0.20055, 0.97768, 0.06267)

L2 : (0.22942, 0.68825, 0.68825)

L3 : (0.20055, 0-97768, 0.06267).

Therefore lines Li and L3 are parallel.

Example 2:

Determine which, if any, of the lines determined by the

following pairs of points are parallel:

Li : Pj( 19, 11, -3), P2( 7, -4, 12)

L, : P3( 6, 7. 1), P*( 9, 8, -3)

L3:P5(-io, i, -2),P6(-14, -4, -3).

Two lines are parallel if their direction numbers are propor-

tional, i.e., if

0i - bi '. Ci = ai '. b2 '. Ci.

Example 1:

In Example 1 above it is observed that in the case of lines

Li and L3,

8 : 39 : 2.5 = 4 : 19.5 : 1.25 = 2:1.

Therefore lines Li and L3 are parallel.

Example 2:

Determine which, if any, of the lines determined by the

following pairs of points are parallel:

Li : Pj(i5 , 25.5, -14.49 ), P2(i9.5- 12 , 19.245)

L2 : P3( 5 .17 . 24.51 ), P4( 3 . 9 > 3-17 )

U : P5( 7.5, 25.5, 36.765), Pe( 4.5- 13.5- 4-755)

L4 : P7(io , 17 , -9.66 ), P8(i3 , 8 , 12.83 )-

Tf two lines Li and L2, whose direction cosines are h, mi, ni

and k, rrh, n2 respectively, are perpendicular, then

lih + WiOT2 + ttiM2 = o.

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CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN SPACE 39

The converse is also true.

Example 1:

Line Li has direction cosines (0.034648, 0.554367, 0.831551)

and L2 has direction cosines ( 0.999390, 0.015615, 0.031231).

Test these lines for perpendicularity.

Solution:

(0.034648) (-0.999390) + (0.554367) (0.015615)

+ (0.831551) (0.031231) = o

Therefore Li and L2 are perpendicular.

Example 2:

The direction cosines of the X-axis are (1, o, o) and those of

the Z-axis are (o, o, 1). Apply the test for perpendicularity.

Example 3:

The direction cosines of the F-axis are (o, 1, o) and those of the

Z-axis are (o, 0,1). Apply the test for perpendicularity.

If two lines Li and L2, whose direction ratios are di : bi : Ci and

a2 : 62 : c2 respectively, are perpendicular, then

+ 6i62 + CiCi = o.

The converse is also true.

Example 1:

The direction ratios of two lines are (1 : 4.5: 9) and

( 18 : 6 : 1). Test the lines for perpendicularity.

Solution:

By substitution,

i(-i8) + 4.5(6) + i(-9) = o.

Therefore, the two lines are perpendicular.

Example 2:

Direction ratios of certain lines are given below. Test these

lines for perpendicularity.

1.5:

-i.5:

-1 )

-8:

-1.5)

U '.

-8.5)

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40 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

7. True Distance of a Point from a Line

In Fig. 4 the line L passes through the point Pi(Xi, Yi, Zi) and

has the direction angles a,JS, and

y. It is required to find the

distance of a point P2(X2, Y2, Z2)

from the line L.

If 0 is the angle which PiP2

makes with L, then

d = PiP2 sin 0.

If li, mi, i and l2, m2, n2 are

the direction cosines of PiP2 and

L respectively, then

+ I rtik I2 + | htn2 |2.

Since

then

X2 Xi

l2 = COS a,

nil -

PiP2

m2 = cos /3,

yi z2 zi

PiP*

n2 = cos 7

OTiW2 =

PiP2

y2 Jl Z2 - Zl

COS & COS 7

Similar values may likewise be found for Wi/2 and hni2.

Substituting these values and solving:

y^ - yi

cos/3

z2 Zi

cos 7

Z2 Zi

cos 7

x2 xi

cos a

x2 xi

COS a

y* - yi

cos p

Example 1:

Given the line L through the point Pi (6, 8, 11) and having

direction cosines 0.16330, 0.40825, and 0.89815. Required

to find the distance of the point P2(2, 1,3) from the line L.

Solution:

8 3 - 11

40825 O.89815

3 - 11

-0.89815

2-6

0.16330

2-6 -1-8

10.16330 -0.40825

d = V(+4.8i735)2 + (-4.89900)2 + (3.10270)2 = 7.539-

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CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN SPACE

Example 2:

Given the line L through the point Pi(4, 3, 7) and having

direction cosines 0.00251, 0.07183, and 0.99741. Required to

find the distance of the point -P2(7, 5, 4) from the line L.

Application:

The upper mold line of a front spar passes through the point

(o, 6.250, 9.370) with direction cosines of .999446, .017051,

.028589.

Find the distance of an aileron hinge point, whose coordinates

are (214.64, 28.30, 0.76), from the upper mold line of the front

spar.

Solution:

By substitution,

.76-9.37 214.64-012

.028589 .999446 I

214.64 - -28.30 - 6.25 |2'11/2

.999446 -.017051 I J

d = V(.84o94)2 + (-2.46889)2 + (30.871032

d = V959.8230912 = 30.981.

-28.30-6.25

01705i

76-9.37

-.028589

8. True Distance Between Two Skew Lines

Two skew lines (i.e., lines which do not intersect and are not

parallel)* Li and L2 are given, with line Li passing through the

point Pi(xi, yu Zi) with direction ratios di : bi : c; line Li passing

through the point Pi(xi, y2, z2) with direction ratios

It is required to find the true distance (d) between the two lines.

The equation of the plane through Li parallel to L2 is:

X Xi yl s

ai bi Ci

02 bi c2

= o.

(8)

The required distance (d) is the distance of the point

P(x, y, z) from this plane. Therefore

* The distance between two parallel lines may be resolved into finding the distance

between a point on one of the lines and the other line.

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

a-i

xi y2 - yi z2 - zi

bi ci

bi Ci

bi d

ai bi

ai b2

Ci &i

I 1/2

Example 1:

Find the true distance between the skew lines Li and L2

passing through points Pi(4, 2, 3) and ^2(2, 3, 3) respec-

tively, with direction ratios 11:5:6 and 14 : 7 : 3 re-

spectively.

Solution:

By substitution,

21o

11 5 6

14 -7 3

6 11

3 14

11 52-

14 -7 .

i~i 1/2

= 30 + 84 + o - o - (-84) - 33

V(57)2 + (51)2+ (-H7)2

_ 165 _ 165

V27459

= 0.996.

165.7076

Example 2:

Find the true distance between the skew lines Li and L2

passing through points Pi( 7, 4, 3) and P2( 5, 7, 2) re-

spectively, with direction ratios 11:7:3 and 13 : 5:8

respectively.

Application:

Two control cables, A B and CD (see Fig. 5), are located such

that coordinates of A are ( 6, 3, 2); of B are (8, 2, 5); of

C are ( 7, 3, 5); and of D are (9, 3, 8). It is required to

establish the amount of clearance between the two cables.

Solution:

Let

*i = -6, yi = -3, Zi = -2

ai = 14, bi 5. ci = 7

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CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN SPACE

and

Then

X2 = -7. y2

3. z2

d (clearance) =

16,

-6,

-6

-7

H 5 2"

16 -6

2T 1/2

_ 15 - 672 + 588 + 560 + 42 + 252

[(57)2 + (7o)2+(-i64)2]i

= 4-193.

Therefore the two cables have a minimum clearance of 4.193

inches.

^^\D(9,-3)

^--AH>r3)

PLAN VIEW

SIDE VIEW

Fig. 5

9. Direction Ratios of a Line Perpendicular to Two Given Lines

Two non-parallel (intersecting) lines Li and L2 are given with

direction ratios (ai - bi : Ci) and (a2 : b2 : c2). It is required to

find the direction ratios a : b : c of a line (L) perpendicular to

both of the given lines.

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

a. Determinant Method

From Section (6) above, it follows that

OlO + 616 + CiC o

a2a + b2b + c2c = o

whence the required direction ratios appear respectively in

determinant form as

61 Ci Ci Oi ai bi

b2 c2 c2 a2 gl2 b2

Example 1:

Let 2:3:1 and 1 : 4 : 2 be direction ratios of Li and L2 re-

spectively. Find direction ratios (a : b : c) of the line L per-

pendicular to Li and L2.

Solution:

By substitution,

a:b:c=

= 3(2) - 4(1)

= 6-4

2(4) - i(3)

8-3

122

21'1

1(1) - 2(2)

1-4

-3

b. By Regular Simultaneous Solution

In the special case given in Example 1, it follows from Section

6 above that

2a + 2>b + c = o

a + \b + 2c = o.

However, the values of the three ratios a, b, and c cannot be

determined from direct simultaneous solution of these two equa-

tions. By assuming a set of ratios for the line L in which c = 1,

it can be shown that

20 + 36 + 1

a + 46 + 2

2C + 36 + 1

20 + 86 + 4

-5b

-4

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CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN SPACE

Therefore

L : (.4: -.6:1)

2 : -3 :5

a:b:c =

Application:

The direction numbers of the < landing gear oleo (retracted)

are (1, -1.00855157, .07975897).

The direction numbers of the < landing gear oleo (extended)

are (o, -.24192190, -.97029573).

Find the direction numbers of the < oleo pivot which is normal

to these two lines.

Solution:

By substitution (determinant method):

-1.00855157 .07975897!. .07975897 I

- .24192190 -.97029573 -.9702957

i 1.00855157

.24192190

= (-.97029573)(-1.00855157) - (-.24192190)(.07975897)

: 0C07975897) - (1)(-.97029573)

: (i)( - .24192190) - (o) ( -1.00855157)

= .99788872 : .97029573 : .24192190

Check:

(1) (.99788872) + (-1.00855157) (.97029573)

+ (.07975897) (-.24102190) =

(0)099788872) + (-.24192190) (.97029573)

+ (-.97029573) (-.24192190) =

PROBLEMS

1. Calculate the direction ratios of the lines through 'the following

pairs of points, establishing four sets of such numbers:

(a) ( 3 ,

4.5 ) and (

(b) ( 7 ,

5 ) and (

130 ,

6.25) and (

11.25,

125 ,

4.5 )

(d) ( -5 ,

2 ) and (

-4 ,

-2 )

(e) ( 3

7 ) and (-

-2 ,

88 ,

-13 )

(f) ( 135.5.

-5.5 ,

5.95) and (

8.5 ,

9.25.

-3-75)

(g) (-25 ,

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46 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

2. Calculate the direction cosines of the lines in Problem 1.

3. Calculate the direction

ratios are, respectively:

(a) (-2

(b) ( 3

(d) ( 2.063

(e) ( 571

cosines of the lines whose direction

2.50

5.007

-5-85

376 )

-1373 )

-1.978)

2-937)-

4. Determine the angle between each of the following pairs of lines:

(a) Li : (2, 3, 7), ( 3, 6, 9)

U : (6, 3, 2), (10, 2, 9).

(b) Li : ( 13.5 , -11.85, 8.35). (130.5 . 17-25 - -6.85)

Lti (-16.75, 14-35,275). (113.65, 7-825, 3.85)-

5. Find the distance between the following pairs of points:

(a) (-5 ,2 , 7 ) and ( 6 , -4 , 23 )

(b) ( 10.68, -1.752, 5.97) and (-1.632, 12.35, -2-97)

(c) ( o , 50.25 , o ) and (186 ,21,0).

6. Find the true length of an aileron spar the coordinates of whose

end points are (131.638, 40.735, o) and (215.210, 35.769, o).

7. Find the true distance between the centerlines of two bolt holes

in the plane of the front face of a fuselage frame if the coordinates of

these points are (i3.9375, H3.510, 10.8556) and (16.0938, 107.5176,

-20.3750).

8. The coordinates of two points located on the centerline of thrust

are (o, 26.7375, 1-5) and (o, 75.8329, o); of two points on the fuselage

reference line, (o, o, o) and (o, 17.6867, o). Find the angle between

the two lines.

9. Direction ratios of the following basic wing lines (plan view) are

given. Determine which, if any, are parallel.

(a) <j/ Rear spar

(b) < Main spar

(c) <J) Aileron spar

(d) < Aileron hinge

(e) < Flap spar

(f) Trailing edge

(215

(186

( 80.4155

( 29.9445

(215

-1275

4.112

10.9402

-5-4343

-29.25

-41.25

10. The coordinates of two points on the centerline of a landing

gear oleo fully extended are (15375, 68.444, ~4-375) and (153.75,

68.444, 88.75). What angle does the oleo make with the xy-plane?

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CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN SPACE

11. An aileron hinge < is determined by its intersection with the

normal rib at wing station o and the basic normal tip station. The

coordinates of these two intersection points are:

Root Sta. o :(0,57.8822, .3145)

Tip Sta. 215 : (215, 28.6322, 1.0410).

(a) Calculate:

1. Direction ratios of the < hinge.

2. Direction cosines of the hinge.

3. The direction secant with respect to the X-axis.

4. Determine the true length of the < hinge between

wing stations 134.3293 and 214.7432.

(b) Calculate (using the determinant method) direction ratios of:

1. A line Li (in the .XT-plane) perpendicular to the <j)

hinge. Check the perpendicularity of the lines with

direction ratios.

2. A line L2 (in the FZ-plane) perpendicular to the <j)

hinge. Check the perpendicularity of the lines with

direction cosines.

(c) Determine the true angle between lines Li and L2.

(d) The trace of the aileron spar on the aileron reference plane is

parallel to the < hinge. If this trace passes through the point (135,

40.5251, .6000), find its intersection with normal wing station o.

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CHAPTER V

TYPICAL COORDINATE AXIS CONVENTIONS

1. Fuselage Reference System

Coordinate axis conventions applicable to the typical airplane

are illustrated by the key-diagram shown in Fig. 1.

In the fuselage reference system, a waterline plane constitutes

a horizontal plane, since the fuselage is considered in "rigged"

or "flight" position. The origin of the fuselage reference system

is determined by the intersection of the FZ-plane (the plane of

symmetry), the XZ-plane (a fuselage station plane), and the

X Y-plane (a horizontal or waterline plane).

The plan view, side view, and front view planes (XY-, YZ-,

and XZ- planes respectively) may be designated as the hori-

zontal, profile, and front elevation planes respectively for con-

venience in referring to conventional three-view drawings.

The X-axis is established by the intersection of the horizontal

(XY-) and vertical (XZ-) planes; the F-axis by the intersection

of the horizontal (X F-) and profile (FZ-) planes; and the Z-axis

by the intersection of the profile (FZ-) and vertical (XZ-)

planes.

Figure 1 also shows the system of coordinate dimensions em-

ployed. Distances measured aft of the origin from the XZ-plane

parallel to the F-axis are positive; in the opposite direction,

negative. The coordinate designations of these values are

+ F and F respectively.

Distances measured up from the horizontal (XY-) plane

parallel to the Z-axis are positive; in the opposite direction,

negative. The coordinate designations of these values are

+Z and Z respectively.

Distances measured outboard (to the left looking forward in

the plan view) from the profile (FZ-) plane parallel to the

X-axis are positive; in the opposite direction, negative. The

coordinate designations of these values are +X and X

respectively.

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TYPICAL COORDINATE AXIS CONVENTIONS

Xf Buttock Lines

Yf = Station Lines

V - Water Lines

Xw Station Lines

Yw Distance from Normal Percentage Plane

Zw Offsets from Wing Reference Plane

Xhe-Station Lines

Yhe Distance from 4 Hinge

Zhe-Distance from Horizontal Stabilizer Reference Plane

Xve= Distance from Vertical Stabilizer Reference Plane

Y*e Distance from t Hinge

Zve Station Lines

Xc Buttock Lines

Cowl System Yc Cowl Station Lines

Zc Cowl Vertical Offsets

Fuselage

Wing

Horizontal

Empennage

Vertical

Empennage

Zhe

age Reference Lir

Wing Reference Plane .

Horizontal Reference Plane -

Fig. 1. Coordinate Axis Conventions

Conventionally, then, X represents a buttock dimension,

Y a fuselage station, and Z a waterline dimension.

2. Wing Reference System

In the wing reference system the origin is determined by the

intersection of the profile (FZ-) plane (the plane of normal

station 0), the XF-plane (the wing reference plane), and a

normal (XZ-) plane (see Fig. 2).

This latter plane may be the normal plane of the percentage

line whose trace in the XF-plane is perpendicular to the planes

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50 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

of the wing root and tip sections. In other cases this vertical

XZ-plane may intersect the plane of symmetry at the inter-

section of the leading edge or the trailing edge of the wing with

the plane of symmetry.

Fig. 2. Wing Reference System

In any case, the X-axis, F-axis, and Z-axis are established by

the intersections of pairs of planes, the XY- and XZ-planes,

the XY- and FZ-planes, and the XZ- and FZ-planes respec-

tively.

The three reference planes thus described establish the wing

reference system in the "unrigged" or "lofted" position of the

Fig. 3. Rigging of Wing (Chord Plane System)

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TYPICAL COORDINATE AXIS CONVENTIONS 51

wing. The "rigged" position of the wing involves rotation

through an angle of dihedral or incidence, or both, to establish

the wing in "flight" or "ship" position (see Figs. I and 3).

Rotation for incidence is commonly assumed about the hori-

zontal X-axis, rotation for dihedral about the wing F-axis.

3. Empennage Reference System

The origin of the empennage reference system is determined

by the intersection of the FZ-plane (plane of symmetry), the

XZ-plane (vertical plane tangent to the leading edge at the

centerline of ship), and the X F-plane (stabilizer reference plane).

The positive and negative directions of the axes, and the axes

themselves are determined as described in the case of the

fuselage system (see Fig. 4).

As in the case of the wing, the empennage reference system is

referred to the "unrigged" or "lofted" position. "Rigging" of

Fig. 4. Rigging of Horizontal Stabilizer

the empennage may likewise involve rotation for incidence or

dihedral, or both.

4. Major Assembly and Sub-Assembly Systems

The major assemblies of the airplane, which have been ana-

lyzed above, are subdivided, for reasons involving convenience

in tooling, production, and calculating procedures, into sub-

assemblies. The extent to which this subdivision is carried out

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

will naturally vary. However, the outline which follows suggests

a typical sub-assembly organization:

A. Fuselage

1. Forebody (cowl)

2. Centersection

3. Afterbody

B. Wing

1. Inner panel (centersection)

2. Outer panel

3. Tip section

4. Nacelle

5. Front spar assembly

6. Rear spar assembly

7. Flap assembly

8. Aileron assembly

C. Empennage

1. Horizontal stabilizer elevator assembly

2. Vertical stabilizer rudder assembly

Each of these sub-assemblies has its own coordinate reference

system, the relationship of which to related major assembly

systems is mathematically described for convenience in trans-

formation and translation of coordinate data.

5. Transformation and Translation of Coordinates by Rotation Techniques

a. Rotation in One Plane

1. Conversion of Wing Coordinates. To transform coordinates

from "lofted" to "rigged" position, convenient rotation formulas

are available. For example, this transformation may involve

changing from the wing reference system to the fuselage reference

system through a given dihedral angle (0).

This constitutes a rotation in one plane (see Fig. 5), in this

case the vertical (XZ-) plane.

It is known from plane analytic geometry that the "rigged"

coordinates (x', y', z') of the point P whose wing reference plane

coordinates are (x, y, z), assuming P0(X0, Y0, Z) as the origin,

are related as follows:

x' = x cos0 z sin 4> x = x' cos + z' sin <f>

y' = y y = y'

z' = x sin <t> + z cos <t> z = x' sin <t> + z' cos

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TYPICAL COORDINATE AXIS CONVENTIONS

or more conveniently, as

COS <j>

sin (j>

sin <t>

cos <j>.

This arrangement relates the coordinate axes of the two sys-

tems in terms of direction cosines.

By the use of such formulas the wing reference plane co-

ordinates of the point P may be referred directly to point

z z'

Fig. 5. Rigging of Wing (Reference Plane System)

P0(X0, Y, Z0) of the fuselage reference system, and then trans-

lated to the origin of the latter system.

Translation of "rigged" coordinates referred to the p'oint

P(X0, Y0, Zo) in the fuselage reference system to the origin of the

latter system may be effected by substitution in the following

formulas, where (Xf, Yh Zr) represent the required coordinates.

Xf = x' -f" X0

Yj = y + Y0

Z, = z'+ Zo

Conversely,

x' = X, - X0

/ = Yr - Y0

z = Zf Z0.

Example 1:

Given the wing reference plane coordinates of the intersection

of the lower spar mold line and the centerline of a jack point

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

as (115. 37.5> 9-75); required to find the "rigged" coordinates

if the angle of dihedral is 50.

Translate to the origin of the fuselage reference system,

assuming that point P0(X0, Y0, Z0) '. (o, 95, 26.5).

Solution:

By substitution,

x' y z'

x -996195 o .087156

yo1o

z .087156 o .996195

x' = (.996195) (115) + (o)(37.5) + (--o87i56)(-9.75)

y = (o)(ii5) + (0(37.5) + (o)(-9-75)

z' = (.087156) (115) + (o)(37.5) + (-996i95)(-9-75)-

Therefore

(*',/, z') : (115.412, 37.5, 0.310).

By translation,

X, = 115.412 + o = 115.412

Y, = 37.5 + 95 = 132.5

Zf - 0.310 26.5 = 26.190.

Example 2:

The wing reference plane coordinates of a given point are

(243, 62.4, 11.75); find the "rigged" coordinates if the angle

of dihedral is 30 30'. Translate to the origin of the fuselage

reference system, assuming P : (o, 293, 83).

2. Conversion of Empennage Coordinates. Figure 4 shows the

"rigging" of the horizontal stabilizer in a case involving rotation

for incidence only.

If the point P(x, y, z) is given in the horizontal stabilizer refer-

ence system, its "rigged" coordinates (x', y', z'), i.e., its coordi-

nates referred to the point P(X0, Y0, Z0) in the fuselage system,

are established as follows:

x' = x x = x'

y = y cos <t> + z sin 4> y = y' cos <f> z' sin <t>

z' = y sin 4> + z cos 4> z = y' sin 4> + z' cos <t>

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TYPICAL COORDINATE AXIS CONVENTIONS 55

COS

sin

COS .

Example 1:

The stabilizer chord plane coordinates of a critical tooling

point in a fuselage-stabilizer attachment fitting are (18.5, 9.25,

545). The angle of incidence is 20 30'; required to find the

"rigged" coordinates, referred to point P0(X0, Y0, Z0) in the fu-

selage reference system. Assume P(X0, Y0, Z) : (o, 275, 24.5)

and translate.

Solution:

By substitution,

.999048

-.043619

.043619

.999048

and

x' = (I) (18.5) + (0X9.25) + (0X-5.45)

/ = (0X18.5) + (.999048) (9.25) + (.043619) (-5.45)

z' = (0X18.5) + (-.043619) (9.25) + (.999048) (-545).

Therefore

(*', , z') :(18.5, 9.003, -5.848).

Translated,

(Xf, Yf, Zf) : (18.5, 284.003, 18.652).

Example 2:

The stabilizer chord plane coordinates of a given point in a

horizontal stabilizer-vertical stabilizer attachment fitting are

(o, 41.75, 6.5). The angle of incidence is 20; required to find the

"rigged" coordinates, referred to point P0(X0, Y0, Z) in the

fuselage reference system.

b. Rotations in Space

Referring to Fig. 2, it is observed in the case illustrated that

"rigging" of the wing involves rotation through two angles,

incidence and dihedral, respectively. In the case illustrated,

rotation for incidence () is assumed about the horizontal x-axis;

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

P (x,y,z )

rotation for dihedral () about the y'-axis. The common origin

point P(o, , o) in the wing reference system, point P0(X, Y,

Zo) in the fuselage reference system, is the intersection of the

leading edge of the wing with

the wing root section at the

plane of symmetry. This

origin may be further de-

fined as the intersection

f'W.r.*') f a given waterline plane

(Z0 = a) and a given fuselage

station plane (Y0 = b) with

the plane of symmetry at

the leading edge of the wing

root section.

The coordinate transfor-

mation interrelationships of

the position of a given point

Fig. 6

P(see Fig. 6) in the wing reference system (with coordinates x,

y, z) and the position of the same point (with coordinates x', y',

z') after rotation for incidence are expressed as:

y' cos z' sin

y' sin + z' cos

' = cos + z sin

z' = sin + z COS

cos 0

sin

cos

and, after rotation for dihedral (see Fig. 7), of P'(x'', y', z') to

P"(x", y", z") as

= x" cos + z" sin

= x'

cos z' sin

= y"

- x" sin

+ z" COS

= x'

sin + z' COS

COS

-sin

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TYPICAL COORDINATE AXIS CONVENTIONS

It is also observed, referring

again to Fig. 7, that the fol-

lowing equalities exist:

X" = r cos (a + <t>)

Z" = r sin (a + </>).

From the foregoing sets of origin-^

relationships, formulas estab-

lishing P(x, y, z) relative to

P"(X", Y", Z"), are derived

as follows (see Fig. 8): *

*z"

COS 0 COS 9 -

Origin-

$0.

-cos0-sin 9

-cos 0

!9/Root Chord

Line'

Wing Chord .

Plane

^sin 0"cos 9N

,*1

Tip Chord Line

sin $

Fig. 8. Direction Cosines of the Coordinate Axes

(Wing Rigged by the Chord Plane System)

*For a more simplified derivation and calculation procedure, refer to the discussion

below (Sub-topic 2, Aileron Assembly).

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

x = x" cos <j> + y" sin 0 sin <t>

+ z" cos 0 sin 0

y = y" cos 6 z" sin 0 .

z = x" sin <t> + y" sin 0 cos <f>

+ z" cos 0 cos</>

cos <j>

sin ^

x = X COS 0 z sin

V," =

x sin 0 sin 0 + y cos 0

+ z sin 0 cos 0

x cos 0 sin y sin 0

+ z cos 0 cos

sin 0 sin 0 cos 0 sin <j>

cos 0 sin 0

sin 6 cos 0 cos 0 cos

Thus if (x, y, z) represent the coordinates of a given point in

the wing reference system, then the coordinates (x", y", z") of

that point in "rigged" position, after rotation for incidence and

dihedral respectively, may be conveniently and quickly cal-

culated (see Chart 1). Likewise "rigged" coordinates of a given

(page .

CHART 1. CALCULATION CHART FOR RIGGING POINTS

[CASE I]

Incidence 6

sin

cos

CONSTANTS

Dihedral <j>

sin

cos

(L)

P (X, Y, Z)

X cos <j>

Z sin <j>

X sin <j>

+ Z cos $

(L) sin 6

(L) cos e

- Fsinfl

+ ycosfl

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TYPICAL COORDINATE AXIS CONVENTIONS

(page;

CHART 2. CALCULATION CHART FOR RIGGING POINTS

[CASE II)

Incidence 9

sin

cos

CONSTANTS

Dihedral <j>

sin

cos

()

P{X", Y", Z")

Y" sin 6

(Z.) sin 0

+ X" cos <j>

Y" cos e

- Z" sin 6

(L) cos

- X" sin $

+ z" cos e

Y" .

Z" .

Y" .

point .may be transformed to the wing reference system (see

Chart 2).

Example 1:

The point P(x, y, z) has as coordinates (330, 64.350, 7.225).

The angles of incidence and dihedral are 30 and 30 30' respec-

tively (see Fig. 2). It is required to find the "rigged" co-

ordinates P"(x", y", z"). Assume P : (o, 243, 83) and trans-

late.

Solution:

By substitution,

x" y"

x -998135 -003195

y o .998630

z .061049 .052238

.060965

.052336

.996768

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

x" = (.998135) (330) + (o) (64.350) + (-.061049X-7.225)

y" = (.003195) (330) + (.998630) (64.350)

+ (.052238K-7.225)

z" = (.060965) (330) + (-.052336) (64.350)

+ (.996768) (-7.225).

Therefore

(*", y", z") : (329.826, 64.939, 9.549).

Translated,

(X-, Y Zf) : (329.826, 307-939. 92.549)-

Example 2:

Assume (150.75, 34.085, 2.125) as coordinates of point

P(x, y, z) in Example 1. Find

the."rigged" coordinates P"(x",

y", z"). Assume P0 : (o, 243, 83)

and translate.

These and similar rotation

formulas may be developed and

applied to all situations involv-

ing rotations, whether a point is

conceived to move with the

reference axes fixed, or the axes

themselves are rotated and the

point is considered fixed in

position.

Translation of the origin for

simplification of calculation

routines is predicated for all such

coordinate geometry applica-

XwfXrsj tions. Otherwise, certain calcu-

lation procedures tend to become

too unwieldy.

1. Wing Rear Spar Sub-As-

sembly. To illustrate the applica-

tion of a coordinate axis system to a sub-assembly, an analysis

of a wing rear spar system is presented.

Figure 9 shows the translation of the origin from the original

wing reference system to the intersection of the plane of the

spar, the plane of the normal wing root station, and the wing

PLAN VIEW

Zw(Zrs)

Wing Ref. Line

FRONT VIEW

Fig. 9

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TYPICAL COORDINATE AXIS CONVENTIONS

reference (XYa-) plane. The plan view shows the axes of the

spar system rotated through an angle a, which is the angle of

forward sweep of the spar.

The transformation of coordinates from the rear spar system

to the wing reference system is indicated by the following (see

Figs. 9 and 10):

YV7

XTs

COS a

sin a

Wing reference system coordi-

nates must be translated to the

origin of the spar system before

transformation; spar system co-

ordinates must be translated to

the origin of the wing reference

system after transformation.

Example 1a:

The origin of a rear spar as-

sembly is determined by the co-

ordinates (o, 49.5, o), referred

to the wing reference system.

Find the spar coordinates of a flap

hinge point whose coordinates

in the wing reference system are

(15.775. 51.190, -2.275). The

angle of forward sweep of the

spar is 70 30'.

PLAN VIEW

Wing Ref. Line

Horiz. Ref. Line

FRONT VIEW

Fig. 10

Solution:

By translation to the origin of

the spar system, the coordinates

of the hinge point become (15.775 , 519 49.5, 2.275

-o), or (15.775. 1.690, -2.275).

By substitution,

Xrs = 15.775 C991445) - 1.690 (.130526) = 15.419

Yrs = 15.775 (.130526) + 1.690 (.991445) = 3.735

Zn = -2.275 (1) = -2.275.

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62 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Example 1b:

The coordinates of an aileron hinge point, referred to the same

spar axes, are (135.035, 10.245, 0.480). Find the wing refer-

ence plane coordinates of the point.

Solution:

By substitution, transformation, and translation,

X = 135-035 (.991445) + (-10.245)(.130526) + o

= 132.543

Yn = -135-035 (.130526) + (-10.245)(.991445) + 49.5

= 21.717

Zw = 0.480 (1) + o = 0.480.

Example 2a:

Given a point (214.645, 28.3, 0.765) referred to the wing refer-

ence system. Translate to the origin of Example la, and find

the spar system coordinates, (a = 70 30'.)

Example 2b:

Given a point (165.895, 14.075, 0.595) referred to the spar

system. Find the wing reference system coordinates. Use the

same spar origin and angle of forward sweep as in Example ia.

Application:

The wing reference coordinates of the flap false hinge points

for a given wing are as follows:

Hinge #1 : ( 78.6988, 141.1305, -30.1974)

Hinge #2 : (150.5502, 134.0502, -30.1974)

Hinge #3 : (206.1925, 128.5672, -30.1974).

The coordinates of the rear spar system, referred to the wing

reference system, are (o, 111.216, o), and the angle of forward

sweep of the spar (plan view) is 20 35'.

It is necessary to establish these hinge points with reference

to the rear spar. Find the rear spar system coordinates of the

points.

The direct conversion of coordinates in the spar system to

"rigged" ("ship") position, and vice versa, may be accomplished

by the same technique as was developed in the case of "rigging"

points in the wing for both incidence and dihedral.

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TYPICAL COORDINATE AXIS CONVENTIONS 63

The two angles of rotation in this case are the angle of forward

sweep (a) of the spar and the angle of dihedral ().

The coordinate interrelationships of the two systems, spar and

fuselage ("rigged"), may be expressed conveniently as follows:

Xf cos a cos sin a cos sin

Yf sin a COS a

Zf cos a sin sirt a sin COS

Translation of coordinates must precede conversion from the

fuselage system to the spar system; translation follows conver-

sion from the spar system to the fuselage system.

Example 1a:

The coordinates (Xrs, Y,s, ZTs) of a wing jack point, referred

to the wing rear spar coordinate system, are (38.75, o, 5.45).

The coordinates of the spar origin, referred to the fuselage refer-

ence system origin, are (o, 144.5, o). The angle of forward

sweep of the spar is 70 30'; the angle of dihedral is 50. Find

the "rigged" coordinates (Xf, Yf, Zf) of the given points.

Solution:

By substitution,

Xrs Yrs Zrs

Xt .987673 -.130029 -.087156

Yf .130526 .991445

Z, .086410 .011376 .996195

and by transformation and translation,

Xf =

38.75 (.987673) + (o)(-

.130029)

+ (-545) (-.087156) + 0

Yf =

38.75 (.130526) + (o)(

.991445)

+ (-5-45) (0) + 144.5

Zf =

38.75 (.086410) + (0)(-

.011376)

Xf =

38.747

+ (-545) (-996195) + 0

Yf =

149.558

Zf =

2.081.

2. Aileron Assembly. To illustrate the application of a co-

ordinate axis system to a sub-assembly, with transformation of

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

coordinates from the major system to the sub-assembly system

and vice versa, an aileron assembly is analyzed (see Fig. 11).

The origin of the aileron system, referred to the wing origin,

has coordinates (132.6572, 39.8346, .5218). The angle (a) of for-

sin

ward sweep (plan view) of the < hinge (x-axis) is 70 44' 50.38";

the direction angle () of the < hinge with respect to the .r'a-axis

is 00 21' 28.58".

The relationships of the two sets of axes (see Fig. 12) in terms

of direction cosines are as follows:

COS a

sin a

COS a

Z'a

The relationships of the two sets of axes (see Fig. 13) in terms

of direction cosines are as follows:

OCa

cos

sin

cos

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TYPICAL COORDINATE AXIS CONVENTIONS

Thus, reading downward,

Then by substitution,

x'w = x'a cos a + y'a sin a

= (xtt cos $ za sin 0)cos a + ya sin a

y'w = x'a sin a + / cos a

= (x cos <t> za sin <>) ( sin a) + ya cos a

Z'w = z' = Xa sin 0 + Z Cos 0.

x'a = xa cos </> z0 sin

z'a = xa sin <j> + za cos <f>.

y' y'

Fig. 12

Fig. 13

Expanding and rearranging,

x'w = xa cos 0 cos a + ya sin a za sin cos a

y'w = xa cos $ sin a + % cos a. + za sin </> sin a

z' = xa sin <t> + za cos 0.

Or, more conveniently,

Xa COS a COS </>

sin a cos 0

sin 4>

sin a

cos a

cos a sin </>

sin a sin 0

cos </>

Given

sin a = .13480470; sin 4> = .00624721

cos a = .99087219; cos </> = .99998049

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66 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

By substitution,

^ w y to % a

Xa .99085286 .13480207 .00624721

ya .13480470 .99087219 o

Za .OO619O19 .OOO84215 .99998049

The two sets of axes are now related in terms of their direction

cosines (see Fig. 11).

Thus, given the aileron system coordinates of a point, the wing

system coordinates may be directly calculated, and vice versa.

Example:

The coordinates of an aileron hinge point (x, ya, za) : (42, o, o).

Find the wing system coordinates of the hinge point.

Solution:

x' = 42C99085286) + o( .13480207) + o(.oo624721)

= 41.61582012

y'w = 42 (-.13480207) + 0O99087219) + 0(0)

= 5.66168694

z'a = 42(.oo624721) + 0(0) + 0(^9998049) = .26238282

Check:

xa = 41.6i5820i2(.99085286) + ( 5.66168694) ( .13480207)

+ .26238282 (.00624721) = 42.00000

ya = 41.61582012 (.13480470) + (-5.66168694X.99087219)

+ .26238282(0) = o

za = 41.6i582oi2( .00619019) + ( 5.66168694X.00084215)

+ .26238282 (.99998049) = o

Translated,

xw = 41.6158 + 132.6572 = 174.2730

yw = -5.6617 4- 39-8346 = 34-1729

zw = .2624 4- .5218 = .7842

It should be noted that translation follows transformation

when changing from the aileron system to the wing system.

In changing from the wing system to the aileron system, trans-

lation precedes transformation.

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TYPICAL COORDINATE AXIS CONVENTIONS 67

PROBLEMS

1. The following points have coordinates referred to the point

Po(x0, y0, z0) as an origin. Assume P0 : (12.75, 16-937, 3.428), and

translate to the origin to which P0 is then referred.

Pi( 38.369. 28.326, 1.281)

P2( 123.236, -18.125, -7-594)

Pa( 236.157- 8.253, 4-176)

P4(-12.276, -3.063, 5.834)

Pt( o , -38.296, -1.572)

2. The following points are referred to the origin 0(0, o, o). Trans-

late the coordinates of these points to the point P0(i2.75, 16.937,

3.428) as a new origin.

-Pi(i35-875, 163.634. -10.935)

P2( 21.239, -12.136, 2.305)

P,(33i.i2i, 63.086, 8.222)

P4( o , o o )

Ps( o , 13.850, -1.252)

3. Referring to Fig. 5, find the "rigged" coordinates to three

decimal places of the following points, whose coordinates are in the

wing reference system (dihedral angle is 40 30'). Assume P0 '. (o, 95,

26.5) and translate.

1. Pi( 15.75 . -7.25 . 3-625)

2. P2(i27.5 , 38.375, -7.965)

3. P3(i3i.725, 27.68 , 2.252)

4. P4(307.265, 43.385, -5-345)

5. P5( o , 41.75 , -4.781)

4. Referring to the same figure, find the "loft" (wing reference

system) coordinates to three decimal places of the following points,

whose "rigged" coordinates are as follows (dihedral angle is 40 30').

Assume P0 : (o, 95, 26.5) and translate before transforming the

coordinates.

1. PA329.815, 76.260, 8.785)

2. P2'(i27.564, 36.434, -5.976)

3. P3'( 26.387, 13.293, 1.127)

4. P4'( 10.612, -6.739, -4-798)

5. P6'( 18.260, -10.036, 7.359)

5. Referring to Fig. 3, find the "rigged" coordinates, to three

decimal places, of the following points, whose coordinates are in the

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

wing reference system (angles of incidence and dihedral are 30 and

30 30') respectively. Assume P0 : (o, 243, 83) and translate.

1. Pi( 40.033, 18.609, 11.080)

2. P2( 36.066, 18.430, 17.237)

3. P3( 40.390, 109.416, -8.779)

4. P4(33i.000, 96.467, -4.825)

5. P5(-o.798, i11.181, 13.296)

6. Referring to Fig. 2, find the "lofted" (wing reference system)

coordinates to three decimal places, of the following points, whose

coordinates are "rigged," with the same rotations as in Example 3.

Assume P : (o, 95, 26.5) and translate before transforming the

coordinates.

1. iY( 73.000, 7.662, -5.854)

2. iY( , 110.648, 14.178)

3. 3'( 18.5 , 68.086, 3.094)

4. 4306.137. 26.580, 6.953)

5. P6'(320.828, 52.923, -7-651)

7. It is required to transform and translate the coordinates of the

following points in the wing rear spar system to the wing reference

system. The angle of forward sweep of the spar is 70 15', and the

coordinates of the spar origin referred to the wing origin are (o, 132.5,

o).

Pi:

( 17.503.

-3.728,

9.370)

P2:

( 61.509,

-5.635)

P3:

(117.142,

6.815,

2-749)

Pa:

(100.515,

2.127,

(0,

5.120,

-8.895)

8. It is required to translate and transform the coordinates of the

following points, re.ferred to the wing reference system, to the rear spar

system. The angle of forward sweep of the spar is 70 25', and the

coordinates of the spar origin, referred to the wing origin, are (o,

132.5, o).

Pi ( 17.5 , 47180, -3 691)

Pi : ( 38.5 , 44.397, 4.459)

P3 : (155.5 , 28.887, )

P4 : (191.75, 24.082, -1.545)

Ps : (213.75, 21.166, 2.995)

9. In a given wing, the front spar has an angle of sweep back of

20 35'. The coordinates of the origin of the spar coordinate system

are (o, 16.8, o) referred to the wing origin, which in turn has the -

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TYPICAL COORDINATE AXIS CONVENTIONS 69

ordinates (o, 243, o) referred to the fuselage system. The wing is

rigged for both incidence and dihedral (as in Fig. 8), these angles being

30 and 30 30' respectively.

Derive conversion formulas suitable for translating and transform-

ing coordinates from the spar system to the wing system to the fuselage

system, and vice versa.

10. The origin of an aileron coordinate system has the coordinates

(378.125, 94.367, o) referred to the wing origin. The axes of the

system are rotated 50 45' clockwise about the aileron origin in a plan

view of the left wing looking forward, and rotated upward (counter-

clockwise) about the '-axis through an angle of 0o 21' 30" in a front

view looking aft.

Derive conversion formulas for translation and transformation

of coordinates from the aileron system to the wing system and vice

versa.

11. A flap assembly reference system is established subject to the

following conditions:

(a) Flap origin: (18.9153,51.7135, -34017)

(b) a = 70 44'50.38"(cos = .99087219; sin = .13480470)

(c) = Io 2'42.93ff(cos = .99983360; sin = .01824217)

Required to find:

(a) The relationships of the two sets of axes (shown in Fig. 14) in

terms of direction cosines are as follows:

F9.14 Fig. 15

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

(b) The relationships of the two sets of axes (shown in Fig. 15) in

terms of direction cosines.

x'fp y'fp z'/p

xfp

y/p

zfp

reference axes and the flap reference axes in terms of direction cosines.

xwy

Xfp

yfP

Zfp

(d) The flap reference system coordinates of the outboard hinge

point are (106.7411, o, o). Calculate the wing coordinates (xw, yw, zw)

of the hinge point. Check the results.

(e) t. Calculate the direction secant of the <J) flap hinge with re-

spect to the wing X-axis.

2. Calculate the true length along the < flap hinge between

wing stations 18.9153 and 131.9292.

12. To the angle (0) of incidence and the angle (0) of dihedral (see

Topic 5, Sub-Topic b), add a negative angle (a) of sweepback. Find

the transformation from wing reference axes to fuselage axes, (a is

the true angle between the position of the wing X-axis after incidence

and dihedral are entered, and its fully rigged position.)

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CHAPTER VI

ANALYTIC ANALYSIS OF BASIC LINES

A straight line is represented by a pair of simultaneous linear

equations. Each equation of such a pair is the equation of a

plane. Thus the equations of any two planes intersecting in a

line are, taken simultaneously, equations of the line. An

infinite number of pairs of such equations exist.

1. Equations of a Straight Line

a. Symmetric Equations

If Pi(xi, yi , Zi) is a point on a straight line whose direction

ratios are a : b : c, and P(x, y, z) is any other point on the line,

then

(x id) : (y yi) : (z - zi) = a : b : c (1)

x xi _ y yj. _ z Zi . .

a ~ b ~ c {2)

Example 1:

Find equations, e.g., of the horizontal and vertical projecting

planes of the line which passes through the point P(3, 1, 2) and

has the direction ratios 2:3: 2.

Solution:

By substitution in (2),

x3_y1_z2

2~ 3 _ -2

3x 2y 7 = o

x + z 5 = o.

Example 2:

Find equations of the line which passes through the point

P(7> 5> -3) and has the direction ratios (3:6: 4).

Application:

A flap hinge line passes through the point (125.3428, 36.6676,

0.830) with direction ratios 72.0600 : 39.1644 : 126.1728.

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72 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Find the equations of the horizontal and vertical projecting

planes of the hinge line.

Solution:

By substitution in (2),

x 125.3428 _ y 36.6676 _ z + 0.830

72.0600 39.1644 - 126.1728

fx - 1.83994 y - 57-8768 = o

[x + .57112 z 124.8688 = o.

These are the required equations.

Actually equation (2) contains three equations, namely,

(3)

x xt _ y yt x Xi _ z zi y yj _ z zt

a b' a c' b c

The first of equations (3) is the equation of a plane through

the line and parallel to the z-axis, and corresponds to a plan view

of the line. The second represents the equation of a plane

through the line and parallel to the y-axis, and corresponds to a

front elevation of the line. The third equation is the equation of

a plane through the line and parallel to the x-axis, and corre-

sponds to a side elevation of the line.

In other words, the loci of these three equations in the xy-, xz-,

and yz-planes respectively are the projections of the given line

on these planes. Thus the plane represented by

x - xi y - yi , x

= ~s~ (4)

may be considered the plane of projection on the xy-plane, and

the three equations (3) the equations of the projecting planes

of the given line.

b. Two-Point Form

If Pi(xi, yi, Zi) and P2(x2, y2, z2) are two points on a line, then

the direction ratios of the line are

(x2 xi) : (y2 yi) : (z2 - Zi)

and from (2) the equations of the line become

x xi = y yi _ z Zi . .

x2 xi y2 yi z2 zi

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ANALYTIC ANALYSIS OF BASIC LINES

This represents the two-point form of the symmetric equations

of the line.

Example 1:

Find the equations of the line PiP2 which passes through the

points Pi(4, -2, 3) and P2(2, 5, -2).

Solution:

By substitution in (5), there results the continuous equality

x - 4 = y - (~2) = z - 3

2-4 5 - (-2) -2-3

from which are derived the equations of the line PiP2, namely,

Jx + 2y 24 = o

5x 2z 14 = o.

These are the equations respectively of the vertical and horizontal

projecting planes of the line.

Example 2:

Find the equations of the horizontal and vertical project-

ing planes of the line PiP2 which passes through the points

PiiB, -3, 6) andP2(4,7, -3).

Application:

The intersections of the upper mold line of a rear wing spar

with the basic root and tip sections are Pi(o, 49.5, 4.785) and

P2(213.75, 21.0, 2.975) respectively. Find the equations of the

horizontal and vertical projecting planes of the upper mold line

of the spar.

2. Reduction of General Equations of a Line to Standard Form

Considering a straight line as the co-line of two intersecting

planes whose equations constitute the simultaneous linear

system,

Aix + Biy + Ciz + Di = o

A2x + B2y + Qz + A = o (6)

then

Ki(AiX+Biy+Ciz+Di)+K2(A2X+B2y+C2z+D2)=o (7)

where Ki and K2 are finite constants other than zero, represents

a plane through the co-line indicated by (6).

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74 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

It is possible to so choose values of Ki and K2 as to eliminate

any one of the three variables. Thus if z is eliminated, the

resulting equation shows the projection of the line on the xy-

plane. The first equation of (3) shows this condition. The

equations of the other projecting planes may be found by

eliminating the other two variables (x and y) in turn.

Example 1:

Reduce the equations of the line

2x + y + 2z 5 = 0

3* + y + z =0

to standard forms.

Solution:

Equations in the form of (5) yield direction ratios

a : b : c = (o + 1) : (-5 + 1) : (5 - 4) = 1 : -4 : 1.

To find a point Pi(xi , yi , zj) on (4), let x Xi = o and solve

for y = yi and z = Zi thus:

xi = o, yi = -5, zi = 5.

By substitution of these established values, formula (2)

becomes

x=y+5_g-5

1-4 1

This continuous equality is observed to be equivalent to the

equations of the vertical and horizontal projecting planes of the

given line, which in simplified form are

\x + y = -5

x - z = -5.

Example 2:

Reduce the equations of the line

4* + y-2z + 5 = o

2x y 3Z =0

to standard forms.

3. Transformation of the Equations of a Line

It is required to transform the equations of a line to describe

the line's position after it has been rotated through one or more

given angles.

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ANALYTIC ANALYSIS OF BASIC LINES

Assume the equations of the line in normal form as

x x _ y y _ z z0

abc

(8)

in which (a, b, c) are direction numbers of the line and (x0, y0, z)

represent the coordinates of a given point on the line.

Assume the following transformation relationships between

the original (x, y, x) system and the new (x', y', z') system

(see Chapter V):

021

Oaj

Osi

Oj2

033.

The given point (x, y0, z0) becomes (xj, yj, z0') after trans-

formation.

The direction numbers (a, b, c) after transformation become

(o', b', c'), in which

a' = (oon + ban + co3i); V = (aoi2 + 6a22 + co32);

and

c' = (0013 + ba23 + can).

Therefore

x' Xo y' y0' z' Zo , ,

These are the required equations.

Example 1:

The equations of a given line are

x4=y+2=z3

-2 7 -5

It is required to transform this equation, in order to describe

the position of the line after it has been moved through an angle

of 30 30', rotating counterclockwise about the y-axis.

The transformation relationships are as follows (see Chap-

ter V):

x' y' z'

x .99813480 o .06104854

yo1o

z .06104854 o .99813480.

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Assuming (4, 2, 3) as coordinates (x0, y0, z0) of a given point

on the line, then

(*', yJ, z') : (3.809394, -2, 3.238599)

and if direction numbers (a, b, c) of the line are ( 2, 7, 5), then

(a', V, c') : (1.691027, 7, -5.112771).

By substitution,

x' - 3.809394 = y' - 2 = z' - 3.238599

1.691027 7 5.112771

This is the required equation.

Example 2:

Transform the equations of a given line

x + 6 _ y 1 _ is

34_5

in order to describe the position of the line after it has been

rotated counterclockwise about the y-axis through an angle of 50.

Application:

The equations of the line of intersection of the plane of a wing

front spar with the wing reference plane are given, in normal

form, as

xw = yw - 16.8 = s_

.99898014 .04515172 o

It is required to transform the equations of the line in order to

describe its position after the wing has been "rigged" through an

angle of 30 incidence entered clockwise about the x-axis, and

counterclockwise through a dihedral angle of 30 26' about the

y'-axis.

Solution:

The transformation relationships are as follows (referred to

Pfo (xFo, yF0, zFo), the wing origin):

%f<> yF<> zFo

xw .99820516 .00313425 .05980505

yw 0 .99862953 -.05233596

z -.05988712 .05224203 -99683715

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ANALYTIC ANALYSIS OF BASIC LINES 77

Thus, if

(x0, y, Zo) : (o, 16.8, o)

then

yFo,zFo) : (o, 16.776976, -.879244)

and if

(a, b, c) : (.99898014, .04515172, o)

then

(a', b', c') : (.99718713, .04822090, .05738100).

By substitution,

xFo = yFo - 16.776976 = zFo + .879244

.99718713 .04822090 .05738100

These are the required equations.

Fis. 1. Analytic Analysis of Basic Wing Lines

4. Basic Wing Percentage Lines

Since percentage lines of a wing development are straight lines,

they may be described analytically upon the basis of given airfoil

data. From the equations of these lines the intersections of the

planes of intermediate stations, normal (or canted) with respect

to the reference plane may be calculated and the ordinates of the

intermediate ribs determined.

Figure i is a perspective view of a typical wing development.

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78 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

R represents the plane of the basic root section; T represents the

plane of the basic tip section. Both these sections are normal to

a horizontal plane determined by the parallel chord lines O Y and

MN, from which offsets to the wing contour are measured. In

this case the percentage line which is normal to both the root and

tip sections is the 25% line. The intersection of this line with

the chord line of the root section may therefore be selected as the

origin of a coordinate system through which a vertical (Z) axis

may be passed. The 25% line thus becomes the X-axis and the

chord line the F-axis. These mutually perpendicular axes are

positively and negatively directed as shown.

The coordinates of the intersection points of each percentage

line with the planes of the root and tip sections may thus be

directly established from given data.

For example, referring to Fig. 1, suppose the end-points of any

given percentage line P of the upper surface are (0, Ai, Bi) and

(S, At, Ci). By substitution, the two-point form of the equa-

tions of a line

X - Xi

X2 Xi

becomes

X-0

S-0

whence

which are the equations of the vertical and horizontal projecting

planes respectively of the percentage line P. Similarly, the

equations of P are

F = ^!l +Ai

- (I3)

Since Pi and P2 lie in a plane normal to X F-plane, the trace of

each on this plane is identical, namely, P3. The first of the pair

of equations (11) is thus the same as the first of pair (13) ; hence

- Y,

- Yi

- A,

- i

X + A,

X + i

(m)

(11)

(12)

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ANALYTIC ANALYSIS OF BASIC LINES 79

CHART 1. MASTER LINE EQUATION CHART

Sta. #0 (Root)

Sta.f (Tip)

% Line Equations

Ordinates

Ordinales

VC: Y = f(X)

Chord

Upper

(.)

Lower

Upper

()

Lower

(G)

H: Z =f(X)

VL: Z' = f(X)

1.25

2.5

7-5

100

L.E.

Radius

FORMULAS

() (Vu) (VL)

^> x+ , Z--^!~^X+Bi

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

(page )

CHART 2. MASTER % LINE EQUATION CHART

% Line ( )

Y = Z = Z' =

Station

(X)

Station

Incre-

ment

(Dist. Normal

% Line)

(Dist. L.E.)

Y-R

Upper

Ordinate

Lower

Ordinate

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ANALYTIC ANALYSIS OF BASIC LINES

it is necessary only to derive the equation of the vertical project-

ing plane once for both the upper and lower percentage lines

P, and P2.

If the airfoil were symmetrical, the equations of the upper

percentage line would become the equations of the lower with a

proper change of sign.

If the 0% line or leading edge of the wing, and the 100% line,

or trailing edge, lie wholly in the XF-plane, then the equation of

the horizontal projecting plane in each case is Z = o. The

chord plane thus becomes the reference plane for the wing.

By the use of formulas (11) and (12) the equations of all per-

(PAGE )

CHART 3. MASTER WING COORDINATE CHART

Sta. (X)

Sta. {X)

Sta. (X)

Dist.

Ordinate

Dist.

Ordinate

Dist.

Ordinate

Chord

Line

(K)

Line

(Y)

Upper

(+Z)

Lower

(-Z)

Upper

(+Z)

Lower

(-Z)

Upper

(+Z)

Lower

(-Z)

(K)

1-25

2.5

7.5

100

L.E. Rad.

Center

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.a.

=<0

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ANALYTIC ANALYSIS OF BASIC LINES

centage lines for both the upper and lower surface may be estab-

lished in convenient chart form (see Chart 1).

These equations are thus available for calculating intermediate

wing stations. A convenient procedure is indicated in Charts 2

and 3. Thus the complete set of wing coordinates may be quickly

calculated and tabulated on conventional forms.

Special lofting data essential to a body plan view layout may

be directly established by the use of Chart 4. It is necessary to

calculate a constant factor for a given percentage line. This

constant is obtained by use of the formula

K = V(F2 - F)2 + (Z2 - ZQ2

in which ( Fi, Zi) and ( F2, Z2) represent two basic points on the

percentage line projected on the FZ-plane, and S is the station

(X) distance between the two points. If basic points in the root

and tip sections are taken, then 5 is equivalent to the semi-span,

or basic station distance between the root and tip sections.

For a series of stations the successive calculated offsets may be

scaled along each percentage line, and the contours of the sta-

tions drawn in with a spline connecting the corresponding

percentage-line points of a given station. It is noteworthy that

no scaled or picked-up data are involved in this method. The

chance for error attendant upon the required use of such graph-

ically scaled data with commonly used techniques is thus

eliminated in this stage of the lofting process.

In other words, by the use of the analytic techniques described,

the wing development may be calculated in toto independently

of the graphical layout. Consequently, the calculated data thus

compiled constitute a completely independent and authoritative

check upon the graphical layout. Properly tabulated, these

data represent an accurately coordinated set of dimensions for

direct engineering, lofting and tooling use.

5. Calculation of Canted Wing Sections

The calculation of the contour of a canted wing section may be

interpreted as a problem requiring the finding of the intersection

of the plane of the canted section with each of the percentage

lines of the wing. Analytically, this involves the simultaneous

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

solution of the equation of the canted section plane with the

horizontal and vertical projecting plane equations of the per-

centage lines. The coordinates of these intersection points

directly establish the canted section contour in the body plan

view of the wing; by a simple transformation the true view

coordinates may be derived, thus establishing the given section

in true view.

Once the equations of the percentage lines have been estab-

lished for the development of intermediate normal stations as

discussed above, they are immediately available for calculating

canted sections. The only additional step required is the estab-

lishment of the equation of the canted plane.

For convenience in deriving the equation of the canted plane,

every canted section may for all practical purposes be classified

as one of three general types, viz.:

A single cant in the front view may be defined as a rotation,

clockwise or counterclockwise, about an axis line which is an

element in the wing reference plane and is parallel to the F-axis

of the wing coordinate system (see Fig. 2). The plane of the

canted section appears as a straight line in the front view. A

vertical rib in a wing rigged for dihedral only is an example of

such a cant.

b. Single Cant (Plan View)

A single cant in the plan view may be defined as a rotation

a. Single cant front view

b. Single cant plan view

c. Double cant

a. Single Cant (Front View)

Sta. "O"

SINGLE CANT-FRONT VIEW

Fig. 2

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ANALYTIC ANALYSIS OF BASIC LINES

about an axis line normal to the wing reference plane (the

X F-plane) and parallel to the Z-axis. The canted plane in this

case appears as a straight line in the plan view (see Fig. 3). An

aileron station whose plane

is normal to the wing trail-

ing edge and the wing ref-

erence plane, but is not

parallel to a regular normal

wing station, is an example

of this type of cant.

Plane of-

Canted Section/

% Line

"(Plan View of

Both Upper and

Lower Lines)

SINGLE CANT-PLAN VIEW

Fig. 3

c. Double Cant

A double cant may be de-

fined in terms of two angles,

e.g., a projected front view angle determined by the intersection

of the canted plane with a plane parallel to the XZ-plane, and

a projected plan view an-

gle determined by the in-

tersection of the canted

plane and a plane parallel

to the X F-plane (see Fig.

4). The plane of a double

canted section does not ap-

pear as a straight line in

any one of the three con-

ventional views. A verti-

cal rib in a wing rigged for

both incidence and dihedral

is an example of a double

canted section when re-

ferred to the wing refer-

ence system.

J. Single Cant (Front

View) Calculation

Procedure:

To simplify the steps necessary to calculate a single canted

section (front view), formulas derived from a determinant system

involving the equations of any given straight line element lying

DOUBLE CANT (SKEW SECTION)

Fig. 4

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's.

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ANALYTIC ANALYSIS OF BASIC LINES

in the surface of the wing and the equation of the canted frame

may be established. Thus the system of equations

AiX + Y = A

A2X + Z = D2 (14)

A3X + Z = D3

in which the first two represent the vertical and horizontal

projecting planes respectively of the line and the third represents

the equation of the single canted plane (front view), may be

solved through the use of determinants.

If is the angle of cant and Xc is the wing station at which the

canted plane intersects the wing base line (e.g., the normal per-

centage line), then it follows that

X - Xc = Z (tan )

and the determinant () = A2, in which A3 = cot ;

furthermore, A = XCA3

whence

X - (.5)

Y = A - AiX (16)

Z = Dt - A3X. (17)

Furthermore, since D'3 = D3 sec <j>, and A'3 = A3 sec , then Z

in the true view of the canted section becomes

Z' = D'3 - '. (18)

These relationships have been systematically summarized in a

special calculation chart (see Chart 5) for convenience in the

routine calculation of the canted section.

e. Single Cant (Plan View) Calculation

Procedure:

The calculation of a single-canted section (plan view) may

likewise be established through the solution of a determinant

system involving the equations of any given percentage line or

other straight line element lying in the surface of the wing and

the equation of the plane of the canted section.

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Thus

AiX + Y = A

AtX + Z = A (19)

+F-A

represents such a system, in which the first two equations repre-

sent respectively the vertical and horizontal projecting planes of

any given percentage line and the third equation represents the

plane of the canted section.

If a is the angle of cant, Xc is the wing station of the canted

section, and (A = A3 Ai) represents the determinant of the

system, then

A-A,,

X = (20)

F = A - A3X (21)

Z = A - AiX. (22)

Furthermore, it is observed that A3 = cot a and A = A3XC.

To transform F to the true view of the canted section, let

A 3 = A3 sec a and A' = A sec a. Then

r = a' - (23)

The values of F' and Z are necessary for the development of

the canted section in true view.

The steps necessary for the calculation of the data required

have been organized in convenient chart form (see Chart 6).

f. Double Cant Calculation

Procedure:

The calculation of a double canted section may likewise be

based upon a determinant system of equations involving the

canted plane and the equations of the percentage lines.

Thus AiX + Y = A

A2X + Z = A (24)

A3X + Y + CSZ = A

is a system of equations in which the first two equations repre-

sent the vertical and horizontal projecting planes of any given

percentage line, and the third equation is the equation of the

plane of the canted section.

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ANALYTIC ANALYSIS OF BASIC LINES

Upon solution of this system, it is found that

Y = Di - * (26)

Z = D2 - A2X. (27)

If a is the angle of rotation, measured clockwise, between wing

station Xc (Fig. 4, plan view) and the intersection of the plane

of the canted section with the wing reference plane, and is the

dihedral angle between the plane of the canted section and a

plane normal to the wing reference plane through the line of

intersection of the canted section plane with the wing reference

plane (see Fig. 4, skewed view), then

X cot a + Y + Z tan csc a Xc cot a (28)

is the equation of the plane of the canted section.

Thus

= cot a, D3 = XcA3

C3 = tan csc a, cot a A3, tan =

Vi +AI

and

... , . Y + Z(tan sin a) , .

Y' (true view) = (29)

4 ' COS a y

Z' (true view) = Z sec . (30)

These relationships have been summarized in a special chart

for convenience in calculation (see Chart 7).

Figure 4 (front view) shows the angle (') of inclination of the

canted section in a vertical (Y = K) plane. If this angle is one

of the given conditions, it can be shown that tan ' = sec a tan .

It should be observed that changes in the direction of rotation

in the plan and front views will affect the nature of the signs in

equation (28). This fact must be carefully noted in the deriva-

tion of the equation of the plane of a given double canted section.

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CHAPTER VII

ANALYTIC EQUATIONS OF A PLANE

A plane surface is represented by an equation of the first

degree; conversely, every equation of the first degree represents

a plane.

Thus

Ax + By + Cz + D = o

is the most general form of a plane equation.

The equations of the horizontal, vertical (front elevation) and

profile reference planes (xy-, xz-, and yz- planes respectively)

are respectively

z=o

x = o.

The equations of planes parallel to the xy-, xz-, and yz-planes

are respectively

z = di

y = d2

x = d3

where di, d2, d3 are any given finite constants.

The equations of the planes perpendicular to the xy-, xz-, and

yz-reference planes are respectively

Aix + Biy + A = o

A2x + C2z + D2 = o

B3y + C3z + D3 = o.

1. Equation of a Plane-Standard Form

o. Plane Through Three Non-Collinear Points

CASE I. BY DETERMINANT FORMULA

Let Pi(xi, yi, Zi), P2O2, y2, z2), P3(x3, y3, z3) be any three non-

collinear points. The condition that these points lie in the plane

Ax + By + Cz + D = o

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ANALYTIC EQUATIONS OF A PLANE

is that their coordinates satisfy this equation, as indicated thus:

Axi + Byi + Czi + D = o

Ax2 + By2 + Cz2 + D = o

Ax3 + By3 + Cz3 + D = o.

From the theory of determinants, the condition that four

numbers A, B, C, D (not all zero) exist which satisfy the simulta-

neous system of four equations above is that

whence

A = yiz2 + y3Zi + y2z3 - (y3z2 + yiz3 + y2Zi)

B = xiz2 + x3Zi + x2z3 (x3z2 + XiZ3 + x2Zi)

C = xiy2 + x3yi + x2y3 - (x3y2 + %iy3 + x2yi)

D = xi(y2z3 y3z2) + x2(y3zi yiz3) + x3(yiz2 y2Zi).

The derivation of the plane equation by this technique has

been simplified by the construction of a special calculation chart

(see Chart 1) adapted for use with an automatic calculating

machine.

Example 1:

Given the three points Pi(o, 1, o), P2(0, o, o), and

-P3(.59887i2, o, 9.9820516).

Required to find the equation of the plane determined by

these points.

Solution:

By substitution (in Chart 1),

16.668113s; + z = o

which is the required equation of the plane.

Example 2:

Given the three points Pi(2, -3, 7), P2(3. 5. 8), and P3(5. 4-

-1).

Required to find the equation of the plane determined by

these three points.

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io 1

II II II

ANALYTIC EQUATIONS OF A PLANE

Application:

The plane of the arc of rotation of the centerline of the side

strut of a landing gear is determined by the following points:

Pi(-l.i69, -0.750, 22.125), -P2(26.874, -0.750, 23.840), and

^3(26.780, 4.490, 22.630). Find the equation of this plane.

Solution:

By substitution of the coordinates Pi, P2, P3 in Chart 1 the

required equation is found to be

x - 3.76297y - 16.29913Z + 358.96492 = o.

CASE II. "POINT-NORMAL" METHOD

Equation of a plane through three non-collinear points by

the "point-normal" method.

These conditions may be resolved into the "point-normal"

method by finding the direction ratios of a normal to the plane

determined by the three points.

Example 1:

Given the three points Pi(2, 3, 2), P2(8, 6, 16), P3(4, 9, 6).

Required to find the equation of the plane determined by

these three points by the "point-normal" method.

Solution:

Assume as direction ratios (p : n : 1) for a line normal to the

plane containing lines P1P2 and P1P3.

Direction ratios of P1P2 and P1P3 are respectively

(8 - 2) : (6 - 3) : (16 - 2) = 6 : 3 : H

and

(2 + 4) : (3 - 9) : ( 2 + 6) = 6 : -6 : 8.

Then

6/> + 3 + 14 = o

6p - 6n + 8 = 0

whence

-*.- ~\

Therefore the direction ratios of the normal to the required

plane are ( 2 : % : 1), or (6 : 2 : 3).

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

By substitution of the coordinates of any one of the given

points, such as Pi, there results (see Sub-topic e)

6(x - 2) + 2(y - 3) - (z - 2) =

6x + 2y 3z 12 = o.

This is the required equation.

An alternative procedure for finding the direction ratios of

the normal to the required plane is as follows:

Given three points which determine two lines Li and L2 with

direction numbers (au bu Ci) and (a2, b2, c2), then the direction

numbers of the normal to lines Li and L2 are

By substitution of the sets of direction numbers (6, 3, 14)

and (6, 6, 8) given above, the same direction numbers of the

normal to the required plane are obtained, namely, (6, 2, 3).

Example 2:

Given the three points Pi(4, 5, 7), P2(6, 3, 5) and P3( 2, 8,

-9).

Required to find the equation of the plane determined by

these three points.

Application:

Given the points P!(i4.i88, 81.006, 7.051) and P2(i5.5i9,

40.996, 8.985) which determine the <|) of the upper cap of a

motor mount support strut, and the point P3( 15.625, 79.561,

15.473) which lies in the plane of the < of the strut. Re-

quired to find the equation of the plane of the < of the strut.

Solution:

Direction ratios of lines (PiP2) and (P1P3) are respectively

(15.519 - 14.188) : (40.996 - 81.006) : (-8.985 - 7.051) and

(15.625 - 14.188) : (79.561 - 81.006) : (-15473 - 7.051)

i.331 : 40.010 : 16.036

1.437: -1.445 : -22.524

whence, by substitution,

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ANALYTIC EQUATIONS OF, A PLANE 97

l-2>2>lP 40.010W 16.036 o

M37 - i-445 - 22.524 = o.

Therefore

p - 16.6338, n = .1248.

Direction ratios of the normal to the required plane are

16.6338 : 0.1248 : 1.

The equation of the plane through any one of the three given

points, e.g., with direction ratios of its normals as given, is

i6.6338(x 14.188) + . 1248(? 81.006) + (z 7.051) = o

16.6338x + o.12483/ + z 253.1609 = o.

This is the equation of the required plane.

b. Plane Through a Line and An Exterior Point

Given the equations of a line and the coordinates of an ex-

terior point, the equation of the plane determined by these

conditions may be readily obtained.

Example 1:

Given the equations of a line L as

3* - 5y - 6 = o

2X + 3Z 9 = 0

vand .the coordinates of an exterior point P as (4, 3, 5). Re-

quired to find the equation of the plane determined by these

conditions.

Solution:

Any of the family of planes through line L has the equation

Ki($x 5? 6) + K2{2x + 3Z 9) =0 where Ki and K2 are

any finite constants.

The equation of the particular plane of this family which

passes through the point P is found by evaluating the ratio of

Ki/K2 for the coordinates of point P; thus

*i[3(4) - 5(3) - 6] + X2[2(4) + 3(- 5) - 9] =0

9Ki \6K2 = o.

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Therefore

Ki _ -16

K2 9

By substituting convenient values of Ki and K2 (provided

their ratio equals 16/9), the required equation of the plane may

be derived; thus

- 16(3* - 5y - 6) + 9(2* + 3z - 9) = o

30x 8oy 27z 15 = o

which is the required equation.

Example 2:

Given the equations of a line L as

5x - sy - 2 = o

t,x + 2Z 6 = o

and the coordinates of a given exterior point P as (2, 3, 4).

Required to find the equation of the plane determined by these

conditions.

Application:

The centerline of the upper cap of a motor mount support

beam is defined by the equations

x 14.98436 = o

0.207546? + z - 2.85370 = o.

It is desired that the plane of the centerline of the support strut

contain this given line and a given external point P( 10.770,

81.401, 8.426). Write the equation of the plane determined by

these conditions.

Solution:

Employing a more simplified procedure,

(x - 14.98436) + ^(.2075463/ + z - 2.85370) = o

Evaluating K for the coordinates of the point P,

K = 10.770 - 14.98436

.207546 (81.401) + 8.426 - 2.85370

.187582.

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ANALYTIC EQUATIONS OF A PLANE

Therefore

x + .0389323/ + .187582z - 15.519663 = o.

This is the required equation.

c. Plane Through Two Parallel Lines

Given the equations of two parallel lines Li and L2, it is neces-

sary only to select a point on one of the given lines to reduce

the problem to the conditions of the preceding case, i.e., a line

and an exterior point.

Example 1:

Given the equations of two parallel lines thus

x + $y 12 = 0

3x z + 2 = 0

x + 5y + 15 = o

3* - z + 7=0.

Required to find the equation of the plane determined by

these two parallel lines.

Solution:

A convenient point is selected on one of the two lines, for

example, point (o, 3, 7) on line L2. Thus the given conditions

are resolved into the finding of the equation of the plane of a

given line and an exterior point.

Thus

Ki(x + 5y - 12) + #2(3* - z + 2) =0

and, by substitution,

Ki[o + 5(-3) -12] + K2[3(o) - 7 + 2] = o

27X1 + 5K2 = o

whence

K2~ 27'

The required equation is

-5(* + 5y - 12) + 27(3* - z + 2) = o

762: 25Y 27Z + 114 = o.

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100 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Example 2:

Given the equations of two parallel lines thus:

2x 2>y + 12 = o

1 5x + 7z - 3 = 0

2x - sy - 4 = 0

M SX + 7Z + 8 = 0.

Required to find the equation of the plane containing these

two lines.

Application:

The equations of the trace of the plane of a nose spar in a wing

station plane which contains the intersection of the centerline of

pivot with the nose spar plane are given as

x = 66.5494

y + 14.65625 _ z 0.4896

0.235148 ~ "0.965595'

The equations of the trace of the nose spar plane in a wing

station plane which contains the intersection of the upper wing

contour and the mold line of the firewall are given as

x = 17.668

y + 18.09375 = z - 4.520

0.235148 0.965595'

Verify the following equation of the nose spar plane which

contains these two parallel traces:

-.087293* + .965595^ - -235148z = - 20.076387.

d. Plane Through Two Intersecting Lines

Given two intersecting lines Li and L2, it is possible to find

the equation of the plane so determined by finding one point

(other than the point of intersection) on one line; this point,

which is exterior to the other line, and the other line, constitute

the determining conditions.

Example 1:

Given the two intersecting lines

5x I2y + 22 = o

1 4x + nz + 52 = o

x + loy 8 = 0

2 9x ioz 22 = o.

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ANALYTIC EQUATIONS OF A PLANE 101

Solution:

The point of intersection of the lines Li and L2 is

Pi(-2, 1, -4)._

Select any point other than this common point Pu such as

P2(o, ys, -nA) on line L2.

Then proceed to find the equation of the plane of line Li and

point P2. Thus

Ki(sx - I2y + 22) + K2(pc + 11z + 52) =0

^[5(0) - 12 + 22] + K2[4(0) + 11 (- y) + 52] =0

62Ki + 139^2 = o

Ki = -139

K2 62

The required equation is

-139(5* - 12y + 22) + 62(4:*: + nz + 52) = o.

Example 2:

Given the two intersecting lines

3* ny + 10 = o

1 5x + 12z - 37 = o

^ 8x y 7=0

2 x 1OZ 22 = O.

Find the equation of the plane through these intersecting lines.

Application:

The equations of the centerline of a landing gear pivot are

given as

x 66.969906 _ y + 11 _ 2 + 0.400837

0.111049 _ 0.965595 ~ - 0.235148

and the equations of the centerline of oleo (retracted) are given as

x 66.969906 _ y + 11 _ z + 0.400837

52.218622 5.25 0.400837

Verify the equation of the plane containing these two inter-

secting lines. This equation is established as

.030901x + .233i42y + -971952z = -.884743.

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102

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

e. Equation of a Plane Through a Given Point with Direction of

Normals Given

Given a point P0 : (x0, y0, z0) and a line L with the direction

ratios a : b : c. Through P0 it is required to pass a plane per-

pendicular to line L (see Fig. 1).

Let P : (x, y, z) be any point of

the plane other than P0. Then PP0

is perpendicular to line L.

Since the direction ratios of line

* PP are

x x : y y : z z0

and of line L are a : b : c, the equa-

tion of the plane is:

a(x Xo) + b(y y) + c(z z) = o.

Example 1:

Given a point P : ( 5, 3, 4) and a line L whose direction

ratios are 2:2:1. Find the equation of the plane through

point P normal to line L.

Solution:

By substitution,

-2[x - (-5)] + 2(y - 3) + 1(z - 4) = o

2x 2y z + 20 = o.

Application:

A landing gear support beam is to be established through a

given point normal to the centerline of a landing gear pivot.

The given point has the coordinates (71.5, 6.504, o), and the

pivot line the direction ratios (1.1105 : 9.6559: 2.3515).

Verify the equation of the plane of the support beam. This

equation is given as

.11105* + .96559V - .235153 = 1.659878.

f. Through Two Given Points and Normal to a Given Plane

Find the equation of the plane passing through the two

points Pi(3, 4, 1), P2(2, 6, 2) and perpendicular to the plane

2x 2>y + 4z 2 = o.

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ANALYTIC EQUATIONS OF A PLANE

103

CASE I. BY DETERMINANT FORMULA

One method of finding such an equation is based upon the

application of the theory of determinants. If there are sub-

stituted in the general equation of a plane

Ax + By + Cz + D = o

the coordinates of points Pi and P2, and a third equation describ-

ing the fact that the required plane is perpendicular to the given

plane is developed, the following equations result respectively:

2>A + 45 + C = -D

2A + 6B - 2C = -D

2A - 2>B + \C = o.

The solution of this system establishes

A = -D, B = -\d, C D

12' 6 12

whence equation (4) becomes

- Dx - \ Dy - Dz + D = o.

12 6 J 12

By substituting any convenient value for D, such as D = 12,

the required equation is obtained, namely,

x + 2y + z 12 = o.

Application:

The plane of a brace strut normal to an auxiliary landing

gear beam passes through two points which determine the trace

of a normal wing station upon the plane of the auxiliary beam.

The coordinates of these two points are (49.17396, 3.93650, o)

and (49.17396, 4.17165, 0.96559). The equation of the

auxiliary beam is 0.087243x 0.965595^ 0.235148z =

20.076387.

Verify the equation of the plane of the brace strut, this equa-

tion having been developed as

0.987668x 0.107228V 0.026113z = 48.989662.

CASE II. "POINT-NORMAL" METHOD

A second method involves letting N be any normal to the

required plane. N is therefore perpendicular to the line PiP2,

since the given points Pi and P2 He in the required plane. Since

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104

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

the required plane is perpendicular to the given plane, N is per-

pendicular to any line L normal to the given plane. Thus N is

a common perpendicular to the lines P1P2 and L.

Direction ratios of PiP2 are

(3 - 2) : (4 - 6) : 1 - (-2) , i.e.

1 : -2 : 3.

Those of L are

2 : -3 : 4.

Therefore the direction numbers of N are:

-3

: 1.

-3

The problem now reduces to finding the equation of the plane

that passes through one of the given points, e.g., Pi(3, 4, 1),

and has as direction numbers of its normals (1:2:1). This

equation is:

(x - 3) + 2(y - 4) + (z - 1) = o

x + 2y + z 12 = o.

Example 3:

Find the equation of the plane passing through the point

(1, 5, 2) and perpendicular to each of the given planes:

2x + 3y 4- 6z 2 = o

6x + 2y 3z + 4 = o.

Solution:

Either method described above (see Cases 1 and 2) is applic-

able. Applying the method described in Case 2, it is observed

that a normal N to the required plane is perpendicular to the

normals to both the given planes.

The direction numbers of these planes are respectively

2:3:6 and 6:2: 3.

Therefore, the direction numbers of the normal N are

21 : 42 : 14 or 3 : 6 : 2.

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ANALYTIC EQUATIONS OF A PLANE 105

The equation of the plane through the point (1:5:2) with

( 3:6: 2) as direction numbers of its normals is

-3(* - 0 + 6(y - 5) - 2(Z - 2) =

or 1

3x 6y + 2Z + 23 =

which is the required equation.

2. The Intercept Equation of a Plane

An intercept of a plane is the distance from the origin to the

point in which the plane intersects a reference axis.

Given the x, y, and Z intercepts of a plane as a, b, and c respec-

tively, then the equation of the plane is

abc

which is called the intercept form for the equation of the plane.

Example:

Given the x, y, and 2 intercepts of a plane as 5, 11, 17 respec-

tively. Find the intercept form of the equation of the plane.

Solution:

By substitution,

f + ^ + ^-i.

5 11 17

This is the required equation.

3. Equation of a Plane-Normal Form

Given any plane ABC (see Fig. 2),

with OQ drawn perpendicular to the

plane from the origin, intersecting it

in point P'. Let the direction cosines of OQ be l, m, n and the

length OP' be p.

Establish any other point in the plane, such as P : (x, y, Z).

Draw OP and the broken line OMNP. It can be shown that

the projection of OMNP on OQ is Ix + my + nz, the projection

of OP is OP' or p, so that

Ix + my + nz = p.

Fig. 2

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106

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

This is the so-called normal form of the equation of the plane.

Example 1:

Given the direction cosines of the normal line OQ as (.745356,

.298142, .596285), and the distance p equal to 3.75. Write the

equation of the plane in normal form.

Solution:

By substitution,

-745356* + .2981423/ + .596285Z = 3.75.

This is the required equation.

Example 2:

The direction cosines of the normal line OQ are given as

.985486, -.168128, and .023468, and the length (p) of OP' as

12.127. Write the equation of the plane.

4. Reduction of the General Equation of a Plane to Normal Form

It is required to reduce the general equation of a plane, ex-

pressed as

Ax + By + Cz + D = o

to normal form.

Referring to Fig. 2, let the point Q (A, B, C) represent a point

whose coordinates are the coefficients of x, y, and z in the given

equation. Then the direction cosines of OQ are:

ABC

- Va2+b2+c2' m~ Va2+b2+c'2' n~ Va2+b2+c2'

Transposing the constant term D and dividing by

V'A2 + B2 + C2, the resulting equation is:

ABC

Va2"+b2+c2 x + Va2+b2+c2 y + VA2+b2+C2 z

-D

~ Va2 + b2 + c2'

The right member represents the value of p. The coefficients

A, B, and C thus constitute a set of direction numbers for the

normal to the plane. If D ^ o, and the sign is chosen so as

to make p positive, the equation is in normal form.

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ANALYTIC EQUATIONS OF A PLANE 107

Example 1:

Given the equation of a plane as

2x + \y 4z = 9.

Required to reduce the equation to normal form.

Solution:

The equation is reduced to normal form by dividing by

V22 + 42 +(4)2 which equals 6. The normal form is thus:

?* _i_ _ 4? = 3

6^6 6 2'

Example 2:

Reduce the equation of a given plane

3* 2y + ioz = 21

to normal form.

Application:

It is desired to find the dihedral angle between two given

planes, the first of which is a plane of the inner face of a motor

mount beam and is expressed as

5.33I598x + 0.2075457 + z = 82.744315.

The second is the plane of the centerline of the beam, and is

expressed in normal form as

X = 14.984365.

If the first equation is expressed in normal form, the dihedral

angle may be established directly. Verify this normal form of

the equation as

0.982143x + 0.038232 + 0.184212z = 15.242469.

Application:

The equation of the plane of a canted wing brace strut is

given as

0.98766812x 0.1072284OV 0.02611297y = 48.9896618.

It is desired to establish the plane of a section one inch away

from the plane of the brace strut and parallel to it, in order to

establish flange bevels.

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108

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Solution:

The equation of the brace strut reduced to normal form be-

comes

0.99381493x - 0.10789574? - 0.02627548z = 49.2945518.

If the parallel plane is desired on the inboard side, the equa-

tion constant is reduced by one inch, resulting as follows:

0.99381493x - 0.10789574? - 0.02627548z = 48.2945518.

This is the required equation.

5. Transformation of a Plane Equation

It is required to transform the equation of a given plane to

describe the plane's position after it has been rotated through

one or more given angles.

Assume the equation in normal form as

a(x x) + b(y y) + c(z z0) = o

where (a, b, c) are direction numbers of the normal to the plane

and (x0, y, z) represent the coordinates of a given point in the

plane.

Assume the following transformation relationships between

the original (x, y, z) system and the new (x', y', z') system (see

Chapter V):

o2i

032

Then the normal to the plane in the (x1, y', z') system has the

following direction numbers:

(aan + ba2i + can); (aat2 + ba22 + cai2); (aai3 + ba23 + co33).

If the transformed coordinates of the given point (x, y0, z0)

are designated as (x0', yd, zj), and (a', b', c') represent the trans-

formed direction numbers, then the transformed equation of the

plane may be expressed as

a'(x' - xj) + b'(x' - yj) + c'(x' - z/) = o.

Example 1:

Given the equation of a plane as

3x + 63/ + 2Z = 35.

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ANALYTIC EQUATIONS OF A PLANE 109

It is required to transform this equation to describe the posi-

tion of the plane after rotation through an angle of 10 clockwise

about the x-axis.

Solution:

The given equation in normal form is

362

-x + -y + -z = 5.

The transformation relationship is as follows:

x' y' z'

X1oo

y o .99984770 -.01745241

z o .01745241 .99984770.

The coordinates (x, y0, z0) of a given point in the original

plane are (7, 7, -14).

Thus

(x', y0', z0') : (7, 6.75460016, -14.12003467).

The direction numbers (a, b, c) of the normal to the given

plane are (5/7, Yt,

Thus

(a', b', c') : 0, .86199872, .27071156) -

By substitution,

.42857143^' - 7) + .86199872(3-' - 6.75460016)

+ .27071156 (z' + 14.12003467) = o

.42857143x' + .861998723/' + .27071156Z' = 5

which is the required equation.

Example 2:

Given the equation of a plane as

5* 2y + 43 = 18.

Transform this equation through rotating the plane clockwise

through an angle of 20 30' about the x-axis.

Application:

The equation of the plane of the centerline of a wing front

spar is

3V = .045i9782x, + 16.8.

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110

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Assume that the wing is rigged for 30 incidence entered clock-

wise about the x-axis and 30 26' dihedral entered about the

y'-axis.

Transform the equation of the spar plane to the "rigged"

position of the wing, referred to PF(xFo, yFo, zFo), the wing origin.

Solution:

The transformation relationship is given as follows:

%Fo Zfo

xw .99820516 .00313425 .05980505

yw o .99862953 -.05233596

z -.05988712 .05224203 .99683715.

(xm ym zw) : (p, 16.8, o)

then .

(xF0, yF0, zF0) : (o, 16.77697610, - .87924413).

The given plane equation, reduced to normal form, is

.998980143^ .04515172x,,, = 16.782866.

Thus direction numbers (a, b, c) of the normal to the given

plane are: (.99898014, .04515172, o); therefore (a', b', c'):

(-.04507068, .99746955. -.05498289).

By substitution,

-.04507o68(x) + -99746955(? - 16.77697610)

- .05498289(Z + .87924413) = o

.04507068x + .99746955}- .05498289z = 16.782866.

This is the required equation.

PROBLEMS

1. The coordinates of the points of intersection of the centerlines

of three bolts with the plane of the rear face of an engine mount, re-

ferred to the intersection of the centerline of thrust with this plane as

the origin of the nacelle coordinate system, are as follows:

Pi(-i4 , o, 18.3125)

P2(-12.25, o, -19)

Pi( 12.25,0, -19).

Determine the equation of the plane of the rear face of the engine

mount..

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ANALYTIC EQUATIONS OF A PLANE

111

2. In a given landing gear kinematics calculation, the coordinates

of three points determining a required plane are as follows:

(a) Intersection of centerline of wheel and centerline of oleo.

(1) Retracted position:

(16.6297, 89.75, -21.1040).

(2) Extended position:

(69, 75.6267, 68.2806).

(b) A point on the oleo pivot line in the plane of the arc of rotation:

(68.5662, 82.7513, -16.1247).

The equation of the required plane is:

0.1448541X + 0.9805094V - 0.1327347z = 93.2108374.

Verify this equation by the "point-normal" method.

3. In the design of a control pulley bracket, it is necessary to deter-

mine the true angle between an elevator control cable and a fuselage

bulkhead. In the side view of the fuselage, the plane of the fuselage

frame is canted clockwise i0 from the vertical about a point whose

coordinates are (o, 331.3125, 6.5). The line is determined by two

points, (4.5, 355.5, 9.75) and (2.5, 320.5, 7.785). Find the required

angle.

4. The equations of an aileron hinge line are given as

y = -0.136047* + 57.882165

z = 0.006305* - 0.314548.

An aileron hinge rib is required normal to the hinge line at the

point (174.2738, 34.1728, 0.7842) on the hinge line. Find the equation

of a plane normal to the hinge line at this point.

5. The equation of the plane of the front face of a rear spar web

(slope intercept form) is

yw = -0.1360465^ + 50.25.

Find the equation of the plane of a flap rib normal to the plane of

the rear spar and normal to the wing reference (xy ) plane at the

intersection of the plane of wing station #70, the rear spar plane, and

the wing reference plane.

6. The intercept of the spar plane (Problem 5) on the F-axis is

50.25. Find the equation of a flap rib normal to the spar plane at

wing station #0 (the F-axis).

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112 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

7. The equations of a wing trailing edge are

y = 0.09854083X + 168.00

z = o.

Find the equations of a flap false hinge line through the point

(78.69875, 141.13050, 30.19743) perpendicular to a plane through

that point which is also normal to the trailing edge.

8. The equation of the plane of the centerline of a front spar

(referred to the wing reference system) is

y = 0.04519782X + 16.8.

Assume that the wing is "rigged" for 30 incidence and 30 26'

dihedral. What is the equation of the same plane referred to the

horizontal plane?

9. The equation of the plane of a canted fuselage bulkhead is

y = 0.04455898* + 111.216

referred to the origin of the wing reference system.

Assuming the wing "rigged" as in Problem 8, what is the equation

of this plane referred to the wing reference plane?

10. The equation of the plane of the front face of a horizontal

stabilizer spar is

y 10.25 = 0

referred to the stabilizer reference system. Assume that the stabilizer

is "rigged" for i0 of positive incidence about the X-axis. What is the

equation of this plane referred to the horizontal plane?

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CHAPTER VIII

ANALYTIC ANALYSIS OF BASIC LINE-PLANE RELATIONSHIPS

Analytic description of lines and planes in three-dimensional

terms establishes a convenient basis for determining certain basic

interrelationships of these geometric entities. True angles, dis-

tances, perpendicularity and parallelism, intersection points,

intersection lines, and similar space relationships may be pre-

cisely defined by mathematical analysis. Such a system of

analytic solutions constitutes a valuable parallel to the system

of graphical solutions commonly employed.

1. True Distance from a Point to a Plane

Let P(xi, yi, Zi) be a given point and Ax + By + Cz + D = o

be the equation of a given plane. Then the distance from the

point to the plane is

Axi + Byi + Czi + D

VZ2 + B2 + C*

Example 1:

Given the plane whose equation is I2x 3y + 42: = 13, and

a point P(2, 2, 3).

Required to find the distance from the point P to the given

plane.

Solution:

By substitution,

12(2) + (-3X-2) + 4(3) - 13

d = 29

V122 + (-3)2 + (4)a

Example 2:

Given the plane whose equation is

flx+ktAV - 93 = 17. and a point P(j, -5, -3).

/Required, to find the distance from the point P to the given

plane.

113

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114

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Application:

The equation of the plane of the rear face of a wing rear spar is

5.30325* + .20755y + Z = 75-02754

and the coordinates of a centerpoint of a flap hinge fitting are

(11.772, 71.904, 6.386). Find the distance from the centerpoint

to the spar.

Solution:

By substitution,

, _ 5-30325(i 1772) + .20755(71.904) + 1(6.386) - 75-02754

V(5-30325)2 + (-20755)2 + (if2

d = 1.613.

2. True Angle Between Two Planes

The angle between two planes is de-

fined as one of the two angles between two

directed normals to the given planes.

Thus the cosine of the angle 6 between

the two given planes (see Fig. 1) whose

equations are, respectively,

Fig. 1

Aix + Biy + Ciz + Di = 0

A2x + B2y + C2z + Di = 0

may be expressed (since Ai : Bi : G and

Ai : B2 . C2 are direction ratios of the respective normals) as

AiA2 + BtB2 + dC,

cos 6 ~ VAt + B22 + Q-VA2 + B\ + Q'

Example 1:

Given the equations of two intersecting planes as

3* + 2>y - 8z - 5 = o

X 2y + 2Z 2 = o.

Find a true angle between the planes.

Solution:

3(1) +3(-2) + (-8)(2)

cos 6 =

V32 + 32 + (~8)2 V(l)2 + (-2)2 + (2)2

-19 19

-V82 9"

6 = 450 37'i6".

27.16615539

= + .69939966

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ANALYSIS OF BASIC LINE-PLANE RELATIONSHIPS 115

Example 2:

Given the equations of two intersecting planes as

7x 2y + z 3 = 0

x + 5y - 3z + 5 = o.

Find a true angle between the planes.

Application:

The equations of the plane of the wing rear spar and the plane

of symmetry of the ship, both referred to the wing reference

system, are respectively

o.i 32 55814* - y = o.

x 0.08748866z = o

Find the dihedral angle between the two planes.

Solution:

By substitution,

= 1C13255814) +o(-i) +_(-.08748866) (o)

cos V(1)> + (-.08748866)2 + (.13255814)2

cos 6 = 0.13090859

6 = 820 28'4o"-

3. Perpendicularity of Planes

Two planes are perpendicular if their normals are perpendicu-

lar. Therefore two given planes are perpendicular if

AiA2 + BiB2 + C1C2 = o.

Example 1:

Given the equations of two intersecting planes as

2x + y + z 3 = 0

x + y-2>z + 4 = o.

Determine whether these planes are perpendicular to each

other.

Solution:

By substitution,

2(1) + 1(1) + i(-3) = o.

Therefore the planes are perpendicular to each other.

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116 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Example 2:

Given the equations of certain intersecting planes as

3x- y + 2z 5 = o

i ix 2y + 3z + 8 = o

1.5x + 2y 1.25z + 8 = 0.

Determine a pair, if any, of perpendicular planes.

Application:

The equation of the plane of the vertical centerline of a motor

mount support strut is given as

0.99668690x + 0.00113551V + 0.08132614z =r o

and the equation of the plane of the horizontal centerline is

given as

0.07258973x 0.43860708^ + 0.89574246Z = o.

Check these equations for perpendicularity. Verify the follow-

ing as the equation of the plane of the cross section of the strut.

0.03668735x + 0.89867821 y + 0.43707150z = o

Through a given point and perpendicular to a given plane,

there exists an infinite number of planes. However, if an addi-

tional limiting condition is imposed, such as requiring the plane

to pass through a second point, or that the plane be perpendicu-

lar to a second given plane, a definite plane can be established.

4. Parallelism of Planes

Two planes are parallel if the normals of one are also the

normals of the other.

Thus two given planes are parallel if

Ai '. Bi : Ci = Ai '. B2 '. C2.

Example 1:

Given the equations of two planes as

3x + 43/ + 12z 8 = 0

6x + 8y + 24Z 3=0.

Determine whether these two planes are parallel.

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ANALYSIS OF BASIC LINE-PLANE RELATIONSHIPS 117

Solution:

By substitution,

3 : 4 : 12 = 6 : 8 : 24.

Therefore the two planes are parallel.

Through a given point and parallel to a given plane there

exists only one plane, whose equation can always be found as

shown in the following example.

Example 2:

Required to find the equation of the plane which passes

through the point P(2, 4, 3) and is parallel to the plane

5x - 23/ + 32; - 4 = o.

The normals to the plane have the direction numbers

5 : 2:3. Since the required plane has the same normals and

passes through the point P(2, 4, 3) its equation (see Chapter

VII) is

5(* - 2) - 2(y - 4) + 3(z - 3) = o

5x - 2y + 3? - 11 = o.

Application:

The equation of the plane of the inboard basic aileron station

is given as

- 7-35042735* + y - 0.046770482; = - 935-277150-

The outboard basic station is to lie in a plane parallel to the

inboard station, passing through the point (215.2092, 28.6037,

1.0423).

Verify the following as the equation of the plane of the out-

board basic station:

-7.35042735x + y - 0.04677048z = - 1553.325403.

5. Intersection of a Line and a Plane

The coordinates of the common point of a line and a plane

must satisfy the equations of the line and the equation of the

plane simultaneously.

The simultaneous solution of the three equations establishes

the coordinates of the required co-point.

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118

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Example 1:

Require to determine the point of intersection of the plane

2x 6y + 3Z 4 = o

and the line L determined by the points

Pi(2, 5. 3). Pi(4. -i. 6).

Solution:

The equation of the given plane, and any two of the projecting

equations of the line determined by the points Pi and P2 establish

the following system:

2x 6y + 32; 4 = o

6x + 2y 22 = o

3x 2Z = o

Whence the coordinates (x, y, z) of the point at which the given

line pierces the given plane are

20 17 30 .

y, y. y, respectively.

Example 2:

Find the point of intersection of the plane

* + 7y - 3z = -5

and the line determined by the points Pi(3, 2, 8), P2(4,-

7- -3).

Application:

A rudder control cable lies on the straight line determined by

the two points (4.5, 361, -6.875) and (16.75, 174.9- -12.5).

Determine the coordinates of the points of intersection of the

centerline of this cable with the following vertical fuselage sta-

tions (y-values): 187, 200, 226.5, 278, 303, and 355.5.

6. Line of Intersection of Two Planes

The line of intersection of two planes may be represented

analytically by the equations of the two planes. Only points

on this co-line satisfy both equations.

The projecting planes of the common line may be obtained by

combining the two equations and eliminating the proper variable.

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ANALYSIS OF BASIC LINE-PLANE RELATIONSHIPS 119

Example 1:

Given the equations of two planes

2x + 2>y + 4Z 12 = o

and

x + y z 2=0.

Required to find projecting plane equations of the co-line Of

the two planes.

Solution:

The co-line (L) may be represented algebraically as:

2x + 2>y + 4z 12 = o

x + J z 2=0.

By eliminating z and y respectively, the equations of the ver-

tical and horizontal projecting planes are obtained, namely,

j 6x + yy 20 = o

x jz + 6 = 0.

Example 2:

Given the equations of two planes

2)X 2y + 5z 8 = O

and

x + z + 4 = o.

Required to find the equations of the horizontal and vertical

projecting planes of the co-line of the two planes.

Application:

The equation of a plane parallel to the face of a motor mount

fitting is

x 0.3772038z = o

and the equation of a plane parallel to the plane of the centerline

of a canted frame is

y 0.6808758z = o.

Verify the following as the equations of the line of intersection

of the two planes.

xyz

0.2976599 0.5372941 0.7891221

To determine direction ratios of the line of intersection of two

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120

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

planes, such a line may be considered perpendicular to the

normals of the two planes.

Thus if

Aix + Biy + Ciz = A

and

+ B2y + C2z = D2

represent the equations of two intersecting planes, then the

expression

represents the required direction ratios of the line of intersection

of the two planes.

Example 1:

Determine direction ratios of the line of intersection of the

planes whose equations are

2,x + 2y + 7z = 12

and

- 5y + 4z = 8.

Solution:

By substitution,

-5

-17.

These are the required direction ratios.

Example 2:

Find direction ratios of the line of intersection of the two

planes whose equations are

7x + 5z = 27

and

2,x - 8y + 9z = 13.

Example 3:

Direction ratios of the normals to two intersecting planes are

(2.75 : i : .375) and (1 : .75 : .5) respectively. Find direction

ratios of the line of intersection of the two planes.

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ANALYSIS OF BASIC LINE-PLANE RELATIONSHIPS 121

Application 1:

The "rigged" equation of the plane of the centerline of a wing

front spar is given as

X 22.131227V + 1.219926s = 372.367683.

Find direction ratios of the line of intersection of this plane

with the plane of symmetry of the airplane.

Application 2:

Direction ratios of the normal to the plane containing the

centerline of a landing gear pivot and the centerline of oleo

retracted are given as

(.0309007 : .2331423 : .9719516)

and for the normal to the plane of the centerline of a wing nose

spar as

(-.0872926 : .9655949 : -.235148).

Find direction ratios of the line of intersection of these two

planes.

7. True Angle Between a Line and a Plane

The angle between a line and a plane is defined as the angle

between the line and its projection on the plane (see Fig. 2).

Given the plane P and a line

L not perpendicular to the plane.

If OQ is the projection of L on

the plane, then is the angle

between the line L and the plane

P. Since the angle is the

complement of the angle which

the line L makes with a normal

NO to the plane, angle may be determined by first finding

angle 0.

Example 1:

Find the angle between the line

X-+

and the plane

z + 15 =

2)X + + 22 + I = O.

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122

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Solution:

Direction ratios of the line are (2:3: 1); of the normal to

the plane are (3:1:2). Therefore,

(2) (3) + (3)(1) + (-1)(2)

cos 6 =

V22 + 32 + (-1)2 - V32 + 12 + 22

= 0.500

Thus

0 = 6o.

<t> = 900 - 6

30.

Example 2:

Find the angle between the line

x sy 2 = o

Sx + 8z + 4 = o

and the plane

x 3j 2Z 1 = o.

Application:

The equations of the centerline of a motor mount support strut

and the plane of the front surface of a firewall are

-3i3i353:y + z = n.9886

x + .0011273/ + .0815907z = 14.9512

and

y = .1793429z + 111.5626

respectively.

Find the true angle be-

tween this line and the

plane of the firewall.

8. True Angle Between a Given

Line and a Reference Plane

The angle which a given

line makes with a reference

plane is the angle between

the line and its projection

on that plane.

Figure 3 shows a given line AB. AC is drawn parallel to the

projection of line AB on the horizontal (xy) reference plane.

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ANALYSIS OF BASIC LINE-PLANE RELATIONSHIPS 123

Angle a is thus equal to the angle between the line AB and

the xy-plane; similarly, angle /3 is equal to the angle between

the line AB and the xz-plane, and angle 7 is equal to the angle

between the line AB and the yz-plane.

Assuming for points A and B the coordinates (xi, yi , Zi) and

(#21 y2, z2) respectively, it follows that

AxyBxy V (x2 x1)2 + (y2 yi)2

cos a - ^L-

cos /3 =

cos 7 =

AB V(x2

- xi)2 + (y2 - yO2 + (z2

- z02

^4xz5xz

V(x2 - xi)2 + (z2 - Zl)2

AB V(x2

- xi)2 + (j2 - yd2 + (z2

AyzByz

V(y2 - yi)2 + (z2 - zj)2

Example:

Find the angles which the line determined by the points

A: (3, 2, 4) and B: (5, 1, 3) makes with the coordinate

reference planes.

Solution:

By substitution,

V(5 - 3)2 + (-1 - 2)2

COS a =

V(5 " 3)2 + (-1 ~ 2)2 + [3 - (-4)?

V02

-45790547-

Similarly,

cos p = = .92457488

^58

COS 7 = = .96720415

a = 620 44' 7"

0 = 220 23' 44"

7 = 14" 42' 52

Application:

The "rigged" equations of the centerline of a landing gear

pivot are given as:

x 66.75 _ y 115.25 _ z + 22.1825

0.13112098 0.96559490 - 0.22457468'

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124 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

For the purpose of rigging the landing gear structure for a

special drop test, it is necessary to establish the true angle

between the centerline of the pivot and the fuselage reference

plane.

Verify this angle as 120 59'.

Solution:

Find the angle which the given line makes with a normal to

the horizontal reference plane. This is equivalent to finding the

angle which the centerline of pivot makes with the z-axis. The

complement of this angle is the required angle.

9. True Angle Between a Given Plane and a Reference Plane

Let a, /3, and 7 represent the angles between the given plane

and the xy-, xz-, and yz-planes respectively.

Assume th#t the equation of the given plane is

Ax + By + Cz + D = o. (i)

The equation of the horizontal plane may be stated as

ox + oy + kz = o (2)

k being any finite constant other than zero.

The formula for the. angle between two planes is

= A Jit + B,B2 + CiC,

COS VAl + B\ + C\ . VAl + BI + CI (3)

Substituting the respective coefficients of x, y, and z in equa-

tions (1) and (2) in equation (3), it follows that

A-o + Bo + Ck C

Cos a - VA2 + B2 + C2 V(~+o + k2 ~ ~VA2 + B2 + C2'

Similarly,

cos f> ~ Va2 + b2 + c*

and

cos 7 " Va2 + b2 + c2'

Example 1:

Find the angles between the plane, whose equation is

2x + 5y 3Z + 8 = o, and the coordinate reference planes.

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ANALYSIS OF BASIC LINE-PLANE RELATIONSHIPS 125

Solution:

The equations of the xy-, xz-, and yZ-planes are z = o, y = o,

and x = o respectively. If a, 0, and 7 are the respective

angles, by substitution,

-3 - 3 -3V38 a--- -

<* = Va + 5,+(-3), = VP = 38 = 'o-48666426.

Similarly,

cos 0 = = 0.81110711

cos 7 = = 0.32444284.

Therefore,

a = 1190 7' 18", 0 = 350 47' 45"- and 7 = 710 4' 54"-

If the positive sign is taken for the function, the acute angle

between the planes is obtained.

Example 2:

Find the respective angles between the plane whose equation

is yx 2>y z + 5 = o, and the coordinate reference planes.

Application:

The equation of the plane of a canted flap rib is given in the

wing reference system as

-7-35042744* + y ~ -13534550Z = -503.1816853.

Verify the acute angle which this plane makes with the wing

reference plane (xy-plane) as 880 57' 17".

10. True Angle Between a Given Plane and a Reference Axis

The equation of the given plane may be stated as

Ax + By + Cz + D = o.

The formula for the angle between a plane and a line is

A ih + BiTni + Cini

Sm * = VAl + Bl + Cf'

Consider first the x-axis, whose direction cosines are h => 1,

m.i = o, Mi = o.

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126 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

If a, , and 7 represent the angles between the given plane

and the x-, y-, and z-axis respectively, then

(1) +B(o) + C(o) . A

Sin a =

Va2 + 2 + c2 VA2 + b2 + 2

Sm - V'A* + B2 + C2

sin 7 ~ Va2 + 2 + c2'

It will be observed by comparing the formulas with those for

the angles which the plane makes with the reference planes that

if a plane makes a certain angle with a reference plane it makes

the complement of that angle with that particular reference axis

which is the normal to the reference plane under consideration.

Example 1:

Find the angle between the plane

3x + \y - 5Z + 11 =0

and the x-axis, y-axis, and Z-axis respectively.

Solution:

By substitution,

3 . 3 3V2

sin a = /,,. .- = -7= = = .424254068

V32 + 42 + (-5)2 5V2 10

. 2V2 2.82842712 , ,0

Sin = = 3L_/ = .56568542

sm 7 = = 0.70710678.

Therefore,

a = 25o 6' 15", 0 = 340 27', 7 = 450.

Example 2:

Find the angle between the plane

5x + y - 8z + 15 =

and the x-axis, ^-axis, and z-axis respectively.

Application:

The equation of the plane of the centerline of a landing gear

support brace beam is given as

0.11104905x + 0.96559490V - .23514805z = 1.65965655.

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ANALYSIS OF BASIC LINE-PLANE RELATIONSHIPS 127

In the construction of a wing jig it is desired to know the angle

which this plane makes with the vertical (z) axis. Verify this

angle as 130 36'.

PROBLEMS

1. A point with coordinates (4.897, 146.501, 36.94) is given on the

surface of a conical windshield development. Find the distance from

this point to a waterline plane (z = 21.40) passing through the wind-

shield development.

2. The equations of the planes of the forward and side panels of a

flat windshield development are

5-5175* + y + 3.9375S = 27.285

and

x + 1.3815)- + 1.7345Z = 16.2795

respectively. Find the true angle between the planes of the two

surfaces.

3. The equations of the heel line of a wing stringer are

y .020465* + 8.40

z = -.024577a: + 8.859.

Find the point of intersection of this line with the canted wing rib

whose equation is x = .0871557z.

4. Find direction ratios of the line of intersection of the two planes ,

of Problem 2.

6. The centerline of thrust of the inboard engine passes through

the point (132.325, 18.176, .595) with direction ratios (0:1: o).

Find the true angle between this line and the plane of the centerline

of the wing rear spar whose "rigged" equation is

x + 22.4548463/ - 1.116732z = 250.041565.

6. Find the true angles between the plane of the spar of Problem 5

and the horizontal, vertical (front elevation), and profile reference

planes.

7. Find the true angles between the same spar plane and the

reference axes.

8. The vertical and horizontal projecting planes of an aileron

hinge line in the wing reference system are

y = .064969* + 132.74205

2 = .001178* 0.76922.

Find the true angle between this line and the wing reference plane.

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128 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

9. Direction ratios of the normals to two planes, the first con-

taining the centerline of landing gear oleo (retracted) and the center-

line of pivot, the second containing the centerline of the nose spar, are

respectively

(.0309007 : .2331423: .9719515)

and

(.1110491 : .9655949 = -.2351481)-

Test these planes for perpendicularity.

10. The equation of the centerline of a wing rear spar is given as

y +. 13604650c = 50.25.

The equation of the plane containing the aileron hinge line is given as

y -396071 = -.1360465 (x-134.3293).

Test these planes for parallelism.

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CHAPTER IX

SPECIAL ANALYTIC APPLICATIONS

To illustrate the simplicity and systematic nature of analytic

analysis of aircraft structures, the development of certain

specialized bodies of dimensional data is presented in the

following discussion.

Two fundamental applications are illustrated, one to an engine

mount installation and the other to a landing gear kinematies.

The steps in the analytic solution of each problem are organized

with a minimum of explanation, with the relationships of succes-

sive steps appearing as a matter of obvious logic.

All the principles involved in the solution of each problem

have been developed individually in the preceding chapters of the

book. The choice and manner of application of these principles

will vary from the model procedure given according to individual

interpretation of these fundamental principles.

1. Landing Gear Kinematics

Figure 1 establishes basic conditions governing the develop-

ment of the kinematics of a given landing gear.

From the given data it is required to establish the coordinates

of certain intersection points, the equations of certain centerlines,

and the angles (true and projected) between certain lines and

planes.

These data are essential to engineering design, loft layout, and

certain tooling procedures.

The analytic solution follows:

Assuming the point PFo (XFo, YFo, ZFo) as the intersection of

the normal wing percentage line with the plane of symmetry

of the airplane, the translation and transformation of coordi-

nates from the "rigged" position to the wing reference plane and

vice versa is effected as follows (see Chapter V):

129

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130

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SPECIAL ANALYTIC APPLICATIONS

131

YFo

ZFo

If A: XFo

YFo

and

if 5:

ZFo

XFo

YFo ~

ZFo =

Translation

YF - 126.25

ZF + 27.620

66.75

115-25

22.1825

Transformation

XFo Yfo ZFo

Xw .99619470 o .08715574

Yw 010

Zw -.08715574 o .99619470

then: Xw = 66.96990556

Yw = -11

Zw = 0.40083696

and

if BR:XW

Yy?

66.75

102.55311527

73.10692224

then:

Xw = 62.53154986

Yw = -23.69688473

Zw = -51.13147650

14.75128352* then: XFo = 14.69515046

-575 YFo = -5-75

o ZF0 = 1.28565903

"Rigged'" Basic Linear Equations (symmetric form)

(a) 1. $. Oleo Extended:

YFo - 115-25

XFo - 6675 =

< Oleo Retracted:

XFo - 66.75

sin 14

YFo - 115-25

ZFo + 22.1825

cos 140

Zpo + 22.1825

4.15184097

ZF0 + 73.10692224

52.05484954 -5.25

(b) 1. <j) Axle (oleo extended):

XF0 - 66.75 = YF0 - 102.55311527

2. <t Axle (oleo retracted):

XFo - 14.69515046 = YF0 - 120.5

0.0681769 .10428210

Solution:

Assuming direction cosines lai, max, nax, then

[ (/) + (maxy + (naxy = 1

(a) \ max = nax (tan 60); (see Fig. 1.)

( 52.05484954^ - 5.2$max + 4.i5i84097waI = o; since

ZFo- 26.33434097

.09921778

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132

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SPECIAL ANALYTIC APPLICATIONS

133

<k axle (oleo retracted) is normal to <fc oleo retracted. From

system (a), = 0.99217784, laz = 0.0686179, max = 0.10428210.

(c) i. <fc Pivot:

XF0 - 66.75

0.13112098

YF0 - 115.25

0.96559490

Zro + 22.1825

0.22457468

Solution:

Assuming direction cosines lp, mp, np, then, since the angle be-

tween < axle and <t pivot is constant:

lP= 0.06861769^ + 0.10428210WP + 0.99217784,,.

Thus + (mpy + (np)2 = 1

also (a) < 0.93138231^+ o. 104282 , + 0.99217784^ = 0

and [52.05484954/0 17.94688473mP 46.77258127^ = 0

since < pivot is normal to ABR.

From system (a),

/ = 0.13112098, mv = 0.96549590,

np = 0.22457468.

b. Basic Linear Equations (Wing Reference System Fig. 2)

<fc Oleo (retracted):

Xw 66.96990556

52.21862204

4* Axle (oleo retracted):

Xw - 14.75128352

0.01811741

< Pivot:

66.9699O556

0.11104905

Yw + 11

-5.25

Yw + 575

Z. + 0.40083696

0.40083696

0.10428210 0.99438273

Yw+ 11

0.96559590

Zw + 040083696

-0.23514805

Upon the basis of this analytic description, all required data

may be directly and quickly calculated.

Thus the systematic summary of significant angles shown on

page 134 may be established:

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134

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Line

Plane of

Tangent

Angle

Directed

Projection

of Angle

from

<Oleo

'. Xp

-07975897

(Af )

4 33'

36.72"

(Retracted)

-.10085516

(BF )

-5 45'

32.76"

: Yf

.79082685

(Cf )

-380 20'

16.42"

<& Axle (Oleo

.06915866

(DF )

-3 57'

22.32"

Retracted)

.65800065

(EF )

-33 20'

41.79"

.10510424

(FF )

6 00'

00.00"

<E Pivot

--58386359

(GF )

-300 16'

44.76"

i Xp

-13579295

(HF)

7 43'

59-03"

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SPECIAL ANALYTIC APPLICATIONS

135

2.82997940, -12.23459463, -50.95228238

52.47693940

Whence

cos 0rot. = .052318.13

9m. = 870 O' 3.68".

The calculation of the true angle (dPo) between the <. pivot

and <fc oleo is as follows:

cos dP0 = (-.96559490)(sin 140) + (.22457468)(cos 140)

= -.01569470

6Po = 1800 - 890 6' 2.60" = 900 53' 57.40".

2. Analytic Derivation of Engine Mount Basic Data

Basic design of the engine mount structure of a given multi-

engine aircraft establishes the following basic conditions (see

Fig. 3):

1. The plane of the rear face of the engine mount is parallel to a

fuselage station plane when the wing is "rigged".

2. The "rigged"'intersection point of the centerline of thrust of the

inboard nacelle and of the outboard nacelle with the plane of the

rear face of the engine mount is given. Both centerlines of

thrust (rigged) are normal to a fuselage station plane.

3. The basic points of the nacelle are rotated i0 12' counterclockwise

in the plane of the rear face of the engine mount.

4. The wing chord (reference) plane is "rigged" first for 3 of uni-

form positive incidence about the X-axis and 30 26' dihedral

about the F'-axis.

It is required to establish the following basic dimensional data:

1. Location and basic angles of each centerline of thrust referred to

the wing chord plane.

2. Location of basic jig points referred to the wing chord plane.

3. Location of auxiliary engine mount support structure referred to

the chord plane.

Figure 3 shows the location of the intersections of the center-

lines of the four engine mount bolts (inboard nacelle) with the

plane of the rear face of the engine mount (true view) referred

to the point of intersection of the centerline of thrust with this

plane.

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136

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SPECIAL ANALYTIC APPLICATIONS 137

Thus the four intersection points are defined in the nacelle

system P (X, Yn, Z) as follows:

Pi 14. o, 18.3125

P2 : -14, o, 18.3125

P3: -12.25, o, -19

Pi: 12.25, o, -19.

Figure 2 shows the nacelle system rotated counterclockwise

i0 12' about the centerline of thrust. The coordinates of the

required points referred to the horizontal and vertical axes

{Xnf, Z^) are given by the following rotation formulas:

Xn Yn Zn

.99978068 o .02094242

Y o 1 o

Zr .02094242 o .99978068

Whence the required coordinates P (X^, Ynf, Z^) become

Pi: 13.61342145, o, 18.60167758

P2 : -14.38043759, o, 18.01528982

P3 : -11.84940735, O, -19-25237757

P4: 12.64521931, o, 18.73928828

referred to the intersection of the centerline of thrust with the

plane of the rear face of the engine mount as an origin (see

Fig. 2).

The "rigged" coordinates of the latter origin, referred to the

origin of the wing reference system, are established from pre-

liminary calculations as

(132.3245751, 18.17578492, .59446367).

Translated to the origin of the wing reference system (defined

as the intersection of the leading edge of the wing with the

fuselage plane of symmetry) by the formulas

XJ = Xf + X0

YJ = Yf + Y0

Zw Znf 4" Zo

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138

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Pi '. 145-9379966,

P2 . n7-9441375.

P3 : 120.4751677,

P4 : 144.9697944,

19.19614125

18.60975349

-18.65791390

18.14482461.

the "rigged" coordinates P (XJ, YJ, ZJ) of the required

points become

18.17578492,

18.17578482,

Since the wing is "rigged" for 30 26' dihedral and 30 incidence,

the rotation formulas necessary to transform the coordinates to

the wing chord plane are as follows:

Y' V'

Xw .99820516 .00313425

Yw o .99862953

Zw -.05988712 .05224203

Thus the coordinates P (Xw, Y, ZJ) of the required points

referred to the wing chord plane are

Pi : 146.881, 17.146,

P2 : 118.902, i7-!77.

P3 : 119.200, 19.127,

Pi : 143.681, 19.101,

The "rigged" coordinates P (XJ, YJ, ZJ) of the intersection

of the centerline of thrust of the outboard nacelle with the plane

of the rear face of the engine mount are

(306.1370532, 26.5808209, 6.95340019).

Assuming all other basic data identical with the data of the

inboard nacelle, calculate the wing chord plane coordinates of

the corresponding four jig points for the outboard nacelle.

-05980505

--05233596

-99683715-

H-345

12-437

24.864

25.820.

Answer:

320.788,

292.810,

293.107,

317.589-

25.207,

25-238,

27.188,

27.161,

7-714

8.806

-28.495

-29-451

Derive the equations of the centerline of thrust of the inboard

nacelle: (a) referred to the horizontal plane ("rigged"); (b) re-

ferred to the wing reference system; (c) calculate the front

elevation, side elevation and plan view angles (0, 0 and a respec-

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CHART 1 MASTER LINE EQUATION CHART

S/a. 0 (Root)

Sta. 300 (Tip)

% Line Equations

"of

Chord

Ordinate

Coord

Ordinate

Vu: 7 . = /(.Y)

Coord.

Mi)

Upper

(Bi)

L0rn.er

Upper

(Ci)

Lmver

H: Y -/(JO

VL: Z' = /(.V)

(Cj)

Z=0

-46.00

-24.80

Y - .07066667.Y 46.00

7.' = 0

.25

-445625

3320

2.595

-24.025

0.910

0.705

7. = -.00803333.Y + 3.320

Y = .06845833.Y - 44.5625

.' = .00630000.Y 2.595

i.50

-43125

4.740

3.610

-2325

1.290

0.985

7. = .01150000' +4.740

Y = .06625000.Y 43.125

Z' = .00875000.Y 3.610

5 00

-40.2s

6.800

4.890

-21.70

1.855

1.330

7 . = -.01648333.V +6.800

Y - .06l83333.Y - 40.25

7.' = .01 t86667.Y - 4.890

7.50

-37.375

8.410

5.655

-20.15

2.295

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CHART 2. CAMTED SECTION CALCULATION CHART 4I)

SINGLE CANTFRONT VIEW

4page .

A'i = At sec <t> = 16.18-4-811

sec * = 1.--186869

D3 = AY.-l 3 = - D'i = D3 sec <t> = -

A ngle of Cant <*> = 10 1-'

Sla 90AY) of Section at Base Line = o

At = -cot * = -16.-983331

Z' 4True View)

.D\ - A'

335

4.36

6.8-6

8.415

9.684

1-.944

13832

334

11-412

935

6903'

90283

2.--8

- - -.

46.---

-44349

-4-.36

-90.-24

-11.-6

--.469

22.912

-11.483

11.488

2-.98-

--418

43-98-

31-489

690.-90

3 - D.

.3-96--

.-89--4

.4134869-

.3110113

.391336-

.19--1-83

.84366846

.8-18-3-

.691933-

.361-194

.41-1-89-

.-616-9-

.1-49444

A% - At

- 16.-9836

-16.131888

- 16.161136

- 16.166-9

- 16.1--19

-'6901-2-

- 16.181-89

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-2.6-1

--.619

-9093

-3.6-

-6.1907

-79022

-7.4-

-3136

-6.498

-3343

-4.-81

-3-97

-1.64-

-46.-)

-4430

-4-.14-

4-.269

--190.

--453

2-.-16

-11.38

11.37

2-.-1-

-4314

46.-1-

90-39

69.--

-.13877818

.23913-8

- .299--244

-.-4616-97

---18-I73

-.4469-99

--490-9138

-.4-68373

---90673332

-.-85-671

-.267434-4

-.189-1884

.3OO--22

-16.-9836

-16.--336

16.-4136

-16.-1989

-16.-6189

-16.-4812

-16.-2136

-16.-11-9

-16.-412

-16.-41-9

-16.--6436

-16.-946

-16.34-189

16.-6-22

-16.-9836

-2.393

--.63

4.89-

-3.633

-6.18-

-7.---

-7.4-

-31-3

-6.48-

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142 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

tively), of the centerline of thrust (referred to the wing reference

system).

(a) XF = 132.32457510

ZF = 0.59446367

Xw - 132.122626 = Yw+ .031111827 = Zw+ 7.3319542

.0313421 9.9862953 .5224203

(c) = 89o 49' 13"

= 860 34' 00"

= 20 59' 41" .

3. Calculations of Canted Wing Sections

The basic root and tip sections of a given theoretical airfoil

are established in coordinate form as shown in Chart 1. From

z PLAN VIEW

*-*

FRONT VIEW

Fig. 4

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SPECIAL ANALYTIC APPLICATIONS

143

the data shown it is obvious that the x-axis (normal percentage

line) of the wing reference system is the 40% line; that the

lengths of the root and tip chords are 115 and 62 inches respec-

tively. It is also assumed that the percentage line planes are

normal to the wing reference plane. The planes of the center-

lines of the front and rear spars coincide with the 10 percentage

and 60 percentage planes respectively.

Several intermediate percentages of chord are omitted for con-

venience in presentation of data. It is obvious that in the case

of an airfoil whose leading edge is established without a conven-

tional leading edge radius many more percentage lines in the

area of the leading edge would be required for accurate lofting

of the required contour.

Chart i also establishes the analytic equations of the wing

percentage lines. These equations are expressed as functions of

the wing stations or distances measured along the x-axis. They

are directly derived by substitution of the given coordinates of

the root and tip sections in the analytic formulas at the bottom

of the chart (see Chapter VI).

o. Single Cant (Front View)

Assume that the wing is "rigged" for 30 of uniform positive

incidence entered about the x-axis and 30 30' of dihedral entered

about the wing root chord. Chart 2 shows the analytic develop-

ment of wing station #0 at the centerline of ship. In a front

view of the wing, station #0 at the centerline of ship appears as

a single canted section, rotated clockwise 30 30' about the root

chord as an axis.

The Z' ordinate representing the distance from a percentage

line intersection with the canted plane to the wing reference line

in a true view of the section, may be converted to the wing

reference system through multiplication by the cosine of the

angle of cant.

b. Single Cant (Plan View)

Assume that the aileron rib assembly is established with the

ribs normal to the wing reference plane and normal to the plane

of the wing rear spar. If the intersection of the plane of the

centerline of the rib at the outboard aileron hinge with the wing

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CHART -. CANTED SECTION CALCULATION CHART 90II)

SINGLE CANTPLAN VIEW

90page )

Sta. 4.c) of Section at Base Line = 214.3--63346 Angle of Cant a = 2 -1'24.99" sec a = 1.---6243

A3 = -cot a = -28.--188619 Z 3 = .cA. = -11639013312

D'z = D3 sec a = 173.38908 A'3 = A3 sec a = 28.-19348-2

i 2 - At.

-.8-1

3-34

2.--6

1.411

-.639

F' 4True View)

D's - A'

6.63

1-.2-

3)-3

26.33

--I67

-99016

D3 - ,-

239063418

-13.)---

-13.2--0

213.46818-

273.7-1821

2133-3I84

-28.09331

28.-123

-28.134881

-28.-143-

28.-90--3

--8.901887

A3 Ai

11.4--

90.3-

6-33

4.-8-

2.--3

Front View

Constants of Equations of Line

.-2716661

.-22-3--

.-16181-

.-341661

.--488--

Plan View

11.3

2-.--

-3o

46.--

903o

.36----- 69.--

.-1166661

3-31--

.-3------

.-1-66661

388---

6o4R.S.)

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-2.162

-1.843

-1-432

-1---

--.38-

6.63

1-.2-

334

-6.33

--361

-9.116

239065418

275

275.2-20

-73.46818-

213.7-1827

213313384

-28.0933-

28.-122-

-28.-34881

--8.-143-

28.-9--3

-28.901881

-6.48-

-33--

-490-

.-036667 1.-9-

1.64-

-.91901661

.-1-----

.-36----

-338--

11.3

2-.--

-903

46.)

90-3

69.--

.-1166661

3-31--

.-31---)

.--66661

388---

.36--)-

6o90R.S.)

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CHART 4. CANTED SECTION CALCULATION CHART 4III) 90page. )

DOUBLE CANT

Dihedral Angle of Cant <j> == o 39' 90.73" Plan View Angle of Cant a = 2 -1' 24.99"

.-Axis Intercept 4Xc) = 3-.-- E = tan <j> sin a = .---616-

esc a = 28.09348- tan <j> = .-1144411 cos a = .999116-6 sec <j> = 1.---13214

A3 = cot a = 28.--188619 C3 = esc a tan = .494-131 D3 = XCA3 = 28--.188619

7,(True\

Z \ View)

Z sec <f>

8.649

633-

3.--

324

1.39

v,(True\

Y [ViewJ

Y + EZ

cos a

9900

1)433

29.163

-8-861

48.347

38.218

Dt-A2.

8.647918

6.932133

3.-91249

1.224624

1.38424

Ds-Di-CsD.

Di-AvX

9.129-6

19.446616

29.13121

18.890-1

48331364

38.182-89

3-.1-841

3OO.363162

3-.94134

31.06-11

31.681937

32.-33166

^3Al C3A2

-28.--38-6

28.36119

-28.-4619-

28.163-8

-28.-818-8

-28.901881

Constants of Equations of Line

Front View

11.41-

9.3-

6-33

4.28-

2.--3

.-2716661

.-2213--

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ir.

fsl

oo'

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148

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

reference plane and the rear spar plane is given as wing station

#275, Chart 3 shows the analytic calculation of the true view

of the rib.

c. Double Cant

Assume that the of flap hinge is parallel to the <J> rear spar

(60% line) in the plan view (see Fig. 4), and inclined an angle

(0') of i0 in a front view of the wing.

The plane of the centerline of the flap rib at the outer flap

hinge is normal to the flap hinge line and normal to the plane

of the rear spar, and intersects the x-axis at wing station #100.

Chart 4 shows the analytic development of the true view of the

flap rib indicated by the basic conditions discussed above.

Coordinates are first established in the wing reference system;

the F'and Z' coordinates represent true view dimensions.

The trace of any given straight line element may be deter-

mined by such calculation procedures. The flap hinge line itself

is located in the true view of the flap rib (see Chart 4).

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PART III

ANALYTIC ANALYSIS OF CURVES USED IN LOFTING

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CHAPTER X

CONIC LOFTING

1. Introduction

Mathematical techniques are available for the solution of

many problems in lofting where traditional graphical methods

appear inadequate. For example, the physical difficulties in-

volved in laying out extremely long longitudinal body curves,

and the location of the exact point of intersection of a tangent

with a flat curve, represent problems which are more con-

veniently and accurately resolved by mathematical analysis.

Of further advantage, the availability of a mathematical

technique makes possible a precise cross-check on practically all

solutions by the graphical method. The trial and error element

involved in the case of sole reliance upon the empirical use of a

spline is thus very largely eliminated.

Curves susceptible to mathematical description include those

whose equations may range through widely varying degrees of

complexity, involving logarithmic functions and equations of

third or higher order. The use of such curves is decidedly

limited both by inherent lack of flexibility in actual practice,

and by the laborious nature of the calculations required to

establish the curves.

On the other hand, a class of curves familiarly known as conic

sections, the ellipse, including the circle, the hyperbola, and the

parabola, can be easily and quickly established, both graphically

and analytically. The equation of any conic referred to rec-

tangular coordinates is of the second degree; conversely, every

equation of the second degree in rectangular coordinates repre-

sents a conic. Since all conic sections are described analytically

by equations the unknowns of which are expressed to no higher

degree than the second power, all such curves may be con-

veniently described as second-degree curves.

The most outstanding characteristic of the second-degree

curve is the flexibility with which it adapts itself to widely

151

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152

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

varying conditions. In all but a few isolated cases experience

has shown that some type of conic development offers a satis-

factory solution to a given contour problem.

Wherever, in the design of an airplane, conditions are in-

corporated which can be satisfied by a second-degree curve, the

mathematical technique analyzed herewith for such a develop-

ment can be applied. Thus, insofar as a conic development

satisfies the requirements of aerodynamies and basic design, to

that extent this mathematical technique constitutes an adequate

method of basic curve development.

The fact that second-degree curves can be described through

mathematical techniques based upon analytic or coordinate

geometry adapts itself perfectly to the use of such conventional

reference lines as are already employed as standard notation on

engineering drawings.

Calculated data may thus be referred directly to conventional

reference lines, e.g., centerline of ship, centerline of nacelle,

centerline of thrust, centerline of engine, centerline of crank-

shaft, fuselage reference line, centerline of spar, station or

buttock line, waterline, and the like.

Convenient formulas based upon coordinate geometry may be

derived from and applied to any set of reference axes established

in any suitable position. By appropriate translation and rota-

tion of axes one general formula can be made to apply to all

curves regardless of position. In a case where several related

curves are required, the calculations of all the curves, regardless

of the number, may proceed simultaneously if properly charted.

However, in isolated cases, involving the calculation of but

one or two curves at a time, it may appear more feasible to

consider other types. Thus, for all practical purposes, it may

be assumed that there are only five different types of curves

from an analytic standpoint. A possible sixth type may, by

proper translation of origin and rotation of axes, be reduced to

one of the five given general types. Formulas for all of these

types have been developed.

2. Advantages of Mathematical Analysis

The many advantages to be gained from a mathematical basis

for calculating certain basic data are extremely significant from

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CONIC LOFTING

153

the standpoint of engineering, lofting, and tooling procedures.

Among these advantages are:

1. Precision and accuracy.

2. Elimination of deviations resulting from the human element.

3. Uniformity of application of results.

4. Close coordination of basic design, lofting, and production

engineering.

5. Close coordination with tooling procedures.

6. Cross-checking of graphical results.

7. Coordination of detailing and checking procedures

8. Convenience in duplication of layouts.

9. Basis for continued investigation for new and improved tech-

niques.

The application of mathematies in the development of the

basic lines of the airplane results in more complete control of the

developments from basic conditions. Consequently, the desired

or intended performance characteristies of the airplane are more

nearly realized. This objective is possible because of the fact

that each body curve may be translated into algebraic language,

and fully controlled as to accuracy, precision, and uniformity of

application. The exact ideas of the designer can be carried out

precisely in their original form, with errors of variation and

interpretation reduced to their lowest possible minimum.

The problem of securing "fair lines" by the usual "trial-and-

error" method, with the development leading to lines of unknown

characteristies, is minimized by the use of mathematical tech-

niques. Through these techniques the proper interrelationships

of the basic contours are easily and definitely controlled. From

basic lines thus established related developments flow easily

and smoothly, with predetermined results. Each subsequent

development can likewise be described mathematically, and its

precise relationships to all other components of the development

can be measured exactly.

Basic body contours, whether longitudinal or in cross-section,

but more particularly in the line of airflow, can be matched

"perfectly." This factor becomes of real and great significance

when it is realized that with the attainment of higher speeds,

little inequalities that do not meet the eye attain special aero-

dynamic significance. The mathematical technique for

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154

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Clearance

"matching" second-degree curves has been developed so that it

can be applied to the design of a streamline body. The mathe-

matical procedures involved are simple and direct in application.

It is thus unnecessary to give up or alter the conditions predi-

cated by basic design simply because of inadequate lofting

techniques. The necessity for constant change and redevelop-

ment with attendant delay and expense is practically eliminated.

Another advantage is that every department from original

design to final assembly will have a common orientation with

respect to basic dimensions. A system of cross-checks par-

ticularly invaluable to every

step of aircraft production

automatically comes into

existence, thus effecting the

maximum possible degree

of effective coordination.

Changes in production can

be effected with minimum

effort. Uniformity of inter-

pretation and of application

of results become the rule

Fus Ref Line rat;her than the exception.

3. Application of a Second-

Degree Curve Development

to Cowling

An illustration of the con-

venient application of the

second-degree curve develop-

ment to the problem of en-

gine cowling is shown in

Fig. 1. In this case it is desired to secure a curve development

establishing the clearance from the cylinder head which is in-

dicated by the position of point P.

A second-degree curve tangent to points A and B can readily

be developed through point P as a shoulder or control point for

the curve. Curves based upon logarithmic functions or equa-

tions of higher degree cannot be developed conveniently through

such a predetermined point.

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Max Half

Breadth Line

Upper Shoulder

Line 4Plan View)

Lower Shoulder

PROFILE VIEW A

Lower Center Line

Typical Curve Equation

4Y=Px+Q-V/R?+Sx+T)

LEGEND

T Tangent Point

(D Intersection of Tangents

Shoulder4Control) Point

O Coordinate Origin

After

Body

NPlane of Lower

Shoulder Line

BODY PLAN VIEW C

Fig. 2

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156

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

4. Laying Out Fuselage Lines

The three views necessary for lofting a fuselage are shown in

Fig. 2. The first view required is variously known as the pro-

file, side, or elevation, as shown in View A. The second view

is the plan view, sometimes designated as the water-line plan

(see View B). The third view is variously known as the body,

transverse, cross-section, or half-

breadth plan (see View C).

The body plan is ordinarily

developed from measurements

(offsets) taken from the profile

and plan views. The simplicity

and 'ease of laying out the fuse-

lage lines in all three views by the

second-degree curve method

are fully illustrated in Fig. 2

(Views A, B, and C). In ad-

dition to the fuselage reference

line, the only lines necessary are

the five basic longitudinal or

flow lines; namely, upper cen-

ter, upper shoulder, maximum

half-breadth, lower shoulder, and

lower center lines, as shown

in the elevation or side view

(A). These lines may be de-

veloped either as second-degree curves or as traditional "faired-

by-eye" curves.

Shown in View are the plan views of the maximum half-

breadth line and the upper shoulder line, both of which are true

views. By breaking down the half-sections of the body, or

transverse plan, shown in View C, into two quadrants, it de-

velops that the basic section of the upper quadrant is deter-

mined by the upper center line and the maximum half-breadth.

The basic section of the lower quadrant is determined by the

lower center line and the maximum half-breadth. The only

other points necessary are the shoulder points for the two

quadrants.

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CONIC LOFTING

157

Therefore, any given cross-section may be developed by the

use of the five given points in the second-degree curve develop-

ment shown in Fig. 3.

5. Graphical Construction Technique for the General Conic

The basic principle of the usual method of constructing the

general second-degree curve is shown in Fig. 4. The tangents

Fig. 4

to the required curve at the points of contact 0 and are AO'

and AB respectively. The given shoulder or control point

through which it is desired to pass the curve is D.

The graphical procedure involves the location of a point P

which lies on the curve determined by the tangents and points

described.

The graphical method is as follows:

Draw the lines BE and OF through D.

Draw any radial line AG through A.

AG intersects OF at / and BE at H.

Draw the line OK through H and the line BL through J.

The lines OK and BL intersect at P.

Then P is the required point which lies on the specified curve.

Other points on the curve may be obtained by drawing other

radial lines through A, similar to AG.

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158

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

The complete graphical solution of the curve, following the

principle of development just analyzed, is shown in Fig. 5.

In this figure OA is the tangent to the required curve at O.

AB is the tangent to the required curve at B. D is the shoulder

or control point. In this particular case the tangents OA and

O LE A

Fig. 5

AB intersect to form an obtuse angle BAO. It is required to

construct the second-degree curve satisfying these given condi-

tion.

The procedure is as follows:

Draw OF through D.

Draw BE through D.

Draw BL.

BL intersects OF at Gi

Draw A d.

AG intersects BE at Hi.

Draw OH

OHi intersects BL at Pu

Pi is a point on the required curve.

Additional points P2, P3, Pi, may likewise be located.

The curve fitted to these points is the required curve.

6. Choice of a Suitable Mathematical Technique

The problem now is the derivation of an analytic equation

which will describe mathematically the conic development

whose graphical construction has just been presented in com-

plete detail.

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CONIC LOFTING

159

The choice of a suitable technique is governed by the criteria

of convenience and simplicity in practical application. Thus

the familiar analytic geometry technique of establishing equa-

tions of the various construction lines taken in appropriate

order, with the object of finding the points of intersection

through solution of simultaneous systems of equations, is at

once ruled out. The practical value of such a procedure is

negated by the complexity of the algebraic picture when literal

coordinates are employed to develop the general case.

The same result appears when an attempt is made to relate

the general equation of the second-degree curve

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = o

with the expression for its derivative (slope). A system of

several equations in several .unknowns develops, but again the

algebraic difficulties are insurmountable from a practical point

of view.

A third and simpler method, based on projective geometry

principles, is to develop an equation for a pencil, or family, of

conics between the points of tangency, such as 0 and B in Figs. 4

and 5. In this case the degenerate conics are used as the base

conics of the pencil.

The actual derivation of an equation representing the pencil

hinges fundamentally upon the analytic principle that one and

only one second-degree curve may be passed through five given

points.

For the proof of this thesis, let

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = o (1)

represent the general equation of a second-degree curve.

Let Pi(xi, yd, P2(x2, y2), P3(x3, y3), Pi(xi, y4), and P6(*5, y&)

represent points on a given conic.

Then

Ax\ + Bxi^i + Cy\ + Dxi + Eyi + F = o (2)

Ax\ + Bx2y2 + Cyl + Dx2 + Ey2 + F = 0

Ax23 + Bx3y3 + Cy23 + Dx3 + Ey3 + F = o

Ax\ + Bx4y4 + Cyl + DxA + Ey4 + F = o

Ax\ + Bxbys + Cyl + Dxb + Eyb + F = o

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160

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

represents a linear system from which values for A, B, C, D,

and E may be obtained in terms of F such that the coordinates

of each of the given five points satisfy the given equation.

Thus an equation which is the equation of the only conic

through the five given points is determined.

Referring now to Fig. 4, it is observed that the conic through

the five points 0, (N), B, (M), and D is represented by

(0N)(BM) + k(0B)(NM) = o (3)

where the parameter (k) can be shown as

, = _ (gmpmrnm

[0B(D)][NM(D)]

since each point satisfies equation (3), and the equation is of the

second degree.

When 0 and N coincide, ON is the tangent at O, and when B

and M coincide, BM is the tangent at B. Let A be the inter-

section of these tangents. Then OA is the tangent at 0, and

BA is the tangent at A. Also, since NM is observed to be the

same as OB, equation (3) now becomes

(0A)(BA) + k(0BY = o (4)

and

, = _ [0A(D)][BA(D)\

(PB)\D)

In each case the parameter (k) is evaluated for the coordinates

of the given shoulder point (Z>) for the particular curve sought.

The equation of the conic tangent to two lines at given points

and passing through a third point may now be easily developed.

7. Derivation of a Specific Conic Equation

In Fig. 4. assign the following literal coordinates to the given

points 0, A, B, C, and D.

0 : (0, o)

A : (a, 0)

B : (b, c)

. C:(o, c)

D : (d, e)

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CONIC LOFTING 161

The equations of the tangents OA and A, and of the common

chord OB, result as follows:

tangent OA : = (5)

tangent BA : (a b)y + (c a)x = (6)

chord OB : cx by = o. (7)

The equation of the pencil of conics tangent to BA at and

tangent to OA at O may be expressed through substitution of

equations (5), (6), and (7), as

y[(a - b)y + c(x - a)] + k(cx - by)* = o. (8)

By evaluating equation (8) for the coordinates (d, e) of the

shoulder point D, it is possible to express the parameter (k) as

a function of the given coordinates thus:

ec(a - d) - (o - b)e2 . .

k = (cd - bey (9)

By a simple reduction, equation (8), expressed in the form

y = becomes (Case I):

= Px + Q - VRx2 + Sx + T (10)

where

2bck

2(a - b + b2k)

c2 ^ac2k

4(0 - b + b2k)2

_ 4abc2k - 2ac2 = pn

0 ~ 4(0 - b + b2k)2 v

a2r2

T = = o2.

1 4(0 - b + 2 v

8. Application to a Specific Curve

To illustrate the actual application of the method of develop-

ing the equation of a given second-degree curve, consider the

treatment of the following basic fuselage curve which is to be

lofted from calculated data.

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162

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163

A-B+LK

CHART 1C. LOWER $ AFTSIDE VIEW

P = 181835 Q = 25.8107 R = -.024916 5 = 9.386577 T = 666.192234

Y = PX + Q - VRX* + SX + T

No.

Z(Fi1s. Re}.)

Kf-i5o

PX+Q

\/RX*+SX + f

A-C

-34.84+ Y

SI a.

1SO

25.8107

-34.84

152031

2.031

26.1800 | 4.1250

26.1754

.004

-34.836

156-595

6-595

27.0099 | 434940

26.9632

.047

-34.793

160

27.6291 1 100

275241

.105

-34.735

170

29.4474

400

29.0509

-397

-34.443

180

31.2658

900

30.4198

.846

-33.994

190

330841

1600

31.6510

1-433

-33.407

200

349025

2500

32.7602

2.142

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CONIC LOFTING 165

CHART 1C. LOWER <fc AFTSIDE VIEW(Continued)

P = .181835 Q = 25.8107 R = -.024916 5 = 9386577 T = 666.192234

Y _ PX + Q - VRX* + SX + T

No.

Z (Fus. Ref.)

Fp-150

PX + Q

vrx*+sx+t

A-C

-34.84+ Y

Sta.

340

190

6o.3594

36100

39 3722

20.987

-13.853

345

195

61.2685

38025.00

39-3592

21.909

-12.931

350

200

62.1777

40000

39-3301

22.848

-11.992

355-5

205.5

63.1778

42230.25

39.2801

23.898

10.942

360

210

63.9961

44100

39.2246

24.772

-10.068

220

65.8144

48400

39-0550

26.759

-8.081

380

230

67.6328

52900

38.8206

28.812

-6.028

390

240

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166

, PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

constants P, Q, R, S, and T, to the final step of calculating offsets

(y-values) corresponding to given stations (x-values) shown in

complete form in Chart iC.

The final column of data in the latter chart supplies the lofts-

man with basic offset data referred directly to the fuselage refer-

ence line. The curve shown is but one of sixteen longitudinal

curve sections which may be calculated simultaneously for side

and plan view developments.

Formula (10) may be applied to all second-degree curve

developments. It is necessary only to maintain the same rela-

tive position of the curve as shown in Fig. 6, the coordinate

i TYPE I

Fig. 6

system used. This simplification is possible through translation

or rotation of axes, or both.

All body curves, therefore, whether longitudinal or transverse,

may be treated as this one type and calculated simultaneously

through a system of charts for use with an automatic calculating

machine. In all cases requiring the calculation of several

curves, this procedure is most desirable.

However, in the case of an isolated curve, it may be more

convenient to calculate with respect to other types of curve

positions.

The only type of curve for which a formula has not been

developed, and the only type requiring transformation of co-

ordinates in addition to translation of axes in order to fit the

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CONIC LOFTING

167

curve to the calculation techniques illustrated above, is shown

in Fig. 7.

If such a curve represents an isolated problem, it is more

convenient to establish the equation of the curve referred directly

to the conventional reference line.

In Fig. 7 it is required to develop a conic tangent to lines

BA and BC at points A and C respectively, passing through the

point D. Assume as coordi-

nates for the points 0, A, B,

C, and D the following literal

values:

0 : (o, o)

A : (a, 0)

B : (b, c)

C:(o,f)

D : (d, e).

Proceeding by the usual

technique, it is possible to develop the following equations:

tangent BC : x(c-/) -b(y - f) =0 (11)

tangent AB : c(x a) y(b a) = o (12)

chord AC :fx + a(y -/) =0. (13)

By substitution in equation (4),

[(c-f)x-(y-f)b] [(x-a)c-(b-a)y]+k[fx+a(y-f)]2 =0. (14)

By evaluating equation (14) for the coordinates (d, e) of the

given shoulder point D, it is found that the parameter (k) is

determined as follows:

h _ [(c- f)d - (g - f)b] [(d - a)c -(b- a)e]

[fd + a(e-f)f "U5;

Evaluating equation (14) for this value of (k), and expressing

the resulting equation in the form/(:*;, y) = o, there results the

following equation:

Fig. 7

[(c-f)x-(y-f)b] [(x-g)c-(b-a)y} [fx+a(y-f)]* _

o. (16)

[(c-f)d-(e-f)b) [(d-a)c-(b-a)e] [fd+a(e-f)\*

Substitution of numerical values for the literal coordinates a,

b, c, d, e, and /, and reduction of the resulting expression to the

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168

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

form y = f(x) will yield the curve equation as desired. This

procedure is less involved than the rotation and translation

technique suggested above.

To secure a maximum degree of simplicity in the derivation

of the equation of the required curve, the coordinate system

employed may be established with the origin at a point of

tangency, and one axis (the x-axis) parallel to the general refer-

ence line.

Assume as coordinates for the points 0 (the origin), B, C, and

D the following:

0 : (o, o)

B : (Bi , B2)

C : (Ci, Q

D : (Di , D2).

Then the following equations result:

tangent (k) : Gy C2x = o (17)

tangent (t2) : (& - Bi)(y - B2) - (C, - B,)(x - 50 = o (18)

chord (/) :Biy B2x = 0. (19)

Since it has been shown that

kk - kl2 = o (20)

then it follows, by substitution of equations (17), (18), and (19)

in equation (20), that

(Gy - C2x)[(d - B0(y - Bt) - (C, - B2)(x - B,)]

+ k(Biy - B2x)2 = o. (21)

Upon solution of equation (21) for the parameter (k) it is found

that

. = (Ciy - QxjKCi - giKy - BQ - (C2 - B2)(x - gQ]

(5ay - S2x)2

Upon evaluating this expression for the coordinates (Di, D2),

it is found that

k=-

r| cj)i

DiBl

Bid\

CtD21

LI cjh

D2B2

B2C2 \

DiBi

(22)

D2B2

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CONIC LOFTING

169

When equation (21) is evaluated for this value of k, and the

resulting quadratic equation is solved for y = f(x), an expression

in the form

y = Px + Q VRx* + Sx + T

results, in which

2CiC 2 - &B2 - CiBi + 2kBlB2

2(Q - dBi + kB\)

Ci(BiC2 B2Ci)

2(d - ClBi + kBl)

CI - C252 + kB22

R = P2

a - CiBi + kBi

o _ 0pr\ I Cz(BiCi BjCi)

V _ QBl + kBi

T = Q\

The calculation of these equation constants may be reduced to a

routine exercise through the use of special charts organized for

use with an automatic calculating machine.

Charts 2A and 2B indicate a standardized procedure for

tabulating original coordinate data, translating to the origin of

the conventional system indicated for this type of curve, and

calculating the required equation constants.

Of greatest practical significance is the fact that all the basic

curves required for the complete development of the fuselage,

including the profile, plan, and front views, may be classified as

two types for calculation purposes, and through a system of

charts the required data may be quickly and easily established

for engineering, lofting, and tooling purposes.

9. Formulas for Equation Constants (or Varying Curve Positions

The special problem encountered in standardizing curves with

reference to a few types was the selection of a coordinate system

for each type such that the resulting formulas would not be too

complex. It was found that if the coordinate system were so

established as to make a given curve tangent to one of the axes

at the origin, the resulting formulas for the curve would assume

the simplest possible form. In short, a coordinate system with

the origin as one point of tangency on the curve was found to

offer the most convenient working basis.

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170

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

CHART 2A FOR CONSTANTS OF 2ND DEGREE CURVE

Curve

Origin

Point of

Tangency

Intersection

of Tangents

Shoulder

Point

BB>

Upper <

26.75

14.15

172.423

19.410

71.021

22.504

70.901

18.610

145-673

5-26

CHART 2B. FOR CONSTANTS OF 2ND DEGREE CURVE

Curve

(E-F-G)G

B2(L-Ct/2)+C,(.C1-Bi/2)

Bii + Ci BiCi

Upper (fc

.38967679

56.7653874

3780.016334

.014980

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CONIC LOFTING

171

Y = PX + Q V/Uf* + SX +T

(0,0)

di-Ai

c\-a\

Di-A 1

DB2-A\

Bid B2Ci

B,D2-B2D,

DiC-D^Ci

44271

8-359

44151

4.46

984.815147

417.467320

171.609549

174,278.9633

/>x + q v/?Ar= + sx + r

(0,0)

C,E

KBl + Ci-C2B2

2 A/

P* - U

zPQ + V

-57670

.00970524

.009481

2.1777868

2350570

33.258355

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CONIC LOFTING

173

10. Keel Curve

The fundamental type of curve, which may be designated as

Type I, is the curve developed subject to the conditions shown

in Fig. 6. The formulas applicable to this type have already

been established (see equations (9) and (10)).

11. Curve Positions (or Development of Body Plan View

Typical curve positions for the cross-section development of a

fuselage are shown in Fig. 8. If the

axes of a coordinate system are chosen

to coincide with the axis planes of the

airplane, each second-degree curve in-

volved in this view may be classed

as either one or the other of two vari-

ations of a general type, designated

as Type II.

Figure 9 illustrates all curves of the

same type as the basic contour, desig-

nated as Type IIA (see Fig. 8). The

curve OB is tangent to CB at B, to

CO at 0, and passes through the

given point D; the two tangents CB

and CO are perpendicular to each other and to the y-axis and

x-axis respectively. Assume coordinates for the points 0, A, B,

C, and D as follows:

(, )

(d, ).

Case I:

Solving for = f(x) as described in the first application:

y = Px + VRx2 + Sx. (23)

The value of the parameter (k) is expressed:

d(b - e)

(bd ae)

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174

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

The values of the constants in equation (23) are determined

as follows:

2abk 1

2ak

1 \abk

(2a2ky

a2k

Case II:

Solving for x = f(y):

x = Py + Q - VRy2 + Sy + T.

The value of the parameter (k) is found thus:

d(b - e)

(24)

(bd ae)

The values of the constants in

equation (24) are determined as

follows:

2abk 1

2bk

Fig. 10

2b2k

1 \abk

(2b2k)2

^aWk 2&

(2b2k)2

= 2PQ

(2b2k)2

= <22-

Figure 10 illustrates all curves of the same type as the basic

contour curve, designated as Type IIB (see Fig. 8). The

tangents CB and AB are perpendicular to each other and to the

y-axis and x-axis respectively. The curve is tangent to BC at C,

to BA at A, and passes through the given shoulder point D.

Assume coordinates for the points O, A, B, C, and D as

follows: 0 : (o, o); A : (c, o); B : (a, c); C : (o, c); and D:

id, e)

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CONIC LOFTING 175

Case I:

Solving for y = f(x):

y = Px + Q - VRx2 + Sx + T. (25)

The value of the parameter (k) is expressed:

(a d)(e c)

ues

as follows

(cd + ae + ac)2

The values of the constants for equation (25) are determined

p _ 1 + 2ack

~ 2a2k

a + 2a2ck

V - = -aP

I + \ack

(2a2k)2

2a + \2c _ Q

Case II:

(2a2k)2 a2k

(2a2kf

Solving for X = f(y):

X = Py + Q - VRy2 + Sy + T (26)

The value of the parameter (k) is evaluated:

= (o - )(e - c)

(cd + ae c)2

The values of the constants in equation (26) are determined:

i + 2ack

P=-

2C2k

c + 2ac2k

i + 40C&

(2c2*)2

2c + ^ac2k __ _ Q

(2C2k)2 C^k

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176

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

12. Curve of Cowling Development

Another type of curve which may be encountered is that

shown in Fig. 11. Such a curve would be characteristic of a

cowling development. The curve is tangent to CO at 0, to

at B, and passes through the shoulder point D; the angle

OCB is obtuse.

By assuming literal coordinates for the points , , , C, and

D, formulas may be derived by the technique described.

TYPE II'

TYPE III ^==a*-^

A "l

Fig. 11

Fig. 12

13. Other Types of Curves

Of less frequent occurrence is the type of curve shown in

Fig. 12. In this instance the curve is tangent to O at 0,

at B, and passes through the shoulder point D; the angle

OCB is acute. The desired formulas may be derived according

to the usual procedure.

14. Proportional Curve

The technique used successfully for developing a method for

constructing the commonly used proportional curve, either

graphically or mechanically, by the usual second-degree curve

method, is based upon familiar algebraic analysis.

Fundamentally, this procedure consists of deriving the equa-

tion for the curve produced by the tangent-lines (proportional)

method, relating this equation to the equation of the curve

obtained by the usual second-degree curve method, and finally,

obtaining a shoulder point on the proportional curve by which

the same curve can be constructed with the regular second-

degree method.

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CONIC LOFTING

177

15. Equation of Proportional Curve

The construction of a proportional curve by the usual tangent-

lines method is illustrated in Fig. 13. The curve is tangent to

OC at 0 and to CB at B. The point is assumed as the origin

of a coordinate system whose

y-axis coincides with OC,

with OA lying along the

x-axis.

The lines OC and CB are

divided into the same num-

ber of equal parts, the cor-

responding points of division

being P, D, R and T, E, S

respectively. Construction

lines connecting the pairs of

corresponding points are tan-

gent to the required curve.

16. Developing Equation of Pro-

portional Curve

Developing the equation

of the proportional curve is

equivalent to finding the

equation of the conic section which is tangent to OC at 0 and to

CB at B.

Assume coordinates for the points 0, A, B, and C, in Fig. 13,

as follows: 0 : (o, o); A : (a, o); B : (a, b); and C : (o, c).

Assume an equation for the curve OC of the form

y = p vie + qx (27;

then

b = p Vo + qa (28)

and

Fig. 13. Graphical Development of the

Proportional Curve

fa (slope at B) =

But the slope at B also equals

Therefore

b-c

(29)

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178 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

By simultaneous solution of equations (28) and (30):

p = vZ'> 2

b 2C

By substitution of these values, equation (27) becomes

~3l

2C _ b 2C

y = 77T +

(30

Equation (31) is the required equation of the proportional curve

OC, since it satisfies all the given conditions, namely, when

x = o, then y = o; when x = a, then y = b; when x = o,

dy , , . dy b c

-j- = 00; and when x = a, ~r =

dx dx a

Analysis of equation (31) reveals that the curve is a parabola,

whose axis has been rotated, so that it is not parallel to either

the x-axis or the y-axis of

ZIf 7 the given coordinate sys-

tem.

17. Determining Points of

Tangency on Propor-

tional Curve

Referring to Fig. 13, as-

sume that OC and CB are

each divided into h equal

parts. Select the nth

point on OC, reading up-

ward, and designate it by

the letter n; likewise select the nth point on CB, reading to the

right, and designate it by the letter n'.

Then the points n and n' have coordinates as follows:

/ cn\ 1 / /an bn + ch cn\

n:(o,j) and :(j, j ).

Fig. 14. Proportional Curve Technique

Applied to a Cockpit Enclosure

(Profile View)

Thus the equation of line nn' becomes:

bn + ch 2cn\ , cn

)x + -r -

anIh

(32)

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CONIC LOFTING

179

By simultaneous solution of equations (31) and (32), an equa-

tion in the form x = f(a, n, h) may be derived thus:

The abscissa of any given point of tangency on the curve may

be determined by substituting appropriate values of n and h in

equation (33).

18. Curve Equation by Second-Degree Method

In Fig. 13, points D and E of the tangent line DE bisect O

and CB respectively. In this case n = 2 and h = 4; thus x in

equation (33) equals a/4.

A perpendicular is erected to OA at the point ^(0/4, 0) (see

Fig. 13). This perpendicular projected vertically intersects the

tangent line DE at G.

Since the coordinates of the point D are (, c/2), and for the

point E are (-, the equation of the line DE becomes:

Since the abscissa of the point G is a/4, the ordinate for that

point, obtained by substitution in equation (34), is evaluated

thus:

(34)

+ 2C

(35)

Fig. 15. Cockpit Enclosure (Front View)

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180

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Thus, the coordinates of the point G are; 4~~y* ^n

the following discussion it is shown that this point is the desired

shoulder point for the second-degree curve construction.

The equation for the curve constructed by this method is now

derived according to the usual procedure.

The following equations result: tangent OC : x = o; tangent

CB : (b c)x ay + ac = o; chord OB : bx ay = o.

The general equation for the family of degenerate conics

tangent to OC and CB at O and B respectively is stated thus:

(OC)(CB) +k(OBY = o (36)

or, by substitution

x[(b c)x ay + ac] + k(bx ay)2 = o. (37)

Evaluating the parameter k in equation (37) for the shoulder

point G, the value J^c is obtained. By substitution of this

value in equation (37), the following equation results:

x[(b c)x ay + ac] -c(&x ay)2 = o. (38)

Solving equation (38) for y = f(x):

y = ^^ + (^)x' (39)

Equation (39) is the required equation for the curve developed

by the second-degree method.

19. Results of Analysis

Equation (39) is observed to be identical to equation (31);

therefore, the curve obtained by the second-degree method,

using the shoulder point G as shown in Fig. 13 is identical to the

curve obtained by the tangent-lines, or proportional, method

without the use of the shoulder point.

Thus in any lofting situation where the proportional curve

has been found satisfactory, the usual second-degree curve

development, analyzed in this investigation, may be employed

both graphically and mathematically. It is only necessary,

for utmost convenience, to establish the particular shoulder

point specified in the foregoing discussion.

In other words, use the shoulder point thus determined and

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CONIC LOFTING

181

employ the usual second-degree curve construction. This pro-

cedure results in a curve identical to the proportional curve

obtained by the tangent-lines method.

For each graphical method, proportional or second-degree,

Fig. 16. Proportional Curve Technique Applied to a Turret Blister

there is available a corresponding mathematical approach, by

means of which the curve may be mechanically produced from

calculated data. The actual

choice of a technique (graphical

or mechanical) in a given case

becomes entirely a question of

immediate convenience. In any

event, a definite cross-check for

the technique chosen is immedi-

ately available.

20. Applications of Proportional Curve

Several applications of the pro-

portional curve are shown in

Figs. 14 to 17, inclusive. The ap-

plication of the proportional curve

to a cockpit enclosure is shown in

the profile view Fig. 14, and in the

front view, Fig. 15, of a cockpit

enclosure. The proportional curve

technique as applied to a turret

blister is shown in Fig. 16. A

cross section of the turret blister can be developed by the same

method. The proportional curve technique as applied to a

wing fillet is shown in Fig. 17.

Fig. 17. Proportional Curve

Technique Applied to a

Wing Fillet

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182

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

PROBLEMS

1. Referring to the curve shown in Fig. n, assume as coordinates

for the points 0, A, B, C, and D the following:

0 : (o, o)

A : (a, o)

B : (a, b)

C : (o, c)

D : (d, e).

Show that the parameter (k) is given by the expression:

ad(e c) (b c)<P.

(bd - ae)2

Solving for y = f(x), show that

i + 2bk

2ak

1 + \ck.

2. Referring to Fig. 12, assume as coordinates for the points 0, A,

B, C, and D the following:

0 : (o, 0)

A : (a, o)

B : (a, b)

C : (o, c)

D : (d, e).

Show that the parameter (k) is given by the same expression as in

Problem 1.

Solving for y = f(x), show that

1 + 2bk

2ak

1 + 40k

3. Referring to Fig. 18, assume that a second-degree curve is tangent

to OC at O and to CB at B, passing through the shoulder point D,

with angle OCB a right angle.

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CONIC LOFTING 183

Assume coordinates for the points 0, A, B, C, and D as follows:

0 : (o, o)

A : (a, o)

B : (a, b)

C : (o, b)

D : (d, e).

Verify the following formula for the curve, expressed as y = f(x):

y = Px + VRx2 + Sx

d(b - e)

Where

and

(bd - aey

2abk I

2dlk

1 $abk

(2a2ky

4. Referring to Fig. 19, assume that a second-degree curve is given

tangent to BC at C and to BA at A, passing through the shoulder

point D, with angle CBA a right angle.

Assume coordinates for the points 0, A, B, C, and D as follows:

0 : (o, o)

A : (a, o)

B : (a, c)

C : (o, c)

D : (d, e).

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184 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Verify the following formula for the curve, expressed as y = (f)x:

y = Px + Q - VRx* + Sx + T

where

and

(a d)(e c)

(cd + ae ac)1

i + 2ack

2a2k

Q = -aP

R _ i + flck

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CHAPTER XI

CONIC LOFTING (Continued)

1. Matching of Second-Degree Curves

The correlation or matching of second-degree curves represents

a typical lofting situation which challenges traditional methods.

The problem in this case is to develop a precise mathematical

technique to replace the traditional "fairing-by-eye" method.

In defining the problem, the matching of reverse second-degree

curves may be taken as a convenient illustration. In Fig. 1, it

is required to match the

second-degree curve AO

with a second-degree

curve DO at point 0.

This matching may

involve only the estab-

lishment of a common

tangent at point 0. In

other words, it may be

considered sufficient to

make the tangent of curve

DO the same as the tan-

gent of the curve AO at

point 0. This require-

ment is easily satisfied by

a graphical construction or by a mathematical method.

In the former case, if the tangents A and D are known, as well

as the common tangent at 0, the curves may be constructed by

the usual method, a suitable shoulder point having been chosen

in each case. If either curve is a segment of a longer second-

degree curve, the tangent at 0 can likewise be constructed by a

special graphical method.

The mathematical approach consists of developing the equa-

tion of the curve A 0. The slope of the tangent at O can then be

ascertained simply by taking the first derivative of the equation

of the curve.

Fig. 1

185

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186

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

However, mere matching of tangents leaves out an extremely

important factor. In order to secure exceptionally smooth

matching, the rate of change of the tangent, as well as the tangent

itself, should be considered. The necessity for taking this

F factor into consideration

is apparent when, as an

extreme case, the problem

of matching ares of circles

is analyzed.

In Fig. 2 the center of

the circle for arc AB is at

D, and the center of the

circle for arc JSC is at E.

The tangents of the two

ares at B are identical.

However, the rates of

change of the tangents of

the two ares are not the

same at B. For the small

arc BC the tangent is

changing its slope rapidly, while for the large arc AB the tan-

gent is changing its slope more gradually. The situation is

expressed mathematically by saying that the slopes are the

same at B, but the curvatures are different at B.

If p represents the slope of a tangent line at a point on the

curve, it is known from the calculus that:

P=f'(x)

and that the curvature q is given by the formula

_ f"x

q ~ )i + L/"(*)2]P'2

(i)

(2)

where fix) and/"(x) represent the first and second derivatives

respectively of the equation of the curve.

Therefore, in order to match slopes at a given point, it is

necessary only to make the first derivatives the same at that

point. To correlate, or match, curvatures at a given point,

however, it is necessary to make the second derivatives the same

at that point. This simplification is possible since the ratio of

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CONIC LOFTING

187

the curvatures at the point of common tangency becomes a ratio

of similar fractions when the equations are referred to the same

coordinate system.

This procedure will effect perfectly smooth correlation or

matching of the curves.

Consider the following case:

Suppose, as shown in Fig. 3, the second-degree curve AO is

given, and it is required to match it with another second-degree

curve which satisfies the following conditions:

1. It passes through the given fixed point 0.

2. It has the same tangent at 0 as the given curve AO.

3. It has the same rate of change of tangent, that is curvature,

at 0 as the given curve AO.

4. It passes through a given fixed point D.

5. It has a given fixed tangent at D.

These conditions can be satisfied by a second-degree curve,

since by definition a second-degree curve is a conic, and a conic

is determined by five conditions.

2. Methods of Approach

One possible method of approach is to relate the two curves

through a system of equations involving several unknowns. In

the development of this case the algebraic difficulties encountered

are exceeded only by the practical difficulties of application to

a set of given conditions.

A second approach, found to be both successful and practical,

is to establish the origin of a coordinate system at the point of

common tangency, with the x-axis coinciding with, or parallel to,

a conventional horizontal reference line already established by

basic design. Thus the equation of the given curve and the

equation of the matching curve are both derived from the same

coordinate system.

A third approach, leading to the technique described in the

discussion which follows, is to first establish a convenient co-

ordinate system, preferably referred to a given horizontal refer-

ence line. From this system the equation of the given curve is

derived.

A coordinate system for the matching curve is then established

through a rotation of axes, in which one axis is assumed perpen-

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188

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

dicular to the common tangent at the point of common tangency

of the two curves. The common tangent thus becomes the other

axis of the coordinate system. The axes of the coordinate

system thus established are rotated with reference to the axes of

the coordinate system of the given curve.

The derivation of formulas applicable to this technique is not

only fairly simple; the formulas themselves also afford a direct

and convenient application with a minimum of computation.

The essential features of this technique are developed in the

following discussion.

3. Correlation, or Matching, Technique

Assume a convenient set of axes with reference to a given

curve AO (see Fig. 3), establishing a coordinate system (x\ y')

whose x'-axis coincides with,

or is parallel to, a given hori-

zontal reference line. The

equation of the given curve

A O is derived from the co-

ordinate system (x', y').

The coordinate system

(x, y) for the matching curve

is established through a rota-

tion of axes in which the

;y-axis is assumed perpen-

dicular to the common tan-

gent (the x-axis). The equa-

tion of the matching curve

DO is thus referred to the co-

ordinate system (x, y).

The equation of the curve

AO is obtained by the usual

method of using the degenerate conics . as the base conics of the

family of such curves tangent at the points O and A respec-

tively. This equation contains a parameter, whose value is

determined by evaluating the equation for the coordinates of the

shoulder point of the given curve. This equation may be ex-

pressed in the form/(x', ') = o.

In the coordinate system (x, y), the general quadratic of the

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CONIC LOFTING 189

conic passing through the origin with zero slope may be expressed

in the form/(x, y) = o, thus:

y2 + eix2 + 2e2xy + 2e3y = o. (3)

The first derivative of this equation may be expressed in

simplified form as:

yy' + eix + e2(xy' + y) + e3y' = o (4)

and the second derivative as:

(yy" + y'2) + i + e2(xy" + 2y') + e3y" = o. (5)

From equations (3), (4), and (5) the following system results:

x2ei + 2xye2 + 2ye3 = y2 (6)

xei + (xy' + y)e2 + y'e3 = yy' (7)

ei + (xy" + 2y')e2 + y"e3 = - (yy" + y'). (8)

Assume as the abscissa and ordinate of the point D the values

a and b respectively; let the slope at D equal r; let the second

derivative at the origin of the coordinate system (x', y') for the

equation of the curve AO equal q.

Then the following system of equations results:

a2ei + 2abe2 + 2be3 = b (9)

aei + (ar + b)e2 + re3 = br (10)

ei + qe3 = o. (11)

Whence

p _ b[g(ar - b)]

1 a2q(ar - b) - 2b2 K >

b[br aq(ar b)]

62 = a2q(ar - b) - 2b2 (l3) b2(ar b) ei

63 ~ a2q(ar - b) - 2b2 ~ q {W

The value of the curvature q is determined from data relating

to the equation of the given curve in the coordinate system

(x', y'). If in this system the value of the slope at the point 0

is p, and the value of the second derivative is s, then

2 = (1 + ^ ^5)

The sign of q, whether positive or negative, must be deter-

mined by inspection; that is, by observing whether the curve is

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190

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

concave upward or concave downward at the point 0 with re-

spect to the coordinate system involved.

By a simple reduction, equation (4) may be expressed in the

form of y = f(x):

y = (e3 + e2x) V(e3 + e2x)2 eix2. (16)

Substitution of the calculated values of ei, e2, and e3 in equa-

tion (16) results in the required equation of the matching curve.

As many points on the curve as are desired may be calculated

and plotted, and the required curve constructed through these

points.

More conveniently, a shoulder point can be found from this

equation. Through this point a second-degree curve can be

constructed by the usual development.

If it is desired to refer the matching curve to the original

coordinate system (x', y'), the equation of the curve may be

mathematically transformed to this system. Through such a

procedure points on the curve may be located directly with

reference to the conventional horizontal reference line.

4. Summary of Matching Technique

The first and second derivatives of the newly developed equa-

tion for the matching curve are found to be identical to the first

and second derivatives respectively of the equation of the given

curve at the point of common tangency. Therefore, the curves

have the same slope and the same rate of change of curvature at

the point of common tangency O; perfectly smooth matching of

the two second-degree curves has thus been achieved.

However, it must be remembered that more than five condi-

tions cannot be satisfied by a second-degree curve. For example,

suppose it is required to find a curve DO which has a given slope

and curvature at 0 and passes through a given fixed point

between D and 0. In this case no restriction can be placed on

the slope of the tangent at point D, since to do so would postulate

six conditions instead of five. However, if no shoulder point is

required between D and O, then the slope of the tangent at D

can be specified.

Attempting to match second-degree curves by the only tech-

nique available heretofore, that is, by direct application of a

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CONIC LOFTING

191

spline, fails to maintain the conditions given for each curve.

The spline tends to "sluff off" on each side of the point of com-

mon tangency of the two curves. Each curve, therefore, loses

its special characteristies and can no longer be conveniently

described mathematically.

An attempt to hold the given conditions usually results in a

bump or hollow at the point of intersection. This is especially

true in cases in which the curves to be matched do not lie in a

reverse position with respect to each other.

The special merit of the method for matching curves pre-

viously described is the practical ease and convenience with

which coordinate axes may be set up to correlate the equations

of the curves. As a rule nothing new in the way of reference

lines and general blueprint data is required for the application

of this technique.

5. Lack of Adequate Lofting Technique

The ability to match curves whose mathematical identities

are either unknown or are simply ignored out of practical

expediency, has usually been accomplished by the familiar

method of fairing-by-eye with a spline.

This may be illustrated by referring to Fig. 4. Suppose it is

required to pass curves through the points A, B, and 0 in one

instance and through D, C, and 0

in the other, with smooth matching

at the point of intersection 0. The

matching can be effected by laying

a spline at these given points. The

curve thus produced constitutes a

satisfactory development as far as the conditions are concerned.

However, a curve thus developed can be designated only as a

"fair line." It has no mathematical identity that can be sub-

jected to a practical analysis.

The limitations of the method of fairing-by-eye may be fur-

ther clarified by assuming the following hypothetical case.

Suppose that the points A, B, and 0 in Fig. 4, are points on a

given second-degree curve, and the points D, C, and 0 are points

on another second-degree curve; and that is desired to match

these curves at the point of intersection 0. This cannot be

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192

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

effected by the use of a spline, as previously discussed, unless

the point B in one case and C in the other case happens to be

the shoulder point of the only second-degree curve which per-

fectly matches the other given curve at point 0.

It is practically impossible to select this required shoulder

point by chance, because there is an infinitely large number of

possible curves tangent to 0 and A, or to 0 and D, as the case

may be, only one of which matches the other given curve both

as to slope and curvature.

Therefore, the matching of second-degree curves is possible

only through the mathematical analysis of the conditions govern-

ing the matching curve. In order to accomplish the matching

of second-degree curves, the equation of the matching curve

must first be derived. From this equation a convenient shoulder

point may be calculated, and the required curve constructed by

the usual development. If it is found more convenient, several

points may be calculated and plotted, and the required curve

drawn through these points.

6. Application of Matching Second-Degree Curves

An actual application of the mathematical technique of

matching second-degree curves in the lofting of the basic lines

of a fuselage is shown in Fig. 5.

In this case a given second-degree curve AO tangent to BA

at A and to BO at 0 is to be matched with a reverse second-

degree curve tangent to EO and ED at points 0 and D, respec-

tively. The curves to be matched as to slope and curvature at

the point of intersection or common tangency. The problem is

to determine a shoulder point

C through which the curve

satisfying these conditions may

be constructed.

At the point of intersection

Fig. 5 or common tangency of the

given curve and the desired

matching curve construct a coordinate system (w, v) whose

i>-axis coincides with, or is parallel to, an established horizontal

reference line, as shown in Fig. 6.

The equation of the given curve AO is obtained by the usual

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CONIC LOFTING

193

method of using degenerate conics as the base conics of the

family of such curves tangent to BO and. to BA at 0 and A,

respectively.

A quadratic equation of the form/(7#, v) = o is thus obtained:

v2 7.46646^ 12.33752W + 23.95622W + io.6ai25?*;2 = o. (17)

Fig. 6. Matching Reverse Curves in a Basic Lower Cenierline Development

A coordinate system (x, y) is next established whose x-axis

coincides with the common tangent of the two curves, as shown

in Fig. 6.

The equation for the conic passing through this origin with

zero-slope may be expressed thus:

y2 + dx2 + 2e2xy + 2e3y = o

where

Cl =

and

b2q(ar b)

a2q(ar b) 2b2

b[br aq(ar b)]

a2q(ar b) 2b2

-b\ar - b)

(18)

(19)

(20)

(21)

a2q(ar b) 2b2

The coordinates of point D, and the slope of the given tangent

at D, originally referred to the coordinate system (w, v) may

now be transformed to the coordinate system (x, y) (see Fig. 6).

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194

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Let a and b represent the abscissa and ordinate respectively

of point D in the coordinate system (x, y), and let r represent the

tangent at D referred to the same system. The curvature q in

the present discussion at the matching point 0 has the same

absolute value as the curvature for the given curve AO. The

sign, however, is observed to be positive, since the required curve

will obviously be concave downward at point 0 with reference to

the coordinate system (x, y).

The following values are thus established, referring to equa-

tion (17): a = 63.758, b = 18.985, r = 0.531616, q = 0.000565.

By substitution in equations (19), (20), and (21) the following

equation constants result: ei = 0.0044221, e2 = 0.2642141,

and e3 = 7.826692.

The equation for the required matching curve OD is expressed

in the form/(x, y) = o by substitution in equation (18):

y1 0.5284282x3/ + 15.6533843/ 0.004422 ix2 = o. (22)

By a simple reduction equation (22) may be expressed in the

more convenient form y = f(x):

y = 0.2642141x 7.82669

-I- V0.07423117x2 - 4.135845x + 61.25711. (23)

This equation satisfies all the given conditions, namely:

1. y' (the slope) at point 0 = 0

2. q (the curvature) at point 0 = 0.000565

3. y' (the slope) at point D = 0.531616

4. When x = o, y = o

5. When x = 63.758, y = 18.985.

As many points as are desired may be calculated from equa-

tion (23), and the required curve constructed through these

points. An alternative, and possibly more convenient pro-

cedure, would involve calculating a shoulder point through

which the curve may be constructed by the usual development.

If desired, the coordinates of this shoulder point may be trans-

formed by a simple trigonometric calculation and referred to the

original coordinate system (w, v).

Equally convenient would be the transformation of equa-

tion (22) to the coordinate system (w, v). In this transformed

equation the first derivative (y') at point 0 is the same as the

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CONIC LOFTING

195

first derivative of the equation for curve AO in the common

coordinate system (w, v). Likewise the second derivatives at

point O are the same for

the two equations. Slopes

and curvatures are thus

matched at point 0 as

required.

7. Application of Matching

Technique to Cowling Curve

Development of the

basic contours in the cross-

section view of the fuse-

lage affords further oppor-

tunity for the matching or

correlation of second-

degree curves. The appli-

cation of the matching

technique to the develop-

ment of a cowling curve

which is to be correlated

with an established basic

contour is shown in Fig. 7.

The basic contour is

given tangent to CO' at

0' and to CB at B, pass-

ing through the shoulder

point 0. It is required to

determine the shoulder

point of a curve tangent

to CO at 0 and to CB'

at B'; this curve is also

required to have the same

slope and curvature at the

point of intersection O as the given basic curve at O'B.

Analysis of the given data in Fig. 7 leads to the establishment

of coordinates for points O', , B, C, and O as follows: O' : (, o);

A : (17.36, ); : (17.36, 50.87); : (, 50.87); and O : (2.15,

30.74).

Matching Conic Sections (Body

Plan View)

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196

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

The equation of the curve determined by these conditions is

expressed in the form/(x, y) = o, thus:

y2 + 7.940542x3/ 702.064073x + 8.5866581x2 = o. (24)

The common tangent for the given curve O'B and the match-

ing curve OB' is determined by calculating the first derivative of

equation (24) for point 0. This value is found to equal 5.360122,

which establishes the slope of the common tangent.

The coordinate system for the matching curve OB' is estab-

lished by assuming the common tangent as the x-axis and a

perpendicular to this axis at the point of common tangency O

of the two curves as the y-axis of the system.

Referring to equations (18), (19), (20), and (21), the variables

a, b, r, and q are evaluated as: a = 13.347, b = 12.982,

r = -5.360122, and q = -0.01254575.

The calculated values of Ci, e2, and e3 are thus:

d = 0.600501168, e2 = 3.763826376, e3 = 47.86490787.

The equation of the matching curve, expressed in the form

y = f(x) is formulated thus:

y = 47.86491 - 3.7638264*

V 14.766899x2 360.310405x + 2291.04941.

Equation (25) satisfies the given conditions for matching of

the curves:

1. y' (the slope) at point 0 = 0

2. y' (the slope) at point B = 5.360122

3. q (the curvature) at point 0 = 0.01254575

4. When x = o, y = o

5. When x = 13.347, y 12.982.

A convenient shoulder point may be calculated from equa-

tion (25) and plotted with reference to the coordinate system

(x, y); or the coordinates thus determined may be referred to

the given fuselage reference line by a simple trigonometric

transformation (see Fig. 7).

8. Other Applications of Matching Technique

Another possible application of the matching technique is the

determination of the shoulder point of a curve O'D, shown in

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CONIC LOFTING

197

Fig. 7, matching the basic contour O'B at point 0'. Thus the

development of the curve O'D would become subsidiary to the

conditions governing the curve O'B. This additional applica-

tion would result in a completely matched basic cross-section

contour.

The development of an engine nacelle is also susceptible to the

application of the matching technique. For example, a second-

degree cowl curve MO shown in Fig. 8, may be considered

Thrust

Fig. 8. Matching Conic Sections in a Nacelle Development (Side View)

critical; it is therefore desired to develop a second-degree

curve ON to match this given critical curve MO at point 0.

Such matching is readily accomplished by use of the technique

described.

Generally, the matching or correlation of second-degree

curves is possible wherever such curves intersect in a point of

common tangency. The availability of a technique for success-

fully effecting this correlation serves to emphasize still further

the unusual degree of flexibility with which the second-degree

curve adapts itself to the requirements of basic design and the

lofting of basic dimensions.

9. Construction of Tangent to Second-Degree Curve at a Given Point

The construction of a tangent to a curve at a given point on

the curve is a commonly required lofting development. In the

case of the faired-by-eye curve the tangent at any given point

can be determined only by empirical methods. The inadequacy

of such an approach is unmistakably indicated in the case of a

relatively flat curve. The exact position of a tangent to such

a curve, or even the location of the precise point to which a

tangent should be drawn, is too much a question of individual

speculation and subjective conjecture.

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198

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

The second-degree curve, however, is not beset by the embar-

rassing limitations which characterize the treatment of an

empirical curve. The exact and absolutely defined position of

the tangent at any point on a second-degree curve can be

readily determined by a simple graphical construction. Further-

more, in the case of a long flat curve, this graphical solution may

be either supplemented with or replaced by a mathematical

\technique more conveniently applicable to such conditions.

The graphical method of constructing such a tangent is

shown in Fig. 9. A second-degree curve OB is given tangent

Fig. 9. Graphical Construction of a Tangent to a Given Conic

to CO and to CB at 0 and B respectively. It is required to con-

struct the tangent to the curve OB at point P.

It is necessary to select any two points located at convenient

intervals between the given point P and the point of tangency B

(or 0, if equally convenient), such as M and N. From P draw

PS and PT through M and N respectively. From B draw

BM and BN, the latter being extended to intersect PS at E.

Let D represent the intersection of PT and BM. Construct and

produce DE to intersect the tangent CB at R. Then PR is the

required tangent to the second-degree curve OB at point P.

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CONIC LOFTING

199

A familiar lofting situation calling for the construction of a

tangent to a second-degree curve at a given point is shown in

Fig. 10. In this illustration the basic contour second-degree

curve OB is given. The

tangent at point P is re-

quired. This tangent is

to serve as the common

tangent for both the

given curve OB and a

cowl curve PB. The

graphical method pre-

viously described affords

a convenient method for

establishing the required

tangent.

Select two points, M

and N, located at con-

venient intervals be-

tween P and B. From P

draw lines through M

and N intersecting the

tangent CB at points S

and T, respectively.

From B draw BM and

BN, the latter being ex-

tended to intersect PS

at E. A line drawn from

point D, the intersection

of PT and BM, through

point E intersects CB at

point R. Then PR is

the required tangent to Rg 1Q Construction of a Common Tangent

the curve at point P. (Body p]an View)

10. Construction of Tangent to Second-Degree Curve at Two Given Points

Suppose it is required to establish the tangent to each of two

given points on a second-degree curve, as shown in Fig. n. In

this illustration the points P and T are given, to which tangents

are to be drawn.

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200

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

The selection of three points, such as A, B, and C, located at

convenient intervals on the curve between the points P and T,

is the first step. From P draw PA, PB, and PC; from T draw

TA, TB, and TC. PA and TC extended intersect at E; PA

and TB extended intersect at G; PC and TA intersect at D;

and PB and TA intersect at F. DE and FG extended intersect

at R. PR and TR are the required tangents at the points P

and T respectively.

11. Development of Canted Sections

An application of this technique to a lofting procedure is

shown in Fig. 12. In this case it is required to develop canted

sections normal to the basic upper center-line contour, which is-

a second-degree curve development. These canted sections are

to be constructed normal to the curve at the points P and T

respectively.

First, tangents to these points are constructed, as shown in

Fig. 12, by the technique shown in Fig. n. When the tangents

PR and TR in Fig. 12 are established, the centerlines of the

required canted sections are next established normal to these

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CONIC LOFTING

201

tangents at the points P and T respectively. This same pro-

cedure is equally applicable to the lofting of formers normal to

the basic contour.

Furthermore, the fairing of any second-degree curve develop-

ment into a basic second-degree curve contour requires the

Sta. 00

Fig. 12. Development of a Canted Section in a Bombardier's Compartment

(Side View)

preliminary construction of a tangent to the basic contour at

the point of intersection of the two curves. It is obvious,

therefore, that the techniques illustrated in Figs. 9 and 11 are

highly essential elements of control in the application of the

second-degree curve development.

12. Determining Second-Degree Curve Tangent

Mathematical techniques for determining a second-degree

curve tangent consider a derivative as an expression of a slope.

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202

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

It is through a fundamental application of the differential

calculus to geometry that the slope of a curve, whose equation

may be taken in the convenient form y = /(x), is susceptible to

mathematical evaluation.

This application is based upon the familiar principle that the

derivative of /(x), for a given value of x, is equal to the slope of

the curve y = f(x) at point P which corresponds to the given

value of x. Thus if the equation of a given second-degree curve

is expressed as

y = /(*) (26)

then the slope (y') may be expressed as

y = /'(*) (27)

where/'(x) represents the first derivative of /(x). If x repre-

sents a given abscissa or station distance, then the slope of the

tangent at the point on the curve which corresponds to that

abscissa value may be directly and easily computed.

The accuracy of the calculation of the value of this tangent

may be retained to any predetermined number of decimal places.

Strict adherence to the

conditions established in

basic design in this re-

spect thus becomes the

rule rather than the ex-

ception.

The mathematical

techniques for determin-

ing a second-degree curve

tangent also consider for-

mulas for calculating tan-

gents. The mathemati-

cal determination of the

tangent to a given point

upon a second-degree

curve need not necessarily

be dependent upon first establishing the basic equation for the

curve. If it is required to construct a tangent to one of several

known points upon a given second-degree curve, a formula may

be derived by means of which such a tangent may be found in

Fig. 13

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CONIC LOFTING

203

terms of these limited conditions, independently of the general

conic equation for the given curve. ,

For example, in Fig. 13 a second-degree curve of the type OT

is given. This curve is tangent to the y-axis at the origin of the

coordinate system (x, y), and tangent to RT at the point T.

The tangent TR is normal to the y-axis. It is required to

construct a tangent to the curve at point S, given any two

points A and B on the curve between 5 and the point of tan-

gency T. If the points A and B are not given, they may be

established by the usual second-degree curve development based

upon OR and RT as tangents, with 0 and T respectively as the

points of tangency, and S as a shoulder point.

With point S as an origin, assume a coordinate system (x', y')

whose #'-axis and y'-axis are respectively parallel to the x-axis

and y-axis of the original system (x, y).

Assume as coordinates for points A, B, R, and S, referred to

the new system (x', y'), the following:

A : (a, b); B : (c, d); R : (e, f); and 5 : (o, o).

Calculate the value of the expression

af be

d(a e) c(d f)

and let g represent this value.

Calculate the value of the expression

(28)

cf de .

b(c - e) - a(d - f) (29)

and let h represent this value. Then the value of the slope (y)

of the tangent at point 5 is given by

y cg(f-bh) - ah(dg-f) {SO)

This formula, in other words, gives the trigonometric tangent of

the angle QSX. For this type of curve the angle ORT is a right

angle. A similar formula may be conveniently derived for each

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204

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

of the few basic types of curves encountered in the development

of fuselage lines. ,

This mathematical technique constitutes a logical cross-check

upon the accuracy of the graphical method suggested in Fig. 9.

In case of a relatively flat curve this calculation method would

undoubtedly be given preference over a purely graphical

solution.

13. Parametric and Other Formulas

Certain parametric formulas which have been derived for con-

venience of application and economy of time in the mathematical

development of certain features of the second-degree curve

y development are considered in

shoulder point D, tangent to OA and to OC at points A and C

respectively, with O the origin of the coordinate system (x, y).

In the usual second-degree development, lines are drawn

through point D from point A and from point C. Then diagonal

lines are drawn from 0. These diagonals eventually yield

points on the curve.

Suppose it is required to find the station distance (x) and the

ordinate (y) of the point on the curve corresponding to any given

diagonal line through the origin O. Let OE represent such

a diagonal whose slope is represented by k.

Assume as coordinates for the points 0, A, C, and D the follow-

ing values: 0 : (o, o); A : (a, o); C : (o, c); and D '. (d, e).

Calculate the respective values of the expressions

the following discussion.

Fig. 14

In order to illustrate the ap-

plication of parametric formu-

las to a second-degree curve, a

hypothetical case, designated

as Case I, is shown in Fig. 14.

In this case a second-degree

curve is given through the

cd adk + ae ac

and

aek ack ce + cdk.

Let g and h respectively represent these two expressions.

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CONIC LOFTING

205

Then

_ ace(cd + ae ac) . .

X ~ acdek - gh C3I)

and

y = kx. (32)

Thus if k, the slope of any given diagonal line is given, then the

station distance (x) and the ordinate (y) of the corresponding

point on the curve can be calculated.

Further, if x is given, or if y is given, then the value of k can

be determined. In this case the calculation will reduce to the

solution of a quadratic equation in k.

14. Application of Parametric Formulaste Keel Curve Development

To further illustrate the application of parametric formulas to

a second-degree curve development, a curve of the so-called

"keel" type may be considered as Case II, and illustrated in

Fig. 15. In this case the curve is assumed tangent to the x-axis

at the origin of the coordinate

system (x, ), tangent to AB

at point B, and passing

through the shoulder point D.

The angle O AB for this type

curve is an obtuse angle.

If it is desired to know the

station distance (x) and ordi-

nate (y) of the point on the

curve corresponding to any given diagonal line through the ori-

gin 0, a convenient formula is available.

For example, the location of a section canted in the profile

view, representing a floor board installation in an observation

compartment may be ascertained with reference to the basic

contour by this technique, as in Fig. 16.

If the converse is required, that is, if the station distance (x)

is given, then the slope of the diagonal line from 0 through the

point on the curve corresponding to this abscissa value may be

determined by the same technique.

To derive the necessary formulas, assume as coordinates for

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206

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

the points 0, A, B, C, and D the following values: 0 : (o, o);

A : (a, 6); B : (b, c); C : (o, c); and D : (d, e).

Let

adk

and

Then

and

dk e

aek

dk e

abk adk + be cd

k(b - d) - (c - e)

= yi

= x2

k(be cd + ac ae) _

- d) - (c - e) = yr

_ x,(cXl - by,)

jc2(c - yi) - y2(b - Xl) K33)

y = y&. (34)

Thus if a, b, c, d, e, and k (the slope of any diagonal through O)

are given, then the station distance (x) and the ordinate (y) of

the point of intersection of the diagonal with the curve can be

computed.

Furthermore, if the station distance or abscissa (x) is given,

the value of k can be found. That is, the slope of the diagonal

line necessary to yield a point on the second-degree curve at any

desired station can be determined.

Similar formulas may be derived for each of the few basically

different types of curves which are regularly encountered in the

lofting of basic dimensions.

15. Formulas for Calculations Relating o Slope and Curvature

Since lofting techniques related to the second-degree curve

development frequently involve considerations of slope and

curvature, it is therefore highly desirable to have available

convenient formulas for calculations relating to slope and

curvature.

For example, with reference to the so-called "keel" curve,

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CONIC LOFTING 207

shown in Fig. 15, the formula in the form y = f(x), reduced to

the abbreviated statement

y = Px + Q - VRx2 + Sx + T (35)

where P, Q, R, S, and T are constants subject to evaluation on

the basis of given conditions, may be transformed into expres-

Fig. 16. Floor Board Installation in a Bombardier's Compartment

sions which permit the direct computation of slope and curva-

ture. The equation (35) is the same as equation (10) (Chap-

ter X) previously given.

This transformation involves elementary applications of the

calculus. Thus equation (35) becomes

g-P-G^ + fr + ^C^*^) (36,

Rx + S/2

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208

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

By substitution of any given value of x in equation (36) the slope

at the corresponding point on the curve may be computed.

The second derivative, whose value is essential to application

of the matching technique, is derived from equation (36) as

follows -

. / 2Rx + S \

d2y VRx2 + SX+ T^ ~ ^2RX +5> + Sx+t)

dx2 2(Rx2 + Sx + T)

_ _ 4(RV + RSx + RT) + \R2x2 + \RSX + S2

4(4x2 + Sx + T)3'2

S2 - 4RT

4(Rx2 + Sx + T)

3/2

(37)

Thus for any given values of x the value of the second deriva-

tives of the curve equations at the corresponding point on the

curve may be computed.

By a similar process the first and second derivatives of the

equation for the "keel" curve, when expressed in the form

x = f(y),

x = Py + VRy2 + Sy

dx_p, Py + s/2

dy~F + VRy2 + Sy (3)

d2x S

dy2 ~ 4(Ry2 + Sy)3'2

(39)

PROBLEMS

1. For curves of Type II, shown by Fig. il (Chapter X), when the

curve equation is expressed y = fix) thus:

y = Px + VRx2 + Sx

(a) Prove that the first derivative becomes

dy Rx + S/2

dx + VRx2 + Sx

and that the second derivative becomes

d?y= S2

dx2 4(Rx2 + Sx)3/2'

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CONIC LOFTING 209

(b) When the curve equation is expressed x = f(y) thus:

x = Py + Q - VRf + Sy + T

prove that the first derivative becomes

Jx= Ry + S/2

dy VRy* + Sy + T

and that the second derivative is expressed thus:

(Px = S2 - 4RT

dy2 4(22/ + Sy + T)3/i''

2. For curves of Type III, as in Fig. 12 (Chapter X), show that the

following formulas apply:

CASE I

(a) When y = Px - VRx2 + Sx

dy = _ Rx + 5/2

dx VRx2 + Sx

d?y = S2

dx2 4(Rx2 + Sx)3/*

CASE II

(b) When x = Py + Q + Vi?y2 + Sy + T

dx_r, Ry + S/2

dy VRy* + Sy + T

<Px = 4i?r - 5

dy2 4(Ry* + Sy + T)3'2'

3. For curves of Type IV, as in Fig. 18 (Chapter X) show that the

following formulas apply:

CASE I

(a) When y = Px + VRx2 + 5*

dy _ Rx + S/2

dx VRx2 + Sx

(Py = S2

dx2 ~ 4(Rx2 + Sx)i/2'

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210

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

CASE II

(b) When x = Py + Q - VRy* + Sy + T

dx _ _ Ry + S/2

dy y/Ry* + Sy + T

dhc = S2 - 4RT

dy2 4(i?/ + Sy + T)/'

4. For curves of Type V, as in Fig. 19 (Chapter X), show that the

following formulas apply:

CASE I

(a) When y = Px + Q - VRx2 + Sx + T

dy=p_ Rx + S/2

dx VRx* + Sx+ T

y = S* - 4RT

dx2 4(Rx* + Sx + T)3/2'

CASE II

(b) When x = Py + Q - VRf + Sy + T

dx=p_ Ry + S/2

dy VRy* + Sy + T

cPx S2 - 4RT

dy2 4(Ry2 + Sy + T)v*

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CHAPTER XII

SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES

1. Calculation of Canted Fuselage Sections

The development of canted fuselage sections, both single and

double cant, has traditionally been almost exclusively a subject

for graphical analysis. Such a graphical method of attack is

open to criticism with respect to the following points:

1. Degree of lofting skill and amount of experience required on the

part of the loftsman or draftsman.

2. Physical inconvenience in making large-scale developments.

3. Technical difficulties in providing necessary equipment.

4. Strictly empirical nature of checking methods.

5. Cumulative errors involved in repeatedly transferring given data

during the development.

6. Lack of a systematically charted and checked body of accurate

dimensional data at the conclusion of the development.

A mathematical approach to this lofting problem has been out

of the reach of practical application because of the nature of

traditional fuselage development. Basic fuselage lines have

been confined for the most part to the category of nonmathe-

matical "faired-by-eye" curves whose actual nature can only be

approximated empirically.

2. Calculation Technique

The system of conic lofting techniques described in this text

affords an unique opportunity for circumventing the disad-

vantages enumerated above. The canted section may be

calculated through a procedure based upon the mathematical

description of the basic fuselage control curves without reference

to the graphical layout.

This procedure is based upon the familiar analytic technique

of developing the equation of the plane of the required canted

section, thereafter treating it as a part of a simultaneous system

of equations, the other equations of the system consisting of the

211

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

quadratic equations describing the body-plan contours through

which the plane of the canted section passes.

Considered in this light, the calculation of any type of canted

section, whether a single cant in the side view, a single cant in

the plan view, or a double canted section, is fundamentally the

same in each case as far as basic procedure is concerned.

a. Calculation of Single Cant-Side View

Figure i shows the basic conditions governing the calculation

of a canted firewall section, described as a single cant in the side

view. It is assumed that the basic conditions establishing the

location of the plane of the front face of the firewall are the inter-

section of the plane with the centerline of thrust, and the angle

of rotation (</,) from the vertical in a clockwise direction.

Designating this intersection point Pf(Yf, Zf) as an origin,

the equation of the plane of the front face of the firewall referred

to this point assumes the form:

Y, = mZj + Y,. (i)

Since it is desirable to adhere as closely as possible to the

conventional lofting grid arrangement in the application of

the mathematical technique, the regular intersections of water-

line planes with the canted firewall plane and the molded surface

of the fulselage are required for the actual development of

the layout.

The next step, then, is to determine the fuselage stations

(Yrvalues) of these intersections. The equations of the body-

plan basic contours corresponding to these stations may be

calculated from the basic equations previously established for

the fuselage lines. For all stations aft of the intersection of the

canted section and the maximum half-breadth line, only upper

contour equations are needed; for all stations forward of this

intersection only lower contour equations are needed.

Two additional points which may serve as basic checks upon

the calculation of the canted section are the intersections of

this canted plane with the upper and lower basic centerline

curves respectively.

The coordinates of these two intersection points may be calcu-

lated through simultaneous solution of the equations of the

respective centerlines with the equation of the canted plane.

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Y- Max Half Breadth Line j

'"' fnn*r CL-..I JA- 1 i

upper onouiOOr Line ^

4 t Ship

'V" lower Shoulder Line 'f J

PLAN VIEW

PMENT WITH CONICS

PROFILE VIEW

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES

The equations corresponding to the Yr body plan contours may

be calculated on the proper chart form and the Xf value deter-

mined from the Zf value ascertained in the simultaneous solution

discussed above. The Xf value should equal o in each case,

since the intersection points lie in the plane of symmetry of the

airplane.

This method of checking may likewise be applied to the upper

and lower shoulder lines and the maximum half-breadth line as

well.

As an hypothetical case (see Fig. 1) of the application of this

technique to a single cant in the profile view, assume as co-

ordinates for the point Pf( Yf, Zf) of the intersection of the plane

of the front face of a firewall with the fuselage reference line at

CHART 1

SIDE VIEW SHOWING TRUE VIEW OF FIREWALL REF PLANE

FIREWALL REF. LINE (THEORETICAL/

centerline of ship the numerical values (i 11.5626, o), and the

tangent of the angle of cant (0) as 0.17934.

Then the equation of the plane of the canted section becomes

Y, = O.17934Z/ + 111.5626.

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SO SO

SO -

lion

in,

.to

so'

*!?

sd 4

O GO

Noo

Transia

II II

I+

II H

II II

*fs?

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES

The column headed by the designation Z/ in Chart i repre-

sents conventional waterlines established at intervals of 2.5

inches. In the problem under consideration the upper and lower

waterline limits vary slightly from the limits suggested in Fig. 1.

The column headed Yr represents the fuselage stations of the

points of projection of these waterline planes upon the plane of

the firewall. These fuselage stations are indicated as A, B, C, D,

. . . O, P, Q in the profile view of Fig. 1.

The equations of the basic curves of the forebody (see Fig. 2)

are given by the tabulation shown in Chart 2.

The column headed Xf represents the distance from the center-

line of ship to the intersection of a given waterline plane and the

canted plane with the fuselage molded surface.

The latter column of values is developed by substituting the

waterline values of column Zf in the corresponding body plan

equations. These equations may be quickly developed through

the use of the chart system previously described.

These Xr values may be plotted directly upon a true view

grid (Section B-B of Fig. 1) whose waterlines have been expanded

thus

Z'r (true view) = Z sec </> (2)

whence

z; = 2.540. (3)

The contour developed by splining through the points thus

established is the required canted section.

b. Single Cant-Plan View

Figure 3 illustrates a single cant in the plan view, the angle of

cant being designated as (0) in the plan view. The procedure

for calculating this type of cant is fundamentally the same as

for a single cant in the side view described above. In this case

the true view grid will require an expansion of buttock lines

instead of waterlines.

c. Double Cant

Figure 4 illustrates a double canted fuselage section. The

equation of the plane of such a canted section may be convenient-

ly developed through reference to the angles shown. The angle

shown in the plan view is the angle between a normal station

plane and the line of intersection of a waterline plane with the

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216

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

plane of the canted section, the rotation being considered

clockwise.

Angle in the auxiliary view is the dihedral angle between

the plane of the canted section and a plane normal to a waterline

S-t Ship

BODY PLAN

Upper Shldr. Line

Fus. Ref. Line-jE

Lower Shldr. Line

t Ship

Lower t

t Ship^

PROFILE

SINGLE CANT PLAN VIEW

Fig.3

plane passing through the intersection of the latter plane with

the canted section.

Angle ' (body plan view) is the projected angle between a

buttock plane and the line of intersection of a fuselage station

plane with the plane of the canted section.

The equation of the plane of the canted section may be

directly developed through the use of these angles.

The X and Z coordinates must both be expanded in establish-

ing the true view. This procedure is as follows:

Z' (true view) = Z sec (4)

., f. . X + Z (tan sin a) ,,.

X (true view) = - (5)

cos a

The advantages of the application of such techniques to the

development of canted fuselage sections may be summarized

thus:

1. Direct development of large scale layouts for aircraft whose

structural size is so great as to render graphical development

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES

217

techniques too clumsy for convenient and accurate application.

2. Simplicity in the amount and type of lofting equipment required.

3. Provision of an independent and accurate check upon the de-

velopment.

4. Elimination of "pick-up" error and cumulative tolerances.

5. Less skill and experience required in the lofting of the layout.

6. Establishment of a permanent tabulation of coordinated dimen-

sional data.

This new application of conic lofting techniques demonstrates

again the versatile and flexible character of such a system of

Plane'Normal to Wafer Line Plane

Plane of

Canted Section

AUXILIARY VIEW

Vertical Section

PLAN VIEW

BODY PLAN

Upper Shldr. Line

Upper t

Max. Half Breadth Line

PROFILE ^ Lower *

DOUBLE CANTED SECTION

F1g. 4

applications. Of constantly fundamental significance is the

continued establishment of the mathematical controls which are

indispensable to the maintenance of complete dimensional

coordination.

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PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

3. Fuselage Coordinate Data Based on Conic Techniques

The problem presented by the need for providing coordinate

information relative to fuselage station contours has never been

successfully solved by the application of traditional lofting

methods.

Following traditional procedures, subsequent to the establish-

ment of the basic fuselage lines layout, an ordinate chart was

prepared showing scaled offset values from the centerline of ship

(buttock values) and from the fuselage reference line (waterline

values). The preparation of this chart, seemingly undertaken

as an after-thought, inevitably led to a finished product of such

a character as would naturally be expected of an analysis both

empirically inadequate and applied only incidentally.

The shortcomings of such data have been so pronounced as to

reduce the preparation of such charts to a routine formality,

indeed, perhaps only to satisfy some pre-established requirement

already outmoded through ineffectiveness of application.

The disadvantages of data thus compiled are numerous:

1. Time lag between release of original lines data to the loft and the

final release of the charted data.

2. Lack of actual coordination of scaled data with existing lines.

3. Inaccuracies in scaling due to the human element.

4. Lack of a positive, objective method of checking scaled dimen-

sions.

5. Lack of precision equipment for scaling offsets.

4. Types of Fuselage Coordinate Data

It is obvious that carefully and systematically prepared

charts of fuselage data, coordinated precisely with the actual

fuselage lines, and so organized as to provide a complete and

adequate picture of the dimensional features of each given

fuselage frame, would fill what now amounts to an appreciable

gap in the sum total of basic dimensions which should be avail-

able on the airplane.

Such information, including waterline-buttock line offsets for

all desired fuselage stations (normal and canted), stringer co-

ordinate data and longeron basic data, would be of direct and

positive value in the following functional respects:

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES

219

1. Provision of a check upon the accuracy of basic body plan view

lines of the fuselage during the lofting process.

2. Provision of a check upon the accuracy of fuselage contour

templates of all types.

3. Provision of engineering reference data for the development of

body plan contours, whole or in part, to any desired scale.

4. Provision of the means for establishing any required point on the

fuselage molded surface by direct calculation.

5. Provision for advance release of critical dimensions for engineer-

ing design and tooling use.

6. Provision for advance establishment of one centralized body of

coordinated dimensional data for the use of engineering, lofting,

tooling, and inspection.

CHART 3. CURVE: STA. 000.0 (UPPER CONTOUR)

When One Tangent Coincides with the X-Axis and the Other is Perpendicular to it

For Calculation of X = P'Y V R'Y* + S'Y

From Y = PX + Q VRX* + SX + T

B = 17.265 C = 6.006 P = .092408 Q = 4.410581 R = -.11247534

U = (B/CY = 8.26347104 P' = PU = .763610832

y - 2QU = 72.8934167 R' - RU1 = -7-68037338

Station

6.006 Xf

P'Y

VR'Y' + S'Y

X - 7.074

6.006

4.5862

36.072036

12.6788

17.2650

10.191

5.006

3.8226

25.060036

131314

16.9540

9.880

4.006

3.t>590

16.048036

12.9906

16.0496

8.976

3.006

22954

9.036036

12-2359

14.5313

7-457

o. Waterline-Buttock Line Coordinates

With the use of appropriate conic techniques the establishment

of waterline and buttock line offset data is a purely mathematical

routine. From the conic equations of the basic fuselage lines,

including the upper and lower centerlines, the upper and lower

shoulder lines, and the maximum half-breadth line, the inter-

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220

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

section points of these lines with the plane of a given fuselage

station may be directly computed.

Thus (see Chart 3) the intersection of a given station plane

with the basic fuselage lines establishes the control points for the

upper and lower contours of a typical frame. The coordinates of

these points supply the loftsman with the data necessary for the

development of the body plan contours as conic sections. This

development may be accomplished graphically where the small

size of the layout renders such a procedure desirable.

However, the plotting of the calculated points tabulated as

shown in Chart 3 will enable the loftsman to establish the re-

quired contours without resorting to graphical analysis to deter-

mine points on the curve. The construction of an accurate grid

as a preliminary step will greatly facilitate the mechanical

plotting of points from a chart of calculated coordinate data.

The calculation of buttock line intersections with a body plan

contour may be carried out as indicated in Chart 4. Such

calculations are based upon the original equation from which

waterline intersections are determined. Through this procedure

both waterline and buttock line offsets may be considered as

derived from a common basic equation.

Normally the equation of a given body plan contour is ex-

pressed in the form y =/(x). This form of the equation is

adapted to the calculation of y-values (buttock line values)

corresponding to given waterlines. This procedure is obviously

best adapted to establishing a body plan contour. However, if

a water line dimension is required corresponding to a given

buttock line dimension, as is the case in the problem under

consideration, the equation y = f(x) is no longer directly

applicable.

One alternative is to repeat the derivation of the equation in

the form x = f(y). This step, however, would require the

repetition of several computation steps involving a dispropor-

tionate amount of time as compared with the use to which the

resulting equation is to be put.

Therefore a "short-cut" operation is established by Chart 4,

by means of which the equation in the form y = /(x), already

derived, may be transformed more directly into the form

x = f(y).

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CHART 4

UPPER CONTOUR

Waterline

Offset

Waterline

Offset

Buttock

Offset

Buttock

Offset

10.191

5-657

3825

9.880

4.071

8.976

2.5

4.827

7-457

5.368

3.825

5.657

-2.5

5736

-5

5 949

-7.074

6.006

Fus. Ref. Line

TYPICAL FRAME

LOWER CONTOUR

Waterline

Offset

Waterline

Offset

Buttock

Offset

Buttock

Off set

-7.047

6.006

-14.845

-7.5

6.002

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222

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Thus the given equation

Px + Q VRx2 + Sx + T

(6)

becomes

Py VR'y2 + S'y

(7)

where

2QU

and

RU\

The value of U is based upon the coordinates and upon

which equation (6) depends. It is evaluated as

The values P, Q, and R represent previously calculated con-

stants for the given equation (equation (6)).

Thus by the use of Chart 4, for any given fuselage station

(upper contour, body plan view looking aft), and the calculated

offset from the fuselage reference line to the fuselage-enclosure

intersection line for the same station, the corresponding water-

line (x-value) for the intersection point may be quickly

determined

Regardless of the procedure adopted, the one method em-

ployed may be checked by judicious application of the other.

In the case of frame contours of small magnitude, graphical

development using calculated control points may appear most

feasible. In the case of relatively large cross-section curves,

the plotting of calculated coordinates appears to be the logical

choice.

The engineering designer and draftsman may elect any one of

three procedures to secure a needed contour. He may employ

the given control points, especially convenient for reduced scale

development, or he may plot offset data to develop the required

contour, or any part of the contour desired. A third procedure

is the tracing of the loft lines on vellum, provided that the lofting

process is far enough along to make such lines available. Calcu-

lated data may be established considerably ahead of the actual

lofting of the lines.

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES

223

In resorting to the tracing-on-vellum method, the draftsman

is limited to full-scale reproduction of the desired contour. The

value of calculated data, coordinated with the actual lines, is

thus readily apparent.

Furthermore, any desired theoretical section may be developed

from calculated control points without requiring the formal

lofting of such lines until it has been definitely established that

such lines will be actually needed. The saving of time and

expense involved in this respect is quite obvious.

Calculated control points may be rushed into mock-up without

the delay necessitated for the development of the regular lines

layout. Design procedures may thus be greatly accelerated in

this stage of the airplane's development.

In addition to normal fuselage frame contour data all canted

frames may be established by calculation procedures referred

both to the fuselage reference system and also to the true view

of the given frame. The former body of data establishes the

precise location of the canted frame with respect to basic fuselage

elements; the latter data govern the flat pattern development

and tooling requirements referred to the actual plane of the

canted frame.

b. Longeron Coordinate Data

The use of conic lofting techniques makes possible a more

complete dimensional picture on longeron structures than has

hitherto been available.

In addition to fuselage station (y) values and waterline (z)

values, buttock (x) dimensions may be calculated. Thus a

complete coordinate description of basic longeron points may

be developed purely by calculation procedures. Such informa-

tion is especially important in establishing jig structures, since

longeron locations are basic and critical in a given fuselage

frame structure.

The design of longeron fittings and structural tie-in of related

members may be easily and directly correlated with the longeron.

Mathematical development of fittings not conveniently sus-

ceptible to layout methods is a question of merely adding to the

picture already established.

Analytic analysis of straight line elements and planes may be

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224

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

correlated with the analytic description of contours to insure

perfect coordination of structure in assembly procedures.

The actual calculation of the additional (x or buttock) dimen-

sion in the case of the typical longeron, which appears as a

straight line in the side view, involves merely substituting the

waterline (z) values for a given fuselage frame station in the

already established body plan contour equation.

c. Stringer Coordinate Data

The same complete body of coordinate data may be compiled

to describe fuselage stringers. Where such structural members

are designed as straight line elements in the side or profile view,

the same calculation procedure may be applied as was indicated

in the case of longerons.

Such information, properly tabulated, constitutes a valuable

source of engineering information, directly accessible to the

designer and draftsman.

The jig builder likewise has a timely source of pertinent data,

which, since available to inspection in the same convenient form,

insures both functions adhering to a common dimensional

standard. This feature of availability of a common source of

coordinating dimensions for all functions in engineering, lofting

and tooling, particularly when inspection procedures are known

to be based upon such data tends to promote a positive and

constructive program of dimensional applications.

5. Development of a Cockpit Enclosure

The development of a cockpit enclosure involves all the funda-

mental problems attending the fairing of a subsidiary structure,

critically located with respect to the airflow, with the basic body

lines.

Design considerations affecting structural clearances, wind-

shield size and angle of inclination, desired angle of downward

vision, and the amount of all-around vision required, assuming

the fuselage previously established, are naturally governed by

formally prescribed specifications.

Likewise, aerodynamic considerations affecting the estab-

lishment of a top centerline and basic radial contours from the

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES

225

point of view of desirable pressure distribution are formulated by

theoretical calculations and wind tunnel testing.

Sections may then be developed from these radial contours,

indicating, the required basic shape of the forward part of the

enclosure. Side and plan views may then be developed, follow-

ing the aerodynamically set front lines and leading up to an

overall shape conforming to the airplane as a whole. By judi-

cious choice of tangents, intersections, and shoulder or control

points, conic developments may be established by matching the

aerodynamic and design conditions specified in the foregoing

(see Fig. 5).

Two construction waterlines (plan view) conforming to aero-

dynamic requirements, one line located near the top of the

windshield, the other near the bottom, may be established to

control the warped surface desired in the side panels of the

windshield. Both of these control curves are conics (see Figs. 5

and 6).

It is next necessary (see Fig. 6) to fair this straight line devel-

opment into the strictly conic development just aft of the wind-

shield fairing (Sta. A in Fig. 6). The conics involved lend

themselves with characteristic flexibility to these adjustments.

The heavy curves represent the controlling conics in Fig. 6,

which is a composite plan, side and body plan view indicating

the complete development of the enclosure.

a. Calculation of Fuselage-Enclosure Intersection

In every such development there is an intersection line of the

component structures. The development of this line of inter-

section is basic to the actual attachmant of the enclosure to the

fuselage.

In the purely graphic approach the contour of the fuselage

must be definitely established and faired, preliminary to the

development of the intersection line. With the conic technique,

the precise location of the intersection line may be calculated

and established entirely independently of the layout.

Figure 5 shows the basic data, in profile and plan views

respectively, for the development of a cockpit enclosure by

means of conic lofting techniques.

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226

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES 227

The coordinate position of the fuselage enclosure intersection

line in the plan view may be defined as follows:

0 : (o, o) :(o, o)

A : (a, o) :(si, o)

B : (b, c) :(72.265, 14.625)

C : (o, c) :(o, 14.625)

D : (d, e) :(51, 5.5).

The equation for this curve expressed in the form y = f(x), is

y = Px + Q - VRx2 + Sx + T

where

P = -.21387

Q = 52.35860

R = -.117931

S = -22.39615

T = 2741.42299.

The calculation of these equation constants is indicated step

by step in Chart 4A. The offsets from the centerline of ship

CHART 4B. CURVE: COCKPIT MAX. H.B.PLAN VIEW

For Calculation of Y = PX + Q VRX1 + SX + T

P = -.21387 Q = 52.35860 R = -.117931

5 = -22.39615 T = 2741.42299

Station

-00.0 + Y

PX + Q

VRX2 + SX + T

A C

14.625 - Y

00.0

6-5

50.9684

42-25

50.9005

.068

14.557

in the plan view at given basic fuselage stations or body plan

sections are calculated and tabulated as shown in Chart 4B.

These offset values are buttock dimensions, which, if substituted

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228

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

in the equations of the respective fuselage station curves, will

establish the corresponding waterline dimensions. Thus the

three space coordinates, fuselage station, buttock line, and water-

line dimensions, are established for each point of intersection of

the fuselage-enclosure intersection line with the given fuselage

body plan contours.

Of course, the previous calculation of the basic fuselage body

plan curve equations provides the mathematical foundation for

the computations necessary for the enclosure development.

CHART 4C. CURVE: STA. 00.0 UPPER-FRONT VIEW

When One Tangent Coincides with the X-Axis and the Other

For Calculation of X = P'Y VR'Y* + S'Y

from Y = PX + Q V RX* + SX + T

is Perpendicular to it

B = 39.682 C = 17.903 P

= -i-437399 0 = 74.9419 R

= 1.862569

/BV p'

u={c) = 4.9128724 R,

= PU = -7.061758 S'

= RU* = 44.955552

= 2QU .-

= 736.35998

Station

17.903-XF

P'Y

VR'Y* + S'Y

A C

x ~ 17-333

"4.557

3.346

-23.6286

11-19572

54.4717

30.843

13.51o

Through a procedure based upon such a mathematical founda-

tion, information pertinent to many related functions such as

basic lines layout, mock-up, plaster shop, model design, engineer-

ing design, and the like, may be delivered at one and the same

time. Since such data represent the exact solution of the given

problem, there is no pyramiding of tolerances through a second

or third-hand source of information.

The actual procedure involved in establishing the waterline

of the intersection point of the fuselage-enclosure intersection

line (plan view) with a given fuselage station is illustrated in

Chart 4C.

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES

229

Thus by use of Chart 4C, for any given fuselage station

(upper contour, body plan view looking aft), and the calculated

offset from the fuselage reference line to the fuselage-enclosure

intersection line for the same station, the corresponding water-

line (x-value) for the intersection point may be quickly deter-

mined.

b. Basic Conies to Be Calculated

The value of x, (fuselage reference system) is computed to

be 13.510. Thus the buttock line and waterline coordinates of

the required intersection point are 14.557 and 13.510 respec-

tively. In a similar fashion as many points as are required

may be calculated. The intersection line may thus be defined

and fitted precisely into the complete fairing of the enclosure

with the fuselage lines.

Referring to Fig. 5, it is observed that the plan view basic

conics to be calculated, in addition to the fuselage-enclosure

intersection line (maximum half-breadth in the plan view), are

the enclosure shoulder line, windshield lower contour, wind-

shield upper contour, and the tangent intersection line; in the

profile view are the shoulder line, the fillet radius line, and the

upper enclosure centerline. The latter consists of two different

conic sections, necessitating the derivation of two equations to

determine the complete upper centerline development.

In addition, calculation of offsets for all fuselage stations

which operate to establish the governing conditions for the basic

conics is desirable in order to provide a check on the complete

fairing picture. These offsets should be computed for the

upper centerline of the fuselage, the plan and profile views of the

fuselage upper shoulder line, and the plan and profile views of

the fuselage maximum half-breadth.

Interpolated in such a table of offsets would be offsets at

previously calculated stations used to establish the original

basic fuselage lines. Thus this calculation procedure involves

merely adding to a mathematical picture already in existence.

It is characteristic of an analytic system of analysis that a

foundation is constantly available for additional developments.

Repetition of previous calculation steps is thus virtually

eliminated.

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230

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

6. Development of a Radiator Air Scoop

The development of a radiator air scoop involves not only all

the factors fundamental to the lofting of a typical subsidiary

development, but also certain special elements peculiar to such

a type of structure. Basically, the problem of fairing the scoop

into the established fuselage lines is a problem to which mathe-

matical techniques are directly applicable.

The accuracy of this phase of the development is of particular

importance, inasmuch as the body plan view theoretical lower

contours of the fuselage are replaced in the area of the scoop by

the newly developed scoop contours. Mathematical derivation

of this phase of the fairing is consequently of special value with

respect to the retention of a complete mathematical description

of the actual fuselage lines.

If such a description of the fuselage lines is limited to the

original theoretical contours, without cognizance of modifications

in actual structure, the subsequent practical value of the re-

corded data is rigorously limited to those sections of the fuselage

not affected by. such modifications.

The overall shape and dimensional features of the scoop

depend, of course, upon thermodynamic and aerodynamic re-

quirements specifically imposed upon the installation.

The lofting of such a structure is governed by a variety of

conditions.

a. Calculation of Basic Scoop Contours

The fairing of the scoop, which is shown in Fig. 7 as an integral

part of the lower fuselage just aft of the wing, requires as a first

step the development of the lower external shoulder line in both

the side and plan views, and the lower external centerline as it is

modified from the original theoretical lower centerline of the

fuselage proper.

These data, combined with the previously established maxi-

mum half-breadth line, are sufficient to establish the modified

lower body plan contours in the area of the fuselage in which

the scoop is located. This procedure is entirely independent of

graphic fairing. As a matter of fact, no reference is made to

a lines layout of the fuselage. The establishment of the re-

quired data is a purely mathematical exercise. The maximum

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES

231

half-breadth (Xr) values are already tabulated in appropriate

charts from the previous calculation of the basic fuselage lines.

For a given fuselage station the control points are thus imme-

diately available for the development of the body plan contour.

As an illustrative example of how such control points are

calculated, the lower external shoulder line (side and plan views)

may be analyzed in detail. In the particular air scoop under

consideration, this contour is divided into two sections in the

side or profile view, each represented by its own conic equation.

It has been pointed out that for all practical calculation pur-

poses all second-degree curves (conic sections) may be classified

under two types, viz: (1) a curve with at least one tangent

parallel to a reference axis; (2) a curve neither of whose tangents

is parallel to a reference axis.

In the case of the basic curves of the fuselage, it is ordinarily

convenient to classify all curves in the former category. How-

ever, in the case of most subsidiary developments, the required

control curves will usually fall into the second class for calcula-

tion purposes.

The procedure involved in determining the equation of the

second class of curves has been discussed in a previous chapter.

Assume a coordinate reference system for the aft section of the

lower external shoulder line whose control points have co-

ordinates as follows (see Fig. 8):

(Bu B2) : (108.75, 20.1035)

(C,, Q : ( 32.375. 0.541)

(A, A) : ( 32.375, 2.8535)-

Then the equation of the conic

governed by these conditions,

expressed in the form y = f(x), is Pig. &

where

y = Px + Q - VRx2 + Sx + T

P = +0.078317

Q = -8.525320

R = +0.0377151

5 = -1.050430

T = 72.681084.

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232 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

For any given fuselage station, properly translated from an

xf value to an x-value referred to the coordinate system to which

the equation itself is referred, the corresponding waterline

dimension (zf) may be determined from a standard conic calcu-

lation chart.

In the plan view of the same curve, it is observed that one

tangent is parallel to a reference axis in the translated coordinate

system employed for the curve.

Assume as coordinates for the control points of the required

curve the following (see Fig. 9):

A: 51.125

B : 114

C: 5-375

D: 51.125

E: 1.031.

Then the equation con-

stants of the required con-

ic are:

P = + 0.037169

Q 4.950376

R = + 0.0041944

S = 0.3680006

T = +24.506220.

As in the case of the side view of the same curve, for any given

fuselage station (Xf) value, properly translated to an jc-value

referred to the coordinate system of the curve equation, the

corresponding buttock dimension (xj) may be determined from

a standard conic calculation chart.

b. Shoulder Point Coordinates

This Xf value, together with the zf value given above, con-

stitute the coordinates of the shoulder point for the scoop frame

(body plan) contour, and may be designated (X Zs).

The waterline value of the intersection of any given fuselage

station with the air scoop external lower centerline may be

determined by similar methods.

In the air scoop development under consideration, additional

curves whose equations must be developed include the internal

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES

233

upper centerline and internal lower centerline (forward, center

and aft sections).

In the fairing of the fuselage lower centerline just aft of the

scoop structure, it is necessary to establish the section of modified

curve tangent to the basic curve at a given fuselage station.

Establishing the common tangent of the two curves at this station

consists merely of finding the first derivative (slope) of the basic

curve equation for the given station on the curve.

The internal curves mentioned above govern the development

of the inner contours of the air scoop duct, as well as structural

clearances for the radiator itself. From the equations thus

established, the designer may derive data to guide the design of

supporting structure, particularly for the radiator unit. Such

calculated dimensional data are immediately available, in-

dependent of actual loft layouts. The process of designing is

thereby considerably expedited, with none of the customary

delay for developed "lines" involved.

Through such detailed knowledge of space relationships within

the scoop itself, changes in radiator specifications dictated by

the results of experimental flight tests may be quickly effected

with a minimum loss of time in subsequent lofting and tooling

developments. Equally significant is the fact that the designer,

supplied with precise, coordinated dimensional information, is

free to concentrate his energies upon his specialty, that of

structural development. A saving of time in this phase of the

airplane's development is multiplied many times over in the

various successive stages.

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CHAPTER XIII

SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES (Continued)

Certain graphical constructions, applicable to a wide range of

layout problems, have been selected and analyzed as essential

elements in the application of conic lofting techniques. Although

the constructions are analyzed in terms of projectivities, to secure

correlation with the analytic techniques developed in preceding

chapters it is necessary only to introduce coordinate axes as

convenience requires.

The fundamental principles and theorems of projective geom-

etry which are indicated have been so treated as to facilitate this

correlation with the techniques of analytic geometry. A simpli-

fied set of self-explanatory conventions have been employed to

describe the graphical procedure in each case.

1. Graphical Construction of the General Conic

It is known from projective geometry that the opposite sides

of a hexagon inscribed in a

conic intersect in three points

which lie in a straight line.

Thus if ABCDEF (Fig. i)

is a hexagon inscribed in a

conic, the opposite sides AB

and DE intersect in @; the

opposite sides BC and EF

intersect in ; and the oppo-

site sides CD and A F inter-

sect in @.

From the theorem quoted

above, the intersection points , , and lie in a straight

line, commonly designated as the Pascal line.

2. Three Points and the Slopes at Two

Figure 2 shows the usual set of conditions governing the devel-

234

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES

835

opment of a conic, i.e., three points given on the curve, and the

slopes or tangents at two of the given points.

In this case it is assumed that point B coincides with point A

and point E coincides with point D, so that lines AB and ED are

tangent to the given conic.

If another point C, a shoulder or control point, is known on the

curve, a Pascal line through can be used to determine another

point F on the conic. If additional lines are taken through ,

additional points on the conic can be obtained, and the required

curve completed graphically.

Referring to Fig. 2 a, assume as given points A, B, and C on the

conic, with ti and h tangent to A and B respectively. It is

required to find additional points on the conic.

a. Graphical Procedure

Find = hh.

Through draw an arbitrary line L.

Draw DC and A C, both extended conveniently.

Establish = (DC, L).

Establish = (AC, L).

(A , D @) = P, which is a point on the required conic.

As many more points on this curve as are desired may be

established by continuing the procedure above.

b. Mathematical Description

If the given tangents (see Fig. 2a) are described by the analytic

Fig. 2a

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236

Fig. 2 b

(BODY PLAN VIEW - BASIC CONTOUR)

DEVELOPMENT OF SECOND DEGREE CURVE

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES

237

-Mold Line

equations ti = O, h = O respectively, and AD by the equation

X = o, it has been shown that

hh. + k\2 = o

represents a family of conics tangent to /i to t2 at points A and D

respectively. The parameter k is evaluated for the given

shoulder point to determine the specific equation applicable to

the particular conic passing through that point.

Thus a conveniently derived analytic equation is immediately

available to describe the

conic determined by the

given conditions.

Application:

The most frequently en-

countered set of conditions

in actual layout situations

consists of three points on

the required curve and the

slopes at two of these given

points. Usually the third

point, to which the slope is'

not indicated, is considered

a shoulder point establish-

ing a minimum of clearance

for some structural member.

Figure 3 illustrates such

an application.

A basic line development

is commonly indicated by

such a set of conditions.

Figure 4 illustrates the

Fig. 3

development of a basic fuselage contour determined by conditions

in such a form as might be postulated by original design.

3. Four Points and the Slope at One

Figure 5 represents a set of conditions involving four points

which lie on the required conic, and the slope at one of these

given points. It is required to find an additional point on the

conic.

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238

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES

239

Given (AB), C, D, and E, the required graphical procedure is

as follows:

Find = (AB, DE); draw an arbitrary line L through 1.

Find = (L, BC).

Find = (L, CD).

Then (.4) and (E) intersect in the point F, which is on

the conic.

By arbitrarily varying the position of the line L, as many addi-

tional points on the conic as are required may be found.

Application:

Four points on the required conic and a slope at one of these

given points could just as easily be resolved.

In Fig. 6, four points with a slope at one point established

along a model contour by wind tunnel research might be indi-

cated. These points could be carefully established from the

model ship, thus securing a strict adherence to the model

contour.

4. Five Points

Figure 7 illustrates the graphical procedure when five points

which lie on the required conic are given, viz., A, B, C, D, and E.

Given the five points A, B,

C, D, and E. To find a sixth

point F between E and A.

The graphical approach fol-

lows:

Draw AB and DE, labeling

their intersection .

Draw an arbitrary line L

through .

Find (CD, L) = .

Find (BC, L) = .

Draw ^4 and E. , Let their intersection be F.

F is a desired point.

By varying L, additional points on the conic may be estab-

lished by the same procedure.

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240 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Application:

Figure 8 illustrates a situation involving the development of

a conic through five points. The points A, B, C, D, and E are

Fis. 8 Fig. 9

intersections of the clearance line of a former with given fuselage

waterlines.

Naturally a wide variety of conditions may be established

involving five points.

5. Two Points and the Slope at Each Plus a Third Slope

Figure 9 indicates conditions which include two points with

the slope at each point, plus a third slope.

Given the points A and B and the slopes h and h respectively

at these points, plus the third slope t3.

The graphical procedure is as follows:

Find ht2, tzh, tit3.

(A, t2t3) and (B, ht3) intersect in .

(hk ) intersects t3 in C, which is a point on the conic.

The given conditions have now been reduced to three points

and the slopes at two. The construction may now be completed

by applying the procedure indicated for the latter conditions.

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES 241

Application:

Figure 10 involves the development of a wing fillet governed

by a point of tangency on the wing and a point of tangency on

the fuselage, plus a tan-

gent condition established

to clear an electrical in-

stallation.

6. One Point and the Slope

at That Point, Plus Three

Slopes

Figure n represents a

set of conditions involv-

ing a given point with a

slope at that point, plus Fig. 10

three slopes.

Given the slopes ti , t2, t3, and /4, and the point of contact A

on the slope t3.

The graphical procedure indicated is to find the points of

contact on ti, t2, and tt. When these points are established, the

procedure for three points and

the slopes at two applies.

Thus:

Draw (t^-ihh) and

(WiMto).

Establish .

A intersects h in C. Use

ti to find B, and t2 to

find D (e.g., find =

(A, tit4)-(C, t3ti), then

@) intersects /4 in B).

The procedure indicated

when three points and the

slopes at two are given may

now be employed to complete

the construction.

Fis. 11

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242

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Application:

The application indicated above might conceivably be altered

to meet a slightly different situation. Figure 12 suggests such a

set of conditions. In addition to clearance of one installation

Fig. 12

fixture there could exist the need for clearing another structural

element, such as a conduit. In this case, four slopes and a point

on one of the slopes constitute

the determining conditions for

the conic.

7. Five Slopes

Figure 13 indicates a set of

conditions in which slopes only

(five in number) are indicated.

Given the slopes ti, h, h, ti,

Fig. 1 3 and t&.

The procedure involved in

this case is to find the successive points of contact A, B, C, D,

and E, respectively.

Thus to find D:

Draw (kt3)-(hh) and (htb)-(t3t4) intersecting in .

Then (/i/2)- intersects i4 in D.

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES

243

This procedure may be continued to establish other points of

contact. As soon as three points and the slopes at two have been

established, these conditions may be used to complete the con-

struction.

Figure 13 suggests a procedure for developing the cross-

section of a duct to be passed through certain structural mem-

bers. The various slopes indicate the requirements for clearance

of such structural members. The use of the conic in the

development of such a duct establishes an ideal basis for a

convenient, practical solution.

Figure 14 shows another

situation involving four points

on a required curve and a

slope at one of the points.

A second-degree curve estab-

lished in this view offers maxi-

mum convenience in further

fairing developments.

8. Graphical Construction of

Special Conies

The preceding analyses are

based upon the assumption

that the type or specific nature

of the developed conic is of

secondary importance in the

problems under consideration. Aux. Spar

However, it may be desired Fig. 14

to establish a conic develop-

ment of predetermined characteristics, subject to the specific con-

ditions affecting the problem to be solved. For example, it may

be desired to develop a parabolic curve for any one or more of

several significant reasons, such as convenience in graphical

layout, simplicity of calculation, practical tooling requirements,

aerodynamic considerations, and the like.

9. Tangent-Lines (Proportional) Method of Constructing a Parabolic Curve

Suppose there are given the slopes h and h and the points of

contact A and respectively on these slopes. It is required to

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244

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

construct a parabolic curve tangent to h at the point A and

tangent to h at the point B.

Figure 15 shows the graphical procedure required. Divide A C

into any convenient number of equal parts, e.g., six. This gives

the points 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 on t. Divide BC into the same number

of equal parts. This gives points 1', 2', 3', 4', and 5'. Draw

i-l', 2-2', 3-3', 4-4', and 5-5'. These lines are tangent to the

required curve at distances along the lines directly proportional

Fig. 15

to the distances of the end-points of each line along the respec-

tive tangents h and t2. Thus line 1-1' is tangent to the conic

at a point one-sixth of its length, measured from its intersection

with ti, along itself.

An alternative and more practical procedure is to first estab-

lish a shoulder point D which lies on the required curve. Through

this point the required curve may be constructed by the usual

second-degree curve development. This method enables one

to establish precisely as many points as are desired on the curve.

An axis line is established normal to ti through A; likewise a

line is passed through B normal to this axis line. Let G be the

intersection of this line with the axis line. The point E is located

at one-fourth the distance from A to G. The intersection of a

normal to AG through E with a line connecting the midpoints

of A C and BC establishes a shoulder point on the required curve.

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES

245

Using a purely graphical approach, the shoulder point D can

be directly established as the midpoint of the line joining the

midpoints of the given tangents AC and BC.

10. Application to a Duct Elbow Fairing Development

The flexibility and convenience of the parabolic development

are clearly indicated in the accompanying series of illustrations

(Figs. 16 to 19 inclusive) showing the development of an elbow

fairing for an exhaust duct.

The basic conditions governing the development are a circle

of radius R (see Fig. 17) represented by section A-A in Fig. 16:

an ellipse whose major axis is equal to 2R and with its minor axis

given (see Fig. 18), and which is represented by section C-C

in Fig. 16.

The first step is to develop the upper and lower centerline

curves, and the maximum width curve, by the method described

above. These developments are indicated in Fig. 16.

Any section, B-B being typical, may now be taken, a common

point of rotation having been assumed (see Fig. 16). The dis-

tance x is one-half the minor axis of a semi-ellipse whose major

axis is equal to 2R (Fig. 19). The y distance is one-half the

minor axis of a semi-ellipse whose major axis is 2R (Fig. 19).

The semi-ellipses thus constructed are fitted together on the

maximum width line (Fig. 19) to complete section B-B.

Since an ellipse is a second-degree curve, it may be constructed

by the method shown in Fig. 19, a shoulder point on the curve

having first been established through the familiar use of a

diagonal construction line and auxiliary circular arcs.

In this fairing problem, or any similar case, any plane such as

D-D passed through the faired body parallel to the centerline

plane will produce a second-degree curve (see Fig. 16).

11. Development of a Wing Fillet

The development of the fillet is shown (Fig. 20) in three views,

plan, side, and front. From basic data the intersection line (L)

of the fillet and fuselage is established in the side by a parabolic

curve development. The tangent lines in this view are deter-

mined by the size of the fillet desired.

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Fig. 17

Rotation Point

246 PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

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Axis

Fig. 19

Fig. 18

: Minor

Projected

s; Major

Section 8-B

SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES 247

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248

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

The location of the shoulder point is determined by establish-

ing the midpoint of the line connecting the midpoints of the

tangents to the curve (see discussion above). Through the

shoulder point thus established the curve is constructed by the

usual method. The remaining three sections of the intersection

line (L) are developed by the same method. The line (L) may

now be plotted in the plan and front views.

By a similar procedure determine the line of intersection (M)

of the fillet and the wing. The size of the fillet as postulated by

basic design data will determine the location of this line. After

the line is established by the usual second-degree curve develop-

ment, it may be plotted in the plan and front views as shown

in Fig. 20.

In the plan view the leading edge (0) and the trailing edge (P)

curves are established through the same procedure used in estab-

lishing (L) or (?M). In the front view the vertical section (S)

through (R) is established by similar graphical procedure.

Several additional points must be secured to complete the

fairing of the fillet. This is accomplished by taking diagonal

cuts using (R) as a point of rotation. True views of these diag-

onal cuts are plotted as in the case of section A-A.

The contours of the wing and fuselage, in each section should

be plotted first. Then the tangent intersection (T) is located

for each section taken. The point (T) for each section is then

plotted in the plan view and the line TT is drawn in connecting

these points. If this line is a fair line, then the fillet curve in

each diagonal section taken may be developed by the same

procedure as in the case of curves (0), (P), and (S).

After sufficient diagonal cuts have been plotted, buttock line

cuts are taken through these sections. These buttock lines

(B, L, V and B, L, U) are plotted in the side view. After these

buttock line cuts have been plotted, station or water-line cuts

may be plotted in the front or plan views as a check for fairing.

12. Development of a Second-Degree Curve to Enlarged or Reduced Scale

Projected views of a second-degree curve may be easily devel-

oped by projection of the basic points of the curve. The

development of section B-B in the discussion of the fairing of

the duct below is illustrative of this principle.

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES

249

Figure 21 is a composite of several views and projections of a

given second-degree curve, A and B being points of tangency,

C the intersection of the tangents, and D a shoulder point in

each case. View H is a front view of a plane in which there is

a second-degree curve as indicated. Suppose that the length of

this curve were such that a full-scale layout would be incon-

venient. A foreshortened view / may be developed as long as

offsets on given station points (i.e., basic conditions, including

the slopes at A and B) are maintained. Thus view J may be

established to any convenient scale desired, e.g., one-half.

Assume that view K is a plan view of view Then, by

orthographic projection, any oblique or auxiliary view may be

developed, as long as the basic points of the curve are projected

unchanged. Views L, M, and N represent such projections.

Significantly enough, from the standpoint of convenience in

graphical layout, only basic points are projected. The full

development of the curve itself represents a simple application

of the usual second-degree curve development.

View /, obtained by orthographic projection from view H,

represents a foreshortened view of the original curve, to one-half

scale. The reduction to scale is along the horizontal axis.

Offsets to the curve at corresponding points along this horizontal

line must be the same in both views H and /.

View K is the top or plan view of view /. View L is developed

by orthographic projection of points A, B, C, and D and station

lines normal to the plan view. The resulting curve in view L

has the same offsets at corresponding station points as view /.

Although station heights have remained the same, the distance

between stations has been expanded.

A foreshortened view of K is shown in auxiliary view N. In

this case the curve may be considered to have been rotated

without regard to a fixed change in scale. The point made in

this case is that only the basic points need be projected; the full

curve is constructed by the usual method. Again station

heights in view M will be found the same as corresponding

heights in views L, and H. View N is an oblique view pro-

jected in a similar manner from view M. The same conditions

hold true in this case.

Attention is called to the most salient feature of the actual

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250

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

laying out of a second-degree curve. By the use of a relatively

simple pivot-point system such a curve can be laid out in a few

minutes, with exact and precise adherence to given conditions.

An absolute minimum of variation due to the human element

is thus assured in the process of lofting the required curve.

13. Fairing of Basic Control Lines

a. Special Projective Relationships of Conies

Given conditions of design and aerodynamies as they affect

the basic lines of a streamline body, such as an aircraft fuselage,

engine nacelle, and the like, in the basic profile plan, and body

plan views, the fundamental problem to solve is the reconcilia-

tion of the profile and

plan views with the body

plan view contours. This

reconciliation amounts fun-

damentally to the estab-

lishment and maintenance

of a correlation of condi-

tions governing the develop-

ment of the curves in the

three views in terms of

their projective relation-

ships.

Assume that aerody-

namically approved general

sections conforming to the

general overall specifica-

tions of the streamline body

are available. The estab-

lishment of conditions, con-

forming to this preliminary

picture, which willenable the

designer to interpret the nature of the conic sections which satisfy

his problem, consists generally of two tangents to the required

curve, the two points of tangency, and a shoulder or control point.

In Fig. 22, given two tangent lines h and h, and their respective

points of tangency as R and Q, the type of conic may be deter-

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES

251

mined very conveniently if a shoulder or control point is selected

so as to lie on the median (g) of APQR.

Case I. It is evident that the point (P) of intersection of

tangents is the polar of p. Therefore the harmonic of 5 with

respect to P and M lies on the conic.

then T, the conjugate of S, is finite, and lies to the left of P.

Therefore the conic is an hyperbola.

Case II. (See Fig. 23.) If ~SM/SP = k = 1, then T is the

point at infinity. If it can be shown that ti, the tangent at T,

is the line at infinity, then the conic is a parabola.

The validity of this conclusion is based upon the fact that N,

the conjugate of M, is a point at infinity and the pole of q. That

N is the pole of q follows from the fact that N lies on the polar of

P, and that P lies on the polar of N.

But M, being the conjugate of N, also lies on the polar of N.

Therefore q is the polar of N. This implies that /3 and /4, the

tangents at 5 and T, intersect at N. Therefore /4 is the line

Fig. 23

Fig. 24

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252

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

joining N and T. A line joining two points at infinity must be

the line at infinity.

Case III. (See Fig. 24.) If SM/SP = k < 1, then Tis a finite

point to the right of M. In this case t3 and i4 are finite parallel

tangents. The conic can therefore be an ellipse only.

b. Special Analytic Relationships

A corollary to these projective techniques can be quite easily

established in analytic terms. In other words, the analytic

description of a given conic in the form of an equation expressing

y /(*), can be shown to reveal directly the nature of the conic.

For the relationship between the equation expressed as

y = Px + Q VRx2 + Sx + T (1)

and the discriminant of the general equation of second degree

expressed asf(x, y) = o, or

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = o (2)

convert equation (1) into the form of equation (2).

Thus

VRx2 + Sx + T = y - Px - Q

Rx2 + Sx + T = y2 - 2Pxy + P2x2 + PQx - 2Qy + Q2

whence

(R - P2)x2 + 2Pxy - y2 + (S - 2PQ)x - 2Qy = o. (3)

In relating equation (3) to equation (2), it follows that

A = R - P2

B = 2P

C = -1.

Therefore the discriminant (B2 ^AC) is evaluated as follows:

B2 - 4AC = 4P2 + 4(2? - P2) = 42?

whence

R_B2-AAC

But when

B2 4^4 C < o, the curve is elliptical

B2 \A C = o, the curve is parabolic

B2 \A C > o, the curve is hyperbolic.

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES

253

Therefore, when

R < o, the curve is an ellipse

R = o, the curve is a parabola

R > o, the curve is an hyperbola.

These conclusions can be conveniently verified. For example,

consider the case illustrated in

Fig- 25.

Given the tangents h and h,

the points of tangency 0 and B,

and a control point D, the latter

located at the midpoint of the

median CE of AOBC.

Assume a set of coordinate

axes with the origin 0 estab-

lished as shown in Fig. 25.

Let the points 0, B, C, D, and

E be defined in the (xy) coordi-

nate system as follows:

0 : (o, o)

B : (2a, 2b)

C : (o, c)

b + c\

Fig. 25

E : (a, b).

Then the following equations result:

h : (2b c)x 2a(y c) = o

t2 : x = o

OB : bx ay = o

Referring to the basic equation

ht2 + k(OB)2 = o

and substituting equations (4), (5) and (6) in equation (7), it

follows that

(2b c)x2 2axy + 2acx + k(b2x2 2abxy + a2y2) = o. (8)

Equation (8) evaluated for the coordinates of the point D and

solved for k, becomes

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

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254

PRACTICAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

This value, substituted in equation (8), results in the following

equation, expressed in the form f(x, y) = o:

c(2b c)x2 2acxy + 2ac2x b2x2 + 2abxy a2y2 = o. (9)

The discriminant (2 4AC) of equation (9) is

4a2(b - c)2 + \a2c(2b - c) - b2 = o.

Therefore

This verifies the previous conclusion that for a parabolic

curve, R equals zero. The other cases may be similarly verified.

Figure 26 illustrates the application of coordinating techniques

to the three views of a nacelle shoulder (control) line. Assume

that the plane of the true shoulder line makes an angle of ()

with the plane of symmetry, and that the curve itself is hyper-

bolic as shown by the projective and analytic tests described

above.

The curve is represented by the following equations:

True View: z =/1(37)

Plan View: xf =/(/)

Side View: zf = f3(yf).

R = o.

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SPECIAL CONIC TECHNIQUES

255

But

Xf = Z cos yp

z = z sin ip.

Therefore

x, = hiyt) cos i

and

Z/ = fi(yf) sin i.

The body plan view contours may be correlated with the

projections of the original curve on the profile and horizontal

i planes. This is accomplished through reference to the k 5 o

relationships noted in the discussion of special projective rela-

tionships above, and the R ^ o relationships noted in the

discussion of special analytic relationships above.

Perfect correlation in the three views suggests the optimum or

ideal shape. However, such theoretical considerations must be

constantly reconciled with problems relating to structural clear-

ances. Yet the preliminary designer and the loftsman have

available a definite foundation upon which to base a continuously

correlated system of basic curves. Practical experience has

shown conclusively that even in the case of a highly streamline

pursuit, such an optimum condition in fairing can be successfully

achieved.

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APPENDIX

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APPENDIX

BASIC FORMULAS FROM ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY

1. Quadratic Equations

The roots of the quadratic equation

Ax2 + Bx + C = o

in which

A ^ o, are

_ -B + VB2 - \AC

Xi -

_ -B - Vb2 - \AC

x<i

In the case of a generalized equation of a conic section, such as

y = Px + Q VRx2 + Sx + T

when

R < o, the curve is elliptical

R = o, the curve is parabolic

1? > o, the curve is hyperbolic.

For the same equation, in terms of the conditions shown in

Fig. 1,

k -

P ..

Q-

R ..

S--

T -

(mid am2 e)e

(e mid)2

m2 + 2mik

2(1 + k)"

am*

2(1 + k)

ml + \mik{mi m,)

4(i + k)~

am2(m2 + 2mik)

4d + k)

2(1 + k)2

a2m\

259

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260

APPENDIX

For the same equation, in terms of the conditions shown in

Fig. 2,

(e m3d)(md + b e)

(e mid)2

(m3 + .. + 2kmi)

2(1 + ft)

Q ~ 2(1 + ft)

\k(mim3 + Wim ^3 w?) + m\ + m\ 2m2m3

4(1 + ft)2

i m3 + 2k(mi

- m3)

4(1 + ky

2(1 + ft)2

= <22.

(o,bj

2. Determinants

The expression

a2 &2

which is called a determinant (of the second order), is evaluated

1&2

A determinant of the third order is represented by the expres-

sion

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BASIC FORMULAS FROM ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY 261

which may be evaluated in expanded form as

-<h

+a3

aib2c3 aib3Ci a2bic3 + a263Ci + a3bic2 a3b2Ci.

The first of the second order determinants above is formed by

striking out of the third , order determinant the row and the

column in which the element ai lies; the second and third, by

striking out the row and the column in which the element a2 lies

and the element a3 lies, respectively.

The minor of an element is the determinant that is left when

the row and the column are struck out in which that particular

element lies. The minor of an element is designated by the

corresponding capital letter; thus in (a) the minor of ai is Ai,

of bi is B2, and it follows that

Ai =

Bi =

If D is the determinant in (a), then

D = aiAi a2^2 + 03^3

= biBi + b2B2 - b3B3

= CiCi c2C2 -f- C3C3.

Determinants of higher order and their minors are similarly

established. In the case of the following expression, a deter-

minant of the fourth order, it follows that

a>3

= aiAi a2A2 + a3A3 aiAi

where the minor A is the third order determinant remaining

when the row and column of ai are deleted, and similarly for the

other minors A2, A3, and Ai.

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262

APPENDIX

3. Application of Determinants to Solutions of Simultaneous Linear Systems

The solution of two simultaneous linear equations

aix + biy = di

d2x + b2y = d2

is expressed in determinant notation as

1 di di

1 do

a2 d2

y = 1 ;

in which

Similarly, for three simultaneous linear equations

aix + biy + CiZ = di

a-iX + b2y + c2z = d2

a3x + b3y + c3z = d3

the solution can be expressed in determinant form as

(h.

in which

4. Angles

In trigonometry the size of an angle is measured by the

amount one side of the angle has revolved from the position of

the other side to reach its final position.

The first side of the anglethat is, the side from which the

revolution is measuredis the initidl line; the second side is the

termindl line (see Fig. 3).

If the direction of the revolution is opposite to that of the

hands of the clock, the angle is positive; if the same as that of

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BASIC FORMULAS FROM ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY 263

about its end-point from the initial line OX to the terminal

line OA. The point 0 is called the vertex of the angle. The

plane about the vertex is divided into four quadrants. An

angle is said to be in a certain quadrant if its terminal line is

in that quadrant.

Initial Line

IB]

O\X

Initial Line

ID)

S. ^ Initial Line

(E)

F19. 3

5. Definition of the Trigonometric Functions

The trigonometric functions are numbers, and may be defined

as the ratios of lines.

Let the angle 6 be so placed (see Fig. 4) that the initial line is

horizontal, and from P, any point on the terminal line, draw

PQ perpendicular to the initial line. In the right triangle thus

formed (AOPQ), OQ is the side adjacent to the angle 8. PQ is

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264

APPENDIX

the side opposite, and OP is the hypotenuse. From these con-

ventions, the trigonometric functions of the angle may be defined

rs:

as follows:

sine

of 0 = sin 0

cosine of 6 = cos 0

tangent of 0 = tan 0

cotangent of 0 = cot 0

secant of 0 = sec 0

cosecant of 0 = csc 0

">>

Q -*

side opposite

hypotenuse

~.0P

side adjacent

hypotenuse

side opposite

side adjacent

~ OQ

side adjacent

side opposite

hypotenuse

side adjacent

hypotenuse

side opposite

~ PQ

*QX

ANGLE IN

SECOND QUADRANT

ANGLE IN

FIRST QUADRANT

-y

ANGLE IN

THIRD QUADRANT

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BASIC FORMULAS FROM ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY 265

Thus sin 9=(PQ)/(0P) = (PQ)/i=PQ = the number repre-

sented by the line, that is, the ratio of the line to its unit of

length.

If a circle of unit radius is described about the vertex of an

angle (see Fig. 5), it follows that

sin A = a

cos A = b

tan A = DF

cot A = HG

sec A = AD

csc A = AH.

THE UNIT CIRCLE

Fig. 5

7. Signs of the Trigonometric Functions

The lines whose ratios define the trigonometric functions are

regarded as positive or negative according to their direction.

Thus, in Fig. 4, OQ is positive, if it extends to the right of 0,

and negative, if to the left. PQ is positive, if it extends upward

from 0, negative, if downward; OP, the terminal line, is always

positive.

Therefore the signs of the functions of angles in the different

quadrants are as follows:

Quadrant I

Sine and cosecant +

Cosine and secant +

Tangent and cotangent +

III

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266 APPENDIX

8. Relations of the Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometric Identities

Reduction Formulas. From Fig. 5, it can be shown that any

function of each of the angles ( A ), (1800 A), (1800 + A),

(360o A), is equal in numerical value to the same function

of A; its sign, however, depends on the direction of the line

representing it.

Thus

Quad. II

sin (A) = sin A

sin (1800

-A)

sin A

cos (A) = cos A

cos (1800

-A)

cos A

tan (A) = tan A

tan (1800

-A)

tan A

cot ( A) = cot A

cot (1800

-A)

cot A

Quad. Ill

Quad. IV

sin (1800 + A) = -sin A

sin (3600

-A)

sin A

cos (1800 + A) = cos A

cos (3600

-A)

cos A

tan (1800 + A) = tan A

tan (3600

-A)

tan A

cot (1800 + A) = cot A

cot (3600

-A)

cot A

Furthermore, it can be shown that any function of each of the

angles (90o A), (900 + A), (2700 A), (2700 + A), is equal

in numerical value to the co-function of A; its sign, however,

depends on the direction of the line representing it.

Thus

Quad. I

sin (900 A) = cos A

cos (900 A) = sin A

tan (900 A) = cot A

cot (900 A) = tan A

Quad. Ill

sin (2700 A) = cos A

cos (2700 A) = sin

tan (2700 A) = cot

cot (2700 ) = tan

Quad. //

sin (900 + A) = cos

cos (900 + ) = sin

tan (90o + A) = -cot

cot (90o + A) = -tan

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BASIC FORMULAS FROM ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY 267

Functions Involving One Angle (see Chart 1). From Fig. 5

it follows that

BC sin A . .

AC = tanA=co^A> (1)

A C . cos A . .

= cot A = j- (2)

BC sin A v'

Multiplying (1) by (2),

tan A cot A = 1, (3)

1,1

tan A = 7; cot A

cot ^4' tan A

Again, from Fig. 5,

^C = sec^ = cosX (4)

bc = cscA = ^a' (5)

From Fig. 5,

and

Also

AC2 + BC2 = Ab2

sin2 A + cos2 A = 1 (6)

sin2 A = 1 cos2 yl; cos2 ^4 = 1 sin2 A.

If + D? = ZD2, and Z(f + Off2 = Atf,

1 + tan2 A = sec2 ^; (7)

1 + cos2,4. = csc2 A. (8)

Addition and Subtraction Formulas.

sin a cos /3 + cos a sin /3 (9)

sin a cos /3 cos a sin /3 (10)

cos a cos /3 sin a sin /3 (11)

cos a cos /3 + sin a sin /3 (12)

tan a + tan /3

sin

cos

/S)

COS

tan

1 tan a tan /3

(13)

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268

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-J)

'35

811

Hi 5

c| bi

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(J | U

(j 1 u

U 1 en

4-* 1 Ui

en 1 <U

cot sec

270

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CHART 3. SOLUTION OF THE OBLIQUE TRIANGLE

Formula

i8o - (s + )

sin s

sin

'. + -

sin

cos

sin s

b cos

a sin

sin s

Ve2 + 2 2 cos

sin

a sin ,

Va". + b2 - 2ab cos

b sin

sin s

sin

Given

, ,

, , s

, ,

, , ,

,c,

, ,

, , ,

Find

sin

cos

tan

It ) 1

1 *' * 1

'Formula

Vb* - . 2bc cos

b sin

sin

sin ,

Given

b, , s

, c

i8o - ( + )

i8o - (.4 + )

Formula

a sin

. + 2 - 2

a sin

b a cos ,

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272

APPENDIX

9. Solution of the Right Triangle (see Chart 2)

To solve a triangle is to find the parts not given. Any triangle

can be solved if three parts, at least one of which is a side, are

given. A right triangle has one angle, the right angle, always

given; therefore a right triangle can be solved if two sides, or

one side and an acute angle, are also given.

10. Solution of the Oblique Triangle (see Chart 3)

The solution of the oblique triangle requires that three parts,

at least one of which is a side, be given. Chart 3 summarizes

the solution of such a triangle.

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ANSWERS

CHAPTER II

1. 216.981. 2. (x, y): (73-154. 0.756). 3. m = 0.045198. 4. 890 50' 44".

5. (3). 6. No. 7. m = 0.010347. 8. m = 0.029561. 9. m = 0.042591.

10. m = 6.757487.

CHAPTER III

L j!= 0.0262853c 1.29440.

3. y = 8.424 0.013952*.

5. (a) y = 0.2086* 33.290

(c) y 0.023622* + 7.25

(e) y = -0.015867* + 55.275

(g) y = 0.184884.-C + 78.000

(i) y = -0.13648X + 55.035

2. y = 6.25 0.017060X.

4. 0.026276a; .999655^ 1.293958 = o.

(b) y = 0.062791X 26.000

(d) y 0.129070X + 50.25

(f) y = -0.14307OX + 58.635

(h) y = 0.182898X + 72.753

(j) y = -0.1413263c + 58.635.

1. (a) 4: -7:0.5

T-_7-1

_4.T.1

8: -14:1

(c) -4.25: -5: -1.75

1: 1.176: 0.412

0.85: 1:0.35

2.429:2.857: 1

(e) -5: 89: -20

1: f"

CHAPTER IV

(b)

(d)

T- 2 0 - 1

8S-

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(g)

0.495188

0.620165

-0.625777

0.684819

-0.054731

0.990468

0.431643

-5:6: -2

T._6.2

$.. t . _ 1

-S

11: 11:4

i:-i: - A

5. _-

2-3

11.

i t.

(g)

(f) -127: 14.75: -9.70

1: 0.116: 0.076

8.610: 1: 0.658

13.092: 1.521: 1

17-65: -32.25: 17.90

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274

APPENDIX

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

-0.457179

0.744186

0.740752

0.357827

0.657343

0.228588

0.620155

0.048798

0.868463

-0.673460

4. (a) Lt: (0.267261, 0.801783, 0.534522)

Li: (0.492366, 0.123091, 0.861640)

cos 8 = 0.493464

e = 6o0 25' 53"

(b) U: (-0.962813, -0.239469, 0.125083)

L2: (0.998715, 0.049974, 0.008425)

cos 6 = 0.948555

$ = 180 27' 30"

5. (a) 20.3225; (b) 20.7445; (c) 188.2859.

8. 10 45'. 9. (c) and (e) are parallel.

0.859491

0.248062

-0.669995

-0.343084

O.338112

6. 83.7194.

10. 900.

7. 31.8733.

11. (a) 1. (215: -29.25: 1.3555) or (1: -.13604651:

2. .99085285, .13480207, .00624698

3. 1.00923159

4. 81.1562

(b) 1. (-.13604651: 1:0)

2. (o: .04634187: 1)

(c) 870 38'i5"

(d) (x, y, 0): (o, 22.1588, 1.4511)

.00630465)

CHAPTER V

1. Pl( 51.119,

45.263,

-2.147)

2. Pi(

123-125,

146.697,

-7-507)

P2(i35.986,

-1.188,

11.022)

P*(

8.489,

-29-073-

5-733)

^3(248.907,

25.190,

-748)

Ps(

318.371,

46.149,

11.650)

P*( .474,

13-874-

2.406)

Pi(

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ANSWERS

275

9. (a) Translation

XFo = XF

YFc = YF - 243

- Zfo ZF

(b) Transformation

Xfo .99813480

YFo -99319503

ZFo .06096487

Xso = Xw

YSo = Yw - 16.8

Zso = 7-w

(d) Transformation

Xso

Xs .99893720

Ys -.04507240

Zs o

.99862953

--05233596

Yso

.04507240

.99898372

.06104854

.05223828

.99676689

10. (a) Translation

XAo = Xw-378.125

YAo = Yw- 94.367

(b) Transformation

Xao

Aa .99494906

YA .10018806

7. a .00622259

11. (a) See Fig. 14 (Problems)

x',v

y'rv

COS a

sin a

Yao

.10018610

.99496852

.00062658

sin a

COS a

(b) See Fig. 15 (Problems)

*'a y'rv

Xfv COS <f> o

Vrp o 1

zfp sin <j> o

(c) Step 1. Reading down in (b):

y'/p = Vfv

z'lv xlv sm <j> + Z/J> cos *

.00625406

.99998044

sin 4

cos 4

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276

APPENDIX

Step 2. Reading down in (a), then substituting from Step i:

x'w = x'fp cos a + y'fv sin a = (xfp cos <j> zfp sin <j>) cos a + yfp sin a

y'w = .v'/p sin a + y'fp cos a = (xfv cos 0 z,v sin <) sin a + ytv cos a

z' = z'fp = xfp sin <j> + z,p cos 0

Step 3. Expanding and rearranging Step 2:

x' = cos <j> cos a + yfp sin a z/p sin <j> cos a

y' = Xfp cos </> sin a + 3yp cos a + Z/ sin ( sin a

s'w = %p sin <j> + zfp cos <j>

Step 4. Step 3, expressed in more convenient form, becomes:

v' V z'

xfP cos <j> cos a cos 0 sin a sin 4>

y,p sin a cos a o

zfp sin 4> cos a sin sin a cos 4>

(d) Substituting the given cos and sin values of a and <j> (see Problem n)

in Step 4 above, it follows that

xw s u

/ -99070731 --13478227 .01824217

yfp .13480470 .99087219 o

z,p .01807566 .00245913 .99983360

x' = 106.7411 (.99070731) + o(.i348o47o) + o(-.oi8o7566) = 105.7491880

y'w = 106.7411 (-.13478227) + 0C99087219) + 0C00245913) = -14.3868078

z' = 106.7411 (.01824217) + 0(0) + 0C99983360) = 1.9471893

Check:

*/p = (io5-749i88o)(.9907073i) + (-i4.3868o78)(-.13478227)

+ (i.947i893)(.oi8242i7) = 106.74110

yfv = (105.7491880X.13480470) + (-14.3868078) (.99087219)

+ (1-9471893) (o) = o

z/p = (105.7491880X-.01807566) + (-14.3868078)(.002459i3)

+ (1.9471893) (.99983360) = o

Translated from the flap origin to the wing origin:

.t = 105.7492 + 18.9153 = 124.6645

yw = 14.3868 + 51-7135 = 37-3267

zw = 1.9472 - 3.4017 = -1-4545

(e) 1. Referring to (d) above, the direction cosine of the <JJ flap hinge

(the X/p-axis in the flap reference system) with respect to the wing

.Y-axis is .99070731.

Then

D.S. (X-axis) = 1 = 1.00937985

.99070731

2. True length = (131.9292 18.9153) 1.00937985

= (113.0139) 1.00937985 = 114.0740

12. Transformation

X' Y' Z'

X cos tx cos <f> sin a cos <f> sin <j>

Y cos a sin 8 sin <j> sin a cos 6 sin a sin 6 sin + cos a cos 8 sin0cos0

7. cos a cos 8 sin <j> + sin a sin 6 sin a cos 8 sin <j> cos a sin 8 cos 6 cos <j>

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ANSWERS

CHAPTER VII

1. x + .046901z + 13.14112 = o. 3. 810 30'33.23".

4. x .136047y + .006305Z 169.629638 = o.

6. x - .1360465y - 64.459269 = 0. 6. x - .1360465y + 6.836337

7. y = -.0985408* + 148.885540

z = -30.19743.

8. -.04507068 XFo + .99746955 YFo - .05498289 ZFo = 16.782866.

9. .04761325 X + .99862953 F + .05491054 Z = 111.216.

10. .99984770 YFo - .01745241 ZFo = 10.25.

CHAPTER VIII

1. 15.54. 2. 340 32'33"- 3. (.770,8.384,8.840).

4- (-370515625: -5-63260375: 6.62242625). 5. 30 49' 13".

6. a = 920 50' 39" 7. a = -2 32' 48"

0= 30 49'13" /= 86 10'47"

y = 870 27' 12". 7=20 50' 39".

8. a. = 00 4' 2". 9. Perpendicular. 10. Parallel.

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TABLES OF

NATURAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Sine, Cosine, Tangent,

Cotangent, Secant,

Cosecant

Differences per Minute to Eight Decimal Places

Differences per Second to Ten Decimal Places

Semi-Quadrantly Arranged

Monroe Calculating Machine Company, Inc.

(Reprinted with special permission of the copyright owners)

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PREFACE TO TABLES

These tables of natural trigonometric functions are calculated

for differences per minute to eight decimal places; for differences

per second to ten decimal places.

The sines were calculated from the formula:

a3 , a6 a'

sin a = a + , etc.

2.3 2.3.4.5 2.3...7T'

where a is the length of arc expressed in parts of radius.

For example, for 300, a = pi.

The sine values were calculated until the ninth decimal place

became stable; where the ninth place was 5 or greater, the

eighth decimal was increased by one; where the ninth place was

less than 5, it was dropped.

The difference per second values were calculated by dividing

the difference between the minute values to nine decimal places

by 60, carrying the calculation to ten decimal places, and equat-

ing the tenth decimal place to the nearest integer. Therefore,

if the difference figure given in any case is multiplied by 60 and

added to, or deducted from, the minute value, as the case may

be, and does not give the same figure in the eighth decimal place,

this is because the eighth and tenth decimal figures have been

equated to the nearest integer. The difference figures given in

the tables should be used as the more accurate.

The sines and cosines are semi-quadrantly arranged to 900.

This can be done in terms of accurate differentials since the

values never exceed unity.

The tangent and secant values are given to 45o with their

cofunctions to 900, to avoid the large increments when the

tangent and secant approach 900. Thus, for tangents above

450 the cotangent calculation should be used; or, if it is desired

to express the function values, the reciprocal of the tangent of

the complementary angle should be used. For secants above

45o use the cosecant calculation or the reciprocal of the cosine

of the same angle.

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

DiH. per

Second

SINES

COSINES

Diff per

Second

484 82

484.82

.0000

0000

1.0000

0000

.01

.0002

9089

.9999

9996

.0005

8178

.9999

9983

.0008

7266

.9999 V962

.5O

.0011

6355

.9999

9932

484.82

.0014

5444

.9999

9894

.75

484.82

484 82

484.82

.0017

4533

.9999

9848

1 08

1 18

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Diff per

Second

SINES

COSINES

DI, per

Second

484 75

484 74

.0174

5241

.9998

4770

8.55

8 68

.0177

4325

.9998

4258

484.74

484.7]

484.73

.0180

3409

.9998

3737

8 83

8.93

.0183

2493

.9998

3208

.0186

1577

.9998

2671

9 10

484 73

.0189

0661

.9998

2125

9.22

484 72

484.72

484.71

.0191

9744

.9998

1571

9.38

9.53

9.63

9.82

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Diff, per

SINES

COSINES

Diff. DOT

Second

484.52

484.51

484.50

.0348

9950

.9993

9083

17.00-

17.12

17.28

17.42

17.55

.0351

9021

.9993

8063

.0354

8091

.9993

7035

.0357

7162

.9993

5999

.0360

6232

.9993

4954

484.49

.0363

5301

.9993

3901

17.69

484.48

484.47

484.46

.0366

4371

.9993

2839

17.81

17.97

18.12

18.28

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Diff per

- SINES

COSINES

Diff per

Second

484 15

484 14

.0523

3596

.9986

2953

25 43

.0526

2644

.9986

1427

25.58

25.73

25 86

26.00

484.13

484 1t

484.11

.0529

1693

.9985

9892

.0532

0740

.9985

8348

.0534

9788

.9985

6796

484 11

.0537

8835

9985

5236

26 15

484.10

484.09

484 O8

484.07

.0540

7881

.9985

3667

26.28

26.42

26.58

26.72

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Diff. pe,

Second

SINES

COSINES

Diff. per

Second

48) 63

48 3.6*2

483.61

48360

483 59

.0697

5647

.9975

6405

.0700

4665

.9975

4372

34.03

34.15

34.33

34.47

.0703

3682

.9975

2330

.0706

2699

.9975

0280

.0709

1714

.9974

8221

483 58

.0712

0730

.9974

6154

34.62

483 57

483 56

483 55

.0714

9744

.9974

4078

34.73

34.87

.0717

8759

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Diff per

SINES

COSINES

Diff. per

Second

SCOnd

482 96

.0871

5574

.9961

9470

42.33

42.45

42.62

42.73

42.90

482.95

482 94

482.93

482.91

.0874

4552

.9961

6930

.0877

3529

.9961

4382

.0880 2505

.9961

1826

.0883

1481

.9960 9261

482.90

.0886 0456

.9960 6688

43.03

482.8v

482.88

482.87

482 86

.0888

9430

.9960

4107

43.17

43.30

43.45

43.60

.0891

8403

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Diff. per

Second

SINES

COSINES

Diff. per

Second

482.15

482.14

482.12

482 11

482.09

.1045

2846

.9945

2190

50.75

50.90

51.02

51.17

51.32

.1048

1775

.9944 9145

.1051

0703

.9944

6091

.1053

9631

.9944

3030

.1056

8557

.9943

9960

482.08

.1059

7483

.9943

6881

51 45

482 07

482.05

482.03

482.02

.1062

6407

.9943

3794

51.58

51.73

51.87

52.06

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Di per

Second

SINES

COSINES

D.H per

Second

481 20

481.18

481 16

481 14

481.12

1218

6934

.9925

4615

59. 1S

59 30

59.43

59,57

59.72

.1221

5806

.9925

1066

.1224

4676

.9924

7508

.1227

3546

.9924

3942

.1230

2414

.9924

0368

481.10

.1233

1281

.9923

6785

5985

481.08

481.06

481.04

481.03

.1236

0148

.9923

3194

60 00

60.13

60.27

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

SINES

COSINES

.1391

7310

.9902

6807

.1394

6115

.9902

2754

.1397

4919

.9901

8693

.1400

3722

.9901

4624

.1403

2524

.9901

0546

.1406

1324

.9900

6460

.1409

0123

.9900

2366

.1411

8921

.9899

8263

.1414

7718

.9899

4152

.1417

6514

9899

0032

.1420

5308

.9898

5904

.1423

4101

.9898

1768

.1426

2893

9897

7623

.1429

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

SINES

COSINES

,1564

3447

.9876

8834

.1567

5177

.9876

4279

.1570

0905

.9875

9716

.1572

9633

.9875

5145

.1575

8359

.9875

0565

.1578

7083

.9874

5977

.1581

5807

.9874

1381

.1584

4529

.9873

6776

.1587

3249

.9873

2163

.1590

1969

.9872

7541

.1593

0687

.9872

2911

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Diff. pe>

Second

SINES

COSINES

Diff. DM

Second

Diff pei

Second

TANGENTS

SECANTS

Diff. per

Second

477.44

477.42

477.40

477.37

477.34

.1736 4818

,9848 0775

84 25

84.40

84.55

84.69

84.84

499.92

499.97

500 02

50007

500 12

.1763

2698

1.0154

2661

8687

.1739 3464

.9847

5720

.1766

2693

1.0154

7874

87.05

87.16

87.32

87.48

.1742

2109

.9847 0656

.1769

2691

1.0155

3096

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

D.H. pe.

Second

SINE'S

COSINES

D.H. per

Second

475 SS

.1908 0900

.9816

2718

92.57

475-86

.1910 9453

.9815

7164

92.72

475.84

.1913 8005

.9815

1601

92.85

475.82

.1916 6555

.9814

6030

93.00

475.80

.1919 5104

.9814

0450

93.1]

475.77

.1922 3651

.9813

4862

93.26

475.74

.1925 2197

.9812

9266

93.40

475 71

.1928 0740

.9812

3662

93.55

475 68

475.65

.1930 9283

.9811

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

D.H. P..

SINES

COSINES

Dlff P4r

Second

474.1 8

.2079 1169

.9781

4760

100.88

474.16

.2081 9621

.9780

8708

100.97

474.13

.2084 8072

.9780

2648

101.17

474.11

.2087 6521

.9779

6579

101.28

474.09

.2090 4968

.9779

0502

101.42

47407

.2093 3413

.9778

4417

101.53

474.04

.2096 1856

.9777

8324

101.72

474.01

473.98

473.95

.2099 0298

.9777

2222

101.83

101.97

102.12

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

13P

Diff. pe

Second

SINES

COSINES

Diff. per

Second

472.38

472 35

472.32

.2249

5105

.9743

7006

109.12

109.27

109.42

109 53

109 67

.2252

.2255

3448

1788

.9743

.9742

0459

3903

472.29

.2258

0127

.9741

7339

472.25

.2260

8463

.9741

0766

472 22

.2263

6798

.9740

4186

109.82

472.18

472.15

.2266

5131

.9739

7597

109.95

110 08

110.21

110.37

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Diff. pr

Sacond

SINES

COSINES

Diff. per

Second

470.40

470.36

470.33

470.8S

470.86

.2419

2190

.9702

9573

117 35

117 50

117.63

117,76

117 90

.2422

0413

.9702

2531

.2424

8635

.9701

5482

.2427

6855

.9700

8424

.2430

5072

.9700

1358

470.23

.2433

3288

.9699

4284

118.03

470.20

470.16

470.12

470.08

.2436

1501

.9698

7202

118.18

118 30

118.47

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

DiH per

Second

SINES

COSINES

Dif f per

Second

468 27

468 24

468.22

468 18

468.14

.2588

1905

.9659

2583

125 55

125.68

125.80

125.98

.2591

0001

.9658

5050

.2593

8095

.9657

7509

.2596

6188

.9656

9960

.2599

4278

.9656

2402

126 08

468.10

.2602

2365

.9655

4837

126.23

468.04

468.02

467.99

467.96

.2605

0451

.9654

7263

126 35

126.52

126 63

126 77

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Diff. per

So<Ond

SINES

COSINES

Diff. per

Second

466.00

465.97

465.95

465.91

465.86

.2756 3736

.9612

6170

133.70

133 84

133 98

134.11

134.24

.2759 1696

.9611

8148

.2761 9655

.9611

0117

.2764 7611

.9610

2079

.2767 5565

.9609

4033

465.82

.2770 3516

.9608

5978

134.38

465.78

465.73

465.70

465.67

.2773 1465

9607

7915

134 51

134.65

134.78

134.91

.2775 9412

.9606

9845

.2778 7356

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Diff. per

Second

SINES

COSINES

aM. pm

Second

463.62

463.57

463.52

463.49

463.45

.2923

7170

.9563

0476

141.82

1 41.96

142.10

142.23

142.36

.2926 4987

.9562

1967

.2929

2801

.9561

3450

.2932

0613

.9560

4925

.2934

8422

.9559

6392

463.42

.2937

6228

.9558

7851

142 50

463.37

463.32

463 28

463.24

.2940

4033

.9557

9301

142.62

142.75

142.89

143.03

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Diff. pe

Second

SINES

COSINES

Dif f pef

Second

Diff per

Second

TANGENTS

SECANTS

D.ff. pel

Second

461.07

461.03

460 98

460.94

460.89

.3090 1699

.9510

5652

149 88

536.05

.3249

1970

1.0514

6222

165 72

.3092 9363

.9509 6659

150.01

536.17

536 29

3252

4132

1.0515

6166

165 90

166.08

.3095 7024

.9508

7658

150 15

150 29

150.42

.3255

6301

1.0516

6120

.3098 4683

.9507

8649

536 31

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:25 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

D*. p.

Second

SINES

COSINES

Diff. pef

Second

458.38

.3255 6815

.9455 1858

157.92

458.33

458.29

458 24

458.19

.3258 4318

.9454 2383

158.05

.3261 1818

.9453 2901

158.18

.3263 9315

.9452 3410

158.31

.3266 6809

.9451 3912

158.44

458.15

.3269 4301

.9450 4406

158.58

458 11

458 06

458 02

457.97

.3272 1790

.9449 4891

158 71

158.85

158 98

159.12

.3274 9276

.9448 5 369

.3277 6759

.9447 5838

.3280 4240

.9446 6300

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:25 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

DifF. p

SINES

COSINES

Diff. per

Second

455.55

455.50

.3420

2014

.9396

9262

165.88

.3422

9347

.9395

9309

166 01

166 15

166 28

166 42

455.45

455.40

455.35

.3425

6678

.9394

9348

.3428

4005

.9393

9379

.3431

1329

.9392

9403

455.30

.3433

8651

.9391

9418

166.55

455 25

.3436

5969

.9390

9425

166 68

455.20

455 16

455.11

.3439

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:25 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Diff. pe*

Scond

SINES

COSINES

Second

452 58

.3583 6795

.9335

8043

173.82

452.53

452.48

452.43

452.38

.3586 3950

.9334

7614

173.95

.3589 1102

.9333

7178

174.08

.3591 8252

.9332

6734

174 21

174.34

.3594 5398

.9331

6281

452 33

.3597 2541

.9330

5821

174.47

452.28

452.13

452.18

452.13

.3599 9681

.9329

5353

174.60

174.73

174.87

175.00

.3602 6818

.9328

4878

.3605 3952

.9327

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:25 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

MF. per

SINES

COSINES

DM. pm

Second

449.48

449.43

449 38

449.33

449.28

.3746 0659

.9271

8385

181 67

181.80

181 94

182.07

182.20

.3748 7628

.9270

7485

.3751 4594

.9269

6576

.3754 1557

.9268

5660

.3756 8517

.9267

4735

44922

.3759 5473

.9266

3803

182.33

449.17

449.12

449.07

449.02

.3762 2426

.9265

2863

182 46

182 59

182.72

182.85

.3764 9376

.9264

1915

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:25 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Diff. pei

Second

SINES

COSINES

Diff. per

Second

446115

446.20

446.15

446 09

446.03

.3907

3113

.9205

0485

189.48

189.61

189.74

189.87

190 00

.3909

9888

.9203

9116

.3912

6659

.9202

7738

.3915

3427

.9201

6353

.3918

0192

.9200

4959

445.98

.3920

6953

.9199

3558

190.13

445.93

445.87

445.82

445.76

.3923

3712

.9198

2150

190.26

190.39

190.52

190.66

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:25 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

DiH. per

Second

SINES

COSINES

DifF. pm

Second

441.S9

442.84

442.78

442.72

442.67

.4067

3664

.9135

4546

197 18

.4070 0237

9134

2710

197.31

197 45

197 57

197.70

.4072

6805

.9133

0867

.4075

3371

.9131

9017

.4077

9933

.9130

7158

442.61

.4080

6491

.9129

5292

197.82

442.56

442.5O

442.45

442.38

.4083

3046

.9128

3418

197 95

.4085

9598

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:25 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Diff. pa

Second

SINES

COSINES

DiH. pa

Second

DW. per

Second

TANGENTS

SECANTS

DM per

Second

439.37

.4226

1826

.9063

0779

204 97

590.33

.4663

0766

.1033

7792

249 57

439-31

.4228

8188

.9061

8481

205.09

590.48

.4666

6185

.1035

2765

249.79

439.24

439.18

439.1!

.4231

4546

.9060

6176

205.22

205.34

205.47

590 64

590.80

590.96

.4670

1613

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:25 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Dif f per

Second

SINES

COSINES

DM per

Second

435.72

.4383

7115

.8987

9405

2.60

435.66

.4386

3258

.8986

6649

2.72

2.85

435.59

.4388

9397

.8985

3886

435.53

.4391

5533

.8984

1115

2.97

3.10

435.46

.4394

1664

.8982

8337

435.40

.4396

7793

.8981

5551

3.22

435 34

435.28

4399

3917

.8980

2758

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:25 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

27e

Di, p.

Second

SINES

COSINES

O.H. p..

Second

sfcond

TANGENTS

SECANTS

Difi, per

Second

31 93

431.87

431.80

431.74

431 68

.4539 9050

i .8910 0652

220.15

220.28

220.41

220.54

220.67

610.75

610.93

611.12

611.30

611.49

.5095

2545

1.1223

2624

277.35

277.59

277.84

278.08

278.33

.4542 4966

.8908 7443

.5098

9191

1.1224

9266

.4545 0879

.8907 4225

.5102

5848

1.1226

5922

.4547 6788

.8906 1000

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:26 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Di, pe,

Second

SINES

COSINES

s' SS"

Di, per

TANGENTS

SECANTS

Di per

Second

428.03

.4694 7156

.8829

4759

88767

227.79

227.91

228.03

828.16

621.97

622 16

622 35

622.54

628.73

.5317

0943

1325

7005

292 08

898 38

898 57

892 81

427.97

427.90

427.83

.4697 2838

.8828

1099

.5320

8262

1327

4530

.4699 8516

.8826

7432

.5324

5592

1329

2070

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:26 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Diff. pe>

Second

SINES

COSINES

Diff. per

Second

424 02

.4848

0962

.8746

1971

235.10

235.22

235.35

235 47

23560

423.95

423.87

423.80

423.72

.4850

6402

.8744

7864

.4853

1837

.8743

3751

.4855

7269

.8741

9630

.4858

2696

.8740

5501

423.65

.4860

8119

.8739

1366

235.73

423.59

.4863

3538

.8737

7222

235.85

423.52

423.46

423.39

.4865

8953

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:26 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Diff. per

Second

SINES

COSINES

Diff. per

Second

419.83

419.76

419.69

419.62

419.55

.5000

0000

.8660

2540

242.47

242.59

242.72

242.84

242.96

.5002

5190

.8658

7992

.5005

0375

.8657

3437

.5007

5556

.8655

8874

.5010

0733

.8654

4304

419.48

.5012

5905

.8652

9727

243.08

419.40

.5015

1074

.8651

5142

243.20

419.33

419.26

419.19

.5017

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:26 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

M p..

Second

SINES

COSINES

Di. pa

Second

415.53

415.46

415.38

415 31

41524

.5150 3807

.8571

6730

249.75

249.87

250 00

250 12

250.25

.5152 8739

.8570

1745

.5155 3667

.8568

6752

.5157 8590

.8567

1752

.5160 3509

.8565

6745

415 17

.5162 8423

.8564

1730

250.37

415.10

415 02

414 95

414 87

.5165 3333

.8562

6708

250 49

250.61

250.7 3

250.85

.5167 8239

.8561

1679

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:26 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

SINES

COSINES

DifF. per

Second

411.11

411.04

410.96

410.88

410.81

.5299 1926

.8480

4810

256.98

257.09

257.21

257.33

257.45

.5301 6593

.8478

9391

.5304 1255

.8477

3966

.5306 5912

.8475

8533

.5309 0565

.8474

3093

410.73

.5311 5214

.8472

7646

257.57

410.66

410.58

410.51

410.44

.5313 9858

.8471

2192

257.69

257.81

257.93

258.05

.5316 4497

.8469

6731

.5318 9133

.8468

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:26 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

DiH. pe.

Second

SINES

COSINES

D,H pef

Second

406 5 7

406.49

406 41

.5446 3903

.8386

7057

264.12

264.23

264.35

264.46

.5448 8297

.8385

1210

.5451 2686

.8383

5357

-406.33

406.25

.5453 7071

.8381

9496

.5456 1450

.8380

3628

264.58

406.17

.5458 5826

.8378

7754

264.70

406.10

406.02

405.95

405.87

.5461 0196

.8377

1872

264.81

264.93

265.04

265.16

.5463 4562

.8375

5983

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:26 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

DK. per

Second

SINES

COSINES

Diff. per

Second

401.92

401.81

401.72

401.64

401.56

.5591

9290

.8290

3757

271.17

271 28

271.40

271.51

271.63

.5594

3404

.8288

7487

.5596

7512

.8287

1211

.5599

1616

.8285

4927

.5601

5715

.8283

8636

401.48

.5603

9810

.8282

2338

271.75

401.41

.5606

3899

.8280

6033

271.86

271 98

272.09

272.21

401.32

401.24

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:26 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

35e

D.H pe.

Second

SINES

COSINES

Di pe.

Second

397 08

397 01

396 93

396.86

396 78

.5735

7644

8191

5204

278 13

.5738

1469

.8189

8516

278 24

278 35

278.46

278.57

5740

5290

.8188

1821

.5742

5745

9106

2917

.8186

.8184

5119

8410

396 70

5747

6724

.8183

1694

278 68

396 67

396 5 3

396 45

396 36

5750

0525

.8181

4972

278 79

278.91

279.03

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:26 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

D.H. per

Second

SINES

j COSINES

Diff per

Second

392.18

392.10

392.02

.5877

8525

.8090

1699

285 02

285 1 3

285.25

285 36

285.48

,5880

2056

.8088

4598

.5882

5582

.8086

7490

391.94

391.86

.5884

9103

.8085

0375

.5887

2619

.8083

3253

391.77

.5889

6130

.8081

6124

285 60

391.69

.5891

9636

.8079

8988

285.71

285 83

285.94

286.06

391.61

391.52

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:26 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

DM pe>

Second

SINES

COSINES

D. per

Second

387.15

387.07

386 98

38690

386.81

.6018

1502

.7986

3551

.6020

4731

.7984

6042

.6022

7955

.7982

8525

292 05

292 16

292 28

.6025

1173

.7981

1002

.6027

4387

.7979

3473

386.72

.6029

7595

.7977

5936

292 40

386.64

386 55

386.47

386.38

.6032

0799

.7975

8393

292 50

292 61

292.71

292 82

.6034

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:26 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

D. H pe>

Second

SINES

COSINES

DM per

Second

381 98

381 90

381 81

381 73

381 65

.6156 6148

.7880

1075

298 5 3

298 64

298.75

298 87

298 99

.6158 9067

.7878

3163

.6161 1982

.7876

5244

.6163 4891

.7874

7319

.6165 7795

.7872

9387

381.57

.6168 0694

.7871

1448

299 10

381 48

.6170 3588

.7869

3502

299.21

299 32

299 43

299 54

381 39

381.30

381.21

.6172 6476

.7867

5550

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:26 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

D.H oer

Second

SINES

COSINES

D.H pe.

Second

376 73

376 64

376 55

3 76 46

376 37

.6293

2039

7771

4596

305 15

305 26

305 37

305 48

305 59

.6295

4643

.7769

6287

6297

7241

.7767

7971

6299

9834

7765

9648

6302

2422

.7764

1319

376 28

6304

5004

7762

2983

305 70

376 18

6306

7581

7760

4641

305 81

373 08

6309

0152

7758

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:31 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Did per

Second

SINES

COSINES

D.ff per

Second

DiH per

Second

TANGEN1S I

371 35

371 26

371.16

371 07

370.98

.6427

8761

.7660

4444

311 68

311 79

826.31

826.77

827 1 J

827 58

827 98

.8390

9963

.6430

1042

.7658

5743

.8395

9545

.6432

3317

.7656

7035

311 90

.8400

91 51

.6434

5586

.7654

8321

312 01

.8405

8782!

.6436

7851

7652

9601

312.12

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:31 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

D.ff per

Second

SINES

COSINES

/ biff. pei

Second

365 85

365.74

365 65

365 55

365 47

.6560

5903

7547

0958

318.07

118.18

318.29

318.42

318 53

6562

7854

.7545

1871

.6564

9799

.7543

2777

.6567

1739

.7541

3677

.6569

3673

.7539

4571

365 38

.6571

5602

.7537

5458

318.65

365.29

365 20

365 11

.6573

7525

.7535

6339

318 75

318.86

318.97

319.07

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:31 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Diff. p..

Second

SINES

COSINES

Diff. per

Second

360 25

360.15

360.05

359.94

359.85

.6691

3061

.7431

4483

324.45

324 55

324.66

.6693

4675

.7429

5015

.6695

6284

.7427

5542

.6697

7887

.7425

6062

324.77

.6699

9484

.7423

6575

324.88

359.77

.6702

1076

.7421

7083

324.98

359 68

359.60

359.50

359.40

.6704

2662

.7419

7584

325.08

.6706

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D.H. pe.

Second

SINES

COSINES

D.H. p

Second

354 52

354.43

354.33

354.24

354 14

6819 9836

.7313

5370

3 30 68

.6822

1107

.7311

5529

330 78

.6824

2373

.7309

5681

3 30 90

.6826

3633

.7307

5827

331.00

.6828 4887

.6830 6135

.7305

.7303

5967

6100

331.10

35405

331.20

353.95

353 84

353 74

353 65

6832

7377

.7301

6228

331.30

331.41

331.51

.6834 8614

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44e

Di, per

Second

SINES

COSINES

Diff. per

Second

348.70

348.60

348.51

348 42

348 32

.6946

5837

.7193

3980

336 83

336.93

337.03

337.1 3

337.23

.6948

6759

.7191

3770

.6950

7675

.7189

3554

.6952

8585

.7187

3332

.6954

9489

.7185

3104

348 22

.6957

0387

.7183

2870

337.33

348.12

348 02

347.92

347 82

.6959

1280

.7181

2630

337.43

337.54

337.65

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:31 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

INDEX

Abscissa, 7, 29.

Addition formulas, trigonometric, 270.

Aileron hinge line, 16, 64.

true length of , 8, 35.

equations of , see Contents, Ch. VI.

sub-assembly, 52, 63.

Air scoop (radiator), development of,

230.

Analytic geometry, nature of, 3.

Angle, in the plane, see Contents, Ch.

IV, Appendix.

between two lines, 15, 262.

measurement of , 262.

positive or negative sign of , 262.

Angle (true) in space, see Contents, Chs.

IV and VIII.

between a line and a plane, 121.

between a line and a reference

plane, 122.

between a plane and a reference

axis, 125.

between a plane and a reference

plane, 124.

between two lines, 35.

between two planes, 114.

Answers to problems, Appendix (273 ff.).

Axes of coordinates, see Contents, Chs.

II and IV.

Bulkhead (fuselage), 13, 14.

Buttock plane, 49.

Cockpit enclosure, development of, 224.

Columns and rows of a determinant,

261.

Condition, in the plane, that

five points lie on a conic, 159.

two lines be parallel, 13.

two lines be perpendicular, 14.

Condition, in space, that

two lines be parallel, 37.

two lines be perpendicular, 37.

two planes be parallel, 116.

two planes be perpendicular, 115.

Conic sections, see Contents, Chs. X-

XIII.

as loci of equations of the second

degree, 151.

calculation charts for , 162, 163.

choice of technique for , 158.

equations of , 160, 259.

general definition of , 151.

graphical construction of , see Con-

tents, Ch. XIII; also 157, 234.

mathematical development of , see

Contents, Ch. X.

proportional (parabolic) curves, 176,

243, 251, 254.

applications of , 181.

equation of , 177.

points of tangency of , 178.

special projective relationships of ,

250.

special analytic relationships of ,

252.

typical , body plan view, 172,

173.

construction of , 195, 199.

Construction (graphical) of tangent to

conic, 198, 199, 200.

Contours, mathematical analysis of, 152.

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:31 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

INDEX

Ellipse, 18, 252, 253.

Empennage coordinates, conversion of,

54.

reference system, 51.

Engine mount, basic data, 135.

Equality (continuous) representing a line

in space, 71.

equivalent to representation by

projecting planes, 72.

reduction of to normal form, 73.

Fairing of basic lines, 250.

Fillet (wing), development of, 245.

Flap hinge line, 62, 71.

sub-assembly, 52, 69.

Formulas, for second degree curves,

Chs.X-XIII.

Fuselage coordinate data, see Contents,

Ch. XII.

lines, development of, 218, 219.

reference system, 48.

sections (canted), 200, 211.

double cant, 215.

single cant (plan view), 215.

single cant (side view), 212.

Geometry, analytic, 3.

descriptive , 3.

Graphs of equations in rectangular co-

ordinates, 17, 18.

Hyperbola, 18, 251-253.

Incidence, angle of, 51.

Inclination of a line, 11.

Initial line, 262.

Initial side of an angle, 262.

Intercept of a line, 22, 23.

of a plane, 105.

Intersection of a line and a plane, 117.

of planes, 118.

Kinematics, landing gear, 129.

Line, see Contents, Chs. IV, V.

direction numbers of a , 30.

direction cosines of a , 31.

direction secants of a , 33.

equation of a in the plane, see Con-

tents, Ch. III.

intercept form of , 23.

normal form of , 23.

point-slope form of , 21.

slope-intercept form of , 22.

two-point form of , 21.

equations of a in space, see Con-

tents, Ch. VI.

reduction of to normal form, 73.

symmetric form of , 71.

transformation of , 74.

two-point form of , 72.

Line segment, true length of, 34.

Line, slope of, 10, 30.

intersection of with plane, 117.

as intersection of two planes, 118.

Longeron coordinate data, 223.

Matching of conics, see Contents, Ch.

XI.

applications of , 192, 195, 197.

special technique for , 188.

Mold line (spar), 73.

Normal to a line, 17, 24.

to a plane, 95.

Normal equation of a line, 17, 73.

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:31 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

INDEX

Rotation of lines, 74.

of planes, 108.

of points, see Contents, Ch. V.

Scale (enlarged or reduced), conic de-

velopment to, 248.

Second degree curves (cf. Conic sec-

tions).

Segment, line, midpoint of, 9.

Simultaneous equations, solution of, see

Appendix.

Slope of a line, 10, 30.

Spar sub-assembly, 52.

Spar trace on plane of symmetry, 12.

Stabilizer, horizontal, rigging of, 51.

Stringer coordinate data, 224.

Symmetry, plane of, of the airplane, 48.

Systems, assembly (major), 51.

determinant, 260.

sub-assembly, 51.

Tangent to a conic, formulas for, 206.

Terminal side of an angle, 262.

Transformation of coordinates, see Con-

tents, Ch. V.

Translation of axes, see Contents, Ch. V.

Triangle, solution of, see Appendix.

of oblique triangle, 271, 272.

of right triangle, 269, 272.

Trignometric functions, definitions of,

263.

formulas for , 270.

identities of , 266-268.

signs of , 265, 268.

tables of , Appendix (278 ff.).

Unit circle, 264.

Waterline plane, 49.

Wing, reference system of, 49.

canted sections, calculation of, 83.

calculation charts, 86-88, 144-

147.

double cant section, 85, 90, 91,

148.

single cant (front view) section,

84, 85, 89, 143.

single cant (plan view) section,

84, 89, 90, 143.

chord plane system, 50.

coordinates, conversion of, 52.

percentage line station offsets, 82,

83-

percentage lines, equations of, 78.

rear spar sub-assembly, 60.

reference plane system, 53.

rigging of , 50.

stringer calculations, 21.

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:31 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:32 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

b89090517988a

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:32 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

B89090517988A

Generated on 2013-12-18 11:32 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090517988 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

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