Manual on Avian

Production
and Management


Dr. Nilotpal Ghosh
Dr. Rajarshi Samanta

International Book Distributing Co.
Manual on Avian Production
and Management
(For B.V.Se. & A.H. students as per syllabus of Veterinary
Council of India)
Dr. Nilotpal Ghosh
B. V. Se. & A. H. (First Class First & Gold Medalist),
M. V. Sc. (APM) (First Class First), Ph. D.
Reader
Deparbnent of Animal SCIence
and
Deputy Director of Extension Education (Officiating)
Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya
Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal-741 252
Dr. Rajarshi Samanta
B. v. Sc. & A. H., M. V. Sc. (APM) (First Class First), Ph D.
Head
Deparbnent of Animal Production and Management
and Ex-Registrar (Actg) & Controller of Examination (Act g)
West Bengal University of Animal and Fisl)ery Sciences
37, Kshudiram Bose Sa rani (Belgachia), Kolkata-700 037
International Book Distributing Co.
(Publishing Division)
Published by
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(Publishing Division)
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First Edition 2008
978-81-8189-253-9
ISBN ..
Authors
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FOREWORD
The purpose of preparation and presentation of this Manual on Avian
Production and Management appears to provide useful guidelines to the
veterinary students for different practical lessons under the pattern of
Veterinary Council of India. As such I feel that this manual would be of great
help to the concerned students as well as the persons engaged in this field
specially for offering training in Poultry Farming.
The contents of this manual have been prepared in simple language and
as per the VCI syllabus. All the practical points in Poultry Management have
been nicely highlighted in this text. The practical lessons have been organized
and presented in such a manner that it can be used as a notebook for all
practical purposes.
The efforts of the authors deserve appreciation, and I hope that because
of its contents and style of presentation this manual would become quite
popular amongst students as well as persons working in the field of Poulb'y
Husbandry. It is my pleasure to recommend this manual to be used by the
students and trainees of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry.
Dated: Kolkata
4th April, 2008 (Prof. C.S. Chakrabarti)
Vice Chancellor
West Bengal University of
Animal and Fishery Sciences
Kolkata, West Bengal
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PREFACE
About this book
This manual has been prepared strictly on the basis of syllabus framed by
Veterinary Council of India, the apex body for veterinary education in
India. Such type of VCI syllabus oriented book is rarely available in In-
dia.
The matters are presented in such a way that this manual can be used as
a practical notebook.
Large number of objective questions given at the end of each activity unit
(practical lesson) is an additional attraction of the book, as the students
can prepare themselves for the short tests as well as external examina-
tion under VCI pattern.
Who will be benefited?
This manual is primarily meant for the undergraduate veterinary stu-
dents (B.V. Sc. & A.H.) all over India.
This book will also help the concerned teachers/ demonstrators of all vet-
erinary colleges of India for offering this course.
Acknowledgement
It is our immense pleasure that the book entitled 'Manual on Avian
Production and Management' ultimately came to light. The information
received from various sources are greatly acknowledged. Our sincere thanks
are due to Suneel Gomber, Managing Partner, INTERNATIONAL BOOK
DISTRIBUTING CO. (Publishing Division), Lucknow for accepting the
manuscript and quick publishing the book. We shall be grateful for any
suggestion and observation from readers and actual users (both students and
teachers), which would help in bringing out a revised and improved version
of this title. Suggestions may please be sent at the e-mail: [email protected].
Authors
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CONTENTS
SI. No. & Practical Lessons Page Signature
Date
No.
1. Holding and conh'ol of poultry, and study of 1
external body parts
2. Study of species, breeds and varieties of 5
poultry
3. Judging and culling of poultry 17
4. Study of digestive system of poultry 22
(chicken)
5. Study of reproductive system of poultry 26
(chicken)
6. Study of structure of egg 30
7. Evaluation of quality of eggs 36
8. Grading of eggs 42
9. Preservation of eggs 46
10. Study of different housing systems of 51
poultry
11. Study of various equipments of poultry 56
farm and hatchery
12. Management of incubator for hatching of 62
eggs
13. Sexing of birds 71
14. Brooding of poultry 75
15. Feeds and feeding of poultry 79
i) Identification of poultry feed
ingredients
ii) Study of different types of
feeds for different categories of
poultry
ii!l t u d ~ of feeding systems of poultr y
SI. No. & Practical Lessons Page
Signature
Date
No.
16. Poultry health management 93
i) General measures for prevention and
control of poultry diseases
ii) Routes of administration of vaccines in
poultry
17. Special care of broilers and layers during 105
summer and winter
18. Methods of slaughter and dressing of 110
poultry
19.
--
Essential poultry farm records 115
20. Economic indices of poultry farm 119
management
21. Evaluation of techno-economic feasibility for 127
starting a poultry farm
22 Preparation of project reports of different 133
categories of poultryfarm
i) Project report of a broiler farm
ii) Projec t report of a layer farm
(1 +3 system)
iii) Project report of a duck farm
(free range system)
Appendices .
1. VCI Syllabus on Avian Production and 150
Management for B .v. Sc. & A.H.
students
2. Requirements for Conducting Practical 152
Classes of Avian Production and
Management (as per VCI regulation)
3. Answer of the objective questions 153
4. References and Selected Bibliography 156
Activity Unit-1
Date ............... .
Holding and Control of Poultry and Study of
External Body Parts
OBJECTIVES
The knowledge of holding and control of poultry helps to handle the birds
properly for various purposes.
The knowledge of external body parts helps in
(a) studying the breed characteristics and identifying breeds of poultry,
(b) selection and culling of birds (layer vs. non-layer),
(c) identification of sexes (male vs. female), and
(d) proper application of poultry husbandry practices.
REQUIREMENTS
(i) Live birds (both sexes of chicken), (ii) Catching hook, (iii) Working ta-
ble, (iv) Note book and pencil.
PROCEDURE
I. Holding and Control of Bird
The bird is to be caught from the poultry house by putting catching hook to
the leg or by grabbing the legs with the help of hand.
Then it is to be held by grasping the two wings, and be placed on working
table after entangling its wings to each other at the base to restrict its move-
ment.
Then the bird is to be held in such a way that its abdomen rests on the palm
of the hand by placing the index finger in between the legs, the thumb around
one thigh and the remaining fingers on the other thigh, and the rear part of
the bird should be away from the body of the operator to avoid soiling, if
any.
When the bird is lifted in this manner for studying of body parts and other
purposes, it will be in comfortable position. If the bird sh'uggles, thighs are
to be grasped firmly and it will be .under complete control.
1
Manual all AVlall Production and Management
11. External Body Parts of Chicken
The external body parts are to be identified and studied (by uttering the words).
The external body parts of chicken are:
(a) Head Region: Comb, Beak, Nostril, Eye, Ear, Ear lobe, Wattle.
(b) Neck Region: Neck, Neck feather (Hackle), Cape (a feather just after hackle,
only present in male).
(c) Body:
Back
Breast
Wings
Abdomen
Tail
Legs
- Back, Back plumage, saddle (only in male).
- Breast, Breast plumage, Breast bone (keel).
- Wing, Wing front (a feather), Wing bow (a feather), Flight
feathers of wing.
- Abdomen, Abdominal feather (Fluff).
- Main tail feather (flight feather of tail), Greater sickle feather
(only in male), Lesser sickle feather.
- Thigh, Thigh plumage, Hock, Shank, Claw, Toes, Nails, Spur
(only in male).
2
Holding and Control of Poultnj and StudV of External BodV Parts
CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 1
# Indicate the correct answer by putting tick (.I) mark
1. Finger like projection present at the shank of male poultry is known as
(a) hackle (b) spur
(c) cape (d) saddle
2. Which of the following feather(s) is/ are only present in case of male chicken?
(a) cape (b) saddle
(c) sickle (d) all of these
3. Fluff is
(a) neck feather
(c) abdominal feather
(b) wing feather
(d) none of these
4. Breast bone of poultry is also known as
(a) hip bone (b) ribs
(c) keel bone (d) pin bone
# Exercise
1. Draw the figure of a hen and label its body parts.
2. Write the precautions to be taken while doing this job.
3. What are the morphological differences between the male and female of
chicken?
4. Indicate the body parts of poultry through which different types of vaccines
are commonly inoculated.
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Manual on Avian Production and Management
4
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Activity Unit - 2
Date ............... .
Study of Species, Breeds and Varieties of
Poultry
OBJECTIVE
To become familiar with different species, breeds and varieties of poulh-y.
RELEV ANT INFORMATION
Poultry: Poultry is a common term and it indicates all the domesticated birds
which are reared for production of eggs and/or meat for the economic benefits
of human beings. The most important poultry species are chicken or fowl, duck,
quail, turkey, guinea fowl, peafowl, etc. But the term 'poultry' most often used as
synonymous to chicken as it accounts for more than 90% of the total poultry
population in India and our poultry industry is mainly chicken oriented.
Species: It is a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable
of exchanging genes or interbreeding, and considered as the basic unit of
taxonomy. The important poultry species in Indian poultry industry scenario are
(i) Chicken/fowl - Callus domesticus (reared for egg and meat).
(ii) Duck - Anas platyrhynchos (mainly reared for egg and to some extent meat).
(ii) Quail- Cotumix coturnzx japonia (mainly reared for meat and also egg).
(iv) Turkey - Meleagris gallopavo (mainly reared for meat).
Class: It indicates group of breeds developed in a particular geographical area.
The breeds of chicken are classified into four classes, viz., American class, English
class, Mediterranean class and Asiatic class.
Breed: A group of birds which are similar in shape, size and body conformation,
and descendants of common ancestry is known as breed. All the birds of a breed
have more or less same genetic makeup with common morphological and
physiological sehlp. The examples of some breeds of chicken are White Leghorn,
Rhode Island Red, New Hampshire, Australorp, Sussex, Aseel, etc.
5
Manual on Avian Production and Management
Variety: It is the sub-division of a breed distinguished mainly by colour of
plumage, type of comb, etc. For example, Leghorn breed of chicken has 12 varieties,
like white, brown and buff coloured plumage, and single and rose type comb, etc.
Strain: It indicates a group of birds with some special characters within a breed
or variety. It is developed by a breeder by introducing some economic characters
like egg size, growth rate, feed efficiency, laying ability, mortality, etc. Nowadays
strain is more popular than breed concept. For example, Anak-2000, Hubbard,
Caribro-91, Vencob, Starbro are some broiler strains of chicken.
Important Classes, Breeds and Varieties of ChickenfFowl
Class
o American
o English
o Mediterranean
o Asiatic
Indigenous
Fowl of India
Breed
Rhode Island Red
New Hampshire
Plymouth Rock
Wyandotte
Australorp
Cornish
Sussex
Orpington
Leghorn
Minorca
Ancona
Brahma
Cochin
Langshan
Aseel
(Andhra Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan)
Kadaknath
(Madhya Pradesh)
Bursa
(Gujarat, Maharashtra)
Chittagong/Malay
(Chittagong hills)
Naked neck
(Maharashtra)
6
Variety
Single comb, Rose comb.
White, Buff, Barred, Silver
pencilled, Patridge, Columbian, Blue.
White, Buff, Black, Silver laced,
Golden laced, Silver pencilled.
White, Buff, Dark, White laced, Red.
Light, Red, Speckled.
White, Buff, Black, Blue.
White, Buff, Black, Silver, Red, Black
tailed, Red Columbian, Rose comb
(White, Brown), Single comb (White,
Black, Buff).
Black, White, Buff, Rose comb (Black,
White).
Single comb, Rose comb.
Light, Buff, Dark.
White, Buff, Black, Patridge.
White, Black.
Nhurie (white), Peela (golden yellow),
Khagar (black), Yakuth (black and red),
Chitta (black and white), Subja (white
and golden), Reza (light red).
Studv of Species, Breeds and Varieties of PouItrv
Characteristics of Important Breeds of Chicken
White Leghorn
Origin
General appearance
Plumage colour
Standard weight
Skin colour
Colour of earlobe
Shank
Colour of beak
Egg shell colour
Commercial importance
Rhode Island Red (RIR)
Origin
General appearance
Plumage colour
Standard weight
Skin colour
Colour of earlobe
Shank
Leghorn village of Italy. It is a breed of
Mediterranean class.
Small and very compact, small head with well set
comb and wattle, long back, prominent breast, tail
lowered down, it is the neatest of all birds.
White, evenly distributed over the entire body
surface.
Cock 2.7 kg
Hen 2.0 kg
Yellow
Yellowish white
Yellow coloured, clean.
Yellow
White
Egg type bird. All the commercial hybrid layers
are derived from this breed.
It is originated in Rhode Island state of America. It
is a breed of American class.
Long rectangular body, broad and deep breast, flat
back, massive look.
Brownish red and well glossed. Main tail feathers
and sickle feathers (in male) are black. In females,
hackle (neck feather) shows slight black marking
at the base.
Cock 3.8 kg
Hen 3.0 kg
Yellow
Reddish
Yellow coloured, clean.
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Manual on Avian Production and Management
Colour of beak
Egg shell colour
Commercial Importance
New Hampshire
Origin
General appearance
Plumage colour
Standard weight
Skin colour
Colour of earlobe
Shank
Colour of beak
Egg shell colour
Commercial importance
Australorp
Origin
General appearance
Plumage colour
Standard weight
Skin colour
Blackish
Brown
Dual purpose for egg and meat. More resistant to
diseases than other exotic breeds. Used for
upgrading the local/ deshi stock.
It is originated in New Ha1l1pshire state of America.
It is a breed of American class. This breed is
developed form RIR through selective breeding.
Less rectangular than RIR.
Chestnut red. Main tail feathers are black. In females,
lower neck feathers are distinctly tipped with black.
Cock 3.8 kg
Hen 3.0 kg
Yellow
Reddish
Yellow, clean.
Yellow
Brown
Dual purpose for egg and meat.
This breed is developed in Australia from Black
Orpington. It is an English breed.
Very fleshy, body slopes gradually towards tail,
deep body, closely feathered, long back, more
upright and less massive look.
Black, plumage is lustrous greenish black in all the
sections of the body.
Cock 3.8 kg
Hen 3.0 kg
White
8
Studv of Species, Breeds and Varieties of Pou1tnj
Colour of earlobe
Shank
Colour of beak
Egg shell colour
Commercial importance
Light Sussex
Origin
General appearance
Plumage colour
Standard weight
Skin colour
Colour of earlobe
Shank
Colour of beak
Egg shell colour
Commercial importance
Hybrid Chicken
Red
Black or dark slate coloured, clean.
Black
Brown
Dual purpose for egg and meat. They can maintain
themselves in wet and heavy rainfall areas.
This breed is originated in Sussex country of
England. It is a light variety of Sussex breed of
English class.
Deep body with very good fleshing quality, broad
shoulder.
White plumage with black streaked feathers on neck
and tail.
Cock 4.0 kg
Hen 3.0 kg
White
Red
White coloured, clean.
Coloured
Brown
Meat type.
Nowadays pure breeds of chicken are not generally used for commercial production
of egg or meat. First, the pure breeds are replaced by breed crosses, and now
breed crosses are replaced by strain crosses. Some important breed crosses and
strain crosses of chicken are given below.
Breed crosses:
1. Austra - white: The Australorp male is crossed with White Leghorn female
to produce this breed cross.
2. Rhodo - white: The Rhode Island Red male is crossed with White Leghorn
female to produce this breed cross. White plumage is dominant with occa-
9
Manual on Avian Production and Managemeflt
sional blackish feathers.
3. Sussex - hampshire : The Sussex male is crossed 'with Hampshire female to
produce this breed cross.
4. Red- rock: The Rhode Island Red male is crossed with Barred Plymouth
Rock to produce this breed cross. The male progenies are barred and fe-
males are black.
Strain crosses:
1. Broiler strains
B - 77 (CARI), Caribro - 91 (CARI), Giriraja (VAS, Bangalore), IBB - 83 (VAS,
Bangalore), Hubbard, Vencob, Anak - 2000, Chabro, etc.
2. Layer strains
HH - 260 (CPBF, Hessarghata), BH -78 (CPBF, Mumbai), ILl - 80 (CARI), Kalinga
hybrid (CPBF, Bhubaneswar), Carigolden - 92 (CARI), BV - 300, Starcross - 288
(white/brown egg), etc.
Breeds of Duck
Duck breeds are broadly classified into three types, viz.,
1) Egg type ducks
e.g. Khaki Campbell
Indian Runner
2) Meat type ducks
e.g. Aylesbury
White Pekin
Rouen
3) Ornamental type ducks
e.g. Call
Crested White
Black East India
Characteristics of Important Breeds of Ducks
Khaki Campbell
This breed of duck was developed in England by crossing between Rouen
and White Indian Runner. It was developed by Mrs. Campbell, and it has
'khaki' colour. So the name 'Khaki Camp bell' .
10
Stud1f of Species, Breeds and Varieties of Poultrlf
The average body weight: Duck 2.0 - 2.2 kg and Drake 2.2 - 2.4 kg.
Ducks lay about 300 eggs per year with egg size 72.5 g. They start to lay at
the age of 18 weeks.
They do not require water for swimming. So they can be reared under com-
plete confinement, where there is no facility of pond and range land.
Indian Runner
Body is well carried up in front and shape is as good as that of penguin. The
common popular varieties of this breed are white, white - pencilled and
fawn.
The average body weight: Duck 1.5 - 2.0 kg and Drake 2.0 - 2.5 kg.
They can lay 300 eggs per year. They are good forager and hardy, and they
can maintain themselves in all types of climate and localities.
Aylesbury
It is a good table duck. Plumage colour is completely white and they pro-
duce creamy white meat.
The average body weight: Duck 4 kg and Drake 4.5 kg.
White Pekin
It is very popular table duck. Its genetic development was carried out in
USA but its origin is in China. Plumage colour of this duck is white and they
are very fertile.
The average body weight: Duck 3.5 kg and Drake 4.0 kg.
Characteristics of Quail
Quail is recently domesticated species of poultry. It is also called 'Bater' in
Hindi and 'Titir Pakhi' in Bengali. This bird is first used in Japan for produc-
tion of egg and meat. So it is known as Japanese Quail (Cotu1'mix cotu1'mix
japonica).
Average body weight of quails: Day-old chicks 6 g, adults 150 - 170 g (fe-
males 140 - 160 g and males 120 - 140 g). The weight of quail egg is 10 g.
They start to lay egg at the age of 6 weeks and annual egg production is 260-
275. Male: female ratio in breeding stock is 1:3.
Broiler quails can be marketed at the age of 6 weeks with average body
weight of 150 g. The FCR is 3.3 and dressing percentage 70.
The important varieties of quail are -
1. English white - Feather colour white with or without few black spots.
2. British range - Feather colour dark.
11
Manual on Avian Production and Management
3. Pharach (wild type) - .Feather colour mixture of black and brown.
4. Tuxedo - Feather colour of face, neck and entire ventral surface is white
and remaining part is black.
5. Manchurian golden - Feather colour golden or light golden.
Characteristics of Turkey
Turkey is not a popular species of poultry in India, but in western countries
turkey is popular for meat prod uction. Small size turkeys are finished around
12 weeks with average body weight of about 4.5 kg.
Turkeys are not classified as breed. Seven standard varieties are being rec-
ognised by American Poultry Association. These are -
1. Broad Breasted bronze (BBB)
2. Beltsville Small White (BSW)
3. White Holland
4. Bourbon red
5. Black
6. Slate
7. Narrang Sett
The recent day's turkeys were developed from North American wild turkey.
The varieties of turkey differ in plumage colour, size and meat characteristics,
but the shape is common in general. Out of the seven varieties of turkey, BBB and
BSW are important from which most of the varieties have been developed.
Broad Breasted Bronze (BBB)
The origin of this variety of turkey is in England. Plumage colour is black
and they are derived from 'bronze' wild turkey.
Sex determination can be done at the age of 12 weeks. The females are hav-
ing white tipped black feathers at chest region.
The body weight at marketing age: females 6-7 kg at 22-25 weeks of age;
males 10-14 kg at 27-29 weeks of age.
BeItsville Small White (BSW)
This variety of turkey is originated in Beltsville area of USA. Plumage colour
of this variety is white.
They are smaller in size. The market weight is 4-5 kg at the age of 14 weeks
under standard management practices.
12
Study of Species, Breeds and Varieties of Poultnj
REQUIREMENTS
Live birds of various species, breeds and varieties of poultry; classification charts;
projection slides; models, etc.
PROCEDURE
Various species, breeds and varieties of poultry are to be studied by observ-
ing and handling the live birds physically.
If the live birds of all categories are not available, the photographs, projec-
tion slides or models may be used for the purpose.
13
Manual 011 Avian Production and Management
CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 2
# Indicate the correct answer by putting tick (.f) mark.
1. The origin of Rhode Island Red breed of poultry is
(a) America (b) Australia
(c) England (d) Italy
2. The origin of New Hampshire breed of poultry is
(a) America (b) Australia
(c) England (d) Italy
3. The origin of Australorp breed of poultry is
(a) America (b) Australia
(c) England (d) Italy
4. The origin of White Leghorn breed of poultry is
(a) America (b) Australia
(c) England (d) Italy
5. The origin of Light Sussex breed of poultry is
(a) America (b) Australia
(c) England (d) Italy
6. The origin of Aseel breed of poultry is
(a) Italy (b) Spain
(c) India (d) China
7. The origin of Cornish breed of poultry is
(a) America (b) England
(c) India (d) China
8. Which one is a good egg producer?
(a) Plymouth Rock (b) White Cornish
(c) Light Sussex (d) White Leghorn
9. Which one is not related with others so far colour of egg shell is concerned?
(a) Cornish (b) New Hampshire
(c) Australorp (d) Leghorn
10. Which one is a dual purpose breed of poultry?
(a) Rhode Island Red (b) White Leghorn
(c) Cornish (d) Aseel
11. Which one is an egg type breed of duck?
(a) Indian Runner (b) Pekin
(c) Aylesbury (d) Crested White
14
Study of Species, Breeds and Varieties of Poultnj
12. Which one is a meat type breed of duck?
(a) Indian Runner (b) Khaki Campbell
(c) Aylesbury (d) Call
13. Which one is not related with others?
(a) HH-260
(c) ILI-80
(b) BH-78
(d) B-77
14. Which one is not related with others?
(a) Vencob
(c) Kasila
(b) Anak-2000
(d) Mychix
15. Which is not a variety of turkey?
(a) Broad Breasted Bronze (b) White Holland
(c) Crested White (d) Beltsville Small White
# Exercise
1. Distinguish between Rhode Island Red and New Hampshire on the basis of
their physic'al characteristics.
2. Distinguish between White Leghorn and Australorp on the basis of their
physical characteristics. Mention their production capabilities.
3. Enlist the important features of Khaki Campbell duck.
4. Name some important hybrid chicken used for meat and egg production.
5. Enlist the important features of quail.
6. Enlist the important features of turkey.
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Manual on Avian Production and Managemqnt
16
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
Activity Unit - 3
Date ............... .
Judging and Culling of Poultry
OBJECTIVES
(i) To identify the ideal specimens to be considered as true to breed type.
(ii) To select good breeders as parents for future generations.
(iii) To cull unproductive birds in a flock.
(iv) To minimize cost of rearing by culling the non-performer in time.
PROCEDURE
I. Physical Characteristics Method
Judging is practiced on the basis of general appearance and body characteristics
of birds for specific breeds and varieties of poultry. Usually chicken attains sexual
maturity at 20 weeks of age and judging is done after 26 to 28 weeks of age.
Judging is done on the basis of performance, viz., good layer, poor layer and
non-layer (which have not started laying eggs).
Table 3.1: Characteristics to be observed for judging of layer birds
Characters Good layer Poor layer Non-layer
Plumage Initially bright, More bright Always bright
followed by dullness
Comb and Wattles Large, red Small, less warmer, Underdeveloped
Shrunken
Eyes Big, active, bright Small, dull Small, dull.
Vent Oblong, moist, pink Less oblong, Round, dry, yellow.
moist/ dry, pink
Distance between At least 3 fingers Less than 3 fingers Maximum 1 finger
two pubic bones
Distance between tip At least 4 fingers, Less than 4 fingers, Rubbery, very hard,
of breast bone and soft, pliable not very soft maximum 2 fingers
pubic bones
17
Manual on Avian Production and Management
Table 3.2: Characteristics of birds to be observed for judging good and poor
performers (distinguishing features)
Characters Good birds Poor birds
Head
Strongly feminine in females and Tendency to be masculine in female,
masculine in males, well crow headed or eagle headed,
proportioned, square and broad narrow and tapering at the top.
at the top.
Comb and Wattles Full, red, waxy and velvety Dry, scaly, shrivelled, cold, coarse.
Beak Stocky and well-curved. Long, thin and sharp-pointed.
~ e s
Full, bright and alert. Dull and sleepy
Earlobes Full, waxy and velvety. Shrunken, wrinkled and coarse.
Neck
Short and stocky. Long and thin.
Body
Capacious. Not so capacious.
Back Broad and straight. Narrow, pinched and crooked.
Sides Deep and straight. Shallow and barrel shaped.
Keel bone o n ~ and curved. Short and crooked.
Pubic bone Wide apart, thin and pliable. Thick, stiff and close together.
Skll1 Thin, soft and oily. Thick, dry and rough.
Abdomen Large, soft and free from lumps Small, hard and full of fat.
of fat.
Vent Full, large and moist. Small and dry.
Feather Compact. Loose.
Legs
Shank Thin and soft in back. Thick and rounded in back.
Toe-nails Stocky and well-curved. Long, thin and sharp-pointed.
Temperament Friendly and happy. Shy, nervous and squakes.
Appetite
Crop Full Not full.
Pigmentation Bleaching occurs as per laying Non-bleaching of body parts.
age.
H. Score Card Method
Based on general appearance as well as sexes of bird, following score cards are
formulated to facilitate judging.
(a) Score Card For Judging Male Birds
Particulars Maximum Score Obtained
Score Bird No.1 Bird No. 2 Bird No. 3 Bird No.4
Head 20
Neck 5
Body 40
Legs 10
Temperament 20
Appetite 5
Total 100
Remarks:
18
Judging and Culling of Poultnf
(b) Score Card For Judging Female Birds
Particulars Maximum Score Obtained
Score Bird No.1 Bird No.2 Bird No.3 Bird No.4
Head 10
Neck 5
Body 50
Legs 10
Temperament 10
Appetite 5
Pigmentation 10
Total 100
Remarks:
Ill. Depigmentation as a Tool for Judging Layer Birds
Depigmentation or bleaching acts as an index in assessing the persistency of egg
production. The pigment, xanthophyll is derived from the feed (principally from
yellow maize) and stored in different parts of body; the bird looses the pigment
as the laying age progresses. At the last stage, i.e., in the last 20 weeks of egg
production, when the production is less the pigments reappear in the same order.
Table 3.3: Order of Depigmentation
Tissue bleached Number of eggs
Vent When first egg is laid
Eye-lids 6-8
Earlobes 9-10
Beaks 11-35
Underside of feet 66
Front of shanks 95
Back of shanks 159
Top of toes 170
Hock joint 180
19
Manual on Avian Production and Management
CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 3
# Indicate the correct answer by putting tick (-1') mark.
1. Quality of good layers is/ are
(a) Quick maturing (b) Lack of broodiness
(c) Alertness
(d) All of these
2. Removal of uneconomical birds from the flock is known as
(a) brooding
(b) caponisation
(c) culling
(d) cannibalism
# Exercise
1. Practice judging and selection of good layer birds provided.
2. Practice culling of layer type birds from the flock provided.
3. Highlight the method(s) of judging poultry (layer birds) you have followed
in the practical class.
20
Judging and Culling of Poultry
21
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Activity Unit - 4
Date ............... .
Study of the Digestive System of
Poultry (Chicken)
OBJECfIVE
To develop idea about different parts of digestive system of poultry and their
normal functioning needed for efficient feeding management. It also helps in
diagnosis of some diseases on the basis of gross changes of different organs of
this system.
RELEVANT INFORMATION
The conversion of complex feed into simple form so that it is easily absorbed in
the blood is described as digestion. The digestive tract (or alimentary tract/ gastro-
intestinal tract) with the help of accessory glands of digestion performs this
function.
The digestive system includes the digestive tract and some digestive glands. The
digestive tract is a long tube through which feed passes. It begins at the mouth
and terminates at the vent. The parts of digestive tract of chicken are: mouth
(beak, tongue, mouth cavity, no teeth), oesophagus, crop, proventriculus, gizzard,
small intestine (duodenum, jejunum and ileum), large intestine (caeca, colon),
cloaca and vent. The primary accessory glands are liver and pancreas.
All l:hese organs and glands are physiologically as well as anatomically linked.
Digestion and absorption occur indifferent stages, each of which being dependent
on the previous stage or stages.
REQUIREMENTS
A post-mortem set and live bird (chicken).
PROCEDURE
The bird is to be dissected and the abdomen is to be opened. The digestive system
is to be exposed for easy understanding.
(The students should see the location of organs by touching to know the
22
Study of the Digestive Svstem of Poultnf (Chicken)
morphology and normal structure.)
Special Note
Specialities of Avian Digestive System
Poultry are simple stomached animals. They have two types of stomach, viz.,
proventriculus or glandular stomach (for enzymatic digestion) and gizzard
or muscular stomach (for mechanical digestion).
Teeth are absent in the mouth cavity. They take feed with the help of beak
and swallowed. So feed ingredients should be of proper size (710 millimi-
cron). There is a problem of taking powdered feed or whole grains.
Metabolic rate is very high. They take less time (about 4 hours) to digest
feed. High quality feed should be fed to the birds to avoid imbalanced nu-
trition leading to deficiency diseases.
Urinary bladder is absent in poultry, and cloaca is the common opening of
digestive, urinary and reproductive systems. Urine and faeces mixed to-
gether and passed through the cloaca and vent.
Poultry are unable to synthesize essential amino acids,
vitamin B-complex, vitamin K, etc. Laying birds require high level of calcium
through feed. These points are to be considered for proper feeding of poul-
try.
Post-mortem Lesions of Digestive System in Relation to Some Diseases
Post-mortem lesions in various organs of the digestive system of poultry help in
diagnosis of some diseases. Some important and common lesions are outlined
below.
Distended crop filled with indigestible materials like feathers, straw, etc. -
Impaction of crop.
Turkis towel-like thickening of crop mucosa along with ulcers - Candidia-
sis (fungal disease).
Haemorrhages at the tips of proventriculus, raised haemorrhagic ulcers along
the length of the small intestine - Ranikhet disease.
Pin point haemorrhagic spots or gray ish spots visible without cutting the
intestine open - Intestinal Coccidiosis.
Inflammation and haemorrhages in caeca - Caecal Coccidiosis.
23
Manual on Avian Production and Management
CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 4
# Indicate the correct answer by putting tick (,I') mark.
1. Glandular stomach of poultry is
(a) crop (b) proventriculus
(c) gizzard (d) none of these
2. Muscular stomach of poultry is
(a) crop (b) proventriculus
(c) gizzard (d) duodenum
3. The edible parts of the poultry digestive system are
(a) gizzard and proventriculus
(b) gizzard and liver
(c) liver and proventriculus
(d) liver and duodenum.
# Exercise
1. Indicate different parts of the digestive system of poultry with the help of
schematic labeled diagramme.
2. How the knowledge of digestive system of poultry helps in proper feeding
as well as diagnosis of certain diseases.
24
Study of the Digestive System of Poultry (Chicken)
25
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Activity Unit - 5
Date ............... .
Study of Reproductive System of Poultry
(Chicken)
OBJECfIVE
To develop an idea about different parts of reproductive system of poultry of
both sexes.
Detail knowledge of female reproductive system of chicken is must to know the
physiology of egg formation, and the quality of eggs. The incidence of defective
eggs is influenced by the condition of the reproductive organs.
RELEVANT INFORMATION
I. Female Reproductive System:
Female reproductive system of chicken consists of two ovaries and two oviducts
at the time of hatching, but in adults generally left ovary and its oviduct are
developed and functional. The right one presents as functionless rudiment.
The ovary is located at the dorsal part of abdominal cavity and at the anterior
end of left kidney. Ova at different stages of maturity are found in the ovary of
a laying hen. Shape of the ovary is just like cluster of grapes, and size varies from
3-Sg (broody hen) to SO-S2g (laying hen). Oviduct consists of five major parts,
viz., infundibulum or funnel (9cm), magnum or albumen secreting portion (33cm),
isthmus or shell membrane secreting portion (10cm), uterus or shell gland (12cm)
and vagina (12cm). (The measures within parenthesis are in case of laying hen.)
The total length of oviduct in case of laying hen is approximately 76cm.
11. Male Reproductive System:
Male reproductive system of chicken consists of a pair of testes, vas deferens and
papillae or rudimentary copulatory organ.
The testes are oval yellowish-white bodies, located at the anterior end of kidneys.
Vas deferens are narrow convoluted ducts arise from the inner boarder of each
testis and convey the spermatozoa and seminal fluid from the testes to the cloaca.
26
Studlj of Reproductme Sljste11l of Pal/Itn, (Chicken)
Papillae or rudimentary copulatory organ is located at the median ventral portion
of the cloaca, and it introduces spermatozoa into the oviduct through the cloaca
of the female at the time of mating.
REQUIREMENTS
A post-mortem set and live birds (chicken) of both sexes.
PROCEDURE
The individual bird is to be dissected and abdomen is to be opened. The
reproductive system is to be exposed for easy understanding.
(The students should see the location of all organs and feel them by touching to
know the normal structure.)
27
Manual on Avian Production and Management
CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT -5
# Indicate the correct answer by putting tick (,() mark
1. Approximate length of oviduct in laying hen is
(a) 33 cm (b)10 cm
(c) 76 cm (d) 22 cm
2. Egg albumin is formed in
(a) Infundibulum (b) Isthmus
(c) Magnum (d) Uterus
3. Shell membrane is formed in which part of the oviduct?
(a) Infundibulum (b) Magnum
(c) Isthmus (d) Uterus
4. Egg shell is formed in
(a) Ovary (b) Isthmus
(c) Uterus (d) Cloaca
5. Time taken for formation of an egg is
(a) 12 hours (b) 16 hours
(c) 25 hours (d) 21 hours
6. Yellow colour of yolk of I deshi egg' is due to presence of
(a) vitamin A (b) vitamin E
(c) carotene (d) riboflavin
# Exercise
1. Indicate various parts of the female reproductive system of poultry (chicken)
with the help of schematic diagramme.
2. Indicate various parts of the male reproductive system of poultry (chicken)
with the help of schematic diagramme.
3. How egg is formed in the reproductive system of hen?
28
Studv of Reproductive System of Poultry (Chicken)
29
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Activity Unit - 6
Date ............... .
Study of Structure of Egg
OBJECTIVES
(i) The knowledge of the structure of egg is essential for an understanding of
fertility, embryo development, egg quality and any disease of the female
reproductive organs.
(ii) Without the knowledge of the structure of egg, its grading and preservation
are not possible.
(iii) It is also important from the marketing angle. It has been estimated that
breakage of eggs due to defective egg shell structure ranges between 3 to 6
percent of all eggs handled in India.
RELEVANT INFORMATION
The egg consists of four main parts, viz., (i) shell, (ii) shell membrane, (iii) albumen
or egg white and (iv) yolk.
Egg Shell: The shell is the hard outermost covering of an egg. The colour of egg
shell may be white or brown depending on the class or breed of chicken. (Poultry
breeds of Mediterranean class always lay white shelled egg and breeds of other
classes lay brown shelled egg). The egg shell is composed of Calcium carbonate
(94 %), Magnesium carbonate (1 %), Calcium phosphate (1 %) and organic matter
(chiefly protein, 4%). The shell has numerous pores (about 1700 to 7500) on it
which helps in gaseous exchange required for embryo development. The shell is
covered by a thin transparent protein coating, called cuticle. It gives natural
protection to the shell pores. The shell thickness may vary among different avian
species (chicken 0.31 mm, duck 0.32 mm, quail 0.13 mm and turkey 0.41 mm).
Shell Membrane: Next to shell are two shell membranes, viz., outer shell
membrane and inner shell membrane. Both the shell membranes are attached
firmly to each other throughout the egg except at the broader end of egg where
air space or air cell is formed in between the two shell membranes. The depth of
the air cell of freshly laid egg is 1-3 mm. The thickness of outer and inner shell
membranes are 0.04 to 0.07 mm and 0.01 to 0.02 mm, respectively.
30
Study of Structure of Egg
The shell and shell membranes are non-edible parts of an egg and constitute
about 11 % of total egg weight.
Albumen or Egg White: The albumen consists of four layers viz., outer thin
white, outer thick white, inner thin white and inner thick white. The inner
thick white layer of albumen is also known as chalaziferous layer. Two thick
spiral band like structures are emerged from this layer, known as chalazae. They
hold the yolk in position. The albumen accounts for about 58% of the total egg
weight.
Yolk: A rounded yellowish coloured material is present at the center of egg, it is
called egg yolk. It accounts for about 31 % of the total egg weight. The yolk is
enclosed by a thin membrane called vitelline membrane. A small whitish disc
like structure is present on yolk just below the vitelline membrane. It is called
germinal disc (blastoderm in fertile egg and blastodisc in infertile egg). The
diameter of germinal disc is 4.5 mm in fertile egg and 3.5 mm in infertile egg.
REQUIREMENTS
(i) A Petri dish or a simple glass plate,
(ii) A blunt scalpel, and
(iii) An egg.
PROCEDURE
An egg is to be cleaned by smooth rubbing with towel and then broken with the
help of a blunt scalpel in such a way that a cracked space is formed on the egg
shell in the middle of longitudinal axis. Then the crackpd space is to be widened
with the help of two fingers by stretching the cracked shells outwards and the
contents of the egg is to be gently vacated in the Petri dish. Then different parts
are to be studied.
Special Note
Chemical Composition/Nutritive Value of Egg
Egg contains almost all nutrients in balanced proportion. So, it is called' a complete
planned food of natural origin'. Egg is rich in protein and low in calorific value;
this type of food item is mostly preferred nowadays by health conscious people.
Egg protein is an excellent quality protein of high biological value and it is often
used as a standard for measuring the quality of other food proteins. [B.V.= (N2
retained/N
2
absorbed)x100; B.V. of egg protein is 95, milk protein 85 and meat
protein 70]. The high biological value of egg protein is due to its amino acid make
up. Most of the essential amino acids required by human beings are present in
egg in balanced proportion.
31
Manual on Avian Production and Management
Almost all vitamins are present in eggs excepting vitamin C. The fat soluble vitamins
(like A, D, E) are mainly concentrated in the yolk part and water soluble vitamins
(mainly B
2
, B
6
, B
I2
, pantothenic acid, niacin) are present both in the albumen and
yolk parts of egg. Egg is very rich in vitamin D content, only next to fish liver oil
out of natural sources.
Egg is a very good source of iron and phosphorus. However, other minerals like
calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, chlorine, sulphur, zinc, copper and iodine
are present in lesser extent.
Egg is also known for its fatty acids. The saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
and cholesterol are mainly present in the yolk portion of the egg. The cholesterol
content of egg is around 500mg/l00g edible whole egg, whereas 1500mg/l00g
yolk. Due to cholesterol content of egg, it is involved in cholesterol controversy
in relation to cardiac problems. But a standard chicken egg (58g) contains only
258mg cholesterol, and about 1800 to 2000 mg cholesterol is utilized daily by
human body. Besides, other oily vegetarian foods contain cholesterol like material
and cholesterol balance is maintained by negative feed back mechanism in the
body.
Table 6.1: Gross parts of egg of various poultry species
Species of Total egg weight Yolk Albumen (%) Shell and shell
poultry (g) (%) membranes (%)
Chicken 58 31 58 11
Duck 70 35 53 12
Quail 10 32 48 20
Turkey 85 32 56 12
Table 6.2: Chemical composition of egg of various poultry species (per 100g
edible portion, without shell and shell membranes)
Species of Water Protein Fat (g) Carbohydrate (g) Mineral or Energy
poultry (g) (g) ash (g) (Kcal)
Chicken 73.7 12.9 11.5 0.9 1.0 163
Duck 71.0 13.0 14.5 0.5 1.0 189
Quail 74.2 13.1 11.0 1.0 1.1 161
Turkey 72.6 13.1 11.8 1.7 0.8 170
32
Studv of Structure of Egg
Table 6.3: Chemical composition of different parts of chicken egg (per lOOg
edible portion)
Water Protein (g) Fat (g) Ash (g) Carbohy- Energy
(g) drate (g) (Kcal)
Whole egg 73.7 12.9 11.5 1.0 0.9 163
(Albumen
+ Yolk)
Albumen 87.6 10.9 trace 0.7 0.8 51
Yolk 51.1 16.0 30.58 1.7 0.58 348
Table 6.4: Properties of egg of Khaki Campbell duck
Physical Properties Chemical Composition
Weight of egg 72.5g Nutrients Whole egg
I Albumen I Yolk
Shape index 72.0 without shell
Shell thickness 0.32mm Water (%) 72.06 87.01 45.21
Shell 15.75%
Albumen 51.14% Protein (%) 13.27 9.86 16.69
Yolk 33.11% Fat (%) 11.00 Trace 33.68
Mineral[%) 1.08 0.85 2.38
Cholesterol - - 23.85
(mg/g)
33
Manual on Avian Production and Management
CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 6
# Indicate the correct answer by putting tick (.I) mark
1. A standard chicken egg weighs about
(a) 48g (b) 58g
(c) 68g (d) 78g
2. The average weight of a duck egg should be
(a) 109 (b) 58g
(c) 70g (d) 95g
3. The average weight of a quail egg is
(a) 109 (b) 18g
(c) 70g (d) 150g
4. Egg white is mainly composed of
(a) carbohydrate (b) protein
(c) fat (d) calcium carbonate
5. Egg shell is mainly composed of
(a) carbohydrate (b) protein
(c) magnesium carbonate (d) calcium carbonate
6. Chalaziferous layer is also known as
(a) outer thick white (b) outer thin white
(c) inner thick white (d) inner thin white
7. Chalaziferous layer of egg is a part of
(a) yolk (b) albumin
(c) egg shell (d) shell membrane
8. The average protein contents of chicken (meat) and egg are
(a) 21 % and 13% (b) 9% and 10%
(c) 3.5% and 11 % (d) 66% and 70%
# Exercise
1. Indicate various parts of an egg with the help of schematic diagramme.
2. Compare and contrast between: duck egg vs. chicken egg, chicken egg vs.
quail egg.
3. What is the importance of egg in human nutrition?
34
Study of Structure of Egg
35
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Activity Unit - 7
Date ............... .
Evaluation of Quality of Eggs
OBJECTIVES
Egg quality means the inherent characteristics of an egg which determines its
degree of excellence and which is liked by customers. The producers fetch better
price for the quality products and customers always prefer the product of assured
quality.
REQUIREMENTS
Some important egg qualities are egg size, egg shape, shell colour, shell condition,
shell thickness and its strength, albumen quality, yolk quality, air cell quality, etc.
For evaluation of these quality parameters, the requirements are as follows:
(i) Egg weighing balance (for egg size)
(ii) Vernier Caliper (for egg shape)
(iii) Egg candler (for shell soundness; air cell, albumen and yolk qualities)
(iv) Screw gauge (for shell strength)
(v) Scale graduated in cm and mm (for depth of air cell)
(vi) Glass containers (for egg contents, etc.)
(vii) Brine solutions of known specific gravity ranging from 1.062 to 1.09.0 (for
specific gravity of egg)
PROCEDURES
I. External Egg Qualities
(1) Egg size/Egg weight
The terms 'egg size' and 'egg weight' are used synonymously. The egg size is
measured simply with the help of egg weighing balance.
The standard weights of table eggs of different species are -
Chicken 58g
Duck 70g
Quail 109
Turkey 85g
36
Evaluation of Quality of Eggs
(2) Egg shape
Normal shape of an egg is oval. Slight abnormality in shape of egg (like elongated,
flat, round, conical, etc.) is not preferred by consumers, because they thought
abnormal eggs are laid by diseased birds. Besides these, the bad shaped eggs are
not suitable for hatching purpose.
The egg shape is measured by Vernier Caliper in terms of egg shape index (ESI).
The length and breadth of an egg are to be measured to nearest O.lmm and the
breadth-length ratio is to be multiplied by 100 to get the ESI.
B
ESI = LX 100
The higher egg shape index indicates round shape and lower index indicates
elongated egg. The optimum shape indices of eggs of various poultry species are
Chicken 74
Duck 72
Quail 78
(3) Shell colour
The shell colour of egg is very characteristic to the breeds of poultry. The breeds
of Mediterranean class (e.g. White Leghorn, Minorca, Ancona) always lay white
shelled eggs. The breeds of American class (e.g. New Hampshire) and English
class (e.g. Australorp, Sussex) always lay brown shelled eggs. Quail eggs are tinted
with different colours. (Nowadays quail strain is produced which lays white shelled
eggs.) The shell of duck egg is more transparent than chicken egg.
The shell colour is simply observed by visual scoring. The colour of egg, whether
white or brown, does not matter but brightness of colour definitely preferred by
the consumers. Dull or stained colour of egg shell is not preferred by the
consumers.
Note: The shell colour of egg has nothing to do with its quality. So it is not
included in the USDA egg standards .
. (4) Shell conditions (cleanliness and soundness)
The shell should be clean and sound.
Shell cleanliness: It is judged by visual observation. On the basis of degree of
cleanliness, the eggs are classified into four groups, viz., clean, slightly stained,
moderately stained and dirty.
Clean egg: The shell is totally free from foreign material including stains.
37
Manulll all AVli711 Production and Management
Slightly stained egg: The shell is free from dirt but having slight stains covering
up to 1/16
1h
of its surface area.
Moderately stained egg: The shell is free from dirt but having moderate degree
of stains covering up to 1/4th of its surface area.
Dirty egg: The shell has both dirt and stains covering more than 1/4th of its
surface are.
A standard chicken egg (around 58 g) has a surface area of about 68.00sq.cm. and
its 1/4th and 1/16
th
parts mean an approximate area of 4.12cm x 4.12cm and 2.05cm
x cm, respectively.
Shell soundness: A sound egg means an egg with intact and unbroken shell. An
unsound egg may be cracked (having hair line crack on shell), leaking (having
crack on shell and shell membranes leading to oozing of egg contents) and smashed
(having crushed shell). Cracked egg is of poor quality, and leaking and smashed
eggs are considered in the category of loss (according to USDA grading of eggs).
Soundness of shell may be judged by tapping two eggs together near the ear. A
clear sound indicates sound shell and dull sound indicates that one or both the
eggs may have cracked shell.
The leaking and smashed eggs may be identified by visual observation. For
identification of hairline crack on shell, candling is to be done.
Candling of egg means viewing through egg by holding it in front of a source of
light (or candler) in a dark room. Egg candler is a wooden or metal box closed
from all sides except an egg-sized aperture (2.5cm diameter) on one side and has
an electric bulb fitted inside the box. Observation is to be taken while viewing
through and twirling the egg before the aperture of the candler.
(5) Shell strength
Shell thickness, specific gravity of intact egg, percentage of shell present in the
egg are important parameters for evaluating the strength of shell. Shell strength
is an economically important trait as weak shelled eggs may cause considerable
losses during handling and transport for marketing purpose due to breakage.
Shell thickness: Shell thickness and shell strength are directly proportional and
positively correlated.
Shell thickness can be measured with the help of screw gauge. A piece of egg
shell is to be inserted in the screw gauge and reading is to be taken directly from
the measuring scale.
Normal shell thickness of chicken egg is 0.30 to 0.50 mm.
Specific gravity of intact egg: It can be determined by brine flotation technique.
The eggs are to be allowed to float in a series of brine solutions with known
38
Evaluation ofQualitlf of Eggs
specific gravities ranging from 1.062 to 1.102, with differences of 0.004 between
each other. The specific gravity of the solution in which the egg just floats will be
the specific gravity of that egg.
The normal specific gravity of chicken egg is 1.062 to 1.090. Higher specific gravity
indicates thick shell and vice versa, because the specific gravity of inner contents of
egg is nearly same in all eggs.
11. Internal Egg Qualities
Internal egg qualities include conditions of air cell, albumen and yolk. These
parameters of intact eggs can be evaluated by means of candling for commercial
purpose.
(1) Evaluation of internal qualities of intact eggs by candling:
By means of candling of eggs, i.e., passing white light through the egg contents
shadow is cast by the yolk and air cell.
The shadow indicates about the size of air cell, position of yolk, condition of
vitelline membrane and condition of albumen.
Air cell - may be larger or smaller.
Yolk - may be centrally placed or off centered.
Vitelline membrane - weak if shadow of yolk is flattened.
Albumen - if shadow of yolk is darker and it moves freely, there is thinning of
thick albumen.
Normal conditions of these parameters:
Air cell - Height in freshly laid egg is 3.2mm and placed at the broader end of
egg.
Yolk - Centrally placed; outline invisible, free from blood spot or meat spot
(i.e., free from shadow of foreign bodies).
Albumen - Clear, thick and completely firm, free from blood spot or meat spot.
(2) Measuring of the depth of air cell of eggs after breaking
Air cell depth: Depth of air cell is to be measured with the help of scale.
Air cell depths of eggs of various ages are-
Freshly laid egg 3.2mm
3 days old egg 6.4mm
8 days old egg 9.5mm
15 days old egg 15.9mm
Depth of air cell up to 4mm is graded as 'A' and up to 8mm as 'B'.
39
Manual on Avian Production and Management
CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 7
# Indicate the correct answer by putting tick (.I) mark
1. Optimum shape index of duck egg is
(a) 74 (b) 72
(c) 78 (d) 70
2. Optimum shape index of quail egg is
(a) 10 (b) 60
(c) 74 (d) 78
3. Optimum shape index of chicken egg is
(a) 60 (b) 72
(c) 74 (d) 78
4. Standard weight of table egg (chicken) is
(a) 72 (b) 68
(c) 58 (d) 45
# Exercise
1. Enlist the parameters of eggs which can be evaluated by means of candling.
2. Enlist the parameters of eggs which can be evaluated simply by means of
visual observation.
3. How incubated eggs can be tested with the help of candling?
4. Frame a work sheet for taking various observations in relation to quality
parameters of eggs, fill thiS sheet and make comments on the basis of obser-
vations.
40
Evaluation a/Quality a/Eggs
41
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Activity Unit - 8
Date ............... .
Grading of Eggs
OBJECTIVE
To classify eggs into various categories (grades).
Grading of eggs is the sorting of eggs into different categories on the basis of
some parameters like weight and internal quality. It aids in facilitating uniform
packing and pricing and quality assurance to the consumers. It encourages the
production of quality eggs and helps in reducing wastage. Easier market price
reporting and easier advertising and establishment of brand names of the quality
product are some the other advantages of grading.
RELEVANT INFORMATION
Indian standards (BI5j Agmark standards) for various grades of table eggs:
1. Grade designation of table eggs based on weight
Grade Weight per egg (g) Weight per dozen eggs (g)
Extra large 60 and above 715 and above
Large 53 to 59 631 to 714
Medium 45 to 52 535 to 630
Small 38 to 44 456 to 534
2. Grade designation of table eggs based on quality
Quality Grade - A Grade - B
factors
Shell Clean, sound, unbroken, normal Clean to moderately stained, sound
shapes. but slightly abnormal.
Air cell 4 mm or less in depth, practically 8 mm or less in depth, may be free
regular. and slightly bubbly.
Egg white Clear and reasonably firm. Clear, may be slightly weak.
Yolk Fairly well centered, practically May be slightly off centered, outline
free from defects, outline slightly visible.
indistinct.
42
Grading of Eggs
PROCEDURE
1. Weight of egg is to be taken with the help of egg 'weighing balance.
2. Egg shell is to be inspected visually for its cleanliness and egg is to be candIed
for judging soundness of egg shell.
3. By means of candling of egg the shape of air cell can be known. The depth of
air cell can be measured with the help of measuring scale.
4. Firmness of egg white and position of yolk can be judged with the help of
candling of shelled egg.
On the basis of above observations, eggs are to be graded on the basis of weight
as well as quality factors as laid down in the Bureau of Indian Standards.
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Manual on Avian Production and Management
CLi\.SS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 8
# Indicate the correct answer by putting tick (v'') mark
1. As per BIS specification, chicken eggs of '45 - 52g weight group' fall under
which of the following grades?
(a) Exh"a Large (b) Large
(c) Medium (d) Small
2. As per BIS specification, 'large grade' chicken egg falls under which of the
following weight groups?
(a) 60g and above (b) 53-59g
(c) 45-52g (d) 38-44g
3. Grading of eggs aids in
(a) reducing wastage
(b) facilitating uniform 'packing and pricing
(c) quality assurance to the consumers
( d) all of these
4. As per standards (BIS), market table eggs are graded on the basis of quality
parameters as
(a) A,B,C,D (b) A,B,C
(c) A,B (d) Extra Large, Large,
Medium, Small
# Exercise
1. Frame a work sheet for taking various observations in relation to weight
and quality parameters of eggs, fill this sheet and make comments on the
grade of eggs.
2. What is the basis of grading eggs in India?
44
Grading of Eggs
45
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Activity Unit - 9
Date ............... .
Preservation of Eggs
OBJECTIVE
To know the different methods of preservation of eggs for improving keeping
quality of this perishable food item.
REQUIREMENTS
There are various methods for preservation of eggs, and accordingly the
requirements are different. So requirements are mentioned while elaborating the
individual method.
PROCEDURE
(A) METHODS FOR PRESERVING LESS NUMBER OF EGGS (HOME
PRESERVATION)
1. Method -1: Using Earthen Pot
The principle of this method is to keep the eggs in lower temperature. The eggs
can be kept in an earthen pot embedded in soil having sand bed, which is sprinkled
with water.
This method is being used in the rural areas to preserve the eggs in small number
for few days.
2. Method -2: Immersion in liquids
Various liquids like lime water, water glass etc. are used to preserve the eggs for
a short period.
Lime water method: 1 kg of quick lime is taken in a pot and 1 litre of boiling
water is added to it. The mixture is brought to room temperature, and 4-5 litres
of cold water and 225g of common salt (NaCl) are added to it. After settling
down the solution is strained through a cloth. The eggs are immersed in this clear
liquid and kept for 16-18 hours. Then the eggs are taken out and dried at room
temperature. Eggs can be preserved for 3-4 weeks by this method.
46
Presen)atial1 of Eggs
The preservative effect of the lime water is partly due to its alkalinity. Besides
this, it deposits a thin film of calcium carbonate on the egg shell leading to sealing
of the pores.
Water glass method: In this method sodium silicate is used instead of lime water.
Sodium silicate is also known as water glass, so the name of this method is water
glass method.
A solution is prepared by dissolving 1 part of sodium silicate in 10 parts of water.
The eggs are immersed in this solution for over night. The eggs can be preserved
for about one month by this method.
In this method a thin film of silica (sand) is deposited on the egg shell leading to
sealing of the pores.
3. Method -3: Oil coating method
Mineral oil (food grade, and colourless, odourless, less viscous and free from
fluorescent materials) is sprayed over the eggs or eggs are dipped in this oil,
which forms a thin film on the surface of shell leading to sealing of the pores.
The eggs are to be treated as early as possible after laying to retain better internal
quality.
4. Method -4: Low temperature method (eggs in refrigerator)
Few numbers of eggs can be preserved by keeping the In in refrigerator for few
days for home consumption purpose. But in this method eggs should not be kept
for more than 10 days.
(b) METHODS FOR PRESERVING LARGE NUMBER OF EGGS
(COMMERCIAL PRESERVATION)
1. Method - 1: Cold storage method
Fresh eggs are to be stored in this method. Keeping period will be more if eggs
are oil coated prior to load in the cold store.
The temperature and relative humidity which are to be maintained in the cold
store are as follows:
For short-term preservation For long-term preservation
Temperature: 12.5 - 15.5e (55-60F) Temperature: -10
o
e (14 1F)
Relative humidity: 70-80% Relative humidity: 80-90%
Oil coated eggs can be preserved for 8 months when stored at 14C and RH 90%,
whereas for 6 months only if eggs are not coated with oil.
47
Manual on Avian Production and Management
2. Method - 2: Thermo stabilization method
Eggs are to be immersed in warm water at 54C for 15 minutes or 56C for 10
minutes or 60C for 5 minutes.
This heating process stabilizes the thick portion of albumen which reduces the
evaporation of moisture from internal parts of eggs, and such eggs retain their
fresh appearance for longer period.
3. Method - 3: Pasteurization method
The eggs are to be immersed in warm water at 63C for 2.5 minutes or 64C for
1.5 - 2 minutes. This destroys the microbes present or.. the surface of the eggs.
This process is known as pasteurization of eggs.
NB: Students should practice all the methods of preservation of eggs at the Institute's
Poultnj Farm.
48
PresenJatioll of Eggs
CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 8
# Indicate the correct answer by putting tick (.I) mark.
1. Mineral oil is used for preserving eggs by oil coating method, because it is
(a) colourless
(b) odourless
(c) free from fluorescent materials
(d) all of these
2. The principle of earthen pot method of preserving eggs is
(a) keeping eggs in sterilized condition
(b) keeping eggs in high temperature
(c) keeping eggs in lower temperature
(d) none of these
3. Water glass is chemically known as
(a) Calcium silicate (b) Sodium silicate
(c) Calcium carbonate (d) Sodium bi-carbonate
4. For thermo stabilization of eggs with the object of increasing keeping qual-
ity, eggs are to be kept in warmed water at
(a) 54C for 15 minutes (b) 56C for 10 minutes
(c) 60C for 5 minutes (d) all of these
5. If oil coated eggs are kept in a cold store at 14C temperature and 90% RH,
the eggs will retain its freshness for
(a) 8weeks (b) 18 weeks
(c) 8 months (d) 18 months
# Exercise
1. What are the methods for preservation of large numbers of eggs? Which
method(s) is/ are to be employed in your area and why?
2. What are the methods for preservation of small numbers of eggs? Which
method(s) is/ are to be employed in your area and why?
49
Manual on Avian Production and Management
50
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Activity Unit -10
Date ............... .
Study of Different Housing Systems of
Poultry
OBJECfIVE
To know the different systems of housing poultry.
RELEVANT INFORMATION
Generally four types of housing systems are found to follow among the poultry
farmers. These are (i) free range or extensive system, (ii) semi-intensive system,
(iii) folding unit system and (iv) intensive system. Intensive system is again of
two types, viz., deep litter system and cage system.
Free range system: It is the oldest method of poultry rearing. Generally very
small number of birds (say, maximum 10-12 birds per farmer's family) are reared
in this system, though in totality a huge number of birds are reared in this system
in our country.
In this system birds are kept free during day time and they take shelter in a
house during night. Rearing of birds in this system is apparently profitable as
birds find appreciable amount of feeds in the surroundings during day time. This
method is not suitable for commercial purpose.
Semi-intensive system: This system of poultry rearing is partly free range and
partly intensive type. In this system, there is a poultry house followed by a run.
The run is a small land surrounded by wire mesh and attached to the poultry
house. The birds spend the day time in the run and take shelter in the house
during night.
Approximate floor space per bird is 3-4 sq ft for house and 150-200 sq ft for run
area.
Folding unit system: The general theme of this system of poultry rearing is the
same as that of semi-intensive system. Herealso, there is a poultry house followed
by a run. The whole area of the run is enclosed by wire nettings. But the space
requirement is less and the total poultry unit can be shifted from one place to
51
Manual on Avian Production and Management
another. Hence the name folding unit. One can keep small number of birds in this
system on the roof of their house with sophistication.
Approximate floor space per bird is 1 sq ft for house and 3 sq ft for run area, i.e.,
total 4 sq ft per bird. So, folding house unit measuring 20ft x 5ft is suitable for 25
birds.
Intensive System: Commercial poultry farming is done only with this system. It
is of two types, viz., (i) deep litter system and (ii) cage system or battery system.
Deep litter system: This system is widely used for scientific and successful poultry
farming. It is very popular for small as well as large units of commercial poultry
farms. Birds are kept in large pen up to 250 birds in each house. The floor of the
house is covered with dry litter materials up to the depth of 3 inches in broiler
and 6 inches in layer house. Rice husk, saw dust, wood shaVings, chapped straw,
dried leaves, ground nut shells, etc. may be used as litter material as per the cost
and availability.
Minimum floor space requirement under this system of management is 1 sq ft per
broiler and 1.75 sq ft per layer chicken. However, the floor space may be increased
to some extent in the summer months.
Cage system: It is the latest system of poultry rearing. Floor space requirement
for birds is least in this system. Floor space requirement is 0.5 sq ft per broiler
and 0.75 sq ft per layer chicken. Generally breadth and height of the cage are 1
foot and 1% foot respectively; and the length depends on the number of birds to
be kept in the cage. However, it is better not to keep more than 10-12 birds per
cage.
The birds are confined in a cage just large enough to permit limited movement
and allow them to stand and sit comfortably. The cage is made up of strong
galvanized wire and a tray is fixed underneath of the floor for collection of
droppings. The feeder and waterer remain outside the cage. The cages may be of
different types, viz., Californian type, three-tier 01' four tier type, etc. Initial
investment in this system is very high, so this system is not commonly used by
the small poultry farmers. However, this system of poultry rearing is very efficient
and is being used in case of large commercial production.
PROCEDURE
Students should see the different types of housing systems of poultry. If all types
of houses are not available in the Instructional Farm, study the same using
photographs, models, projection slides, etc.
52
Study of Different Housing Svstems of Poultnj
CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 10
# Indicate the correct answer by putting tick (,() mark.
1. The minimum floor space requirement for a layer (chicken) under deep litter
system is
(a) 1.00 sq ft
(c) 3.00 sq ft
(b) 1.75 sq ft
(d) 3.75 sq ft
2. The minimum floor space requirement for a broiler (chicken) under deep
litter system is
(a) 1.00 sq ft (b) 1.75 sq ft
(c) 2.00 sq ft (d) 2.50 sq ft
3. Poor ventilation in poultry house may cause
(a) accumulation of carbon monoxide
(b) accumulation of ammonia
(c) wet litter condition
(d) all of these
4. A broiler poultry shed of 25ft x 10ft under deep litter system can accommo-
date
(a) 125 birds
(c) 325 birds
(b) 250 birds
(d) 375 birds
5. Which system of commercial poultry keeping is the best for the rural Ben-
gal?
(a) free range system
(c) deep litter system
(b) semi-intensive system
(d) cage system
6. A cage measuring 60cm L x 60cm W x 25cm H can accommodate
(a) 10 quails (b) 25 quails
(c) 50 quails (d) 150 quails
7. A cage measuring 120cm L x 60cm W x 25cm H can accommodate
(a) 15 quails (b) 25 quails
(c) 50 quails (d) 100 quails
8. Cage layer fatigue is a problem associated with
(a) deep litter system (b) battery system
(c) semi-intensive system (d) folding unit system
# Exercise
1. Compare and contrast between: deep litter system and cage system.
53
Manual on Avian Production and Management
2. Which system of commercial poultry rearing is very popular in rural Bengal
and why?
3. What is the basic difference between semi-intensive system and folding unit
system of poultry keeping?
54
Study of Different Housing Systems of PouItnf
55
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Activity Unit - 11
Date ............... .
Study of Various Equipments of Poultry Farm
and Hatchery
OBJECTIVES
(i) To become familiar with different types of poultry farm and hatchery
equipments - their shape, size and design.
(ii) To know the utility and use of the equipments commonly used in poulb'y
farms and hatcheries.
REQUIREMENTS
(i) Various poultry farm equipments viz., feeder, waterer, nest, catching appli-
ance, weighing balance, debeaker, brooder, etc.
(ii) Hatchery equipments VIZ., incubator, egg candler, egg weighing balance, egg
tray, chick boxes, etc.
RELEVANT INFORMATION
1. Feeder
Two types of pouli.ry feeders are in use, viz., trough type (linear or longitudinal
feeder) and hopper type (tube or circular feeder).
Four feeders (trays) are usually provided for about 250-300 chicks up to 7 days of
age, and then additional feeders (3-4 per 100 birds) are provided.
Feeder space requirement is as follows:
In case of broiler farm under deep litter system-
0-2 weeks : 1 inch per bird
3-6 weeks: 2-2.5 inches per bird
2. Waterer (Drinker)
Different types of waterer are in use, viz., plate and jar, water bowl, water trough
(linear or channel type), pipeline with nipples, deep water pan with guard grill,
etc.
56
Study of Various Equipments of Poultry Farm mid Hatchenf
Four waterers (drinkers) are usually provided for about 250-300 chicks up to 7
days of age, and then additional feeders (3-4 per 100 birds) are provided.
Waterer space requirement is as follows:
In case of broiler farm under deep litter system-
0-4 weeks: 1 inch per bird
5 weeks onwards: 2 inches per bird
One automatic round waterer is sufficient for 50 birds. No bird should have to
walk more than 5 feet for a waterer.
Water intake generally increases by 2-3 times during summer months. So,
adequate number of waterers is to be provided by introducing more numbers as
per needs so that fresh clean drinking water is available always. Generally water
space is increased by about 50% in hot weather.
Under normal conditions, chicken of all age groups consume about two times as
much water by weight as they eat feed.
3. Nest
The nest is provided in the layer house generally under deep litter system of
management. It helps in proper collection of eggs as well as production of clean
eggs.
Several types of nests are in use, viz., individual nest, community nest, community
roll away nest, trap nest, etc. they are made up of wooden or steel with sufficient
space for birds.
Individual nest: One individual nest box measuring 35.5 cm x 35.5 cm x 30.5 cm
is sufficient for 4-5 laying hens of commercial flock.
Community nest: One community nest measuring 1.5 m x 0.6 m x 0.6 m is sufficient
for 50 layers. It is commonly used at commercial layer farm under deep litter
system of management.
Community roll away nest: It is generally used in case of breeding flock under
cage system of management. It helps in clean egg production, but if wrongly
installed may increase br-eakage of eggs.
Trap nest: It is used for breeding poultry farm. After entering in the nest box the
door is automatically closed and the bird cannot come out. After completion of
laying the bird is to be left out manually, and egg is collected and marked for the
research purpose.
4. Catching appliance
Catching appliances are used to catch the birds with minimum possible stress for
57
Manual on Avzan Production and Management
various operations like vaccination, weighing, debeaking, culling, etc. The
important catching appliances are catching hook and catching crate / wire panel.
5. Debeaker
Cutting of about 1/3 to 1/2 of upper mandible and trimming of lower mandible for
just making it blunt is known as debeaking. This is done to reduce the wastage of
feeds and to minimize the chance of cannibalism. This is generally done for egg-
type chicken and usually not required for broiler chicken.
Debeaker is used for this purpose. Both manual and electric debeakers are available
in the market; however, in commercial layer farm electric debeaker is commonly
used.
6. Weighing balance
Weighing balances of various capacities are needed in the poultry farm for weighing
chicks and adult birds, feeds, eggs, etc. Special egg weighing balance is also
available.
7. Egg candler
It is a wooden or metal box closed from all sides but having an aperture of 2.5-3.0
cm in diameter, and one electric bulb is fitted inside the box.
The egg is held in front of beam of light near the aperture of the candler for
proper viewing of egg shell and egg contents. Porosity of egg shell, shape and
size of air cell, shadow of yolk, soundness of shell, etc. are observed by candling
of eggs. Fertile and / or infertile eggs can also be detected if incubated eggs are
candIed properly on 5
th
to 7th day of incubation.
It is desirable to candle the eggs in dark room.
8. Electric bulb
Electric bulbs are used for light management as well as brooding management
under conventional system.
Four 60-watt bulbs suspended 6 inches above the floor are generally provided
for 250-300 chicks for brooding management at the initial period.
9. Hatchery Equipments
The important hatchery equipments are incubator, egg trays, tray carts and racks,
egg candler, table for traying eggs, chick boxes.
Incubator
It may be of two types, viz., combined incubator (setter cum hatcher) and setter
and hatcher. In case of chicken egg incubation, eggs are kept in the setter machine
58
Study of Various Equipnzents of Poultry Farm and Hatchery
for the first 18 days and then transferred them to the hatcher machine. But eggs
are kept during the total period of incubation in the combined incubator machine.
Incubator machines of various capacities are available in the market.
The following parts of an incubator are to be studied along with their functions.
The parts of a common incubator (for hatching of eggs) are-
machine cabinet, contract thermometer for temperature control, contract
thermometer for humidity control, dry bulb and wet bulb thermometer ( for
knowing temperature and humidity in side the machine), hygrometer (for
humidity study, optional), fan, light source in side the machine (an electric bulb),
egg turning device, water tank fitted with the machine-cabinet through a special
valve, air inlet and outlet, control panel with off-on switch, egg trays, chick boxes/
trays.
The incubator is to be on to see the movements/ functions of all the parts of the
machine.
Egg trays, chick trays, tray carts and racks
These are used for handling of eggs for the hatching purposes.
Egg candler
It is used for candling(testing) of eggs during incubation to discard the infertile
eggs and / or dead in shell, if any.
Chick boxes
These are used for packing of chicks for delivering the same to the poultry farmers.
A chick box measuring 2ft x 1ft 6 inches x 6 inches and partitioned in 4
compartments can accommodate 100 chicks in winter and 80 chicks in summer.
PROCEDURE
The students should study all the equipments, their design, capacity, uses, etc.
available in the institution's poultry farm, and note their observations including
schematic diagrammes of the equipments.
59
Manual on Avian Production and Management
CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 11
# Indicate the correct answer by putting tick (,() mark.
1. Feeder space requirement for a broiler bird (0-2 weeks age group) under
deep li.tter system is
(a) 1 inch
(c) 2 inches
(b) 1.5 inch
(d) 2.5 inches
2. Feeder space requirement for a broiler bird (3-6 weeks age group) under
deep litter system is
(a) 1-1.5 inch (b) 1.5-2 inches
(c) 2-2.5 inches (d) 2.5-3 inches
3. Waterer space requirement for a broiler bird (0-4 weeks age group) under
deep litter system is
(a) 1 inch (b) 2 inches
(c) 3 inches (d) 4 inches
4. Waterer space requirement for a broiler bird (5 weeks and more age group)
under deep litter system is
(a) 1 inch (b) 2 inches
(c) 3 inches (d) 4 inches
5. How many chicks can be accommodated in a chick box measuring 2ft x PIz ft
x 1/z ft in winter months?
(a) 50
(c) 150
# Exercise
(b) 100
(d) 200
1. Name the important parts of an incubator and their respective functions in
hatching of eggs.
2. Enlist different equipments used in a broiler farm along with their schematic
diagrammes.
3. Enlist different equipments used in a layer farm along with their schematic
diagrammes.
60
~ u d y of Various Equipments of Poultry Farm and Hatchery
61
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Activity Unit - 12
Date ............... .
Management of Incubator for Hatching of
Eggs
OBJECTIVE
To hatch the eggs artificially with the help of incubator.
REQUIREMENTS
1. Incubator machine
2. Egg candler
3. Eggs to be hatched
PROCEDURE
The following steps are to be followed properly for successful hatching of eggs.
1. Cleaning and Disinfection of Incubator
The incubator is to be cleaned thoroughly. The interior of the machine is to be
washed with 4 % solution of washing soda followed by disinfection with phenyl
or lysol. Loose fittings of the machine are to be removed, and washed and
disinfected separately, and be fitted at their respective places.
2. Fumigation
The incubator is to be fumigated with formaldehyde gas [40% formalin on
potassium permanganate (KMn0
4
)].
Quantity required: 20g KMn04 and 40ml formalin for 100 cubic ft area (lx
concentration) for 3-4 hours.
KMn04 crystals are to be taken in an enamel bowl and kept at the bottom of the
incubator; then formalin is to be poured over it to liberate formaldehyde gas.
The enamel bowl should have sufficient volumetric capacity to avoid overflowing
during reaction.
Before fumigation thermometers are to be removed as during fumigation excessive
heat generation may damage these sensitive parts of the incubator. Air inlet and
62
Management afIncubatar for Hatching of Eggs
outlet are to be closed properly to conserve the fumigated gas inside the incubator.
However, it is to be ventilated properly before setting of eggs to remove traces
of poisonous gas. Birds or humans to prevent fatal effects should not inhale the
formaldehyde gas.
3. Testing of Incubator
Before actual setting of eggs, the incubator machine is to be tested for its various
functions like maintaining desired temperature and humidity, turning of eggs
and ventilation mechanism. The incubator is to be on for at least 24 hours to make
sure that it is all right.
4. Actual Management of the Incubator
Adjusting the incubator for all functions according to the manufacturer's
instructions and as per requirements specific to a species of bird - like tem-
perature, humidity (dry bulb and wet bulb thermometer), turning mecha-
nism and ventilation.
Placing of eggs: The selected eggs are to be placed in upright position i.e.,
with broad end up position.
All the principles are maintained automatically; so strong vigil is to be kept
for mechanical fault, if any.
After adjusting the incubator and setting of eggs, the machine should not be
opened frequently to avoid interference in maintaining temperature and
humidity in it.
For maintaining humidity quantity of water in the respective containers is to
be checked daily, and if needed, water is to be poured in the respective
containers.
RELEVANT INFORMATION
1. Optimum Conditions for Artificial Hatching of Eggs of Different Poultry
Species
1.1 Hatching of Chicken Eggs
Eggs Weight: 50-55g
Storage: 1-3 days (20-25C / 6S-77F), 4-7 days (15-17C / 59-
62.6F), 7-10 days (14-16C / 57.2-60.S0F), >10 days (10-12C /
50-53. 6F); RH 75-S0%; Positioning - air cell upwards.
Setter Conditions
Temperature 37.5-37.7C (99.5-99.S0F) Prevent fluctuation of temperature
Humidity 2S.3-30C (S3-S6F) wet-bulb thermometer; maximum weight
loss during incubation 12.6% from initial weight of egg.
63
Manual on Avian Production and Management
Ventilation Maximum C02 level 0.5%, fresh air supply 60-180 m
3
per 1000
eggs per hour.
Turning 45 vice versa. Common practice is once every hour.
Candling. At day 7 and / or at transfer.
Transfer At day 18.
Hatcher Conditions
Temperature
-
37.2-36.9C (99-98'soP)
Humidity 30-33.3C (86-92P) wet bulb thermometer; humidity is to be
increased gradually when piping starts.
Turning Not required.
Hatching 21 days + hours to dry.
Chick Treatment To keep the susceptible chicks free from drying out, cooling
down and draught.
1.2 Hatching of Duck Eggs
Eggs Weight: 65-70g
Storage: 1-3 days (20-25C / 68-77P), 4-7 days (15-17C / 59-
62.6P), 7-10 days (14-16C / 57.2-60.8P), >10 days (10-12C /
50-53.6P); RH 75-80%; Positioning - air cell upwards.
Setter Conditions
Temperature 37.2-37SC (99.0-99SP) Prevent fluctuation of temperature
Humidity 30.3-31C (86-88P) wet bulb thermometer; maximum weight
loss during incubation 12.6% from initial weight of egg.
Ventilation Maximum CO
2
level 0.5%, fresh air supply 60-180 m
3
per 1000
eggs per hour.
Turning 45 vice versa. Common practice is once every hour.
Candling At day 7 and / or at transfer.
Transfer At day 25.
Hatcher Conditions
Temperature 37.0-37.2C (98.6-99.0F)
Humidity 31-35C (88-95F) wet bulb thermometer; humidity is to be
increased gradually when piping starts.
TurniIlK Not required.
Hatching 28 days + hours to dry.
Duckling Keep the susceptible ducklings free from drying out, cooling
Treatment
down and draught. Keep them at 30C during the first day of
their life after taking out from the hatcher, and anti-stress
medicines (glucose and electrolyte powder) may be provided
in the drinking water.
64
Management of Incubator for Hatching of Eggs
1.3 Hatching of Quail Eggs
Eggs Weight: 109
Storage: 1-10 days at 13-15C; RH 75%; Positioning - air cell
upwards.
Setter Conditions
Temperature 37.5-37.8 C (99.5-100F) Prevent fluctuation of temperature
Humidity 30.3-31C (86-88F) wet bulb thermometer; maximum weight
loss during incubation 21.5% from initial weight of egg.
Ventilation Maximum C02 level 0.5%, fresh air supply 60-180 m
3
per
10000 eggs per hour.
Turning 45 vic,e versa. Common practice is once every hour, but once
every 3 hours is enough ..
Candling At day 7 and / or at transfer.(But not done in practice).
Transfer At day 14.
Hatcher Conditions
Temperature 37.0-37.4C (98.6-99.3F)
Humidity 30-33.3C J86-92F) wet bulb thermometer.
Turning Not required.
Hatching 17-18 days.
Chick Treatment Keep the susceptible ducklings free from drying out, cooling
down and draught. Keep them at 34-40C during the first 3
days of their life after taking out from the hatcher, and
decrease it then slowly to 24C at the end of second week.
Anti-stress medicines (glucose and electrolyte powder) may
be provided in the drinking water.
2. Loading Schedule and Requirement of Breeding Stock
In case of large electric incubator one third of the total capacity is usually loaded
every 7 or 8 days.
The number of breeding birds required iscaIculated as one eighth of the incubator
capacity. For example, a 1000 egg incubator would need about 125 breeding birds
to keep it full (allowing for average lay in all seasons, and reject eggs).
3. Testing of incubated eggs
Incubated eggs are tested by means of candling at two different times during
incubation, viz., on 5
th
_7th day of incubation (to discard the infertile egg, if any)
and again on 18
th
day of incubation (to discard the dead-in-shell, if any and to
maintain the business liaison in case of commercial hatchery).
On 5
th
_7th day of incubation, spider-like red radiating lines can be seen in fertile
eggs and movement of developing embryos is quite visible. At this stage infertile
eggs will be clear like fresh eggs but they have bigger air cell.
65
Manual on Avian Production and Management
On 18
th
day of incubation, about two third of the egg will show dark in appearance
and a pulsating movement will be observable at the edge of the air cell in case of
fertile eggs. Infertile eggs with dead embryos at this stage will be less developed.
4. Incubation-related Problems and their Remedial Measures
SI. No. Problem Probable causes Remedial Measures
1 Early Temperature too high or * To check temperature and
embryonic low humidity control devices.
death (blood * To ensure proper electric
ring seen on supply in the incubator.
candling)
2 Many dead- * Poor ventilation * To check the fresh air
in-shell * Faulty turning of eggs circulation in the incubator
* Infection, e.g., BWD, etc. and hatchery room.
* Ill-health of breeding * To maintain the turning
stock including poor schedule of eggs properly
nutrition. and seriously.
* To maintain the hatchery
hygiene.
* To maintain the disease free
and well nourished
breeding stock.
3 Failing to Low level or lack of To main the humidity
hatch (Piped moisture in the incubator. requirement inside the
eggs) machine.
4 Malformed * Faulty setting of eggs * To set eggs properly with
chicks/ * Faulty turning of eggs broad-end-up position.
ducklings * Temperature too high * To turn eggs properly as per
or low. schedule.
* To check thermometer.
66
Management of Incubator for Hatchirg of Eggs
CLASS ASIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 12
# Indicate the correct answer by putting tick (.I') mark.
1. Production of chicks from fertile eggs is known as
(a) culling (b) hatching
(c) brooding (d) deworming
2. Maximum number of eggs that can be hatched by a broody hen is
(a) 10 (b) 20
(c) 30 (d) 40
3. Incubation period of chicken egg is
(a) 17 days (b) 21 days
(c) 28 days (d) 35 days
4. Incubation period of chicken egg by artificial hatching method (incubator) is
(a) 7 days (b) 14 days
(c) 21 days (d) 28 days
5. Incubation period of chicken egg by natural hatching method (broody hen)
is
(a) 7 days
(c) 21 days
(b) 14 days
(d) 28 days
6. Temperature during incubation of chicken eggs should be
(a) 35.5C (b) 37.5C
(c) 39.5C (d) 41.5C
7. Relative humidity during incubation of chicken eggs should be
(a) 50-60% (b) 60-70%
(c) 70-80% (d) 80-90%
8. The incubation period of quail eggs is
(a) 15 days (b) 17 days
(c) 19 days (d) 21 days
9. The incubation period of turkey eggs is
(a) 17 days (b) 21 days
(c) 28 days (d) 35 days
10. The incubation period of duck eggs is
(a) 18 days (b) 24 days
(c) 28 days (d) 32 days
67
Manual on Avian Production and Management
11. Male-female ratio of parent stock (chicken) for production of hatching eggs
should be
(a) 1:3
(c) 1:20
(b) 1:10
(d) 1:50
12. Male-female ratio of parent stock (quail) for production of fertile eggs should
be
(a) 1:3
(c) 1:20
(b) 1:10
(d) 1:50
13. Male-female ratio of parent stock (Khaki Campbell duck) for production of
fertile eggs should be
(a) 1:5
(c) 1:15
(b) 1:10
(d) 1:20
14. Average weight of a newborn quail chick is
(a) 109 (b) 6g
(c) 16g (d) 58g
15. For artificial incubation eggs are kept in the setter (in case of chicken) for
(a) 3 days (b) 18 days
(c) 21 days (d) 28 days
16. Hatching eggs can be preserved for 7 days at a storage-temperature of
(a) 2-8C (b) 16-17C
(c) 25-30
o
C (d) 37-38C
17. For successful hatching of chicken eggs, turning of eggs is essentially needed
during -
(a) the total incubation period
(b) the first 18 days of incubation
(c) the last 3 days of incubation
(d) the first 3 days of incubation
18. For successful hatching of duck eggs, turning of eggs is must during %
(a) the total incubation period
(b) the first 25 days of incubation
(c) the last 3 days of incubation
( d) none of these
# EXERCISE
1. Enlist the daily activities during artificial incubation of eggs.
2. Why and how eggs are tested during incubation?
68
Management of Incubator for Hatching of Eggs
3. What do you mean by 'dead in shell'? What measures are to be taken to
reduce the dead in shell cases?
4. How many eggs are to be set to supply 1000 broiler and 1000 layer chicks to
the respective farmers?
69
Manual on Avian Production and Management
70
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Activity Unit -13
Date ............... .
Sexing of Birds
OBJECfIVE
The method of segregation of male and female birds is called as sexing. It is
essential for breeder and layer chicks at day old stage.
PROCEDURE
SEXING OF CHICKS
(a) Japanese Method or Vent (Cloaca) Method of Sexing
This method was first developed in Japan and considered to be the most popular
method of the recent time. The sexing is done on the basis of the genital eminence
of the day old chicks.
Characters Male Female
1. Elasticity of genital More elastic Less elastic
eminence
2. Boundary and contour of the Distinct boundary No distinct boundary or
genital eminence and contour contour
3. Lusture and colour of Distinct Lusture Transparent appearance,
eminence colour does not differ from
other part of cloaca.
4. Difference in the position of Much more outside Further inside
eminence
(b) Proctoscope Method
Proctoscope is an optical instrument with an illuminated glass tip which is inserted
into the chick's bowel through cloaca, enabling the sexer to view the testicle of
the cockerel or the ovary (left) of the pullet.
(c) Sex-linked Characters
(i) Colour of Plumage: In this method sex-linked characters are used to iden-
tify the sexes of chicks. For example, when a Rhode Island Red male is mated
to Barred Plymouth Rock female, all the female progenies will be black and
male progenies barred.
71
Manual on Avian Production and Management
(ii) Feather Growth: Slow-feathering and rapid-feathering genes are used in
breeding programs so that the sex of day old chicks can easily be deter-
mined. Feather sexing is common in layer and broiler parent stock.
SEXING OF DUCKLINGS
(a) Japanese or Vent Method
The colour of the cloaca of day old male duckling appears to be pinker than that
of female ones.
(b) Sexing of Duck (adult)
Characters Male Female
1. Squawk (6 weeks of Not so pronounced Much more pronounced
age)
2. Tail feather Turned upside No such turning
3. Colour of plumage More darker (in Khaki Less darker (in Khaki
Campbell the colour of Camp bell the colour of
plumage of neck is bluish plumage of neck is
black) chocolate)
SEXING OF QUAILS
Day old stage Day old sexing is possible but it is not practiced due to
very small size of birds (each weighs about 6g).
Three weeks of age Male - Darker cinnamon coloured feathers on the upper
throat and lower breast region. Feathers are short and
blunt.
Female - Lighter cinnamon coloured feathers on that
region of the body and a characteristic black stippling.
Feathers are long and pointed.
Five to six weeks of age Male - makes peculiar sound particularly during the
night.
SEXING OF OTHER BIRDS
The vent method is also used for sexing turkeys, guinea fowls, geese, ostriches
and emus at day old stage.
72
Sexing of Birds
CLASS ASIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 13
# Indicate the correct answer by putting tick (.f) mark.
1. Sexing of day old chicks is an essential operation in which of the followings?
(a) Broiler farming (b) Layer farming
(c) Both a & b (d) None of these.
2. Vent method of sexing at day old stage is not generally done in case of
(a) chicken (b) duck
(c) quail (d) turkey
3. When a Rhode Island Red male is mated to Barred Plymouth Rock female
(a) all the male progenies will be red and female progenies barred.
(b) all the female progenies will be red and male progenies barred.
(c) all the male progenies will be black and female progenies barred.
(d) all the female progenies will be black and male progenies barred.
# EXERCISE
1. Why chick sexing is an important operation in a hutchery?
2. How sexing of chicks is done by Japanese method?
3. What do you mean by auto sexing? How is it done in case of poulh"y?
73
Manual on Avian Production and Management
74
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Activity Unit - 14
Date ............... .
Brooding of Poultry
OBJECfIVE
To know the different activities related to brooding of chicks.
RELEVANT INFORMATION
Brooding is the care and management of day old chicks during early part of their
life (generally up to 4-6 weeks of age or until they are well feathered). They
require extra heat at this stage due to their ill developed thermoregulatory
mechanism.
The brooder unit consists of the following arrangements.
1) A brooder with a heating source: Usually it is a bamboo basket with electric
bulbs as source of heat. The height of the brooder should be about 6 inches in the
first week. Some times basket is not used and brooding is done on the floor of
the deep litter house itself.
2) Brooder guard: A cardboard or a metal sheet or wire net may be used as
brooder guard. Its height should be about 18-24 inches. It is to be placed around
the heat source (hover), generally 2-3 feet away from the edge of the (hover).
After the first few days, the area is to be enlarged gradually to provide more
floor space, and after 7-10 days it may be removed completely.
A brooding unit with four 60-watt bulbs suspended 6 inches above the floor and
a brooder guard of 5 feet radius is sufficient for 250-300 chicks.
3) Feeders and Drinkers: Four baby chick drinkers and three brand new egg
trays (on which feed could be given) are sufficient for 250-300 chicks. Later, these
would require to be increased gradually.
All the equipments should be in place in the brooder house, and brooder should
be on at least 24 hours before arrival of the chicks.
Brooding requirements are proper temperature, ventilation, floor space,
appropriate feeders and drinkers.
Optimum brooding temperature during the first week is 90-95F, and then the
75
Manual on AVIan Production and Management
temperature may be reduced at the rate of sop on every successive week, until
the room temperature of60-70F (21C) is reached or the chicks are fully feathered.
However, chicks' behaviour is to be taken into consideration whether they are
getting proper amount of heat or not. Since the temperature in our country varies
a great deal, it is advisable to adjust the required comfortable temperature for
the chicks as per their brooding behaviour.
Fresh air should be available continuously in the brooding house. But ensure that
there is no direct wind or draft that will chill the chicks.
The minimum floor space in the brooder house should be 3-4 inches per chick.
However, not more than SOO chicks should be placed under one brooder.
During the first 3 days, feeds are offered on the newspaper or brand new egg
tray. Regular chick feeders should be introduced after 3-4 days. Baby chick drinkers
should be provided to the chicks.
Few tips for brooding management:
1. Chicks are to be placed in the brooder gently. Wedk chicks should be sepa-
rated from the others and placed in a separate brooder. They require more
heat than other chicks.
2. They should receive fresh water only (and no feed) for several hours. Sugar
may be added to tl1is water. An 8% sugar solution containing 1 % sodium
chloride is usnally given for the first IS hours after the chicks are placed in
the brooder.
3. If the chicks are under sh'ess due to long journey or inclement weather con-
ditions, anti-stress medicine (vitamins + electrolytes) may also be added to
the drinking water for the first 3-4 days. Zeetress (Indian Herbs, @ 0.5g/100
birds/ day), Stressban powder (Zeus Intervetcare, @ 0.Sg/100 birds/ day),
Stresroak (Dabur, @ Sml/l00 birds/ day) are some brand name of anti-stress
medicine available in the market.
Ensure that all the chicks are drinking water. Pew chicks may be taught to
drink water, by dipping their beaks.
4. Generally three hours after placing the chicks in the brooder, maize grits
(chick maize) are offered on the newspaper or on tlle brand new egg tray for
them. Ensure that all the chicks are eating. Usually from 2
nd
day onwards,
usual feed (broiler starter/ chick ration/ crumbs) is given to the chicks.
S. Constant round the clock monitoring is very essential during the first few
days.
PROCEDURE
All the shldents should observe various activities of brooding management of
chicks in the Insh'uctional Livestock Farm (Poultry Section).
76
Brooding of Poultry
CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 14
# Indicate the correct answer by putting tick (,I') mark
1. Application of heat to the birds during their early part of life is known as
(a) culling (b) brooding
(c) hatching (d) deworming
2. Usually a brooder fitted with 4 bulbs of 60-watt and a brooder guard of 5
feet radius can accommodate
(a) 100-150 chicks
(c) 200-250 chicks
(b) 150-200 chicks
( d) 250-300 chicks
3. How many baby chick drinkers should be provided for brooding manage-
ment of 250-300 chicks?
(a) 4 (b) 3
(c) 2 (d) 1
4. What should be the brooding temperature during the 1
st
week of brooding?
(a) 90-95P (b) 85-90
o
P
(c) 80-85P (d) 75-80
o
P
5. What is the minimum space requirement per chick for proper brooding?
(a) 1-2 sq inches (b) 2-3 sq inches
(c) 3-4 sq inches (d) 4-5 sq inches
# Exercise
1. What are the brooding house requirements for scientific brooding of chicks?
2. Enlist the equipments (along with their numbers) for brooding 250 broiler
chicks under deep litter system.
77

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"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
Activity Unit -15
Date ............... .
Feeds and Feeding of Poultry
SUB-ACfIVITY UNIT-I
IDENTIFICATION OF POULTRY FEED INGREDIENTS
OBJECfIVES
1. To become familiar with common poultry feed ingredients.
2. To use this knowledge in evaluation and selection of feed ingredients for
preparing a balanced and economic ration.
RELEVANT INFORMATION
Poultry feed ingredients are classified as energy rich feedstuffs, protein rich
feedstuffs, vitamin and mineral sources, and non-nutritive feed additives. Generally
10-15 feed ingredients are mixed together to prepare commercial poultry feeds.
Energy rich feedstuffs
About 45 to 65 per cent poultry feed is constituted byenergy rich feed ingredients.
The common energy rich feed ingredients are maize grain, jowar grain (sorghum),
millets (bajra/pearl millet, ragi), oats, wheat, wheat bran, broken rice/rice kani,
rice bran and rice polish, salseed cake, tapioca flour, molasses, etc.
Protein rich feedstuffs
Protein rich feed ingredients are mainly used to supply protein but at the same
time they also contribute some energy. They are divided in to two groups, viz.,
vegetable protein and animal protein.
The common vegetable protein sources are ground nut cake, linseed cake, sesame
(Hl) cake, sunflower cake, mustard cake, cotton seed cake, soybean cake, coconut
cake, maize gluten meal, guar meal, penicillium-mycelium waste, etc.
The common animal protein sources are fish meal, meat meal, blood meal, liver
residue meal, silk worm pupae meal, poultry hatchery by-product meal, etc.
Mineral sources
The common mineral sources are common salt, oyster shell (37.4 % Ca), lime stone
79
Manual on Avian Production andManagement
(37.5% Ca), bone meal (27% Ca and 12.11 % P), dicalcium phosphate (23% Ca and
18.1 % P), etc. Nowadays various mineral mixtures are commercially available in
the markets.
Vitamin sources
The feed ingredients used in the manufacturing of balanced poultry feed generally
supply different types of vitamins. However, vitamin mixtures are commercially
available in the markets, which may be used as per the requirements of birds.
Feed additives
These are not essentially nutrients, but their presence in feed in minute quantity
increases the nutritive value of feed leading to increase feed efficiency, growth
and production of the birds. The most common non-nutritive feed additives are
antibiotics (e.g., oxytetracycline, chlortetracycline, penicillin, streptomycin, etc.),
coccidiostat, antioxidants (e.g., ethoxyquin, vitamin E, etc.), antifungals,
anthelmintics, vitamin supplements, antistress medicines, enzymes, etc.
REQUIREMENTS
Fresh and pure samples of commonly used feed ingredients for poulhy (The
feed samples should be kept in hoansparent glass or plastic containers / jars with
proper labeling.)
PROCEDURE
Study the characteristics of all feed items individually provided to you and record
the observations in terms of their common English and scientific name, colour,
odour, texture and bulkiness and class of feed (e.g., grain, cake, by-product, vitamin
and mineral source).
NB: Students should know the nutritive value of various poultry feed ingredients
and their maximum level of inclusion in the compounded poultry feed. These
values are given in Table 15.1 and Table 15.2, respectively for ready reference.
OBSERV ATIONS
Characteristics Feed ingredient No. Feed ingredient No. Feed ingredient No.
t 2 3
a. Common Name
b. Scientific Name
Colour
Odour
Texture and bulkiness
80
Feeds and Feeding of PouItnf
Characteristics Feed ingredient No. Feed ingredient No. Feed ingredient No.
t 2 3
Class-
i. Grain
ii. Cake
iii. By-product
iv. Feed Supplement
Remarks
[Energy richj protein
richjvitaminj mineral
source]
Characteristics Feed ingredient No. Feed ingredient No. Feed ingredient No.
4 5 6
a, Common Name
b. Scientific Name
Colour
Odour
Texture and bulkiness
Class-
i. Grain
ii. Cake
iii. By-product
iv. Feed Supplement
Remarks
[Energy richj protein
richj vitaminj mineral
source]
Char acteristics Feed ingredient No. Feed ingredient No. Feed ingredient No.
7 8 9
a. Common Name
b. Scientific Name
Colour
Odour
Texture and bulkiness
Class-
i. Grain
ii. Cake
iii. By-product
iv. Feed Supplement
Remarks
[Energy richj protein
richj vitaminj mineral
source]
81
Manual on Avian Production and Management
Characteristics Feed ingredient No. Feed ingredient No. Feed ingredient No.
10 11 12
a. Common Name
b. Scientific Name
Colour
Odour
Texture and bulkiness
Class-
i. Grain
ii. Cake
iii. By-product
iv. Feed Supplement
Remarks
[Energy rich/ protein
rich/ vitamin/ mineral
source]
Characteristics Feed ingredient No. Feed ingredient No. Feed ingredient No.
13 14 15
a. Common Name
b. Scientific Name
Colour
Odour
Texture and bulkiness
Class-
i. Grain
ii. Cake
iii. By-product
iv. Feed Supplement
Remarks
[Energy rich/ protein
rich/ vitamin/ mineral
source]
82
Feeds and Feeding of Poultry
SUB-ACTIVITY UNIT-II
STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF FEEDS FOR DIFFERENT CATEGORIES
OF POULTRY
OBJECTIVES
1. To become familiar with different types of poultry feeds.
2. This knowledge helps in proper feeding management of different categories
of poultry.
RELEVANT INFORMATION
Types of chicken feed
For layer chicken, three types of feeds are commonly used for commercial
production of eggs, viz., chick feed (0-8 weeks), grower feed (9-20 weeks) and
layer feed (21-72 weeks or during the laying period).
For broiler chicken, two types of feeds are commonly used for commercial
production of meat, viz., broiler starter (0-4 weeks) and broiler finisher (5-6
weeks).
Types of duck feed (for layer ducks)
Four types of duck feeds are used for commercial production of duck eggs, viz.,
starter feed (0-2 weeks), grower feed phase I (3-8 weeks), grower feed phase 11
(9-20 weeks) and layer feed (21 weeks onwards or from point of lay).
Types of quail feed
For layer quails, three types of feeds are used, viz., starter mash (0-3 weeks),
grower mash (4-5 weeks) and layer mash (6 weeks onwards).
For broiler quails, two types of feeds are used, viz., starter mash (0-3 weeks) and
grower mash (4-6 weeks).
PROCEDURE
Compounded feeds for different categories of poultry are .available in the
markets in various trade names. Students should observe the general ap-
pearance of different types of poultry feeds.
Students should know the feed requirements for different categories of poul-
try. As a guide feed requirements for different categories of poultry are
given in a special note.
83
Manual on Avian Production and Management
OBSERVATION
1. Note different types of poultry feeds which are being used in the Institute's
Poultry Farm.
2. Note feed requirements for different categories of poultry from the farm
records.
Special Note:
Feed requirement for different categories of poultry
# Feed requirement for layer chicken
Total feed requirement up to 72 weeks of age is 47.5 kg per bird.
Chick feed (0-8 weeks) - 2 kg
Grower feed (9-20 weeks) - 5.5 kg
Layer feed (21-72 weeks) 40 kg @ 110 g/bird/ day.
Feed requirement for layer chicken may vary due to genetic make up of bird
(strain variation), feed quality, laying percentage, environmental conditions,
system of feeding and other management practices.
# Feed requirement for broiler chicken
Total feed requirement up to 6 weeks of age is 3.8 kg per bird (weighed 2 kg
each) @ 1.9 kg /kg live weight (maximum).
Approximate weekly feed requirement for a broiler chicken (finished weight 2
kg at 6 weeks of age) is given below.
Age (in week)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Total in 6 weeks
i.e. Broiler starter feed (0-4 weeks) -1,8 kg and
Broiler finisher feed (5-6 weeks) - 2.0 kg.
Feed consumption (in g)
150
300
500
850
950
1050
3800g
The above figures are only guidelines for feeding broiler chicken. It may vary
due to genetic make up of bird (strain variation), feed quality, laying percentage,
environmental conditions, system of feeding and other management practices.
84
Feeds and Feeding of Poultry
# Feed requirement for layer duck
Total feed requirement for a layer duck (e.g., Khaki Campbell) from day old
stage up to one year
laying period is 62-63 kg (maximum).
Starter feed (0-2 weeks) - 0.37 kg
Grower feed phase I (3-8 weeks) - 4.11 kg
Grower feed phase 11 (9-20 weeks) - 8.15 kg
Layer feed (21-72 weeks) - 50 kg
These figures are guide only for rearing of laying ducks under complete
confinement in intensive system. If the ducks are r e r ~ d under semi-intensive
system with the facility of water source (like pond), feed requirement is very less
@ 50-60 g/ adult bird/ day, because they can manage their feed requirement up to
60% from the range land and pond in terms of insects, food grains, grasses, etc.
# Feed requirement for quail
Total feed requirement for a broiler quail up to 6 weeks of age is about 500g with
FCE 3.3.
Total feed requirement for a layer quail from day old stage to up to one year
laying is about 9.6 kg.
Chick mash (0-3 weeks) @ 4 g/ day/bird - 85g
Grower mash (4-5 weeks) @ 18 g/day/bird - 250g
Layer mash (6 weeks to 1 laying year) @ 25 g/ day/bird - 9300g
# Water requirement for layer chicken (age-wise per 100 birds)
Age (weekl Water requirement (litres/day)
0-3 3.5 - 5.0
4-6 6.5 - 9.5
7-10 15 -16
11-20 18 - 20
21 and above 25 - 30
# Water requirement for broiler chicken (age-wise per 100 birds at different
room temperature, litres/ day)
Age (Weeks) 10
0
e 15e 20
0
e 25e 30
0
e 35e
1 2.3 2.4 3.0 3.2 3.5 3.7
2 5.0 6.0 6.5 7.4 10.0 16.3
3 6.5 7.8 10.0 12.7 17.2 36.0
4 9.0 11.0 14.0 17.1 27.1 46.2
5 11.4 14.0 18.0 21.4 33.4 55.3
6 14.0 16.5 21.5 25.3 38.7 61.3
85
Manual on Avian Production and Management
SUB-ACfIVITY UNIT -Ill
STUDY OF FEEDING SYSTEMS OF POULTRY
OBJECTIVES
(i) To become familiar with different systems of feeding poultry.
(ii) This knowledge helps in proper feeding management of different categories
of poultry.
RELEVANT INFORMATION
The common systems of feeding poultry are-
(1) Whole grain feeding
(2) Grain and mash feeding
(3) All mash feeding
(4) Pellet feeding
(5) Crumble feeding
Whole grain feeding system
This is also known as cafeteria or free choice feeding system. Feed ingredients
(mainly grains) are kept in separate containers and offered to the birds. The
birds take the feed ingredients according to their will.
This method is not suitable for commercial purpose. Ittakesi more time and labour
to fill different containers with different feed ingredients, and birds may not get
all the essential nutrients due to selective feeding leading to deficiency disease(s).
Grain and mash feeding system
In this system both grains and mash are offered in the same container and allowed
the birds to eat. Level of nutrients (like protein) may be increased or decreased
easily on the basis of growth, egg production, environmental conditions, etc., but
it needs skill and experience. Here also birds may take feed ingredients selectively
to some extent leading to deficiency of nutrient(s).
All mash feeding system
In this system, all the feed ingredients are usually ground to almost uniform
particle size (710 milli-microns) and mixed together in the form of mash. This
homogenous mixture of feed ingredients i.e., mash is offered to the birds, no
other feed ingredients are offered to the birds separately, not even grit. There is
86
Feeds and Feeding of Poultry
no possibility of selective feeding by the birds.
All species and categories of poultry prefer their diet in the mash form. Generally
dry mash is offered to the fowl, but in summer months it is desirable to offer wet
mash (mixing with water just before feeding) to increase feed consumption and
to avoid wastage by dust. In case of duck, wet mash feeding is the only popular
method of feeding.
All mash feeding system is the most popular, and used for commercial poultry
production.
Pellet feeding system
Pellets are small cylindrical shaped feeds, made up of dry mash under high
pressure. Pellets are of different sizes according to the age of birds. Generally
pellets are offered to the chicken/ fowl.
Selective feeding is practically nil in this system, and hence all the nutrients
including vitamins and minerals which are added in very small quantity are
properly received by the birds. There is no choice, so rejection of. unpalatable
feed ingredients is also not possible. This system avoids the wastage of feed. The
only disadvantage of this system is that pellet feeds are costlier than mash (about
10% more expensive). So this system is not generally followed for small scale
poultry production.
Crumble feeding system
Crumbles are small and just like broken pellets. Consistency of crumbles is coarser
than mash. Crumbles are generally offered to the starting chicken, because pellets
are hard and over size during early part of birds' life.
PROCEDURE
Students should observe all types of poultry feeding systems at the Instructional
Poultry Farm, and note their observation.
87
Table 15.1: Composition of common poultry feed ingredients (moisture free basis, in per cent)
SI.
Dry ME Crude Crude Ether
NFE Calcium
Phos-
Manganes Zinc Lysine
Methio-
Feed ingredient matter (kcaV protein fibre extrac phorus nine
No.
(IYo} kg} ('Y.,) {"It,) t {%}
(%) (%)
(%)
e (mglkg) (mglkg) (%)
{%)
Energy Sources
1 Maize (grain) 89.5 3309 9.2 2.4 3.9 82.8 0.25 0.4 4.8 12.1 0.18 0.15
2 Jowar (grain) 87.3 2645 10.3 3.6 4.6 78.1 0.18 0.32 16.3 15.4 0.35 0.18
3 Bajra (grain) 89.6 2642 12.7 2.2 4.9 78.2 0.13 0.72 0.43 0.2
4 Oats (grain) 91.7 2848 14.7 13.5 4.6 60.8 0.11 0.41 42.9 0.41 0.21

5 Wheat (grain) 89.8 3045 10.3 2.1 2.6 82.3 0.18 0.43 57 15.6 0.47 0.21 ;::
6 Wheat bran 88.9 1069 14.7 11.3 3.8 62.3 0.19 1.12 130 0.53 0.09
;::
1:2..
7 Rice kani 90.7 2345 7.9 1.4 1.7 87.1 0.11 0.48
<)
;::
8 Rice polish 91.8 2937 12.7 11.2 13.9 48.6 0.27 1.37 0.44 0.24

<::!
Rice polish, !5
9 92.3 2235 14.1 13.8 1.7 53.4 0.37 1.8
;::
deoiled 'l:I
Salseed cake,
d
00
10 90.4 3096 10.4 3.4 2.9 79.6 0.24 0.16 0.6 0.38
"'-
00
deoiled
s::

11 Tapioca flour 3000 2.9 10.9 0.7 77 0.58 0.12 0.6 0.006
o
;::
12 Molasses 73.6 2400 2.8 86.3 1.51 0.66 56.3
:;;,
;::
Protein Sources
"'-
Vegetable

;::
13 Groundnut cake 91.5 2596 40.9 8.9 7.9 36.4 0.23 0.59 27.7 1.24 0.57
:;;,
Linseed (Tisi) '"
14 90.7 1671 29.6 11.1 10.4 42.6 0.48 0.98 43.3 0.59
;:l
'"
cake
;::
-
15 Sunflower cake 89.1 2230 37.2 11.6 10.9 32.6 0.43 1.14 24.6 1.95 1.56
16 Sesame (Til) cake 90.7 1882 39.1 4.7 9.3 34.3 2.46 1.42 51.6 107.5 1.14 1.23
17 Mustard cake 91.3 2373 35.1 8.2 14.1 33.4 0.89 1.78
18 Cotton seed cake 92.3 1556 25.9 24.4 8.6 33.7 0.52 0.86 22.9 1.07 0.41
SI.
Dry ME Crude Crude Ether
NFE Calcium
Phos-
Manganes Zinc Lysine
Methio-
No.
Feed ingredient matter (kcal/ protein fibre extrac
(,y<,) (%)
phorus
e (mglkg) (mglkg) (%)
nine
(%) kg) (%) (%) t {%) (%)
(0;',)
19 Soy bean cake 89.9 2694 41.7 6.3 21.2 26.0 0.36 0.9 35.9 2.57 0.76
20 Coconut cake 91 1190 22.6 12.5 8.7 49.4 0.23 0.66 59.6 0.71 0.32
21
Maize gluten
90.3 2705 49.9 2.0 4.2 41.4 0.22 0.35 8.0 1.02 1.28
meal
22 Guarmeal 89.7 42.0 10.9 6.2 35.1 0.54 0.7
23
Penicillium
91.8 31.9 8.4 6.7 34.5 3.97 1.12 1.24 0.46
mycelium waste
Animal
24 Fish meal 93.8 1834 43.1 3.6 4.3 11.5 7.16 1.67 38.9 4.17 1.42
25 Meat meal 92.5 2319 56.2 2.2 11.9 8.7 2.68 2.06 10.2 4.00 0.84 ;V
26 Bone meal 95.5 1044 14.6 2.5 3.1 5.6 27.0 12.11 32.0 447.0 '"

27 Blood meal 88.8 1420 73.4 0.7 0.32 0.31 5.8 6.34 0.83
'"
;:;
28 Liver residue
;:,..
90.9 3000 65.4 1.3 15.8 11.9 0.54 1.35 9.5 4.72 1.28 ;V
00
meal
'"
;:,..
\.0
29 Silk worm pupae
S
meal, deoiled
90.5 3000 69.8 3.9 2.2 15.5 0.29 0.58 3.98 3.07
30 Poultry hatchery
93.0 56.4 0.9 17.8 10.2 3.95 1.73
by-product meal
Miscellaneous
31 Lucerne (Alfalfa)
leaf meal, 91 1777 19.1 21.6 2.8 42.1 1.83 0.45 31.2 17.2 0.85 0.21
dehydrated
32 Berseem leaf
meal, 89.7 180 15.3 23.5 3.7 42.8 2.6 2.2 0.66 0.30
dehydrated
Source: Singh, K. S. and Panda, B. (1988) Poultry Nutrition, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.
Manual on Avian Production and lvfanagement
Table 15.2: Maximum level of inclusion of common feed ingredients in poultry
rations (in per cent)
Ingredients Chicks GrowersfLayers
(a) Energy sources
Maize 60 65
Wheat 50 50
Barley 20 40
Oats 10 20
Jowar (white) 25 40
Molasses 5 10
Rice polish 40 40
Rice polish, deoiled 20 20
Tapioca meal 25 25
Wheat bran 10 15
Salseed meal, deoiled 3 5
(b) Vegetable protein sources
Groundnut cake 40 40
Groundnut cake, deoiled 20 20
Soybean meal 40 40
Sesame (Til) cake 20 20
Linseed (TlSZ) cake, water treated 20 20
Cotton seed cake, degossypolized 5 5
Mustard cake 10 10
Maize gluten meal 15 15
Sunflower meal 20 20
Coconut meal 5 5
Guar meal 5 5
(c) Animal protein sources
Fish meal 10 10
Meat meal 5 10
Blood meal 3 3
Silk worm pupae meal 6 6
Poultry hatchery by-product meal 3 3
Liver residue meal 5 10
Penicillin mycelium waste 10 10
(d) Miscellaneous
Lucerne leaf meal 3 5
Berseem leaf meal 3 5
90
Feeds and Feeding of Poultry
CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 15
# Indicate the correct answer by putting tick (,I) mark
1. Approximate feed requirement of a broiler chicken (live weight 2 kg) up to
the age of marketing is
(a) 3.8 kg
(c) 5.8 kg
(b) 4.8 kg
(d) 6.8 kg
2. Oyster shells in layer ration supply
(a) Fe (b) Ca
(c) Vitamin-A (d) Vitamin-C
3. The common mineral source(s) in poultry feed is/ are
(a) Limestone (b) Oyster shell
(c) Dicalcium phosphate (d) all of these
4. Daily water requirement of layer chicken is (per 100 birds) -
(a) 10-15 litres (b) 25-30 litres
(c) 30-35 litres (d) 50-55 litres
5. Daily water requirement of broiler chicken at the age of 6 weeks in summer
months is (per 100 birds)-
(a) 2 litres (b) 7 litres
(c) 11 litres (d) 30 litres
6. Which system of commercial poultry feeding is most popular in India?
(a) grain and mash feeding (b) all mash feeding
(c) all grain feeding (d) pellet feeding
# Exercise
1. Enlist the feed ingredients commonly used in your institution's poultry farm.
2. Name some brand names of various types of poultry feeds available in the
nearby -market.
3. What are the systems of feeding and watering birds in your institution's
poultry farm?
91
Manual on Avian Production and Management
92
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Activity Unit -16
Date ............... .
Poultry Health Management
SUB-ACfIVITY UNIT - I
GENERAL MEASURES FOR PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF
POULTRY DISEASES
OBJECfIVE
To maintain the poultry health through prevention and control of diseases.
RELEVANT INFORMATION
Disease is the greatest threat to the success of poultry enterprise either through
loss of birds or through drop in production. There are many devastating poultry
diseases by means of which large number of birds may be affected at a time.
Moreover, early diagnosis of disease and line of treatment are very difficult in
case of poulny, as it gives practically no time to diagnose a disease and in maximum
cases symptoms are overlapping. So 'prevention is better than cure' is more relevant
in maintenance of poultry health. Besides this, prevention is cheaper than treatment
as nowadays the treatment is very costlier and involves many risk factors.
Various aspects for prevention and control of poultry diseases are:
1. Cleaning and Disinfection
2. Proper housing
3. Proper feeding
4. Stress management
5. Disposal of poultry waste
6. Restriction for visitors
7. Vaccination against dreadful poultry diseases and preventive medication
(1) Cleaning and Disinfection
Proper cleaning followed by disinfection of poultry shed and its surrounding
areas and poultry equipments are must to prevent the chance of introduction of
disease producing organisms in the farm. Cleanliness is very important aspect to
maintain the sanitation and hygiene of the poultry farm.
93
Manual on Avian Production and Management
Poultry house is to be cleaned daily to remove dirt, dust and filth, if any.
The feeders and waterers are also to be cleaned daily before giving feeds
and water in the morning. The feeders should be periodically scraped (once
a week) to remove cakes of feeds, if any, in order to prevent fungal growth.
Electric bulbs in the poultry shed should be cleaned once in a month.
-
Cleaning is the prerequisite of disinfection, because presence of organic mat-
ter reduces the action of disinfectants. After proper cleaning of poultry houses
and poultry equipments etc., disinfectant is to be applied followed by rest
and fumigation. Poultry houses and its equipments are thoroughly disin-
fected between the batches.
Some commonly available commercial disinfectants are phenyl, lime, formalin,
bleaching powder, potassium permanganate, caustic soda, Medichlore-S, Aldepol-
H etc. After application of disinfectant (as per manufacturer's directions), rest is
to be given for at least 2-3 weeks to break up the life cycle of disease producing
organisms in the poultry house.
The last step is formaldelyde fumigation to kill the remaining organisms. For
routine disinfection purpose 20g KMn04 and 40ml of formalin (40%) are required
for 2.80m
3
(100 ft3) area. In case of disease outbreak and for disinfection of hatchery
room, vehicles etc. the concentration can be increased to 2 to 3 times as needed.
Note: Uses of various disinfectants
Phenyl - For washing of floor, washing and dipping of shoes as 5% solution.
Lime - For disinfection of litter, floor and poultry carcass @ 4-7kg/100sq ft. It
generates heat, absorbs moisture, and liberates oxygen which destroys coccidia
and eggs of parasites and even bacteria, and keeps fungi under control.
Formalin - Available as 40% solution of formaldehyde gas, generally used for
fumigation of brooder and hatchery along with potassium permanganate. Gas
should be allowed to remain for half an hour in the rooms, incubators, brooders,
etc. Formalin solution (3-5%) can be used for spraying as disinfectant for most
bacteria and virus.
Copper sulphate - Generally used to destroy fungi. 0.5% solution for destroying
fungi on poultry utensils.
Bleaching powder - 20% solution of bleaching powder is used for disinfecting
floor and poultry equipments (feeders, waterers etc.).
Caustic soda (Sodium hydroxide) - 2% solution for cleaning of waterers, feeders,
metallic fittings, brooders, floor,etc. It is to be applied cautiously by gloved hands.
Fire - Fire in the form of blow lamp is effective for disinfection of metallic fittings
(poultry cages), floor, walls, etc.
94
Poultnf Health Management
(2) Proper Housing
It is important for optimum growth and production as well as for proper
maintenance of health.
Overcrowding must be avoided. Optimum floor space and space for water-
ers and feeders should be provided to the birds. (In deep litter house mini-
mum floor space for broiler is Isq.ft and for a layer is 1.75sq. ft).
All-in all-out system of rearing is better than multistage rearing in a single
location. All-in all-out method helps to prevent spread of diseases due to
cross age infections.
Poultry house should be kept dry and well ventilated.
In case of deep litter system, the depth (2 inches for chicks and 3-4 inches for
growers and layers) and conditions of the litter should be maintained properly.
The relative humidity in the deep litter poultry house should be around 40%, and
the moisture content of the deep litter materials should be 18 to 24 %. Less than
18% moisture may cause dusty litter leading to respiratory problem. More than
24 % moisture may cause accumulation of ammonia in the poultry house leading
to irritation to the eyes of the birds, and it also causes dampness in the house
leading to many diseases including coccidiosis and worm infestation.
If the moisture content of deep litter is increased, particularly during rainy season,
it should be treated with lime powder @ lkg per 100 sq. ft. floor space.
The waterers should be checked for spillage and leaking of water. It is better to
change the place of waterers and feeders daily for proper maintenance of deep
litter. Wet litter if any, should be removed and replaced by fresh litter material.
The design and construction of poultry houses should be made according to
the environmental conditions of the particular area.
(3) Proper Feeding
Poultry should be fed properly as per the age, type and production of birds, i.e.,
the quality and quantity of feeds and proper method of feeding should be
maintained for optimum growth and production.
Two types of feeds are given to the broilers (chicken), viz., broiler starter (0-
4 weeks) and broiler finisher (5-6 weeks). In case of layers three types of
feeds are provided, viz., chick feed (0-8 weeks), grower feed (9-20 weeks or
up to the point of laying) and layer feed (21 weeks or from the point of
laying to 72-80 weeks or up to the end of economic laying).
There are some nutritional diseases occurred mostly due to deficiency of
some vitamins and minerals. So these nutrients must be supplied to the birds
through the feed. Besides these, poultry feed should contain all other essen-
tial nutrients, viz., protein, carbohydrate, fat and moisture as per the re-
95
Manual on AVIan Productwn and Management
quirements for a particular group of birds.
Feed should be free from microbial contamination. Poultry feeds are very
prone to different types of bacterial and fungal contamination, viz., Salmo-
nella, Escherichia coli, Mycoplasma, Aspergillus, etc.
Feed ingredients having toxic principles like gossypol, aflatoxin, trypsin in-
hibitor etc. should not be used for preparation of poultry feed. However,
after proper processing these ingredients may be used as per recommenda-
tion of the Animal Nutritionists.
Feeds should not be stored for more than 11/2 months, particularly when
environmental humidity is very high, in order to prevent the fungal growth
and development of rancidity, besides the wastage of feeds due to rodents.
(4) Stress Management in Poultry
In poultry farm, birds are subjected to various kinds of stress. Some stress factors
are avoidable and some are unavoidable.
Avoidable stress factors are overcrowding (giving less floor space per bird),
housing excess chicks in brooder to save electricity, improper debeaking,
sudden change in feed, poor quality of feed and irregular feeding schedule,
inadequate ventilation, improper lighting schedule etc. These types of stress
can be reduced by improving the management practices.
The unavoidable stress factors in poultry farm are shifting of birds (from
hatchery to farm, or from one house to another like from brooder house to
grower house and from grower house to layer house), extremes in weather
(heat stress in summer or cold stress in winter), vaccination, deworming
and other preventive medication (use of anticoccidials etc.), debeaking in
layers or breeders and high egg production, etc. To minimize the action of
these stress factors anti-stress medicines are to be used in proper dose rates.
Vitamin C and other vitamins, liver tonic, glucose and electrolytes, etc. are
used as anti-stress medicines.
(5) Disposal of Poultry Waste
Various poultry wastes are poultry droppings, dressing waste, hatchery waste
and dead birds. Proper disposal of these poultry wastes is essential to prevent
the spread of diseases.
The dead birds should be deeply buried in the soil or fully burnt in the
incinera tor.
Poultry droppings are mixed with deep litter materials in the deep litter
system of poultry rearing. This deep litter should be maintained properly,
and generally after rearing of each lot of birds this deep liter should be
removed from the poultry house before introduction of new lot of birds.
96
Poultry Health Management
In case of cage system of poultry rearing, poultry droppings should be removed
daily, and these may be collected in a manure pit and converted into high quality
organic manure.
(6) Restriction for Visitors
Foot-bath with disinfectants is to be used at the entrance of poultry farm as
well as at the entrance of each house to prevent the introduction of organ-
isms by the movement of working personnels.
Casual visitors, foreign vehicles etc. should not be allowed to enter the farm.
Technical persons and some selected visitors/farmers should be asked to
make use of foot-bath provided with disinfectants before entering in the
poultry house.
(7) Vaccination and Preventive Medication against Dreadful Poultry Diseases
In case of poultry health management 'prevention is better than cure' princi-
ple is to be applied more seriously. So proper vaccination schedule is to be
followed to develop immunity against killer poultry diseases (Table 16.1,
16.2).
Do's and don'ts in vaccination
i) Vaccine itself induces stress to the birds. So use of all available vaccines
for a particular bird is not generally recommended, and it very much
depends on the incidence of a particular disease in the farm and its
surrounding areas.
ii) Vaccines should be procured only from reliable sources.
Hi) The vaccines are to be stored under refrigeration until use at the tem-
perature of 2 to 8C, if otherwise not instructed by the manufacturer.
iv) Proper vaccination schedule including accurate dose of vaccines and
proper age of birds are to be followed preferably as recommended by
the manufacturer.
v) Expired vaccines and left-over vaccines should never be used.
vi) It is desirable to vaccinate the birds during the cooler part of the day,
i.e., either in the early morning or in the late evening especially in sum-
mer months.
vii) Vaccination should not be done to the sick birds. Only healthy birds are
to be vaccinated at their recommended ages.
viii) It is desirable to provide some vitamins and anthelmintics at least a
week before the vaccination to overcome vaccine induced stress.
ix) For vaccination through drinking water, birds are to be kept thirsty for
a few hours before giving vaccine containing water. Clean and cold
drinking water should be used for this purpose and it should be free
from chlorine or any drug.
97
Manual on Avian Production and Management
Table 16.1: Vaccination schedule for poultry (chicken)
Age Disease Vaccine Dose and route Remarks
of administration
(1) 1 day Marek's HVTMD 0.2 ml/bird, I/M Generally it is
Disease vaccine injection. given at hatchery
level, it can be
given up to the age
of 3 days.
(2) 4-7 Ranikhet RDF10r 1-2 drops, nasal Booster dose to be
days Disease Lasota or ocular route. given at 5-6 weeks
vaccine of age.
(3) 11-13 Gumboro IBD/Gumbo 200 doses in 2 Booster may be
days Disease (IBD) ro vaccine litres of drinking given at 6-7 weeks
water or 1000 of age.
doses in 8 litres of
drinking water.
(4) 5-6 Ranikhet RDFl vaccine 1-2 drops in eye In case of broilers it
weeks Disease is to be used at 21-
(Booster dose) 23 days of age.
(5) 6-7 Gumboro IBD/Gumbo Same as SI. No. 3
weeks Disease ro vaccine
(Booster dose)
(6) 7-8 Fowl Pox Fowl Pox O.Olmlfbird, One vaccine is
weeks vaccine injection at wing sufficient for bird's
web or 1 drop by life.
picking cf
feathers.
(7) 8-10 Ranikhet RDR2B or 0.5mlfbird, SIC In endemic area,
weeks Disease Mukteswar at wing web. booster dose may
strain be given.
vaccine
(8) 15-16 Infectious IB vaccine O.5mljbird, SIC
weeks Bronchitis or IjM at wing
web.
(9) 16-18 Ranikhet RDR2B O.5mljbird, SIC
weeks Disease vaccine at wing web.
(Booster dose)
N.B. Vaccines ofSl. No. 1-4 are given to the broiler chicken as they are generally marketed at the
age of 42 days.
98
Poultnf Health Management
Table 16.2 : Vaccination schedule for ducks
Disease Vaccine Age of duck Dose and route of
administration
(1) Duck Duck Plague 1
st
vaccine - 2 weeks, O.5ml SIC
Plague vaccine 2
nd
vaccine -10 weeks, injection.
3
rd
vaccine - 24 weeks,
then twice a year.
(2) Duck Duck 1
st
vaccine at 2-3 months and 0.5mIS/C
Cholera Cholera 2
nd
vaccine after 1-2 months injection.
vaccine of 1 st vaccination, then twice
a year.
Table 16.3 : Preventive medication schedule for broiler chicken (0-42 days)
Age
1
st
week
Day 1
MedicinesjV accines
Glucose and electrolyte water (as antistress and energizer)
Marek's Disease vaccine by intrmuscular injection at thigh
muscle at the recommended dose. (This vaccine is generally
given at the hatchery level).
Day 2-4 Vitamins in morning water and antibiotic in afternoon water.
Day 5-7 Vitamin A and B-Complex in drinking water.
5
th
or 6
th
or 7
th
RDF I vaccine through ocular or nasal drop.
day
2
nd
week
Day 8-11
No medicine/vaccine.
Day 12-14 Vitamins in drinking water.
11th or 12th or Gumboro/IBD vaccine through ocular drop or in drinking water
13
th
day at the recommended dose.
3
rd
week
Day 15-21
21
st
or 22
nd
23
rd
day
4th week
Day 22-28
5
th
week
Day 29-32
Day 33-35
6
th
week
Day 36-37
Day 38-42
Liver tonic in drinking water or feed.
or RDFl vaccine (booster dose) - ocular drop or in drinking water.
Anticoccidial drugs.
Vitamins in drinking water and liver tonic in feed or water.
Liver tonic in drinking water or in feed.
Liver tonic in drinking water or in feed.
No medicine/vaccine.
Note: Broilers are marketed at the age of 42 days. The above medication schedule may be
changed, if necessary, as per suggestion of a Poultry Specialist or a Veterinarian.
99
Manual on Avian Production and Management
PROCEDURE
Students should be acquainted with each and every step for prevention and control
of poultry diseases. The steps are to be demonstrated at the Institute Poultry
Farm. Students should record their observations.
SUB-ACTIVITY UNIT - 11
ROUTES OF ADMINISTRATION OF VACCINES IN POULTRY
OBJECTIVE
To become familiar with different routes for administration of vaccines in poultry.
RELEVANT INFORMATION
Different routes of administration of vaccines in poultry are:
1. Oculo-nasal route (drop into eye/nostril)
2. Oral route (in drinking water)
3. Aerosal route (spray)
4. Parenteral route (injection)
1. Oculo-nasal route (drop into eye/nostril)
Some vaccines are applied through eye or nostril with the help of dropper. General
dose is 1 drop into eye/nostril. This intra ocular/nasal route is generally used for
application of vaccines at the early part of bird's life.
This route is easy to apply and a satisfactory one. Several vaccines which can be
applied through this route are available in the market, e.g., Ranikhet disease (FI)
vaccine, Gumboro vaccine, Infectious Bronchitis vaccine, etc.
2. Oral route (in drinking water)
This is a very easy route of administration of vaccines and commonly used. But
its effectiveness is not assured all the times. It is better to use this route to condition
the birds for stronger vaccines.
The following points are to be kept in mind for application of vaccines through
this route -
Birds should be kept thirsty for a few hours before application of vaccines in
the drinking water. But if water is withheld for too long period, birds may
fight and splash the medicated water.
The water should be free from chlorine or any drug.
Waterers must be thoroughly cleaned and washed with clean water to re-
move disinfectants, if any.
100
Poultry Health Management
It is better to add skim milk powder to water for vaccine administration (@
2.5-3g/litre). The milk protects the vaccine against residues of disinfectants
and adverse pH reaction. Pasteurized whole milk may also be used for this
purpose (@ 30-50ml milk/litre of water).
Vaccines which can be applied through oral route are available in the market, e.g.,
Infectious Bronchitis vaccine, Gumboro vaccine, Ranikhet disease vaccine, Avian
encephalitis vaccine, etc.
3. Aerosal route (spray)
Vaccines may be used through aerosal route, i.e., by means of spraying within the
poultry house when the air is still. Birds inhale the vaccine in the form of dust or
spray. This is an easy and very effective method of vaccine administration.
Vaccines which can be applied through this route are available in the market, e.g.,
Ranikhet disease (Lasota/F
1
) vaccine.
4. Parenteral route (injection)
Some vaccines are applied through parenteral route, i.e., intramuscular injection
(I/M) or sub-cutaneous injection (S/C).
Marek's disease vaccine, Fowl pox vaccine, Egg drop syndrome vaccine, Infectious
coryza vaccine, Ranikhet disease (RzB) vaccine are generally given by means of
injection.
SIC injection is generally given at wing web or back of the neck, and I/M injection
is generally given at thigh muscle.
PROCEDURE
Students should practice all the routes of administration of vaccines at the Institute
Poultry Farm. During practice they may use sterilized distilled water (water for
injection) instead of vaccines. They should record their observations.
101
Manual on AVIan Production and Management
CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 16
# Indicate the correct answer by putting tick (,f) mark
1. Pullorum disease of poultry is caused by
(a) bacteria (b) virus
(c) protozoa (d) fungi
2. Marek's disease of poultry is caused by
(a) bacteria (b) virus
(c) protozoa (d) fungi
3. Gumboro disease of poultry is caused by
(a) bacteria (b) virus
(c) protozoa (d) fungi
4. Star gazing appearance is caused due to deficiency of
(a) vitamin D (b) vitamin E
(c) vitamin B1 (d) vitamin B2
5. Broiler birds are commonly vaccinated against
(a) Marek's disease, Ranikhet disease and Gumboro disease.
(b) Ranikhet disease, Pullorum disease and Gumboro disease.
(c) Ranikhet disease, Coccidiosis and Fowl pox.
(d) Pullorum disease, Infectious Bursal Disease and Infectious Bronchitis.
6. The first vaccine against Ranikhet Disease (RD F1 type) should be given at
the age of
(a) 1 week (b) 3 weeks
(c) 5 weeks (d) none of these
7. Marek's disease vaccine should be given at the age of
(a) 3 days (b) 3 weeks
(c) 3 months (d) 13 weeks
8. Vaccine given to poultry at the age of 4-7 days is
(a) RDF
J
(b) R D ~
(c) Fowl Pox (d) IB
9. Quails are commonly vaccinated against
(a) Ranikhet disease (b) Infectious bronchitis
(c) Coccidiosis (d) All of these
10. Use of anthelmintic drug against worm infestation is known as
(a) brooding (b) deworming
(c) incubation (d) culling
102
PoultnJ Health Management
# Exercise
1. Enlist the common measures taken in your institute's poultry farm for pre-
vention and control of diseases.
2. Mention the vaccination schedule followed in your institute's poultry farm
for various categories of avian species.
3. Make a comparative statement regarding advantages and disadvantages of
different routes of medication and vaccination in a poultry farm.
,
103
Manual on Avian Production and Management
104
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Activity Unit -17
Date ............... .
Special Care of Broilers and Layers during
Summer and Winter
OBJECTIVE
To get acquainted with special management practices during extreme weather
conditions to keep the birds healthy and in production.
RELEVANT INFORMA nON
High temperature and humidity produce stress to the birds leading to reduction
in feed intake and loss of production, and in extreme weather conditions mortality
may result. The most favourable temperature zone in case of chicken is 18-21C.
I. SPECIAL CARE OF BROILERS AND LAYERS DURING SUMMER
Summer stress on poultry leads to reduced feed intake, uneconomic feed
conversion efficiency, loss of egg production induding more numbers of thin
shelled and small sized eggs, respiratory distress, loss of immunity and heat
stoke.
To combat the ill-effects of summer stress the following measures are to be taken
seriously.
(i) Housing management
Height of the poultry shed should be 8 to 10 ft for proper ventilation in the
poultry l:ouse.
Planting of shady trees in and around the poultry farm is necessary to re-
duce the ill-effect of hot summer.
Distance between the two poultry sheds in the farm complex should be at
least 60 ft for proper air circulation.
East-west direction of poultry shed (length-wise) is beneficial to reduce the
direct sun light entering inside the shed.
Depth of deep litter (in case of deep litter system of poultry keeping) is to be
reduced.
105
Manual on Avian Production and Management
Roof is to white washed (with lime), which will reduce the heat. Thatch type
roof is beneficial in the summer months.
In extreme cases, pedestal or ceiling fans may be used to give comfort to the
birds. Water sprinkling over the birds during extreme heat conditions may
save the birds from heat stroke.
About 10% birds of the recommended strength is to be reduced in the poul-
try house.
(ii) Water management
Chicken will not drink hot water leading to decreased feed consumption
and less performance. They generally refuse to drink water at temperature
above 38C (110F). So it is very important to provide cool drinking water
during summer months. To cool the water ice cubes may be added in the
water trough.
In general feed and water intake ratio in chicken is 1:2, but during summer
months it may be increased up to 1:4. So more water troughs are to be pro-
vided during summer months; and dose of medicines if provided through
drinking water should be adjusted accordingly.
(iii) Feeding management
Feeds should be given during the cooler part of the day, i.e., at early morn-
ing and at late evening. At noon hours wet mash may be given to the birds
to increase the feed intake. However, the feed is to be mixed with water just
before offering the same to the birds; overnight soaking of feed is not desir-
able due to fear of fungal infestation (aflatoxicosis).
More numbers of feeding troughs are to be provided than normal.
If possible, the energy content of the compounded feed is to be reduced,
and protein, vitamin and mineral contents of the feed are to be increased to
some extent, with the help of Poultry Nutritionist. On an average energy of
100-150 Kcal /kg of feed is to be reduced and 2% protein is to be increased in
the normal poulh'y feed.
(iv) Medication
During the noon hours glucose and electrolytes may be given in the drink-
ing water (@8g Glucose + 2g Electral / Electrobion powder per 100ml drink-
ing water).
Vitamin C may be added in the drinking water (@10mg per bird for 2-3
days; Celin / Cell-C are available as 100mg and 500mg tablet).
Multivitaminmedicines may also be added in the drinking water. e.g., Vimeral
or Vitadec @ 1 ml per 20 birds in drinking water for consecutive 7 days.
106
SpecIal Care of BroIlers and Latters during Summer and Winter
11. SPECIAL CARE OF BROILERS AND LAYERS DURING WINTER
It is easy to combat winter stress in comparison to summer stress on poultry.
Winter stress is severe on poultry when the ambient temperature goes below
10e. To counteract the ill-effects of winter stress the following measures are to
be taken methodically.
Extra heat is to be provided in the house with the help of electric heater or
bulb Gust like brooding management).
Energy content of the feed is to be increased by about 100-150 Kcal/kg of
feed.
Depth of deep litter is to be increased (in case of deep litter system of man-
agement).
About 10% of the recommended strength of birds is to be reduced in the
poultry house.
107
Manual on Avian Production and Management
CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 17
# Indicate the correct answer by putting tick (.1') mark.
1. Poultry (birds) usually refuse to drink water when its temperature crosses
(a) 26C (b) 30C
(c) 3S0C (d) 42C
2. The most favourable temperature zone in case of poultry is
(a) 10-16C (b) lS-21C
(c) 22-2S0C (d) 30-36C
# Exercise
1. What is the basic difference between summer and winter stress manage-
ment in a commercial poultry farm?
2. Enlist the summer and winter stress management practices followed in the
Institute's Poultry Farm.
10S
601.
.lJlUlM PUll .lJmUms Suunp S.lJ/Wj PUll S.lJIlO.lfI )0 J.lll:) 1111:JJdS
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
Activity Unit -18
Date ............... .
Methods of Slaughter and Dressing of
Poultry
OBJECTIVE
To get acquainted with various methods of slaughter and dressing of poultry.
Proper dressing is essential for preparation of quality poultry products.
RELEVANT INFORMATION
PART-I: METHODS OF SLAUGHTER OF POULTRY
There are two methods of slaughtering birds, viz.,
(1) Halal method and
(2) Jhatka method.
In halal method both the jugular veins are severed with the help of sharp knife;
and in jhatka method head is completely detached. Halal method of slaughter is
better than jhatka method, because the later one leads to poor bleeding and hard
picking.
The halal method is employed in two ways for slaughtering of birds, viz., halal
without stunning and halal with stunning.
Halal without stunning is nothing but manual killing of birds, and it is commonly
practiced for slaughtering chicken on small scale in retail shops.
Halal with stunning is nothing but mechanical slaughtering of birds, and practiced
for commercial slaughtering of chicken on large scale. In this method stunning is
done before severing the jugular veins. With the help of electric shock stunning
can be done.
PART-II: DRESSING OF POULTRY
Different steps in dressing of chicken are outlined below.
(1) Procurement, transport and handling of live birds
(2) Antemortem examination
110
Methods of Slaughter and Dressing of Poultry
(3) Pre-slaughter fasting
(4) Stunning
(5) Bleeding
(6) Scalding
(7) Defeathering
(8) Singeing
(9) Neck slitting and removal of feet
(10) Evisceration and washing
(11) Chilling, packing and storage
(1) Procurement, transport and handling of live birds: Stress should be avoided
or minimum as far as possible to the live birds. Gentle handling is desirable to
prevent injuries, broken legs, death, etc. Diseased birds should be rejected during
procurement process.
(2) Antemortem examination: All the birds intended for slaughter must be
inspected within 24 hours of their arrival at slaughter house. Only the selected
birds are to be subjected for further processing.
(3) Pre-slaughter fasting: Pre-slaughter fasting (withholding of feed) of 12 hours
is desirable as per prescribed procedure. It is necessary for easy evisceration and
risk of contamination during evisceration from intestinal contents if accidentally
cut shall be minimized.
(4) Stunning: Stunning is essential for humane method of slaughtering birds.
With the help of electric current stunning can be done. Current should be of
specified volts and for specific time, otherwise birds may be killed during stunning.
Stunning of birds can be done by using a voltage of 70V for A.e. and 90V for D.e.
Alternately, head of the chicken may be allowed to pass through a 70-100 V
elech'ically charged water bath.
(5) Bleeding: Birds should be adequately bled. A sharp cut is to be given within
30 seconds of stunning to severe both the jugular veins with the help of a knife. In
case of chicken the bleeding time allowed is 1 to 11/2 minutes. Generally one tenth
of the body weight of chicken consists of blood, and if 45 to 50% of blood is
drained out it is considered as perfect bleeding.
(6) Scalding: This technique (i.e., immersing birds in hot water of specific
temperature for a particular duration) should be observed for loosening of the
feathers. Proper scalding temperature in case of broiler chicken is 58C for 1 minute
and for layer hens and heavy birds 60 0 C for 1 minute.
(7) Defeathering: Removal of feathers may be done manually (for small scale) or
mechanically (for large scale). Wet defeathering is desirable for smooth and easy
111
Manual on AVian Production and Management
operation. For mechanical picking of feathers a simple mechanical picker (which
consists of a revolving drum with rubber fingers against which the birds are
held) may be used. After picking of feathers, few small feathers may still be
present, which can be removed by gripping the small feather in between the edge
of a knife and thumb with pulling it outwards. This removal of small feathers is
some times known as pinning.
(8) Singeing: After defeathering (i.e., picking and pinning) singeing is done to
remove the hair like appendages from the carcass. For this the carcass is to be
passed over a flame very quickly without damaging skin; only the small hairs
will be burnt. It may be followed by washing of the whole carcass with ample
water.
(9) Neck slitting and removal of feet: A sharp knife is needed for this. After
slitting neck and removing feet the carcass must be shifted to the clean section of
the processing unit.
(10) Evisceration and washing: All the non-edible internal parts are to be
discarded and edible parts are to be retained. A transverse cut is to be made
from the rear end of keel (breast) to the front of vent. The viscera are to be pulled
out without breaking intestine, gall bladder, esophagus along with crop and
hoachea. The giblets (liver, heart and gizzard) are to be separated properly. These
are edible parts. The non-edible parts like lungs, ovary and oviduct (in female) or
testes (in male) are to be removed. Eviscerated birds are to be inspected properly.
If selected the birds are to be washed thoroughly with clean and cold water (10-
16q and kept them for drain. In case of large scale operation draining may be
done for 10 minutes while hanging the birds on hocks on the overhead conveyer.
The giblets are to be thoroughly washed with clean and cold water; and these
giblets and neck portion are to be inserted in the body cavity.
(11) Chilling, packing and storage: Chilling of dressed birds is to be done as
early as pOSSible to an internal body temperature of 4C or less. Chilling can be
achieved by placing the dressed birds in slush ice (water with ice) and then
draining for 5-10 minutes. If they are to be stored the chilled birds are to be
packed properly and then stored. The packing material should be colourless
transparent and of sufficient strength like polythene bags. The chilled dressed
chicken can be stored for 7 days at 2- 4C or for about 30 days in a deep freeze at
-12C. If dressed birds are to be stored for longer period the chilled and packed
dressed chicken are to frozen at -40C and stored at -18C up to 6 months.
PROCEDURE
The students should practice both the methods of slaughter and all the steps of
dressing of chicken at the institute's poultry farm. If at the time of practical class
it is not possible to practice all the steps, students should see the steps with the
help of photograph, or computerized device.
112
Methods of Slaughter and Dressing of Poultnj
CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 18
# Indicate the correct answer by putting tick (,() mark.
1. Which method is better for slaughtering chicken on large scale?
(a) Halal with stunning (b) Halal without stunning
(c) Jhatka with stunning (d) Jhatka without stunning
2. What is the purpose of scalding in poultry dressing?
(a) Proper draining of blood
(b) Loosening of skin
(c) Loosening of feathers
(d) None of these
3. What is the purpose of singeing in poultry dressing?
(a) To remove fat from the carcass
(b) To remove hair like feathers from the carcass
(c) To loose the feathers of the carcass
(d) To bleed completely after slaughter
4. Chilled dressed chicken can be stored for 7 days at a temperature of
(a) 2-4
D
C (b) 4- 8
D
C
(c) 8- 10
D
C (d) 10- 12
D
C
# Exercise
1. What are the methods of slaughtering poultry?
2. Enlist serially the steps for hygienic dressing of poultry?
113
Manual all Amall ProductIOn and Management
114
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
Activity Unit -19
Date ............... .
Essential Poultry Farm Records
OBJECTIVES
(i) To keep all data pertaining to a poultry farm in a scientific manner.
(ii) To help in assessing the performance by utilizing those data.
PROCEDURE
Depending on the type of farming, the necessary information are to be recorded
in a simple but scientific manner either in the form of register or record sheet.
Following are some examples of formats used for different operations in poultry
farm.
Hatchery Register
Incubator: Date of setting eggs: Date of candling Date of
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115
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Manual on Avian Production and Management
Egg Collection and Disposal Register
Year: Strain: Source:
Month :
Date Laying house Eg gs collected Broken Disposal
no. 1
st
2
nd
Total
Mortality Register
SI. No. Strain Sex Date of Cause of PM report Book value
death death no.
Monthly Laying Record Sheet
Date of transferring
the flock in layer
house:
Strain: Vaccination done:
Layer house no. :
Date Deaths
Strain:
Source:
Number received:
Culled Feed intake Eggs collected
(kg) 1
st
2
nd
Total
Rearing Records for Broilers and Pullets
Feed source :
Date Age Deaths Culled Balance Vaccination
Month :
number
Feed Register
Year:
/medication
Balance
Remarks
Obser-
vations
Weekly
weight
Date Opening Received Source Issued Closing Composition
balance (kg) (kg) balance of ration
(kg) (kg)
116
Essential Poultry Farm Records
CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 19
# EXERCISE
1. Indicate different types of poultry farm records maintained in your insti-
tute's farm.
2. Why farmers are refractory to keep records? Indicate the remedial meas-
ures.
117
Manual on Avian Production and Management
118
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
Activity Unit - 20
Date ............... .
Economic Indices of Poultry Farm
Management
OBJECTIVES
(i) To evaluate the production performances of birds.
(ii) To assess the financial condition of the enterprise.
(iii) To suggest the correcting measures for improvement of the economic effi-
ciency of the business.
(iv) To formulate guidelines for future improvement, planning and expansion.
PRODUCTION INDICES FOR BROILER BIRDS
A. Average body weight at market age (6 weeks of age): It is calculated by
dividing the total body weight of a flock by the number of birds at the time
of marketing.
Ideal value becomes 1.82 kg
B. Feed conversion ratio (FCR): It is obtained by dividing the total amount of
feed consumed by the amount of live broiler weight produced.
i.e., FCR =
Total amount of feed consumed
Total body weight gain
A value of less than 2.00 at 6 weeks of age is preferable.
C. Feed cost per kg of broiler produced: It is calculated by the multiplication of
FCR with cost per kg of feed.
D. Performance efficiency factor (PEF): The PEF is derived by dividing the live
body weight of the flock by FCR and number of chicks purchased, multi-
plied with 100.
Total live body weight of the flock
1 e PEF = xl00
.. , FeR x no. of chicks purchased
The higher the PEF better will be the performance of the flock. A value of 100 or
higher is desirable.
119
Manual on Avian Production and Management
E. Gross margin per unit floor space: It is calculated by subtracting the total
cost of raising (cost of chicks, feed, medication, etc.) from gross income and
then dividing the result by the total area of floor space.
Gross income - Total raising cost
i.e., Gross margin per unit floor space = Total floor area (in sq. ft./sq. m.)
F. Production number (PN): It is calculated as follows -
PN = Daily growth x Survivability (%)
FCR x 10
Average final weight/bird
where, Daily growth = Average fattening period
Survivability % = 100 - Percent mortality.
G. Broiler performance efficiency score:
It is calculated based on the body weight, feed efficiency and livability at six
weeks of age; giving appropriate score for each of these three traits; based on
their relative economic importance.
Score card to judge the broiler performance efficiency
Trait Optimum Range
(i) Average live weight at 6 weeks of >1.6 1.3 to 1.8
age (kg)
(ii) FCR <2.0 1.8 to 2.1
(ill) Percent livability >95.0 92 to 98
A broiler farm should try to attain a minimum score of 70.
H. Formula for calculating the cost of productionfkg live broiler:
(i) Chick cost = 0.55 x cost of one day old chick = A
(ii) Feed cost = Feed efficiency x cost/kg of feed =B
(iii) Miscellaneous expenditure = 12% of (A+B) = C
Hence, production cost/kg live broiler = A+B+C
I. Formula for calculating the cost of production/broiler:
(i) Chick cost = 1.05 x cost of one day old chick = A
Score
50
30
20
(ii) Feed cost = Live weight in kg x Feed efficiency x cost/kg of feed == B
(iii) Miscellaneous expenditure == 12% of (A+B) == C
Hence, Production cost/broiler == A+B+C
120
J.
K.
Economic Indices of Poultry Farm Management
Number of birds sold
------------------xl00
Livability0A, = Number of chicks bought
(including extra)
Discrepancy% =
Number of chicks received - (Mortality + Number of birds sold) x 100
Number of chicks received
PRODUCfION INDICES FOR LAYER BIRDS
A. Percent hen housed production (HHP %): It is computed as the percentage
of dividing the number of eggs of the day by number of birds housed.
(i) HHP% (for one day) =
Number of eggs produced on a day x 100
Number of hens housed at the beginning of the laying period
(ii) HHP%(for a long period) =
Average number of eggs produced per day during the period x 100
Number of birds housed at the beginning
B. Percent hen day production (HDP (X,)
Number of eggs produced on the day
(i) HDP (% ) (for one day) = Number of birds on the day x 100
(ii) HDP (%) =
Total number of eggs produced over the period x 100
Total number of hen days (for
a long period)
N.B. : Total number of hen days are calculated by adding daily number of live
hens over the concerned period.
C. Feed consumed to produce one dozen of eggs per month:
= Total feed consumed per month
Total dozen of eggs per month
D. Feed consumed per hen per day:
Total feed consumed
Average number of birds per day x Number of days
E. Feed cost to produce one dozen of eggs per month:
Total feed cost per month
Total dozen of eggs per month
121
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Economic Indices ofPouItnf Farm Management
G. Percent livability per month: ,',.
Number of birds at the end of month
-------------- x 100
Number of birds at the start of month
H. Cracked eggs (percent) of a day:
= Number of cracked eggs x 100
Total number of eggs
I. Performance efficiency index (PEI):
PEI = K (EW) P
F
where, K = 30 EW > BW
BW = Body weight
EW = Egg weight
P = Percentage hen day production
F = Feed consumed per bird (g)
J. Percent culling:
Total number of birds culled x 100
Total number of birds received
K. Stage break even point:
It is the stage at which the sum of prices of all inputs and outputs are same. It
depends upon (1) Rate of egg production, (2) Prevailing egg price, (3) Culled
(spent) hen price, (4) Daily feed intake, (5) Predictable future trends in egg, feed
and culled hen prices.
Income: Expenditure
= ENxEP x 1.176
FIxFC
where, EN = Total number of eggs produced/ day by the existing flock.
EP = Selling price/ eggs in rupees
PI = Daily feed intake by the flock in kg.
FC = Cost/kg of feed in rupees.
The farmer can retain his/her birds as long as the value is greater than one. A
week average value is to be taken into account. Normally the break even point
123
Manual on Avian Production and Management
should be 1.3 times the feed expenditure, i.e., suppose the feed expenditure is Rs.
100.00 then the receipt should be Rs 130.00.
PRODUCTION INDICES FOR BREEDER BIRDS
A. Number of settable eggs produced per darn
B. Number of saleable chicks produced per darn
EFFICIENCY MEASURE OF BREEDING FARMS
Number of eggs fertile 100
Ape ti'l'ty = x
. ercent ler 1 Total number of eggs
_ Number of chicks hatched out 100
B. Percent hatchability - Total number of eggs x
(i) on total eggs set
(ii) on fertile eggs set
EFFICIENCY MEASURE OF PULLET FARM
(Rate of uniformity)
Percent of pullets within 10 percent
of average flock weight
85 percent and over
80-85 percent
75-85 percent
70-75 percent
Less than 70 percent
It is done at 18 weeks of age of flock.
Uniformity of rating
Excellent
Very good
Satisfactory
Fair
Not satisfactory
EFFICIENCY MEASURE OF UTILIZATION OF FARM LAND
Total constructed area
Construction coefficient = T I f I d x 100
ota arm an area
For an ideal farm, it should be 25 to 35.
124
Economic Indices of Poultry Farm Management
CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 20
# Exercise
1. Calculate the mortality percentage and hen housed egg production in a year
from the following data of a commercial layer farm.
No. of birds at the onset of production: 2000, total egg production in the
year: 560,000, total no. of birds died: 76.
2. Calculate the mortality percentage and FCE of the r.ommercial broiler farm.
No of broiler birds housed: 1200, total feed intake up to 6 weeks: 3904 kg,
total no. of death: 25, total live weight up to 6 weeks: 2058 kg.
125
Manual on Avian Production and Management
126
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Activity Unit - 21
Date ............... .
Evaluation of Techno-economic Feasibility for
Starting a Poultry Farm
OBJECTIVES
(i) To judge the availability of basic infrasuuctural facilities for consideration
of starting a poultry farm.
(ii) To evaluate the technical feasibil.ity for operation of such farm.
(iii) To consider economic implications in running the farm.
(iv) To assess and give opinion about the efficiency of proposed enterprise.
PROCEDURE
Techno-economic feasibility reports are required to be prepared with due
consideration of all facets of the proposed enterprise. This can be done as per
following proforma.
TECHNO-ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY REPORT
1. Name & address
of farmers/promoters
(Mention all the names
and addresses if it is
partnership farm)
2. Educational qualification of
all the farmers/promoters
3. Technical exposure
(i) Whether the farmer
/ promoter has undergone
any training in poultry
husbandry
(ii) Whether possess any
previous experience
127
Manual on Avian Production and Management
4. Financial background of
farmer / promoter
(i) Whether he/she/they
is/ are free from any debt?
5. Location of the farm
(i) The farm site is
connected with main road
(all weather road) Yes/No
(ii) Distance between farm
site and state or national
highway
(iii) Distance from nearby
city or town
(iv) The site is free from
water-logging and away
from command area of Yes/No
river
(v) Status of land Leased/Own
6. What is the source of
water at site?
7. Whether electricity is
available at the site? Yes/No
8. What is the distance of
nearby hatchery?
9. Whether the veterinary aid
is available whenever
required?
10. Availability of feed
(i) Whether availability of
year-round supply of
concentrate feed from
nearby market is assured?
(ii) Whether feed-mixing
plants are there in short
distances?
(iii) Whether the farmer
intend to produce own feed
in farm in future?
128
Evaluation ofTfchno-economic Feasibility for Starting a Poultry Farm
11. Whether the equipment
required to start a poultry
farm are available in nearby
town or city?
12. Whether marketing facilities
for birds and eggs are
available nearby?
If yes, mention the
proposed marketing channel
13. Whether transportation
facility is available at
cheaper cost?
14. Whether all biosecurity
measures are considered in
the proposed project?
15. Time required for
completion of whole
project?
Give detail work
schedule
16. Whether estimated cost of
the proposed project is
reasonable?
(i) What is the percentage
of farmer's / promoter's share
in the project proposal?
(ii) Whether farmer needs a
moratarium for repaying the
first installment of loan?
17. Whether expected net
income from the project is
sufficient to repay the loan
in time, sustain and go for
further expansion?
18. Whether provision for
insurance coverage for birds
and fixed assets are made in
the project proposal?
129
Manual on Avian Production and Management
19. Provision of expansion of
enterprise
(i) Whether sufficient land
is available in the farm site
for expansion of enterprise?
(ii) What will be the future
scope of expansion?
Certificate
The project details, technical programme, marketing potential and the promoter'sl
farmer's technical and financial background clearly suggest that this project is
technically feasible and financially viable.
Signature
Enclosures:
1. Land documents.
2. Blue prints of the poultry houses.
3. Estimates from the civil engineer for the poultry houses and other struc-
tures.
4. No objection certificate from local Panchayat.
130
Evaluation ofTechno-economic Feasibility for Starting a Poultry Farm
CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 21
# Exercise
1. Enlist the most important parameters which are to be considered for prepa-
ration of the techno-economic feasibility report of a proposed poultry farm.
What are the essential documents to be enclosed with this report?
131
Manual on Avian Production and Management
132
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
Activity Unit - 22
Date ............... .
Preparation of Proj ect Reports
OBJECTIVES
(i) To know all the technical details of starting a poultry farm.
(ii) To calculate expenditure for different heads.
(iii) To understand the assumptions underlying the project.
(iv) To evaluate the receipts and profitability of the project.
PROCEDURE (STEP BY STEP)
I. Working out of technical details and assumptions of the project.
11. Calculation of non-recurring (capital) expenditure by considering cost of
housing, equipment, store, supervisors, quarters, watering facility and land
development charges, etc.
Ill. Calculation of working capital - Capital needed to run the farm upto the
project completion period. It includes cost of chicks, feeds and miscellaneous
cost i.e., vaccination, medicine, labour, electricity etc. as applicable.
IV. Calculation of total project cost, share of promoter/farmer and bank finance
needed; usually farmer's share will be 25% of project cost excluding cost of
land.
V. Calculation of annual recurring expenditure - It includes cost of chicks, feed,
miscellaneous cost, etc. in each year.
VI. Calculation of annual gross return - Here total receipts from all sources of
income, viz., egg, broiler, manure, empty feed bags are calculated per year
basis.
VII. Calculation of bank repayment schedule - Here yearly installment of bank
loan and interest are calculated.
VIII.Calculation of net return - It is arrived by subtracting the repaid annual
bank loan and annual recurring expenditure from annual gross return.
Here project reports for various categories of poultry are prepared, viz., broiler,
layer, duck (free range system), duck (intensive system), quail (broiler type),
turkey (free range system) and cockerel (all in all out system). The project cost
133
Manual 0/1 Avian Production and Management
may vary depending on the prices prevailing in different iocalities, but the method
for preparation of project reports is same and the following project reports may
be taken as guide. (Students should prepare project reportsfor different categories
of poulh"y taking various shengths of birds.)
PROJECT REPORT FOR A BROILER FARM
Technical details and assumptions
1. House: Open sided, tile roofed, deep litter house.
2. Floor space: Half square feet per bird up to 25 days of age and one square
feet per bird there after.
3. Cost of poultry house: Rs. 50/- sq. ft.
4. Other building cost: Rs. lOO/-sq. ft.
5. Equipment cost: Rs. 10/- bird.
6. Cost of Medicine, Vaccine, Insurance
Labour, Electricity, Fuel, etc.: Rs. 4/ - bird.
7. Total number of birds in the farm: 7000
8. Total number of birds per batch
(including extra 5%) : 1050
9. Batch interval: 1 week
10. Down time: 1 week
11. Saleable broilers per batch per week: 980
12. Growing period: 45 to 50 days
13. Feed efficiency: 2.22 (average body weight = 1.80 kg)
14. Cost of feed (average cost of pre-starter, starter and finisher feeds) : Rs. 8/
kg.
15. Mortality: 7%
16. Manure production: 4 kg per bird
17. Project completion period: 4 months
18. Bank holiday period: 2 months from completion date.
19. Loan repayment period: 5 years, including holiday period.
20. Bank interest: 15%
Farm buildings
(i) Orientation of poultry house: Houses are built east-west with long axis
facing north and south, and short axis on east and west.
(ii) Construction details: Houses are constructed with concrete pillars with brick
and cement walls, and floor plastered with cement, elevated one foot above
the ground level. The inside height at eves will be about 7/; while at ridge
134
Preparation of Project Reports
height will be around 121. The two long sides are provided one foot high
wall with 60 inside slope at top. The partition wall specification is like that
of side walls. The remaining 51 height is covered with 111 G.1. 12 gauge chlain
link mesh throughout except at the doors. There will be 3
1
overhang of roofs
at eves. The doors are made up of M. S. angle frame and 111 X 3
1
I mesh of 10
gauge thickness, with provision to lock from both sides. The two sides are
made up of solid brick wall. Roof structure is built by seasoned wood and
tiles.
The house is provided with 3 phase power supply.
(iii) Other buildings:
The feed room, store and workers, quarters will have brick side walls to the
full height.
(iv) Specification of farm buildings for the project:
(A) One shed will be 30
1
x 120
1
size outer to outer with 4 pens each of 500
sq. ft. area to accommodate 4 batches x 1000 birds from 0 to 25 days of
age with 1/2 sq. ft. /bird.
(B) (i) One 400 sq. ft. owner/supervision quarters
(ii) 200 x2 = 400 sq. ft. for two workers quarters
(iii) 600 sq. ft. feed room
(iv) 200 sq. ft. office-cum-store room.
(C) Another shed with 30
1
x 133.3
1
outer size, partitioned into 4xl000 sq. ft.
rooms to rear 4 batches of broilers from 26
th
day onwards = 4000 sq. ft.
Total area required for birds = 2000+4000 = 6000 sq. ft.
Total area required for other purposes = 400+400+600+200 sq. ft.=1600 sq. ft.
STATEMENT - I
Non-recurring Expenditure Amount (Rs. in lakhs)
1. Cost of 2000 sq. ft broiler brooder + 4000 sq. ft. broiler
grower houses@Rs. 50/- sq. ft. 3.00
2. Cost of 1600 sq. ft. feed store, supervisor, workers quarters
1.60
3. Land development charges like fencing, provision of gate,
farm roads, etc. 0.30
4. Cost of deep tube well, water pump, overhead tank and
pipeline to all sheds 0.70
5. Cost of feeders, waterers, platform weighing scales, wheel
barrow, brooders, etc. @ Rs. 10/- per bird for 7000 birds 0.70
Total 6.30
135
Manual on Avian Production and Management
STATEMENT - 11
Working Capital Amount (Rs. in lakhs)
1. Cost of 1000x7 batches of day old chick @ Rs 10/-
each
2. Feed cost for 7 batches at an average of 4 kg/bird x
Rs. 8000/ tonne
3. Medicine, Vaccine, Insurance, Labour, Electricity,
Health coverage, etc. @ Rs. 4/bird
Total
STATEMENT - III
0.70
2.24
0.28
3.22
Total capital investment, share of promoter (margin money), bank finance needed
(amount in lakhs of Rs.)
SI. Description Total Promoter/
farmer share
Bank finance
No.
1.
2.
3.
Total
Land cost (1 acre)
Non-recurring expenditure
(vide Statement I)
Working capital
(vide Statement 11)
Capital
1.00
6.30
3.22
10.52
1.00 (100%)
1.57 (25%)
0.80 (25%)
3.37
STATEMENT - IV
required
4.73
2.42
7.15
Annual Recurring Expenditure Amount (Rs. in lakhs)
1. Cost of 1000 day-old chicks x 52 batches/year @ Rs.
10/- each
2. Feed cost for 52,000 broilers x 4 kg/bird @ Rs. 8/kg
3. Other miscellaneous cost@Rs. 4/bird
Total
STATEMENT - V
Annual Gross and Net Returns
1. By sale of 980 live broilers per batch x 52 batches
x Rs. 35/kg live weight (1.8 kg)
2. By sale of about 3500 empty gunny bags @ Rs 5/ each
3. By sale of about 200 tonnes of manure
@ Rs. lOO/tonne
Total
LESS: Annual expenditure (statement IV) : 23.92
NET RETURNS (before repayment of Bank loan)
(32.48-23.92) : 8.56
136
5.20
16.64
2.08
23.92
Amount (Rs. in lakhs)
32.10
0.18
0.20
32.48
Year Gross Expenditure Net surplus
receipts before loan
repayment
A C
1 28.36* 23.92 4.44
2 32.48 23.92 8.56
3 32.48 23.92 8.56
4 32.48 23.92 8.56
5 32.48 23.92 8.56
6 32.48 23.92 8.56
STATEMENT - VI
(Rs. in lakhs)
O. B. of Interest Total
Bank loan Bank loan
7.15 1.07 8.22
6.15 0.92 7.07
5.00 0.75 5.75
3.50 0.45 3.95
1.75 0.26 2.01
nil nil nil
Loan C. B. of Net profit Benefit
Repaid Bank loan after loan cost ratio
repayment A-B
B C
2.07 6.15 2.37 1.10
2.07 5.00 6.49 1.27
2.25 3.50 6.31 1.26
2.20 1.75 6.36 1.26
2.01 nil 6.55 1.27
nil nil 8.56 1.35
* The annual gross returns during first year will be Rs. 28.36 lakhs as there will be no sales during first 7 weeks period; only 45 batches
will be sold instead of 52 batches. Therefore, the net surplus before repayment will be Rs. 4.44 Iakhs.
Certificate
Certified that this project is prepared by me taking into account the prevailing prices of various farm inputs and outputs and the latest
technical and production standards. It appears that this project will be technically feasible and financially viable.
Enclosures: 1. Land ownership document.
2. Farm site map.
3. Blue print and estimates of farm buildings.
Signature
Manual on Avian Production and Management
PROJECT REPORT FOR A LAYER FARM (1+3 SYSTEM)
Technical details and assumptions
The project is a layer farm, having 20,000 birds at any given time where 15,000
are layers and 5000 are growers in 1+3 batches, i.e., 1 batch of grower and 3
batches of layers. Once in every 20-21 weeks, 5400 new chicks are to be purchased
and out of this 5000 are expected to be available at pullet stage. At about 19
weeks of age, about 5000 pullets are to be shifted to layer cages; where they will
stay upto the age of 80 weeks after which they will be culled. At a point of time
there will be about 14,400 (5000+4800+4600) layers which will lay 11,5000 eggs
yearly with 80% production level. There will be down time of one week for each
batch of new arrival in respective house or cage. Number of culled hens at 20-21
weeks interval will be 4500. Each pullet will consume 7 kg of feed upto 20 weeks
of age and about 110 gm of feed / day during laying period. As such a bird from
o to 80 weeks of age will consume 53 kg of feed and lay 336 eggs in 420 days and
produce around 40 kg of manure.
It will take minimum three months for land development and grower shed
construction to receive first batch of chicks, second and third batches will arrive
20 and 40 weeks later. The third batch comes to production 60 weeks after arrival
of first batch. Therefore, a minimum of 18 months repayment holiday period is
needed. The principal and interest will be repaid in 72 months after 18 months of
holiday period, i.e., 90 months.
1. House: (i) Open sided, tile roofed, deep litter house for grower birds.
(ii) Raised platform cage layer house for layers.
2. Cost of grower house = Rs. 60/sq. ft.
3. Cost of layer house = Rs. 90/sq. ft.
4. Cost of other farm buildings = Rs. lOO/sq. ft.
5. Cost of layer cages = Rs. 45/- bird
6. Cost of grower equipment = Rs. 10/- bird
7. Cost of medicines, vaccines,
elech'icity, labour = Rs. 10 to 12 /bird
8. Pullet chicks purchased/batch = 5400 (excluding extra)
9. A verage number of batches = 2.5
/year
10. Cost of day-old chick = Rs. 15/- each
11. Mortality: 0 to 20 weeks =8%
21 to 80 weeks = 10%
12,
Cost of feed
= Rs. 7/kg
(average of starter, grower
ana layer)
138
Preparation of Project Reports
13. Average number of saleable = 11,500 eggs
eggs/day
14. Average number of spent/ = 11,250 hens
culled hens (2.5x4500 hens)
15. Average egg selling price = Rs. 1.25/egg
16. Average manure production = 500 tonnes
/year
17. Average selling price of = Rs. 200/tonne
manure
18. Sale price of empty gunny bag = Rs. 5/each
19. Insurance premium = Rs. 4/bird
20. Average number of batches = 2.5/year
21. Feed /bird (0 to 80 weeks) = 53 kg
Farm buildings
(i) Orientation: Same as other poultry houses.
(ii) Grower house:
The deep litter brooder cum grower house to accommodate 5000-5500 replacement
pullets is of 30
1
width (North to South) and 167
1
length (East to West); total 5010
sq. ft. with one sq. ft/bird. The two longs are provided one foot high wall with
60 inside slope. The remaining height is covered by 111 eye, 12 gauge G.I. chain
link mesh throughout, except at the four doors. The inside height at eves will be
about 7
1
while at ridge the height will be 121. The roof at eves is provided with 3/
overhang. The roof structure is supported by 9
11
thick concrete pillars. The inside
floor is made up of cement, elevated one foot above the ground level.
The 4 doors are made up of MS. angle frame and 111x3/
1
weld mesh of 10 gauge
thickness, with provision to look both sides. Two rows of water pipe lines are
provided 7
1
-8
1
above the ground level throughout the length of the shed, to
connect it to automatic waterers.
(iii) Raised platform cage layer house
The layer house is 33
1
wide x 292
1
long (total 9636 sq. ft.) to accommodate 15,000
layers in 3 divided batches with 0.64 sq. ft./hen. The 3 cage units, one for each
batch will be separated by two 10
1
wide x 33
1
long platforms with stair case. The
platforms are 6
1
above the ground level. Two store rooms are constructed below
the two 10
1
x 33
1
platforms to store eggs etc. The two sides of layer house on east
and west are brick wall type, supported by 9
11
thick concrete pillars, with a height
15
1
at eaves and 23
1
at ridge. The lengthwise north and south sides are having
concrete pillars at 20
1
interval. The asbestos roof will have ridge ventilation at
the center and have 51 overhang at the eves.
139
Manual on Avian Production and Management
Three platforms, each of 21 width x 290
1
length will be provided in each shed,
which will be supported by 5
11
thick 'T' shaped concrete pillars at the bottom at
51 interval.
(iv) Cages
Two 'M' type and two 'L' type cages, each of three-tier fixed in between the
platforms. There will be 12 'M' and 6 'L' units of cages; of which 4 'M' and 2 'L'
units will be allotted to each batch of layers. Each IM' unit will have 6 rows and L
unit have 3 rows of cages. The 'M' units are at the center and the 'L' are near the
pillars. Each row will have 52 cage boxes. The size of cage box 20
11
length in
front, 1711 to 18
11
height at front, depth will be 15
11
(front to back) in bottom and
middle row cages to house 5 hens and depth will be 18
11
in top row cages to
house 6 hens with 60 sq. inch cage space/hen. The middle row overlaps the bottom
row cages and the top row overlaps the middle row cages by 211. Cage floor
gradient will be 7 from back to front. The cage bottom is made up of 111 x31 I, 10
gauge weld mesh, whereas top, back and front mesh size will be 211 x3l
l
, 8 gauge
weld mesh. The cage partition mesh size will be I11x3
11
-12 gauge weld mesh. The
feeders are made up of 24 gauge aluminium sheet and plastic water pipe with
two nipple drinkers are there at each cage partition top front portion. Two rows
of foggers are provided over each M cage.
The poultry house is provided 3 phase power supply. Compact fluorescent lamps
are used in two rows.
(v) Other buildings
A rodent and seepage proof warehouse of40
/
x20
1
size for feed storage; supervisor
quarter 3Q1x201; 30
/
x20
1
egg store with 121 height and asbestos roof are to be
built. Total = 800+600+600 = 2000 sq. ft.
STATEMENT -I
Non-recurring Expenditure
1. Cost of grower house with asbestos roof@ Rs. 60/sq. ft. (5010 sq. ft.) for
5000 growers
2. Cost of elevated platform, asbestos roof cage layer house@ Rs. 90/sq. ft.
(9636 sq. ft.) for 15,000 layers
3. Cost of other bUlldmgs @ Rs. lOO/sq. ft.
(2000 sq. ft.)
4. Land development charges, fencing, manure pit, burial pit, farm road
and other infrastructure facilities.
5. Cost of deep tube well, water pump, overhead tank and pipeline to all
sheds.
6. Cost of chick & grower equipments @ Rs. 10/bird for 5000 birds
7. Cost of layer cages @ Rs. 45/bird for 15,000 birds
Total
140
Amount
(Rupees in lakhs)
3.01
8.67
2.00
0.50
0.70
0.50
6.75
22.13
PreparatIOn of Project Reports
STATEMENT -11
Working Capital Amount (Rupee in lakhs)
1. Cost of 5400 day old chicks x 3 batches @ Rs. 15/
eacn + insurance premium @ Rs. 4/ each = 5400 x
Rs.19/- 3.07
2. Feed cost for 3 batches upto the point of lay (20
weeks) for 5000 pullets /batch x 3 batches x 7 kg feed
/bird x Rs. 7/kg 7.35
3. Miscellaneous cost: 5000 birds x 3 batches x Rs.
10/bird 1.50
Total 11.81
STATEMENT - III
Total project cost, margin money, bank loan required
(Amount in rupees in lakhs)
SI. No. Description Total cost Margin money Bank loan
required
1. Land 5.50 5.50
(31/2 acre)
2. Non-recurring 22.13 5.53 (25%) 16.60
expenditure
(Statement I)
3. Working capital 11.92 2.98 (25%) 8.94
(Statement 11)
Total 39.55 14.01 25.54
STATEMENT - IV
Calender of Loan Disbursement
Period
(Quarter)
1.
2.
Purpose
Land development charges
Chick cum grower shed
Deep tube well, overhead tank, etc.
Equipment cost
First batch of chicks
Feed room & other buildings
Layer house
Cost of layer cages
Feed cost
Mise. cost
141
Amount (Rs. in lakhs)
Amount
0.38
2.25
0.52
0.38
0.78
1.50
6.51
1.69
1.84
0.38
Total
Loan/ quarter
3.53
12.70
Period
(Quarter)
3.
4.
Manual on Avian Production and Management
Purpose Amount
Second batch of chicks
0.76
Cost of layer cages
1.69
Feed cost
184
Misc. cost
0.38
Third batch of chicks
0.76
Cages for layer house
1.69
Feed cost
1.84
Mise. cost
0.35
Total loan released 25.54
Total
Loan/ quarter
4.67
4.64
25.54
Repayment holiday = 18 months from the time of starting of farm.
Repayment period = 72 months (after 18 months holiday period).
Total repayment period = 72 + 18 = 90 months.
The entire loan amount along with accrued interest at the rate of 15% will be
repaid after the commencement of the project or within 72 months from
commencement of full egg production.
STATEMENT - V
Annual Recurring Expenditure (Amount in Rs. in lakhs)
Year Chick cost including Feed Cost Misc. Cost @Rs. Total
insurance premium 12/bird/ annum Expenditure
No. Cost
1. 16,200 (3.07)* (4.90)*+14.70 (1.45)*+0.48 (9.42)*+ 15.18
2. 10,800 2.05 42.56 2.26 46.87
3. 16,200 3.07 43.68 2.26 49.01
4. 10,800 2.05 43.68 2.26 47.99
5. 16,200 3.07 43.68 2.26 49.01
6. 10,800 2.05 43.68 2.26 47.99
7. 16,200 3.07 43.68 2.26 49.01
8. 10,800 2.05 43.68 2.26 47.99
9. 16,200 3.07 43.68 2.26 49.01
* Values in parenthesis indicate the working capital. In 1
st
year il is expected that two batches
wIll cover 44 weeks of laying period.
142
ST ATEMENT - VI
Annual Gross and Net Returns (Amount in Rupees in lakhs)
Year By sale of eggs By sale of cull hens By sale of manure By sale of empty Total Total Net
feed bags Gross expenditure Surplus
No. Rs. No. Rs. Amount Rs. No. Rs.
receipts
(million) (1.25jegg)
(Rs.30jhen)
(T)
(Rs.200jT) (Rs.5jbag)
1 1.41 17.62 70 0.14 2800 0.14 17.90 15.18 2.72
2 3.90 48.75 9000 2.7 500 1.00 8106 0.40 52.85 46.87 5.98
'\:I

3 4.19 52.37 13500 4.05 500 1.00 8320 0.41 57.83 49.01 8.82
4 4.19 52.37 9000 2.7 500 1.00 8320 0.41 56.48 47.99 8.49

..,.
5 4.19 52.37 13500 4.05 500 1.00 8320 0.41 57.83 49.01 8.82
UJ
6 4.19 52.37 9000 2.7 500 1.00 8320 0.41 56.48 47.99 8.49
7 4.19 52.37 13500 4.05 500 1.00 8320 0.41 57.83 49.01 8.82
Q
8 4.19 52.37 9000 2.7 500 1.00 8320 0.41 56.48 47.99 8.49
....
;;;
9 4.19 52.37 13500 4.05 500 1.00 8320 0.41 57.83 49.01 8.82
STATEMENT - VII
Cash flow statement, net profit and benefit-cost ratio (Amount in rupees in lakhs)
Source of funds At At the end of the year
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Land cost 5.5
Promoter's funds 6.96 1.54
Borrowings 20.90 4.64
Increase in net profit 0.63 0.78 2.20 1.82 2.17 1.44 3.02 3.70 8.82

Net assets ;:!
(cumulative) 5.5 33.99 40.95 43.15 44.97 47.14 48.58 51.60 55.30 64.12
:>::
!:?.
Net surplus
0
;:!

(cumulative) 0.63 1.41 3.61 5.43 7.60 9.04 12.06 15.76 24.58 Cl
15
Cash outflow
;:!
Cost of chicks 2.05 3.07 2.05 3.07 2.05 3.07 2.05 3.07
'1:J
(5

!:<.
joj::>.
Cost of feed 14.70 42.56 43.68 43.68 43.68 43.68 43.68 43.68 43.68
:>::
joj::>.

Misc. cost 0.48 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26
o
7.05
;:!
Repayment of loan 2.09 5.20 6.62 6.67 6.65 5.80 4.79
'"
;:!
with interest
!:<.
Total cash outflow 17.27 52.07 55.63 54.66 55.66 55.04 54.81 52.78 49.01

;:!
Cash inflow '"
"-
By sale of eggs 17.62 48.75 52.37 52.37 52.37 52.37 52.37 52.37 52.37

"-
By sale of 2.7 4.05 2.7 4.05 2.7 4.05 2.7 4.05
::;.
spent/ culled hens
By sale of manure 0.14 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
By sale of gunny 0.14 0.40 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41
bags
Total cash inflow 17.90 52.85 57.83 56.48 57.83 56.48 57.83 56.48 57.83
Net surplus 0.63 0.78 2.20 1.82 2.17 1.44 3.02 3.70 8.82
Benefit: Cost ratio 1.03 1.01 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.02 1.05 1.07 1.18
.....

U1
Year
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Total
ST ATEMENT - VIII
Bank Loan Repayment Schedule (Amount in rupees in lakhs)
O. B. of loan Borrowings Interest
20.90
24.17
21.17
17.67
13.67
8.67
4.17
20.90 2.09
4.64 3.83
3.62
3.17
2.65
2.05
1.30
0.62
25.54 20.37
Total
24.03
29.37
27.79
24.34
20.32
15.72
9.97
4.79
45.91
Certificate
Repayment
Principal Interest
2.09
1.37 3.83
3.00 3.62
3.50 3.17
4.00 2.65
5.00 2.05
4.50 1.30
4.17 0.62
25.54 20.37
C. B. of loan
Total
2.09 20.90
5.20 24.17
6.62 21.17
6.67 17.67
6.65 13.67
7.05 8.67
5.80 4.17
4.79
45-.91
Certified that this project report is prepared by taking into account the latest tecImical standards and prevailing market prices for
various farm inputs and outputs. The report is technically feasible and economically viable.
Enclosures: 1. Farm site map
2. Farm buildings blue print
& estimates from civil engineer
3. Land ownership document
4. Quotation for cages etc.
5. Other relevant documents.
Signature
'"0

Manual on Avian Production and Management
PROJECT REPORT FOR A DUCK FARM (FREE RANGE SYSTEM)
Technical details and assumptions
1. Number of layer duck = 200.
2. Number of ducklings (straight run) purchased = 450.
3. Type of duck = Khaki Campbell x Desi cross.
4. Feeds (mostly grains) will be given first one month brooding period and
during the scarcity in summer months.
5. Source of feed by foraging mainly.
6. Cost of day-old straight run ducklings = Rs. 8.00 each.
7. Feed required for brooding period = 1.5 kg each.
8. Cost of feed = Rs. 8.00/kg
9. Feed required for dry summer season (2 months/yr) = 2kg/bird/month(part
feeding)
10. Selling price of drakes at 2 months of age = Rs. 30/ - each.
11. Selling price of eggs = Rs. 1.50/- each.
12. Selling price of culled ducks = Rs. 30/- each.
13. No housing, except a nylon wirenet circular enclosure for night shelter.
14. Replacement stock: Next batch of 450 ducklings are to be purchased six months
before the disposal of the old batch.
15. Farmer will look after his own farm.
16. Mortality = average 12%.
STATEMENT - I
(a) Cost of feeders, waterers, fencing net, egg boxes, etc.
(b) Cost of 450 day-old straight run chicks
(c) Cost of feeding (brooding period)
(450 x 1.5 x 8)
(d) Cost of vaccines, medicines and mise. expenditure
(e) Cost of feeding during summer season (200 x 2 x 4 x 8)
[2 years = 4 summer months]
Total
Cost of replacement stock
(a) Cost of feeders, waterers, etc.
(b) Cost of 450 ducklings (straight run)
(c) Cost of feeding them up to one month
of brooding period
(d) Cost of vaccination, medication, etc.
Total
146
0.01
0.036
0.054
0.01
0.11
0.02
0.036
0.054
0.012
0.128
0.248
Preparation of Project Reports
STATEMENT - II
Gross income per batch (Amount in rupees in lakhs)
(a) By sale of 200 drakes at 8 weeks of age
(b) By sale of 200 eggs in first year + 180 eggs
in second year I dam
(200 x 200 + 200 x 180) x 1.50
(c) By sale of 170 ducks at the end of 2112 years
(170 x 30)
Total
Net return = (Gross income/batch - expenditure/batch) -
Cost of replacement stock
= Rs. (1.197 - 0.248 - 0.11) lakh
= Rs. 0.839 lakh.
Net return after 30 months (21/2 years) = Rs. 0.839 lakh.
Net return/month = 0.839/30 = Rs. 0.0271akh = Rs. 2700/-.
Benefit: Cost ratio = 3.34
147
0.06
1.086
0.051
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Manual on Avian Production and Management
CLASS ASSIGNMENT ON ACTIVITY UNIT - 22
# Indicate the correct answer by putting tick (,I') mark.
1. Broiler birds should be kept in the farm for the period of
(a) 6 weeks (b) 8 weeks
(c) 10 weeks (d) 12 weeks
2. Recently the feed conversion efficiency of broiler chicken (kg feed required/
kg live weight) is
(a) 4 (b) 3
(c) 2 (d) 1
3. Egg type chicken are kept in the farm for the total period of
(a) 20-22 weeks (b) 40-52 weeks
(c) 72-80 weeks (d) 90-100 weeks
4. A hen starts to lay egg at the age of
(a) 6 weeks (b) 20 weeks
(c) 72 weeks (d) 80 weeks
5. A standard chicken egg weighs about
(a) 48g (b) 58g
(c) 68g (d) 78g
6. The average weight of a duck egg should be
(a) 109 (b) 58g
(c) 70g (d) 95g
7. The approximate feed requirement of a layer (chicken) during its total eco-
nomic life is
(a) 3.8kg
(c) 50.0kg
(b) 8.0kg
(d) 70.0kg
8. A broiler chicken should have the following characteristic(s)-
(a) may be of either sex
(b) soft and pliable breast bone/cartilage
(c) FeR 1:1.9
( d) all of these
# Exercise
1. Prepare a project report for 1000 layer chicken on deep litter system.
2. Prepare a project report for broiler chicken (6 lots having 1000 birds in each
lot per year) on deep litter system.
3. Prepare a project report for 250 layer ducks under semi-intensive system.
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Preparation of ProJect Reports
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Manual on Avian Production and Management
APPENDIX-1
VCI SYLLABUS ON AVIAN PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT
[Course No: LPM-322, Credit Hours: 2+1=3]
As per Veterinary Council of India (Minimum Standards of Veterinary Education,
Degree Course - B. V. Sc. & A. H.) Regulations, 1993
THEORY
Economic importance of poultry, development of poultry industry in India,
different breeds and varieties of chicken, ducks and turkeys; terms used in poultry
science; how egg is formed - structure of eggs, formation of yolk, albumen and
shell; selling of poultry and effect of culling on egg production, incubation or
hatching of eggs, natural and artificial breeding, brooders. Season for breeding;
different systems of housing of pouitry; floor space requirements, constructional
details of poultry houses and hatcheries, cost of construction, construction of
budget poultry sheds for small, medium and large operators; layout plans for
poultry farm of various sizes, poultry equipments: incubators, brooders,
de beakers, trapnest, feeder and waterer etc. Care and management of chicks,
pullets and cockerels, care and management of broilers and layers, feeds and
feeding of broilers and layers, poultry farm records; commercial hatcheries and
its role in poultry development; random sample tests; preparation of poultry for
show; poultry judging; disinfection of incubators, brooders, farm implements
and poultry houses. Disposal of poultry wastes. Utility of poultry manure.
Economy in poultry production - cost of production of table and hatching eggs,
broiler meat, day-old-chicks. Preparation of project reports for broiler, layers,
hatchery, cockerel and Japanese quail farms. Role of avian farms in a mixed farm
unit.
Vaccination, de worming, detecting deficiencies and combating them etc.
PRACTICAL
Handling of poultry. External body parts. Identification of species, breeds and
varieties of poultry. Reproductive and digestive systems of chicken. Structure
and composition of eggs and meat. Poultry judging, selection and culling of poultry.
Candling of eggs for evaluation of quality, presence of blood and meat spots etc.,
measuring the strength of eggs, grading of eggs. Management of incubators; sexing
of chicks and brooding of chicks. Feeders, waterers, trap nests and poultry farm
and hatchery equipments. Different systems of housing, layout plans for poultry
farms of different sizes. Feeds and feeding of broilers and layers, and systems of
feeding. Slaughter and dressing of poultry. Different methods of preservation of
150
Appendices
eggs and meat. Health care and management of chicks, ducklings and turkey;
care and management of broilers and layers during summer and winter. Record
keeping of poultry farm (including accounts). Preparation of feasibility reports
for small and medium poultry farms. Preparation of project reports for the same.
Model scheme for a large poultry farm.
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Manual on Avian Production and Management
APPENDIX-2
REQUIREMENTS FOR CONDUCTING PRACTICAL CLASSES OF AVIAN
PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT (As per VCI regulation)
1. Poultry farm of 1000 birds with a minimum of 200 layers.
2. Model of various systems, pens, cages, runs, equipments, etc.
3. Sample stock of various breeds of poultry and other avian species.
4. Hatchery and chick pens.
5. Brooders.
6. Equipments: incubator (hatchery), egg candler, battery brooder, egg grad-
ing machine, chick sexing machine, debeaking equipment, trap nest, Vernier
calipers, screw gauge, maximum-minimum thermometer, hygrometer, poul-
try post-mortem set, etc.
7. Photographs of different breeds, charts, photographs showing different
points of body of various species, models of feeding and watering troughs
for different species, samples of feeds, registers/account procedures.
Note:
(i) The above list of requirements will serve as a guide for conducting the classes
of this subject. They are not meant to be an exhaustive list and the staff of
the Department of Livestock Production and Management (Poultry Section)
will use their initiative and experience for equipping their Department.
(ii) The practical classes are to be conducted at the Livestock Instructional Farm
(Poultry Section).
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Appendices
APPENDIX-3
ANSWER OF OBJECfIVE QUESTIONS
Activity Unit - 1
l.b) spur
2.d) all of these
3.c) abdominal feather
4.c) keel bone
Activity Unit - 2
l.a) America
2.a) America
3.c) England
4.d) Italy
5.c) England
6.c) India
7.b) England
8.d) White Leghorn
9.d) Leghorn
lO.a) Rhode Island Red
ll.a) Indian Runner
l2.c) Aylesbur
13.d) B-77
l4.d) Mychix
l5.c) Crested White
Activity Unit - 3
l.d) All of these
2.c) culling
Activity Unit - 4
l.b) proventriculus
2.c) gizzard
3.b) gizzard and liver
Activity Unit - 5
l.c) 76 cm
2.c) Magnum
3.c) Isthmus
4.c) Uterus
5.c) 25 hours
6.c) carotene
Activity Unit - 6
l.b) 58g
2.c) 70g
3.a) 109
4.b) protein
5.d) calcium carbonate
6.c) inner thick white
7.b) albumin
8.a) 21% and 13%
Activity Unit - 7
l.b) 72
2.d) 78
3.c) 74
4.c) 58
Activity Unit - 8
l.c) Medium
2.c) 45-52g
3.d) all of these
4.c) A,B
Activity Unit - 9
1. d) all of these
2. c) keeping eggs in lower temperature
3.b) Sodium silicate
4.d) all of these
5.c) 8 months
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Manual on Avian Production and Management
Activity Unit - 10
1. b) 1.75 sq ft
2. a) 1.00 sq ft
3. d) all of these
4. b) 250 birds
5. c) deep litter system
6. b) 25 quails
7. c) 50 quails
8 b) battery system
Activity Unit - 11
1. a) 1 inch
2. c) 2-2.5 inches
3. a) 1 inch
4. b) 2 inches
5. b) 100
Activity Unit - 12
1. b) hatching
2. a) 15
3. b) 21 days
4. c) 21 days
5. c) 21 days
6. b) 37.5C
7. b) 60-70%
8. b) 17 days
9. c) 28 days
10. (c) 28 days
11. (b) 1:10
12. (a) 1:3
13. (a) 1:5
14. b) 6g
15. b) 18 days
16. b) 16-17DC
17.b) the first 18 days of incubation
18.b) the first 25 days of incubation
Activity Unit - 13
1. a) Broiler farming
2. c) quail
3. d) all the femal progenies will be
black and male progenies barred
Activity Unit - 14
1. b) brooding
2. d) 250-300 chicks
3. a) 4
4. a) 90-95F
5. c) 3-4 sq inches
Activity Unit - 15
1.a) 3.8 kg
2.b) Ca
3.d) all of these
4.b) 25-30 litres
5.d) 30 litres
6.b) all mash feeding
Activity Unit - 16
1. a) bacteria
2. b) virus
3. b) virus
4. c) vitamin D1
5.a) Marek's disease, Ranikhet disease
and Gumboro disease
6. a) 1 week
7. a) 3 days
8. a) RDF1
9. d) None of these
10. b) deworming
Activity Unit - 17
1. c) 38C
2. b) 18-21C
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Appendices
Activity Unit - 18
1. a) Halal with stunning
2. c) Loosening of feathers
3. b) To remove hair like feathers from
the carcass
4. a) 2-4C
Activity Unit - 22
1. a) 6 weeks
155
2. c) 2
3. c) 72-80 weeks
4. b) 20 weeks
5. b) 58 g
6. c) 70 g
7. c) 50.0 kg
8. d) all of these
APPENDIX-4
REFERENCES AND SELECfED BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Chauhan, H.v.S. (1993) Poultry Diseases, Diagnosis and Treatment. Wiley
Eastern Limited, New Delhi.
2. Ghosh, N. (2002) Animal Production, Diseases and Treatment. Bengali Edi-
tion. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
3. Jadhav, N.V. and Siddiqui, M.F. (1999) Handbook of Poultry Production
and Management. pt Edition. Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd,
New Delhi.
4. McArdle, A.A. and Panda, J.N. (1965) A Poultry Guide for the Villager. 3
rd
Edition. Department of Agriculture, Government of India, New Delhi.
5. Panda, B. and Mahapatra, S.c. (1989) Poultry Production. Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi.
6. Prasad, J. (2000) Poultry Production and Management. 1
st
Edition. Kalyani
Publishers, New Delhi.
7. Vegad, J.L. (2004) Poultry Diseases. A Guide for Farmers & Poultry Profes-
sionals. pt Edition. International Book Distributing Co., Lucknow.
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