CYCLONES AND INERTIAL SEPARATORS

Inertial separators are widely used for the collection of medium-sized and coarse
particles. Their relatively simple construction and absence of moving parts means that the
capital and maintenance costs are lower than the other control devices available in the
particulate control industry. However, the efficiency is not as high and thus inertial
separators are usually used as precleaners upstream of the other control devices to reduce
the dust loading and to remove larger, abrasive particles.
The general principle of inertial separation is that the particulate-laden gas is forced to
change direction. As the gas changes direction, the inertia of the particles causes them to
continue in the original direction and be separated from the gas stream (Air ollution
!ngineering "anual, #$$$%.
Areas of Application
&yclones and centrifugal collectors are utilized in various industries such as chemical,
coal mining and handling, combustion fly ash, metal melting, metal wor'ing, metal
mining, roc' products, plastics and wood products. &ommon uses of cyclones and inertial
separators are the collection of grinding, crushing, conveying, machining, mi(ing,
sanding, blending and materials handling dust and for particle collection.
Types
&yclones are the most common type of inertial separators. &yclone separators are gas
devices that employ a centrifugal force generated by a spinning gas stream to separate the
particulate matter, which could be solid or li)uid, from the carrier gas. The separator unit
*
may be a single large chamber, a number of small tubular chambers in parallel or series,
or a dynamic unit similar to a blower. +nits in parallel provide increased volumetric
capacity while units in series provide increased removal efficiency. &yclone separators
can be classified as vane-a(ial or involute. The only difference between these two is the
method of introducing the gas into the cylindrical shell in order to impart sufficient
spinning motion. In the simple dry cyclone separator, shown in ,igure *, the circular
motion is attained by a tangential gas inlet. The rectangular inlet passage has its inner
wall tangent to the cylinder and the inlet is designed to blend gradually with the cylinder
over a *-$-degree involute. ,igure # shows a vane-a(ial cyclone. In this case, the
cyclonic motion is imparted to the a(ially descending dirty gas by a ring of vanes. In
either case, the operation depends upon the inertia of the particles to move in a straight
line even as the direction of the gas stream is changed. The centrifugal force due to a high
rate of spin flings the dust particles to the outer walls of the cylinder and the cone. The
movement of the particles across the gas stream can be seen in ,igure .. The particles
then slide down the walls and into the storage hopper. The cleaned gas reverses its
downward spiral and forms a smaller ascending spiral. A vorte( finder tube that e(tends
downward into the cylinder aids in directing the inner vorte( out of the device.
The cyclone separator is usually employed for removing particles *$ /m in size and
larger. However, conventional cyclones seldom remove particles with an efficiency
greater than 0$ percent unless the particle size is #1 /m or larger. High efficiency
cyclones are available and are effective with particle sizes down to 1 /m. A high-volume
design sacrifices efficiency for high rates of collection. It might be used as a precleaner to
#

Figure 1 In!olute Cyclone Separator Figure " #ane A$ial Separator
.
Figure % &o!e'ent of particles across t(e gas strea'lines
2
remove the larger particles before the gas passes through another piece of collection
e)uipment. &yclones can be optimized for high collection efficiencies by using small
diameters, long cylinders and high inlet velocities.
Factors Affecting Collection Efficiency
Installation Procedures
,or cyclones to have good collection efficiency, proper installation procedures are of
primary importance. The cyclone collector must be airtight in order to eliminate
reentrainment of the particles bac' into the gas stream. Therefore, while installing
e)uipment such as access doors, inlet and outlet plenums and dust disposal features these
areas must be completely sealed. Any lea'age in the cyclone collector can cause a #1
percent or more loss in the collection efficiency.
Erosion and Fouling
!rosion and ,ouling of cyclones are problems that seriously affect the cyclone collection
efficiency and are encountered during the operation and maintenance activities.
!rosion in cyclones is caused by the stri'ing or rubbing of dust particles on the inside
wall of the cyclone. !rosion increases with high dust loadings, high inlet velocities, high
particle specific gravity values and the stri'e angle (Air ollution !ngineering "anual,
#$$$%. The area of the cylindrical shell opposite to the inlet may e(perience e(cessive
wear if the gas contains large dust particles. 3elded seams in the cyclone design are also
areas that tend to be susceptible to erosion because of surface irregularities. &hoosing the
proper cyclone diameter size can control erosion. ,urther, using thic'er material in the
1
cone area and abrasion resistant removable wear plates (linings% at the stri'e zone are
good design options that help in controlling erosion.
,ouling of a cyclone collector occurs on account of the plugging of the dust outlet or dust
buildup on the cyclone walls. lugging of the dust outlet occurs by large pieces of
material becoming lodged in the outlet thereby forming an obstruction about which small
particles can build up. These conditions can lead to reentrainment of the dust into the gas
stream. ,or large-diameter cyclones, an a(ial cleanout opening with a bolted cover plate
in the top of the outlet pipe can be provided so that a rod can be inserted to clear a
bloc'age. "aterial buildup on the cyclone walls is a function of the dust. 4oft, fine dust
has a tendency to build up on the cyclone walls. articles below . 5m in diameter possess
inherently greater cohesive and adhesive forces. &ondensation of moisture on the cyclone
walls also contributes to the accumulation of material on the walls. 3all smoothness can
help to reduce the amount of material buildup. !lectropolishing of walls has been a
successful method in minimizing buildup.
Particle Size
&ollection efficiency is a strong function of particle size and increases with increasing
particle size. Also, the efficiency is greater for particles with higher densities than for
6
Figure ) Collection Efficiency as a function of particle si*e for +ifferent types of
cyclones
7
lower densities. ,igure 2 shows the variation of the cyclone collection efficiency with
different particle sizes for different types of cyclones.
8epresentative overall cyclone efficiencies are presented in the table shown below.
Ta,le 1 Cyclone Collection Efficiencies for !arying si*es of t(e particles
-Stern. et al/. 10112
Particle Si*e -3'2 Con!entional Cyclone 4ig(5Efficiency Cyclone
9 1 9 1$ 1$--$
1-#$ 1$--$ -$-01
*1-1$ -$-01 01-00
: 2$ 01-00 01-00


Physical Properties
hysical properties of the gas can also have some effect on the collection efficiency of a
cyclone. Increasing the gas temperature decreases its density and increases its viscosity.
The direct effect on efficiency by changes in the gas density is so much smaller than the
density of the particles. If the viscosity of the gas that carries the dust particles to the
cyclone increases then the collection efficiency will decrease with all the other factors
remaining constant.
Pre+iction of Collection Efficiency
&ollection efficiency is a strong function of the particle size and it increases with
increasing particle size. ;etermination of the overall collection efficiency re)uires the
'nowledge of the particle size distribution of the dust particles. The dust-laden gas enters
-
the cyclone and spins through <
e
revolutions in the main outer vorte( before entering the
inner vorte( and passing upwards towards the e(it of the cyclone. The value of <
e
is
derived from the following e)uation (3ar', et al., *00-%=
where,
>
*
- height of the main upper cylinder
>
#
- height of the lower cone
H - height of the rectangular inlet through which the dirty gas enters

The derivation of the cyclone collection efficiency is based on the following theory=
articles enter the cyclone with the gas stream but tend to move outwards under the
influence of centrifugal force. This is resisted by the drag of the particles moving radially
through the gas, and the resultant terminal or radial velocity of the particles is found by
e)uating the centrifugal and drag forces. To be collected, the particles must reach the
outer wall before the gas leaves the outer vorte(. The time and the distance are both
'nown )uantities. The time is the gas residence time, which depends on gas inlet
velocity, radius of the cyclone and number of turns in the vorte(. The ma(imum value of
the distance to be traveled is the length from the inner edge of the inlet to the outer wall.
Assuming laminar flow, an e(pression is derived that relates the collection efficiency to
the different cyclone parameters and operating conditions (3ar', et al., *00-%=
0

,
_

+
#
*
#
*
L
L
H
N
e
W
V d N
g P P e

0
#

where,
? - collection efficiency
<
e
- effective number of revolutions
@
p
- particle density
d
p
- particle diameter
A
g
- gas velocity
3 - width of the rectangular inlet
This model indicates that the efficiency is directly proportional to the particle diameter
(s)uared%, the number of vorte( turns and the inlet velocity whereas it is inversely
proportional to the cyclone inlet width. The model also predicts a finite value of the
particle diameter d
p
above which the collection efficiency is *$$ percent. However,
e(perimental evidence shows that the efficiency approaches *$$ percent asymptotically
with increasing particle size.
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
*$
An electrostatic precipitator, also referred to as an !4, is a particle control device that
uses electrical forces to move the particles out of the flowing gas stream and onto
collector plates. The particles are given an electric charge by forcing them to pass
through a corona. &orona is a region in which the gaseous ions flow. The electrical field
that forces the charged particles to the walls comes from electrodes maintained at high
voltages in the center of the flow lane.
Bnce the particles are collected on the plates, they must be removed from the plates
without reentraining them into the gas stream. This is usually accomplished by 'noc'ing
them loose from the plates and allowing the collected layer of particles to slide down into
a hopper. The particles are then evacuated from the hopper. 4ome precipitators remove
the particles by intermittent or continuous washing with water. !lectrostatic precipitators
are generally constructed for volumetric rates ranging from *$$ to 2,$$$,$$$ ft
.
Cmin.
Areas of Application
!lectrostatic precipitators are widely used in cement factories, pulp and paper mills, steel
plants, non-ferrous metal industries, chemical industries, petroleum industries and electric
power industries. !4s are commonly used for the collection of acid mist, fly ash and
sulfuric and phosphoric mist and also for the recovery of cement dust from 'ilns and
various other valuable materials from the gas stream.
Types
**
!lectrostatic precipitators are configured in several ways. These configurations depend
upon the control action e(pected from them and on economic considerations.
Plate-Wire Precipitator
late-wire !4s are used in a wide variety of industrial applications including coal-fired
boilers, cement 'ilns, solid waste incinerators, paper mill recovery boilers, petroleum
refining catalytic crac'ing units, sinter plants, basic o(ygen furnaces, open hearth
furnaces, electric arc furnaces and glass furnaces.
In a plate-wire !4 the gas flows between parallel plates of sheet metal and high-voltage
electrodes. These electrodes are long wires weighted and hanging between the plates or
are supported there by mast-li'e structures. 3ithin each flow path the gas flow must pass
each wire in se)uence as it flows through the unit. The plate-wire !4 allows many flow
lanes to operate in parallel and each lane can be )uite tall. As a result, this type of !4 is
well suited for handling large volumes of gas. The need for rapping the plates to dislodge
the collected material has caused the plate to be divided into sections, which can be
rapped independently. The power supplies are often sectionalized in the same way to
obtain higher operating voltages. ;ust also deposits on the discharge electrode wires and
must be removed periodically.
The power supplies for the !4 convert the industrial A& voltage in the range of ##$-2-$
volts to a pulsating ;& voltage of around #$,$$$-*$$,$$$ volts. The supply consists of a
step-up transformer, high-voltage rectifiers and filter capacitors. The unit may supply
either a half-wave or full-wave rectified ;& voltage. There are au(iliary components and
controls to allow the voltage to be adDusted to the highest-level possible without
*#
e(cessive spar'ing and to protect the supply and electrodes in the event a short circuit
occurs. The voltage applied to the electrodes causes the gas between the electrodes to
brea' down electrically. This action is 'nown as corona. The electrodes are usually given
a negative polarity, because a negative corona supports a higher voltage as compared to a
positive corona before a spar'ing occurs. The ions generated in the corona follow electric
field lines from the wires to the collecting plates. Thus, each wire establishes a charging
zone through which the particles must pass.
As the particles pass each successive wire, they are driven closer to the collecting walls.
However, the turbulence in the gas tends to 'eep them uniformly mi(ed with the gas. The
collection process is therefore a competition between the electrical and dispersive forces.
!ventually, the particles approach close enough to the walls so that the turbulence drops
to low levels and the particles are collected. If the collected particles could be dislodged
into the hopper without losses then the !4 would be e(tremely efficient. The rapping
process that dislodges the accumulated layer also proDects some of the particles bac' into
the gas stream. >ater sections then process these reetrained particles again. Eut the
particles reetrained in the last section of the !4 have no chance to be collected and
escape the unit thereby affecting the performance of the !4.
The collected particles generally form a continuous layer on the !4 plates. Thus the
entire ion current must pass through the layer before reaching the ground plates. This
current creates an electric field in the layer and it can become large enough to cause a
local electrical brea'down. 3hen this occurs, new ions of the wrong polarity are inDected
into the wire-plate gap where they reduce the charge on the particles and may cause
spar'ing. This brea'down condition is called bac' corona. Eac' corona is prevalent when
*.
the resistivity of the layer is higher than # ( *$
**
ohm-cm. However, the operation of an
!4 is not hampered by bac' corona for lower resistivities.
Flat-Plate Precipitators
A significant number of smaller precipitators use flat plates instead of wires for the high-
voltage electrodes. The flat plates increase the average electric field that can be used to
collect the particles and they provide an increased surface area for the collection of
particles. &orona cannot be generated on flat plates by themselves and thus corona-
generating electrodes are placed ahead of and sometimes behind the flat-plate collecting
zones. These electrodes may be sharp-pointed needles attached to the edges of the plates
or independent corona wires. ,lat-plate precipitators operate e)ually well with either
negative or positive polarity.
,lat-plate !4s operate with little or no corona current flowing through the collected dust
e(cept directly under the corona needles or wires. This has two conse)uences. The first is
that the unit is somewhat less susceptible to bac' corona than conventional units are
because no bac' corona is generated in the collected dust and particles charged with both
polarities of ions have large collection surfaces available. The second conse)uence is that
the lac' of current in the collected layer causes an electrical force that tends to remove
the layer from the collecting surface, which can in turn lead to high rapping losses. ,lat
!4s seem to have a wide application for high-resistivity particles with small mass
median diameters ("";s% of around *-# /m. These applications especially emphasize
the strengths of the design because the electrical dislodging forces are wea'er for small
particles than for larger ones.
*2
Tubular Precipitators
Briginally, all !4s were tubular with the high-voltage electrode running along the a(is
of the tube. Tubular precipitators have typical applications in sulfuric acid plants, co'e
oven by-product gas cleaning and iron and steel sinter plants. 4uch tubular units are still
used for some applications with many tubes operating in parallel to handle increased gas
flows. The tubes may be formed as a circular, s)uare or he(agonal honeycomb with gas
flowing upwards or downwards. The length of the tubes can be selected to fit conditions.
A tubular !4 can be tightly sealed to prevent lea's of material, especially valuable or
hazardous material.
A tubular !4 is essentially a one- stage unit and is uni)ue in having the entire gas pass
through the electrode region. The high-voltage electrode operates at one voltage for the
entire length of the tube and the current varies along the length as the particles are
removed from the system. <o snea'age paths are around the collecting region but corona
non-uniformities may allow some particles to avoid charging for a considerable fraction
of the tube length. Tubular !4s ma'e up only a small portion of the !4 population and
are most commonly applied where the particulate is either wet or stic'y. These !4s are
usually cleaned with water and they have reentrainment losses of a lower magnitude in
comparison with the other dry particulate precipitators.
Wet Precipitators
*1
3et precipitators are operated with wet walls instead of dry, as in the !4 types
discussed above. The water flow may be applied intermittently or continuously to wash
the collected particles into a sump for disposal. The advantage of the wet-wall
precipitator is that it has no problems with rapping reentrainment or bac' corona. The
disadvantage is that the increased comple(ity of the wash and the fact that the collected
slurry must be handled more carefully adds to the e(pense of disposal.
Two-Stage Precipitators
The two-stage precipitator is a series device with the discharge electrode preceding the
collector electrodes. ,or indoor applications, the unit is operated with a positive polarity
to limit ozone generation.
Advantages of such a configuration includes more time for particle charging, less
propensity for bac' corona and economical construction for small sizes. This type of a
precipitator is generally used for gas-flow volumes of 1$,$$$ acfm and less and is applied
to submicrometer sources emitting oil mists, smo'es, fumes or other stic'y particulates
because there is little electrical force to hold the collected particulates on the plates.
reconditioning of gases is normally a part of the system. &leaning may be by water
wash of the modules. Two-stage precipitators are generally considered to be separate and
distinct types of devices as compared with large, high gas-volume and single-stage !4s.
Au$iliary E6uip'ent
*6
Along with the !4 itself, a control system usually includes the following au(iliary
e)uipment= a capture device, ductwor', dust removal e)uipment, fans, motors and starters
and a stac'. A typical arrangement is shown in ,igure 1. In addition, spray coolers and
mechanical collectors may be needed to precondition the gas before it reaches the !4.
&apture devices are usually hoods that e(haust pollutants into the ductwor' or are direct
e(haust couplings attached to a combustor or process e)uipment. These devices are
usually refractory lined, water cooled or simply fabricated from carbon steel depending
on the gas-stream temperatures.
8efractory or water-cooled capture devices are used where the wall temperatures e(ceed
-$$
o
, whereas carbon steel is used for lower temperatures. 4pray chambers may be
re)uired for processes where the addition of moisture will improve precipitation or
protect the !4 from warpage. ,or combustion processes with e(haust gas temperatures
below appro(imately 7$$
o
,, cooling would not be re)uired and the e(haust gases can be
delivered directly to the precipitator.
3hen much of the pollutant loading consists of relatively large particles, mechanical
collectors such as cyclones may be used to reduce the load on the !4 especially at high
inlet concentrations. The fans provide the motive power for air movement and can be
mounted before or after the !4. A stac' vents the cleaned stream to the atmosphere.
4crew conveyors or pneumatic systems are often used to remove captured dust from the
bottom of the hoppers. 3et !4s re)uire a source of wash water to be sprayed at the top
of the collector plates either continuously or at timed intervals. The water flows with the
*7
Figure 1 ESP control syste' an+ au$iliary e6uip'ent
*-
collected particles into a sump from which the fluid is pumped. A portion of the fluid
may be recycled to reduce the total amount of water re)uired. The remainder is pumped
directly to a settling pond or passed through a dewatering stage with subse)uent disposal
of the sludge.
Factors affecting Collection Efficiency
,or most applications, the collection efficiency of electrostatic precipitators run from 0$
to 00 percent. 3ith the introduction of stricter air pollution codes, efficiencies in the
range of 00 to 00.0 percent have become )uite common. Acid mists and catalyst recovery
units have efficiencies in e(cess of 00 percent. However, for materials li'e carbon blac',
which have very low efficiencies due to low collection capacity, very high efficiencies
can be achieved by a proper combination of an !4 with a cyclone. Also, sometimes the
gas entering the !4 is pre-treated by using certain mechanical collectors or by adding
certain chemicals to the gas to change the chemical properties of the gas so as to increase
their capacity to collect on the discharge electrodes, thereby increasing the overall
collection efficiency.
The various factors that affect the performance of electrostatic precipitators are e(plained
below=
Particle Resistivity
Bne property of the dust layer that is e(tremely important in the precipitator operation is
the dust electrical resistivity. Bwing to the widely varying nature of industrial dusts, the
resistivity may vary from *$
-.
to *$
*2
ohm-cm. 3hen the resistivity is less than *$
2
ohm-
*0
cm, there is a rapid movement of charge from the deposited dust to the collector plate.
Thus insufficient electrostatic charge remains on the collected dust particles to hold them
together. 8eentrainment bac' into the gas stream fre)uently results and thus efficiency
suffers. &arbon blac', an industrial product of importance, is an e(ample of low-
resistivity dust. Bn the other hand, resistivities greater than about *$
*$
ohm-cm are a
maDor source of poor performance in precipitators. At first, a sizeable fraction of the total
voltage drop between the electrodes occurs across a high-resistivity dust layer

as a result
of the electrical insulating effect. Hence only a portion of the total corona power is
available to ionize and drive the charged particles to the collection electrode. A second
problem due to high resistivity is 'nown as bac' corona or bac' ionization. This effect
occurs when the voltage drop across the layer e(ceeds the dielectric strength of the layer.
Air trapped in the collected dust layer becomes ionized as a result of the large potential
drop across the layer. Any positive ions formed will tend to migrate away from the
collector plate and neutralize the ionized particles approaching the plate. This decreases
the amount of particulate matter deposited. These effects reduce the collection efficiency
of a precipitator.
!lectrostatic precipitation is the most effective theory in collecting dust in the resistivity
range of *$
2
to *$
*$
ohm-cm. 4ince many industrial dusts do not fall into this range, it is
fre)uently necessary to change the operating conditions in order to enhance collection
efficiencies. Two gas properties that have a sizeable influence on the dust resistivities are
temperature and humidity.
#$
Sneakage and Rapping Reentrainent
4nea'age and rapping reentrainment are best considered on the basis of the sections
within an electrostatic precipitator. 4nea'age occurs when a part of the gas flow bypasses
the collection zone of a section. Fenerally, the portion that bypasses the zone is
thoroughly mi(ed with gas that passes through the zone before all the gas enters the ne(t
section. This mi(ing cannot always be assumed, and when snea'age paths e(ist around
several sections, the performance of the whole !4 is seriously affected.
,urther, the collected dust accumulates on the plates until they are rapped when most of
the material falls into the dust collection hopper. A fraction of it is reentrained by the gas
flow and leaves the section thereby affecting the efficiency of the electrostatic
precipitator.
E!!ect o! gas volue
The gas flow has a direct bearing on the !4 size and performance. Fas flow rates are
overstated to !4 suppliers, to ta'e care of variations in operating condition including
upset conditions. This results in substantiated increase in size and cost of the !4 as
evident from the rearranged ;eutsch-Anderson !)uation given as follows (Eapat, #$$$%=
where,
A - area of the collection electrodes in m
#
or ft
#
#*
% * ln(
1
]
1

w
Q
A
w - drift velocity of the particle in mCs
##
Figure 7 #ariation of collection efficiency 8it( gas flo8 rate -9apat. ":::2
G - volume flow rate in m
.
Cs or ft
.
Cs
- efficiency of the !4
4ometimes gas flow rates increase due to changes in the process conditions such as
capacity enhancement. Increase in gas flow rate beyond design limits reduces the
collection efficiency (8amanan, et al., *0-2% as can be seen in ,igure 6 shown above.
This is because an increase in gas velocity increases dust reentrainment during rapping
(electrode cleaning process%. 8eentrainment is more pronounced for fine particles and
those, which have little tendency to agglomerate.
Pre+iction of Collection Efficiency
redicting the collection efficiency involves 'nowledge of the various parameters of an
electrostatic precipitator.
The limited charge ) given to a spherical particle of diameter d
p
greater than
appro(imately * 5m is given by (3ar', et al., *00-%=
) H p I J
$
!
&
d
p
#

where,
J
$
- permittivity
!
&
- strength of the charging field
d
p
- particle diameter
The factor p can be calculated by using the e)uation=
p H
#
.
+ D
D
#.
where,
; - dielectric constant
4ince the dielectric constant for most types of dusts falls between # and -, thus the factor
p typically lies between *.1 and #.2.
In the collection mechanism the charged dust particles migrate to the plate electrodes,
where the dust collection occurs. The speed at which the migration ta'es place is 'nown
as the migration velocity or the drift velocity w. It depends upon the electrical force on
the charged particle as well as the drag force developed as the particle attempts to move
perpendicular to the main gas flow towards the collecting electrode. The electrostatic
precipitator is proportional to the charge on the particle and the precipitating or collecting
field strength !
p
. The electrostatic force ,
e
can thus be shown as=
,
e
H ) !
p
H p I J
$
!
&
!
p
d
p
#

The drag force on the particle, which is in the 4to'eKs flow region, is represented by=
,
d
H
C
p g
K
w d .
where,
L
&
- &unningham correction factor which should be applied for particles with a
diameter less than roughly 1

5m
+pon e)uating the electrical and drag forces, the drift velocity for spherical particles in
the 4to'eKs flow region is given by (3ar', et al., *00-%=
#2
C
g
P P C o
K
d E E p
w

where,
w - drift velocity in mCs
/
g
- gas viscosity in 'gCm-sec
d
p
- particle diameter in m
J
$
- permittivity and is ta'en as -.-12 ( *$
-*#
coulombsCvolt-meter.
Thus, the above e)uation can be modified as=
The viscosity of air at room conditions is *.-6 ( *$
-1
'gCm-sec. This e)uation shows that
the migration velocity is directly proportional to the particle diameter and the s)uare of
the field strength (that is if !
&
and !
p
are e)ual% and inversely proportional to the gas
viscosity.
The length of the precipitator passage re)uired for the removal of a particular size of
particle can be estimated roughly from 'nowledge of the drift velocity. After allowing for
a charging time period, the time re)uired for a particle to migrate to the collection
electrode must be less than the time it would ta'e the particle to pass with the gas through
the precipitator. 3hen these times are e(actly e)ual then that particular particle size will
be collected with *$$ percent efficiency. ,or a theoretical efficiency of *$$ percent, the
length of the gas passage re)uired is given by=
>
&
H
w
sV
g
where,
>
&
- length of the collecting electrode in m
#1
C
g
P P C
K
d E pE x
w

*#
*$ 01 . #

s - distance between the charging and collecting electrodes in m

,
_

w
Q
A
where,
A - area of the collection electrodes in m
#
or ft
#
w - drift velocity of the particle in mCs
G - volume flow rate in m
.
Cs or ft
.
Cs
The )uantity ACG in the above e)uation is 'nown as the specific collection area (4&A%. It
is a parameter used to compare !4s and roughly estimate their collection efficiencies.
The 4&A is obtained as the total collector plate area divided by the gas volume flow rate
and has the units of secCm or secCft.
;ET SCR<99ERS
#6
The control of particulate air pollutant emissions with wet scrubbers involves
contacting or scrubbing the gases with a li)uid. The aerosol particles are transferred
from their suspension in a gaseous medium to the surface of the scrubbing li)uid via
mechanisms of inertial impaction, gravitational settling, Erownian diffusion,
diffusiophoresis, electrostatics and thermophoresis. ,or particles greater than about
$.1 5m diameter inertial impaction is usually the primary collection mechanism and
for particles smaller than about $.$1 5m diameter Erownian diffusion is the primary
collection mechanism. The form or geometric shape of the scrubbing li)uid can be
droplets, wetted walls, li)uid sheets and bubbles.
3et scrubbers have certain disadvantages not found with other dry e)uipment. Bne
maDor problem is to handle and dispose off the wet sludge, which is an inherent
product of the process. However, in some applications the sludge may be easier to
manage than dry dust. If the e)uipment is installed in the natural environment then
the )uestion of freezing in cold weather must be considered. The presence of water
also has a tendency to increase the corrosiveness of materials.
Areas of Application
3et scrubbers are effectively used for the removal of stic'y, wet, corrosive or li)uid
particles that cannot be easily removed from dry surfaces and for e(plosive or
combustible particles. ,urther, they are useful for collecting particles while
simultaneously absorbing soluble gases such as 4B
#
. 3et scrubbers can also be used
when there are wastewater treatment systems available on the site with ade)uate
reserve capacity to handle the li)uid effluent.
#7
Types
3et scrubbers are configured into five main types depending upon their gas-li)uid
contacting methods and their geometrical shapes. The wet scrubber design and
operating parameters include gas pressure drop, li)uid pressure drop, li)uid-gas flow
ratio, scrubber geometrical shape, location of water sprays, gas residence time,
droplet size distribution, gas velocities, water temperature, gas temperature, water
vapor content and particle solubility in water. 4ome operating parameters and the
cut diameters of different particulate wet scrubbers are shown in the Table # given
below=
Ta,le " Operating Para'eters for ;et Scru,,ers -Air Pollution Engineering
&anual. ":::2
4crubber Type
ressure ;rop
(in. of water%
>i)uidCFas 8atio
(galC*$$$ acf%
>i)uid ressure
(psig%
&ut ;iameter
(5m%
4pray Tower $.1-. $.1-#$ *$-2$$ #--
&yclonic #-*$ #-*$ *$-2$$ #-.
Aenturi *$-*1$ #-#$ $.1-#$ $.#
#-
Spray Towers
A spray tower uses li)uid droplets formed by the li)uid flowing through spray
nozzles. The aerosol particles are collected on these li)uid drops. The size
distribution and spray pattern of the drops are related to the nozzle configuration, the
li)uid being sprayed, the li)uid pressure at the nozzle and the li)uid flow rate
through the nozzle. Horizontal and vertical gas flow paths are used so that the li)uid
drops travel in a countercurrent, co-current or cross-flow direction with respect to
the gas direction. In some spray scrubbers all these droplet directions occur
depending on the spray pattern, nozzle orientation and droplet size distribution.
,igure 7 shows a spray scrubber with the gas flowing vertically upwards. Thus,
large drops with sufficient gravity settling velocity will travel downwards and
smaller drops with settling velocities less than the upward gas velocity will travel
upwards to the mist eliminator. 4pray nozzle types and sizes and spray nozzle
locations are important for the successful operation of a spray tower.
"enturi Scrubbers
Aenturi scrubbers utilize a constricted gas flow section or throat, which causes the
gas to increase in velocity followed by a diverging section where the gases decrease
in velocity. The scrubbing li)uid is inDected upstream of the throat or directly into
the throat. The li)uid inDection methods include pressurized spray nozzles and flow
through straight tubes pointed towards the center i.e. perpendicular to the direction
of the gas flow ,igure - shows a typical venturi scrubber cross-section. It is
imperative to have a uniform droplet distribution across the venturi cross-section so
as to have the droplets properly located to sweep the incoming gases and aerosol
particles evenly. The gases and aerosol particles moving at velocities in the range of
*$$-2$$ ftCsec impact upon the slower-moving li)uid droplets and the inertial
impaction particle collection mechanism predominates. The throat configuration can
be either circular or rectangular. AdDustable venturi throat openings enable the
variation of the gas velocity and gas pressure drop and are able to adDust for
variations in the total gas volumetric flow rate. Aenturi scrubbers occupy the
smallest volume of wet scrubbers and accordingly have the smallest gas residence
time.
Figure = Spray To8er 8et scru,,er Figure > #enturi Scru,,er
#yclonic Scrubbers
&yclonic scrubbers are wet cyclones, usually with the inlet gas flow through a
tangential entry similar to the classic cyclone configuration. The scrubbing li)uid
can be inDected at a number of locations including through a center a(ial spray
manifold and from sprays evenly spaced throughout the tower chamber. The circular
rotating gases with the entrained droplets and the resulting centrifugal force on the
droplets cause them to migrate towards the outer scrubber walls. The droplet
velocities relative to the gas stream are higher compared to gravity spray towers and
this increases the inertial impaction particle collection mechanism which in turn
increases the particle collection efficiency but may reduce the distance the droplet
travels with respect to the gas.
Wetted Filter Scrubber
3etted filter scrubbers are wet filters and are useful for the collection of li)uid
particles or water-soluble particles. The fibers or wires in the filter collect the
particles. At the higher gas velocities in the *-#$ ftCsec range, inertial impaction is
the primary particle collection mechanism. At lower gas velocities i.e. #-2 ftCmin
and with fiber diameters in the *$-#$ 5m diameter range, the Erownian diffusion
collection mechanism is effective for particles in the $.$*-$.1 5m diameter size
range.
Plate and Tray Scrubber
late scrubbers are commonly named after the type of plates used in the process.
4ieve plate scrubbers use perforated plates with the gas flowing vertically upwards
and the li)uid flowing countercurrently downwards. Impingement baffles located
immediately downstream of the sieve plate orifice can be used as an impingement
surface to collect the particles. The li)uid flows downwards through the plate
perforations and li)uid downcomers. 3ith some li)uid depth on top of the
perforated plate or tray plate, the gas flowing upwards will form bubbles and foam.
article collection occurs in these bubbles in the foam layer. The depth of the li)uid
and foam is dependent on the li)uid flow rate, downcomer weir height and other
hydraulic parameters.
Pre+iction of Collection Efficiency
Aenturi scrubbers are effective in removing dust particles from gas streams.
However, it is difficult to find reliable design e)uations for obtaining the collection
efficiencies of venturi scrubbers. In this section, two methods are discussed which
provide e)uations for the calculation of the pressure drop and collection efficiency
of venturi scrubbers.
#alvert $odel
The method developed by &alvert is based on a model that all the energy loss of the
gas stream is employed to accelerate the li)uid droplets to the gas velocity in the
venturi throat. According to this method, the pressure drop is given by (&alvert, et
al., *07#%=
.
*$ $. . *

x P u
#
G

,
_

G
Q
L
Q
where,
N - pressure drop across the venturi in inches of water
u
F
- gas velocity in cmCsec
G
>
- volume flow rate of the li)uid
G
F
- volume flow rate of the gas
,urther, &alvert summarized a development for the particle penetration based upon
an analysis that ta'es into account the inertial impaction parameter, droplet size,
droplet concentration across the venturi throat and the continuously changing
relative velocity between the particles and the li)uid droplets. The penetration can
now be e(pressed as (&alvert, et al., *07#%=
t H e(p
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

#
# # # 2
*$ . . 6
g
G
L
G p C
p
L
f
Q
Q
u d K x

where,
@
>
- li)uid density

@
p
- particle density
u
F
- gas velocity in the throat of the venturi scrubber
f - e(ponential coefficient which varies from $.* to $.2, typically $.#1
/
g
- gas viscosity
The collection efficiency can be obtained by using the e)uation (3ar', et al., *00-%=
? H (* M t% *$$
where,
? - collection efficiency of the venturi scrubber
t - particle penetration
%esketh $odel
The method developed by Hes'eth is based upon a correlation of e(perimental data
obtained from many different venturi scrubbers. Hes'eth developed the following
e)uation for the pressure drop across a venturi scrubber (Hes'eth, *072%=
( )
( )
# .
*.. . $ #
,
*$ . . # *#1 . $ 16 . $
1$7
L x L
A V
P
g t g
+ +

where,
O - pressure drop across the venturi scrubber in inches of water
A
g,t
- gas velocity at the throat in ftCsec
@
g
- gas density downstream from the venturi throat in lbCft
.
A - cross-sectional area of the venturi throat in ft
#
> - li)uid to gas ratio in galC*$$$ actual ft
.
Hes'eth concluded that the venturi scrubber is essentially *$$ percent efficient in
removing particles larger than 1 5m and therefore studied the penetration for
particles less than 1 5m in diameter. Bn the basis of this study he concluded that the
overall collection efficiency of particles less than 1 5m in diameter is appro(imately
related to the pressure drop across the venturi by the e)uation (Hes'eth, *072%=
t H ..27 (O%
M*.2.
where,
t - particle penetration given by Hes'eth
O - pressure drop in inches of water
The collection efficiency can be obtained by using the e)uation (3ar', et al. *00-%=
H (* M t% *$$
where,
? - collection efficiency of the venturi scrubber
t - particle penetration