TALAT Lecture 1253

Creep of Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys

26 pages, 20 Figures

Advanced Level I

Prepared by S.Spigarelli
INFM/Department of Mechanics, University of Ancona,
Ancona, Italy

Objectives:

This chapter constitutes an introduction to creep and to the creep response of

Aluminium and its alloys. Its major goals are:
- to provide basic information on creep and its mechanisms
- to give a description of the more extensively used mathematical relations
among creep variables (time, stress and temperature)
- to illustrate the creep response of pure Aluminium and of Al-Mg alloys
- to provide a synthesis of the information available in the literature on the creep
behaviour of a number of new alloys and composites in the form of a series of
figures elaborated on the basis of the data reported in same sources.

Prerequisites:

Familiarity with the contents of Lectures 1201 through 1205.

Date of Issue: 1999

 EAA- European Aluminium Association
1253 Creep of Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys

Contents

1253 Creep of Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys ________________________2

1253.01 Introduction to Creep ____________________________________________ 3

1253.02 The Creep Curve _________________________________________________ 3

1253.03 Secondary or minimum creep rate, time to rupture _____________________ 5

1253.03.01 Diffusion and creep________________________________________________ 6

1253.04 Parametric Approach for Time-to-Rupture Prediction ___________________ 8

1253.05 Creep mechanisms: pure metals (class M) and solid solutions (class A) ______ 9

1253.06 Methods to Improve the Creep Strength of a Metallic Material___________ 12

1253.07 Creep Rupture _________________________________________________ 14

1253.08 The Creep Response of Pure Aluminium ____________________________ 15

1253.09 The Creep Response of Al-Mg Solid-solution Alloys __________________ 16

1253.10 The Creep Response of High Strength Aluminium Alloys_______________ 17

1253.11 Creep-resistant Al-base Materials: High-strength Powder Metallurgy-

Dispersion-strengthened Aluminium Alloys __________________________________ 19

1253.12 Creep-resistant Al-base Materials: Composites _______________________ 23

1253.13 Final comments on the effectiveness and common features of creep- resistant
aluminium alloys _______________________________________________________ 24

1253.14 Literature_____________________________________________________ 24

1253.15 List of Figures __________________________________________________ 26

TALAT 1253 2
1253.01 Introduction to Creep

The term creep indicates the permanent, time-dependent deformation that occurs
when a material is exposed to high temperature under a constant applied stress (or
load). Creep is observed in all metals, provided that the operating temperature (T)
exceeds 0.3-0.5 TM, where TM is the absolute melting temperature. The following
table lists the lower temperature limit under which creep phenomena can be neglected
(pure metals). It can easily be observed that, due to its low melting temperature,
Aluminium is subject to creep even at relatively low temperatures (i.e. 200-300°C).

Table I : Temperature limit above which creep is a limiting factor in design (pure
metals and heat-resistant alloys).

Aluminium T > 0.54 TM

Titanium T > 0.30 TM
Low alloyed steel T > 0.36 TM
Austenitic stainless steels T > 0.49 TM
Superalloys T > 0.56 TM

Creep is investigated by tension, compression or even torsion tests under constant

stress or, more frequently, constant load. While constant-stress data provide a better
understanding of the basic creep mechanisms, constant-load tests give more useful
information from an engineering point of view (for instance, the weight of a self-
loading component operating at high temperature, remains unchanged throughout its
life). Temperature must obviously be maintained constant during each test, and
elongation should be continuously recorded.

1253.02 The Creep Curve

Figure 1253.02.01 shows a schematic representation of a creep curve as obtained

during a constant-load test. After an instantaneous deformation upon loading (ε 0), the
strain increases monotonically with time up to rupture (εR). The overall deformation
after loading can thus be written in the generic form:

ε =ε 0 + ε ( σ ,T , t )

The creep curve, i.e. the ε (σ,T,t) component of total strain, consists of three regions:

A primary stage, or transient creep during which, in general, the strain rate
( ε&= ∂ε ∂t ) decreases with time; in this stage, deformation becomes more and more
difficult as strain increases, i.e. the material experiences strain hardening.
A secondary stage, or steady state in which the strain rate is constant ( ε&= ε&SS ). The
occurrence of a constant strain-rate regime is generally explained in terms of a balance
between strain hardening and structure recovery (a softening process determined by
the high temperature).

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A tertiary stage during which strain rate increases with time, leading to the fracture of
the component. The increases in creep rate during this stage result from a number of
different damaging phenomena, such as cavities nucleation and growth, cracks
formation, and extensive macroscopic necking. All these mechanisms produce a
reduction in cross-sectional area that, under constant load, produces a continuous
increase in applied stress and ultimately fracture.

Different equations have been proposed to describe the creep curve [1]; among the
soundest equations, one has the form:

ε = ε 0 + ε P [1 − exp(− t / t P )] + ε&SS t + ε T [exp(t / tT ) −1] (1)

where:
ε0 is the instantaneous elasto-plastic deformation upon loading, not
associated with creep
t is time (t=0 at loading)
εP, tP are two stress- and temperature-dependent parameters associated with
the magnitude and duration of primary creep
&
ε SS t is the term for secondary creep
εT, tT are two stress- and temperature-dependent parameters associated with
the magnitude and duration of tertiary creep.

Figure 1253.02.01 represents the creep curve in its more general form; yet, frequently
one or two stages of the curve may be absent. For example, for some materials
primary and secondary creep can be neglected, since the whole creep curve is
dominated by an extensive tertiary stage. Even more frequently, secondary creep is
extremely short and very difficult to identify, and in this case a “minimum creep-rate”
value (ε&m ) rather than a steady-state value is commonly considered.

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1253.03 Secondary or minimum creep rate, time to rupture

The analysis of the creep curve permits to identify the two parameters used in the
engineering practice to evaluate the creep behaviour of a material. Time to rupture is
perhaps the most useful from an engineering point of view, and is particularly
important when creep life is the dominating concern (for example in turbine blades
and rocket motor nozzles). The second parameter is steady-state or minimum creep
rate. This parameter is considered when rupture, due to the low operating stress, will
presumably not occur during the life of the component. In this case, in designing a
component, the magnitude of the secondary creep rate can be used to evaluate the
steady accumulation of strain with time in service and, with some caution, even to
extrapolate the creep life of the component.

The magnitude of the minimum or steady-state creep rate is influenced by both

temperature and applied stress. In particular, an increase in applied stress will
correspond to a large increase in steady-state creep rate. The dependence of the steady-
state creep rate on applied stress at constant temperature is commonly described by the
“power law” equation:

ε&SS = B σ n (2)

where B is a temperature-dependent material parameter and n, for pure metals, is 4-5.

A plot of the logarithm of strain rate versus a logarithm of applied stress at different
temperatures thus, results in a series of straight lines with slope n, Figure 1253.03.01
(a). When the applied stress is particularly low, a transition to a different creep regime
with n=1 is frequently observed; this transition is associated with a variation of the
creep mechanism from dislocation creep (n=4-5) to purely diffusive creep (n=1).
The variation of the operating temperature also produces a significant change in the
magnitude of the steady-state creep rate. This behaviour, at a given stress, is described
by an equation in the Arrhenius form:

ε&SS = C exp (− Q / RT ) (3)

where C is a stress-dependent material parameter, R is the gas constant, and Q

(activation energy for creep) for pure metals coincides with the activation energy for
diffusion (Q0). When the natural logarithm of the strain rate at different stresses is
reported as a function of 1/T, a family of straight lines with slope –Q/R is obtained,
Figure 1253.03.01 (b).

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Equations 2 and 3 can be combined, giving:

ε&SS = Aσ n exp (− Q / RT ) (4)

where A is a material parameter. While in pure metals n does not depend on

temperature, and Q does not depend on stress, in many engineering alloys a complex
dependence of Q on applied stress, and a high or very high (7-20) value of the
temperature-dependent stress exponent n are frequently observed.

1253.03.01 Diffusion and creep

Diffusion in a solid occurs because atoms can move from one atomic site to another.
In particular, the atoms vibrate about their mean position with a frequency ν while, at
temperature T, the average total energy for each atom is 3kT (where k is the
Boltzmann constant). Since 3kT is an average value, it is easy to find atoms with
higher or lower energy in any instant; thus, according to the statistical mechanical
theory, the probability p that an atoms has an energy >q is:

−q
p = exp 
 kT 

Based on this expression, it can be demonstrated that, for an alloy A+B, the flow of
atoms per unit time (J) between two different adjacent planes with different
concentrations of the A element obeys the relationship (Fick’s first law of diffusion):

 dc 
J =− D 
 dx 

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where dc/dx is the concentration gradient, and D is the coefficient of diffusion. The D
parameter strongly depends on temperature, and in particular:

−q
D ∝ exp 
 kT 
or

 − Q0 
D = D0 exp 
 RT 

where R=Nk and Q0 =Nq (N is Avogadro’s number).

The diffusion data for pure metals are obtained by plating a radioactive isotope on the
bulk material, by raising the temperature for a certain time and then measuring the
concentration of the isotope as a function of depth in the metal.
For f.c.c metals (as Aluminium), D0=5 x 10-5 m2s-1, while Q/RTM=18.4.

The above discussion shows that atoms move in the lattice; however, atoms diffuse in
several different ways. One of the most interesting mechanisms from the point of view
of creep is vacancy diffusion; in this case, the vacancy moves from one atomic site to
another, resulting in the flow of one atom in the opposite direction. This mechanism
and the diffusion of interstitial atoms are the two ways in which bulk diffusion
occurs. Two additional mechanisms use fast diffusion paths, i.e. the grain boundary
and the dislocation core. In grain-boundary diffusion, the boundary acts as a planar
channel in which the atomic distance is greater than in the lattice, providing an easy
path for atom diffusion. The dislocation core itself can act in a similar way (even
though the channel is rather a “pipe” of cross-section 2b2, where b is the Burgers
vector). Since grain-boundary diffusion and pipe diffusion along the dislocation
core require relatively low energy, the activation energy associated with these
mechanisms is only a fraction of that for self-diffusion Q0.

Equation 4 is widely used in theoretical studies to explain the creep behaviour of pure
metals and alloys; further, it also provides very useful information on creep life (time
to rupture). Indeed, provided that the creep mechanism remains unchanged in the
considered stress and temperature regime:

ε&SS t R = c (5)

where c is a constant. The combination of eqns.4 and 5 gives

t R = A'σ − n exp (Q / RT ) (6)

where A’=c/A (Fig.2c).

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1253.04 Parametric Approach for Time-to-Rupture Prediction

Equation 6 can in principle be used to extrapolate time to rupture in service condition.

In general, a number of different isothermal time-to-rupture vs stress curves are
available (see for example Fig.3a, which shows the time-to-rupture dependence on
applied stress at 426, 375 and 333 K as reported in ref. [2] for an Al-Fe-V-Si-Er
alloy). Yet, frequently the limited number of isothermal curves results in the need for
extrapolating creep strength at a different temperature. This problem can easily be
overcome by introducing a parameter that includes two of the creep variables (usually
temperature and time to rupture) as a function of applied stress.

The most widely used approach leads to the definition of the Larson-Miller
parameter (LMP); the basic assumption is that, in eqn.3, stress dependence is included
in the term Q rather than in C. Thus, by combining eqns.3 and 5, one can obtain
 Q (σ ) 
t R = B0 exp   (6b)
 RT 
or

Q
log (t R ) = log B0 + log e (6c)
RT

After simple transformations, one can obtain

Q (σ )
LMP = = T (C LM + log t R ) (7)
2 .3 R

where CL M = - log B0 is a constant which, for many materials including steels, is set
=20 Figure 1253.04.01 (b) shows the same data as Figure 1253.04.01 (a), reported in
the form of the Larson-Miller parameter. All the experimental points collapse, with
tolerable dispersion, on the same Master Curve, which can be used to evaluate the
creep strength (stress that a given temperature produces a given time to rupture) of the
alloy.
Other approaches result in different parameters: for example, the Dorn-Orr-Sherby
parameter (here identified as DOSP) is defined as:

Q
DOSP = log t R − (8)
2 .3 R

This parameter has the best physical basis, but the LMP is the most widely used in
engineering practice.

For the correct extrapolation of the creep strength of an alloy, a sufficiently broad
matrix of test results must be available (in particular, long-term creep data should also
be included in the calculation of the master curve). Thus, the curves in
Figure 1253.04.01 must be considered only as explanatory examples, and are of very
limited engineering use.

TALAT 1253 8
1253.05 Creep mechanisms: pure metals (class M) and solid solutions
(class A)

Equation 4 provides a good description of the stress- and temperature-dependence of

steady-state (or minimum) creep rate. Yet, a slightly more complicated and general
form of the same equation [3]:

D0 Gb  b  p  σ  n  − Q0 
ε&SS = A0     exp  (9)
kT  d   G   RT 

is frequently used to describe the creep response of Aluminium and its alloys. In eqn.9
A0 is a dimensionless material parameter, b is the Burgers vector, d is the grain size, G
is the shear modulus, k is the Boltzmann constant, D0 is the frequency factor (i.e.,
being D the appropriate diffusion coefficient, D=D0exp(-Q0/RT)), n and p are
constants.

According to refs. [3-4], the creep behaviour of a pure metal (and of a number of
alloys indicated as class-M materials) can be divided into three stress regimes,
Figure 1253.05.01 :

TALAT 1253 9
I a high-stress regime, where the conventional power law (eqn.4or 9) should be
replaced with an exponential dependence of the strain rate on applied stress. This
regime is not particularly important in creep due the very high strain rate involved,
but is rather a primary concern in hot-forming operations.
II an intermediate-stress regime, characterised by a stress exponent n=4-5, p=0 and a
value of Q=Q0 (Q0 is the activation energy for lattice self-diffusion). In this regime
creep is controlled by recovery mechanisms, such as climb and annihilation of
dislocations (Figure 1253.05.02). The edge dislocations can climb due to the
extensive diffusional flow of vacancies; then the high temperature enhances the
mobility of dislocation, and diffusion controls the creep strain rate (thus explaining
the coincidence between Q and Q0). In fact, the deformation results from a
sequence of glide and thermally-assisted climb; the slowest mechanism is rate
controlling, and as long as glide is very easy (as in pure metals), creep is controlled
by climb.

TALAT 1253 10
III a low stress regime, in which n=1. Two different, purely diffusive (no dislocation)
mechanisms have been identified in this region (Figure 1253.05.03). In Nabarro-
Herring creep, the diffusional flow of vacancies through the grain results in the
elongation of the grain itself in the direction of applied stress; in this case n=1, p=2
and Q=Q0. In Coble creep the elongation of the grain structure is the result of
diffusion of vacancies along the grain boundary, giving n=1, p=3 and Q=0.6Q0. In
both cases, the flow of vacancies occurs from the grain boundaries perpendicular to
the boundaries parallel to the stress axis [3,5]. In many metals an additional
mechanism, known as Harper-Dorn creep, results in a value of n=1 (but with p=0);
this last mechanism involves a form of dislocation activity and must be not
confused with purely diffusive creep.

In all the above regimes, operates a further mechanism (grain-boundary sliding). In

coarse-grain metals, grain-boundary sliding produces a relatively negligible fraction of
the total strain, but could be responsible for intergranular creep fracture. Only in very
fine-grained materials (submicron grain size) does grain-boundary sliding become the
dominating mechanisms and result in very large deformation (superplasticity). In this
case, n=2.

In solid-solution alloys (class-A materials) the creep-rate dependence on applied

stress is somewhat more complicated. In particular, the following regimes can be
identified (Figure 1253.05.04):

TALAT 1253 11
I the very high-stress regime characterised by power law breakdown
IIa a first region of the intermediate-stress regime, where creep is controlled by
climb (n=4-5, Q=Q0)
IIb a second region of the intermediate-stress regime, where creep is controlled by
glide of dislocation in a “cloud” of solute atoms (“viscous drag”); in this
regime climb is faster than viscous glide, and n=3, p=0 and Q=Q0
IIc a third region of climb-controlled creep (n=4-5, Q=Q0)
III the low-stress, purely diffusive or Harper-Dorn creep regime.

As in pure metals, glide of dislocation and climb occur in sequence. In region IIc,
climb is the slowest mechanism and is rate controlling. When applied stress increases,
the climb of dislocations becomes faster and faster, and viscous drag is the slowest
mechanism (region IIb). In region IIa, the applied stress is sufficiently high for
dislocations to break away from their solute-atom atmospheres and glide easily.

The above discussion outlines some of the most striking differences between the creep
response of pure metals and class-M alloys, and solid-solution alloys of class A. Yet,
even more pronounced are the differences in microstructural evolution during primary
creep. In class-M materials, a “normal primary creep” (similar to that illustrated in
Figure 1253.02.01) is associated with the rearranging of dislocations to form a well-
defined substructure (subgrains). In class-A materials, dislocation distribution during
primary creep remains homogeneous, and very often there is a short initial stage
during which the strain rate increases instead of decreasing [3,5].

1253.06 Methods to Improve the Creep Strength of a Metallic

Material

According the above concepts, in selecting a metal able to withstand dislocation creep,
the following criteria should be followed:

- choosing a material with a high melting point

TALAT 1253 12
 - reducing dislocation mobility by adding obstacles

In selecting a material able to resist diffusional flow, partially different criteria should
be preferred:

a) choosing a material with a high melting point

b) producing a large grain size, reducing the volume fraction of grain boundaries.
In this case, a long diffusion path is required for grain-boundary diffusion.
Further, a large grain size reduces the contribution of grain-boundary sliding
(submicron grain size should be avoided in this sense).
c) inducing by proper alloying and heat treatment the precipitation of particles on
grain boundaries, thus introducing a further obstacle to grain-boundary sliding.
A continuous chain of precipitates should nevertheless be avoided, since it
constitutes an easy path for cracks.

According to this scheme, the most widely used methods to improve tensile strength at
room temperature very often do not result in increased creep strength. For example:

1. the reduction of the grain size strengthens the material at low temperature,
but could be dangerous in creep.
2. cold working increases tensile strength at low temperature; yet, exposure to
sufficiently high temperature produces recovery or even recrystallisation, with
resulting softening. Thus, cold working is effective in enhancing creep strength
only at moderately low temperatures.
3. the precipitation of secondary-phase particles enhances both tensile strength
and creep response. Fine particles can obstruct dislocation mobility, thus
reducing creep. Yet, prolonged exposure to high temperature causes the
coarsening of the precipitates, with progressive loss of the hardening effect

The addition of a solid-solution element usually slightly improves the creep response
of a metal, but the most efficient method to increase the low creep strength typical of
pure metals is to introduce a dispersion of fine and stable particles. These particles
could be the result of a precipitation process (as in Nickel-base superalloys) or can be
introduced via powder metallurgy. The stable dispersion of oxides, carbides or even
reinforcements (as in composites) greatly enhances creep strength. For these materials,
when a sufficiently broad range of experimental data is obtained, the steady-state
creep-rate dependence on applied stress appears as in Figure 1253.06.01. In an
intermediate-stress regime, very high values of the stress exponent are observed and
when Q is calculated in this region, a value largely higher than Q0 is obtained. The
extrapolation of the curve up to very low values of strain rate permits very often to
identify a “threshold stress” under which creep should not occur [5].
Several approaches have been proposed to describe the strengthening effect of stable
precipitates on creep; the most widely used model is based on the equation:

n
D0 Gb  σ − σ Th   − Q0 
ε&SS = A'0   exp  (10)
kT  G   RT 

which is formally similar to eqn.9 where the applied stress is replaced with an
effective stress σ − σTh, where σTh is a temperature-dependent threshold stress. The

TALAT 1253 13
stress exponent n should be the same for the base alloy (i.e. the “matrix”) and the
reinforced material in the same range of effective stress (for example, n=5 for pure
metals and class-M alloys reinforced with stable particles). The magnitude of the
threshold stress is commonly associated with one of the mechanisms by which
dislocation by-passes particles (cutting, Orowan by-pass, climb).

When the applied stress is decreased below the value of the threshold stress, a change
in creep mechanisms normally results; for example, a threshold stress could divide
two different regimes, in which dislocation can by pass particles or dispersoids via
climb (low stresses) or Orowan mechanism (high stresses). Alternatively, as shown in
Figure 1253.06.01 , a threshold stress can divide a high-stress regime in which
dislocation creep (and particle-dislocation interaction) dominates, from a low-stress
regime of Coble/Harper-Dorn/Nabarro-Herrring creep.

1253.07 Creep Rupture

Creep rupture occurs as a result of different and sometimes concurring mechanisms.

The fractured sample, for instance, can show extensive necking (i.e. the fracture is of
the conventional ductile type typical of non-brittle metals at room temperature). By
proper variation of stress and/or temperature, the same material could equally
experience creep rupture with negligible necking, showing all the features typical of
intergranular fracture. This latter case is particularly interesting because it is typical
of creep. As previously observed, grain-boundary sliding is one of the characteristic
features of creep: Figure 1253.07.01 shows two cases in which, under a certain tensile
stress, grains slide one over the other; in both examples, grain-boundary sliding
produces a cavity, located on the grain boundary approximately perpendicular to the
stress axis. The two cavities have a different shape: the sharp crack formed in a triple
junction of grain boundaries is defined as type w (wedge crack), while the round
cavity produced on a step in grain boundary is defined as type r (round cavity).
The coarsening and growth of such cavities and/or cracks results in a reduction of the
cross-sectional area, and leads to an intergranular fracture with low or no necking.

TALAT 1253 14
1253.08 The Creep Response of Pure Aluminium

Pure Aluminium has been extensively studied to evaluate the basic creep mechanisms
in f.c.c. metals. The engineering value of pure metals is rather negligible, and rupture
strength is consequently of no concern; thus, the majority of available data are in the
form of secondary-creep rate vs stress. A collection of data obtained from different
sources has been elaborated in ref.[6]; in this case eqn.4 was reformulated giving:

n
 Q  σ 
ε&SS exp  = A'   (11)
 RT  G

Taking Q=Q0=142 kJ/mol (activation energy for self-diffusion in Aluminium), all the
data from different authors collapsed on the same curve (Figure 1253.08.01). The
stress exponent in the high-stress regime is close to 5, a clear indication of climb-
controlled creep.
Evidences reported in ref.[3] clearly suggests that in the low-temperature regime the
stress exponent n=1 identifies Harper-Dorn creep rather than purely diffusive
mechanisms.

TALAT 1253 15
1253.09 The Creep Response of Al-Mg Solid-solution Alloys

As in pure Al, the study of the creep behaviour of Al-Mg solid-solution alloys has
focused on the basic creep mechanisms. A considerable body of data obtained with
different alloys (with variable Mg content) is available in the form of steady-state
strain rate vs stress. As expected, in a relatively large interval of applied stress, creep
is controlled by viscous glide of dislocation (glide of dislocation in an atmosphere
of Mg atoms).
The coexistence of regions IIa, IIb and IIc in the intermediate-stress regime is clearly
illustrated, for an Al-2.2 at.%Mg, in Figure 1253.09.01 (a) [7]. The increase in Mg
content, on the other hand, reduces strain rate increasing creep strength
(Figure 1253.09.01 (b), ref.[8] ); further, the increase in the amount of Mg atoms in
solid solution shifts the transition between regions IIa-IIb and IIb-IIc (i.e. the viscous-
glide region extends when the solute concentration is increased). A low amount of Mg
in solid solution, is thus a prerequisite for clearly recognising climb-controlled creep,
since at 5.5 at.% region IIc is extremely short, and region IIa disappears
(Figure 1253.09.02, material tested in shear, data from ref.[9]). As expected, the
microstructure of the alloy is substantially different in the regions with n=4.4 and n=3;
in the climb-controlled creep regime, there is clear evidence of subgrains formation,
while in the viscous-glide region the dislocation distribution remains substantially
homogeneous.
Under very low applied stress, the low stress exponent indicates Harper-Dorn creep.

TALAT 1253 16
1253.10 The Creep Response of High Strength Aluminium Alloys

In Aluminium alloys an increase in tensile strength can be achieved by cold working

or precipitation hardening. The Aluminium alloys that do not respond to heat
treatment can be strengthened by introducing a dislocation substructure by a suitable
cold-forming procedure. In this case, the strengthening effect is progressively lost
when temperature is increased; indeed, as previously observed, cold working cannot
be considered a fully satisfactory method to increase creep strength since prolonged
exposure to a sufficiently high temperature produces recovery or even
recrystallisation.
Heat-treated Aluminium alloys undergo an age-hardening heat treatment that
determines a fine dispersion of precipitates which in turn effectively reduce the
mobility of dislocations. As long as the size of the precipitates is stable, this procedure

TALAT 1253 17
also increases the creep strength of the alloy; precipitation-hardened alloys, are in fact
aged at the temperature that allows the peak properties to be obtained in relatively
short time. If the material is exposed to a temperature close to the ageing one,
precipitates will rapidly grow and coarsen, and the alloy eventually softens, a typical
feature of overageing. For this reason, the maximum allowable temperature for this
group of alloys should be substantially lower than the final ageing temperature. An
example of this behaviour is clearly illustrated in
Figure 1253.10.01, which reports the Larson Miller parameter as obtained for
Aluminium (1050 alloy) and a 2XXX heat-treated alloy. The latter, in particular, was
solution-treated, cold-worked and then aged to produce a fine dispersion of
precipitates nucleated on dislocations. Such a treatment significantly raises tensile
strength, but also strongly increases creep strength at low temperature/short time of
exposure. Yet, when the alloy is exposed to temperatures exceeding 300°C, creep
strength progressively approaches the one typical of Aluminium. Figure 1253.10.01
clearly illustrates that when low-temperature short-term creep data (low values of the
LMP) are used to extrapolate the creep behaviour at higher temperatures (broken line),
a substantial overestimation of creep strength is obtained. This behaviour reflects the
instability of the precipitates, which at temperatures higher than 300°C coarsen and
lose their strengthening effect.

To raise the low maximum allowable temperature for 2xxx alloys, other alloying
elements have been introduced, such as Ni and Fe, to form intermetallic compounds
(FeNiAl9) that stabilise and strengthen the structure. The 2618 (RR58) alloy was thus
introduced to resist prolonged exposure (50 000hr) to moderately high temperatures;
however, even in this case the maximum allowable temperature did not exceed 120°C.
An additional problem typical of age-hardened alloys is their susceptibility to grain-
boundary damage; in particular, the region adjacent to the grain boundary is often
softer than the grain interior due to the presence of a precipitate-free zone. Moreover,
the presence of hard particles on grain boundaries (a common feature in these alloys)
promotes the formation of “r” cavities.

In recent years, a major effort has been devoted to investigating the creep response of
a number of Aluminium alloys produced by powder-metallurgy techniques. These
TALAT 1253 18
alloys include several heat-resistant materials reinforced with stable particulates, as
well as alloys of “conventional” composition but produced by powder metallurgy.
Alloys such as 2124 [10], 2024 and 6061 [11] can successfully be used as matrix for
composites; since the complete characterisation of the reinforced material should
include a detailed knowledge of the creep response of the unreinforced material, these
alloys have been extensively studied. A common feature of the creep behaviour of
these materials is the steady-state creep-rate dependence on applied stress;
Figure 1253.10.02 shows a comparison between the steady-state creep rate for a 2024
produced by powder metallurgy and two Al-Mg solid-solution alloys. The
experimental variation of steady-state creep rate with stress is substantially similar to
the one observed in particle-reinforced materials (see Figure 1253.06.01). In this case,
the presence of a threshold stress should be attributed to the effect of extremely fine
particles precipitated during creep and/or to very fine Al2O3 dispersoid produced
during powder processing. In fact, the high reactivity of Aluminium with Oxygen
results in the formation of a stable oxide layer on powder particles. Subsequent
extrusion breaks up this oxide layer and disperses fine fragments in the bulk of the
alloy. Yet, the threshold stress depends strongly on temperature, an effect that is
explained with difficulty by current theories.

1253.11 Creep-resistant Al-base Materials: High-strength

Powder Metallurgy- Dispersion-strengthened Aluminium Alloys

In recent years, the introduction of two new technologies, Rapid Solidification and
Mechanical Alloying, have resulted in the production of several experimental
Aluminium alloys designed for high-temperature application. The major goal in
developing these new materials was coupling the low weight typical of Al alloys with
greater creep strength due to a dispersion of stable particulates. Current high-strength
Aluminium alloys produced by ingot metallurgy, such as 2618, 2219 or other 2XXX
alloys, rely on a dispersion of precipitates (Al2CuMg or Al2Cu) to achieve high tensile
properties; nonetheless, these precipitates are unstable, and if exposed to high
temperatures they coarsen, determining the softening of the alloy. By contrast, the new

TALAT 1253 19
powder-metallurgy high-temperature alloys contain a fine dispersion of stable
particulates (for example Al2O3) that do not coarsen during creep.
A large number of new experimental alloys of different families have been produced
and tested: for example Alcoa [12] studied the Al-Cr, Al-Mn, Al-Fe, Al-Co, Al-Ni,
Al-Ce, Al-Cr-Mn, Al-Cr-Fe, Al-Cr-Co, Al-Cr-Ni, Al-Cr-Ce, Al.Mn-Fe, Al-Mn-Co,
Al-Mn-Ni, Al-Mn-Ce, Al-Fe-Co, Al-Fe-Ni, Al-Fe-Ce, Al-Co-Ni, Al-Co-Ce and Al-
Ni-Ce systems. The result of this preliminary study led to the selection of some alloys
of the Al-Fe-X systems (where X could be Co, Ni, Ce or a mixture of rare earths). The
analysis of their high-temperature properties (including creep strength) has yielded
encouraging results, showing significant improvement with respect to conventional
2XXX alloys, even though ductility, toughness and fatigue-crack growth remain major
concerns. The Al-Fe-Ce alloys, in particular, have been selected for further
development to meet properties requirements in compressor impellers for APUs
(Auxiliary Power Unit) [13].

Figure 1253.04.01 shows one of the examples of the data available for the Al-Fe
family of high-strength alloys produced by powder metallurgy [2].
Figure 1253.11.01 shows the steady-state creep-rate dependence on applied stress for
the same Al-Fe-V-Si-Er alloy (Al-8.5%Fe-1.3%V-1.7%Si-0.75%Er, wt.%); this alloy
is a further development of the older Al-Fe-X system, with further improved stability
of the Al13(Fe,V)3Si precipitates. The addition of Er aimed at increasing ductility and
tensile strength. As noted for time-to-rupture data, the test matrix at the two extreme
temperatures is very limited; yet, the data obtained at 375°C closely follow the trend
illustrated in Figure 1253.06.01 (the slope of the curve obtained at this temperature
increases from 14 to 24 when stress decreases). The activation energy for creep, Q,
exceeded 340 kJ/mol, as expected in this particle-strengthened material.

Similar investigations were carried out on other Al-Fe-V-Si alloys (Al-11.7%Fe-

1.15%V-2.4%Si) [14]; again the steady-state creep-rate dependence on applied stress
can be described by a power law with a stress exponent increasing from 13 to 32 as
temperature decreases from 479 to 237°C (Figure 1253.11.02). The activation energy
for creep was found to be close to 360 kJ/mol.

TALAT 1253 20
Another group of intensely studied dispersion-strengthened aluminium alloys is
characterised by the presence of Aluminium carbides as the reinforcing phase. The
production route for these alloys is based on reaction milling, while their composition
may vary from a relatively simple Al-0.031%C-0.98%O alloy [15] to a more complex
Al-4%Cu-1.5%Mg-1.2%C-0.75%O [16]. The role of Carbon is to combine with Al to
form Al4C3, a phase that is thought to increase the creep strength more effectively than
MgO or Al2O3. Figure 1253.11.03 illustrates the typical behaviour of this family of
alloys at two different testing temperatures (compression tests) [15]; again, the
experimental behaviour is consistent with the qualitative description of
Figure 1253.06.01, since there is clearly a region characterised by very high stress
exponents and activation energy for creep (n=15-200, Q>700 kJ/mol), and, in certain
experimental conditions, a low stress regime of creep with n=1. It should be
mentioned that the response of these materials has been described by different models
(based, for example, on the concept of thermally activated dislocation detachment
from dispersoids [15]), rather than by the conventional eqn.10, since the existence
(and nature) of the threshold stress is still controversial. An additional feature on these
particle-reinforced alloys is the substantial difference between tensile and compression
data [17], an effect that can be attributed to the microstructural anisotropy of the
material.

TALAT 1253 21
As a final example of reinforced Al alloys, the family of materials reinforced by Al2O3
particles should be mentioned (indeed, when the volume fraction of reinforcement is
sufficiently high, i.e. 10-20%, these particle-reinforced alloys could in principle be
regarded as composites). Figure 1253.11.04 (a) (reporting the steady-state creep rate
as a function of applied stress for an Al-Al2O3 alloy) illustrates a further example of
coexistence of two regimes; a high-stress regime with the features of a particle-
strengthened material (compare with Figure 1253.06.01), including a very high value
of the activation energy (370 kJ/mol), and a low-stress regime characterised by a
lower value of activation energy for creep (85 kJ/mol) [18]. A similar behaviour was
observed in an Al-15%Al2O3 (% in volume) produced by mechanical alloying: again,
the very high value of the stress exponent (n=25) indicates effective strengthening due
to the particulate. Only in the low stress regime does a low value of the stress
exponent and of the activation energy for creep (n=2, Q=46 kJ/mol) suggest that
grain-boundary sliding is rate controlling (Figure 1253.11.04 (b) [19].

TALAT 1253 22
1253.12 Creep-resistant Al-base Materials: Composites

The last group of creep-resistant Al-base materials is constituted by composites. This

family of materials includes a number of different matrix- (pure Al, Al-Mg, 2XXX or
6XXX alloys) -reinforced by particles (usually SiC or Al2O3) or short fibres (SiC).
Several approaches have been employed, including finite-element modelling of the
interaction between matrix and reinforcements, and the conventional study of the
steady-state creep rate as a function of stress and temperature. In general none of the
approaches has given fully satisfactory results; yet, an extensive study of
contemporary results has shown that the majority of creep data can successfully be
described by means of the phenomenological eqn.10 (with n=3 or 5, and Q=Q0=142
kJ/mol) [20]. Rather, the strong dependence of the calculated threshold stress has
remained unexplained, in keeping with its nature; in fact, the size of the
reinforcements (as in many particle-reinforced materials) is usually too large for a
direct interaction with dislocations to be invoked. Nevertheless, the same approach
has been used also in more recent studies [21-22].

Some examples of the behaviour of Aluminium-matrix composites are illustrated in

Fig.19 and 20. Figure 1253.12.01, in particular, shows the creep response of an Al-
5%Mg alloy reinforced by 26% in volume Al2O3 fibres [23], while
Figure 1253.12.02 (a) illustrates the steady-state dependence on applied stress for a
6061 alloy reinforced with 20% (in weight) SiC whiskers [24]. In both cases the high
values of the stress exponent reflect the strengthening effect of reinforcements.
Figure 1253.12.02 (b) shows the creep response of a 2124 alloy reinforced with a
20% (in volume) of SiC whiskers [25], and of a 2024 alloy reinforced with 15% SiC
particles. It is apparent from Figure 1253.12.02 (b) that when a sufficiently wide range
of strain rates is considered, the typical “threshold like behaviour” is observed.

TALAT 1253 23
1253.13 Final comments on the effectiveness and common
features of creep- resistant aluminium alloys

The preceding discussion indicates that the only effective method to increase the low
creep strength of Aluminium alloys is to introduce a stable distribution of particles or
reinforcements. In this respect, the creep response of composites is reminiscent of
particle-reinforced alloys obtained by powder metallurgy; both families of materials
are characterised by very high values of the stress exponent and of the activation
energy for creep, in particular when tested at the “intermediate” -stress regime. The
increase in creep strength with respect to unreinforced materials is substantial, at least
when temperature does not exceed 350°C, but a major concern is the relatively low
fracture ductility, that in many cases does never exceeds 5%, while for the majority of
the investigated conditions it is close to 1-2%.
Provided that a series of additional problems (ductility, toughness, fracture and
fatigue, workability and, last but not least, cost) are solved, the current particle-
reinforced alloys and composites could be the basis for the development of a new
series of creep-resistant Aluminium light-weight materials. However, the current
knowledge of the physical aspects of creep deformation is sufficiently detailed only
for very simple alloys (pure Al, or Al-Mg solid-solution alloys), while major aspects
of the creep response of particle-reinforced alloys or composites need to be more
extensively studied and evaluated.

1253.14 Literature

1. Evans R.W. and B.Wilshire, Creep of Metals and Alloys, The Institute of
Metals, London (1985) p.70.

2. Khatri S.C., A.Lawley and M.J.Koczak, Mater.Sci.Eng., A167 (1993) p.11.

3. Oikawa H. and T.G.Langdon, The Creep Characteristics of Pure Metals and

Metallic Solid Solution Alloys, in “Creep behaviour of crystalline solids”,

TALAT 1253 24
 B.Wilshire and R.W.Evans eds., Pineridge Press, Swansea, U.K. (1985), p.33.

4. Yavari P. and T.G.Langdon, Acta metall., 30 (1982) p.2181.

5. Cadek J., Creep in Metallic Materials, Elsevier, Amsterdam (1988).

6. Wu M.Y. and O.D.Sherby, Acta metall., 32 (1984) p.1561.

7. Oikawa H., K.Sugawara and S.Karashima, Trans.Japan Inst.Metals, 19 (1978)

p.611.

8. Oikawa H., K.Sugawara and S.Karashima, Scripta met., 10 (1976) p.885.

9. Yavari P., F.A.Mohamed and T.G.Langdon, Acta metall., 29 (1981) p.1495.

10. Li Y., S.R.Nutt and F.A.Mohamed, Acta mater., 45 (1997) p.2607.

11. Park K.T., E.J.Lavernia and F.A.Mohamed, Acta metall. mater., 42 (1994)
p.667.

12. Griffith W.M., R.E.Sanders and G.J.Hildeman, Elevated Temperature

Aluminium Alloys for Aerospace Applications, in “High Strength Powder
Metallurgy Aluminium Alloys”, M.J.Koczak and G.J.Hildeman eds., The
Metallurgical Society of AIME, Warrendale, Pennsylvania (1982), p.209.

13. Millan P.P., High Temperature Powder Metal Aluminum Alloys to Small Gas
Turbines, in “High Strength Powder Metallurgy Aluminium Alloys”,
M.J.Koczak and G.J.Hildeman eds., The Metallurgical Society of AIME,
Warrendale, Pennsylvania (1982), p.225.

14. Pharr G.M., M.S.Zedalis, D.J.Skinner and P.S.Gilman, High Temperature

Creep Deformation of a Rapidly Solidified Al-Fe-V-Si Alloy, in “Dispersion
Strengthened Aluminum Alloys”, Y.W.Kim and W.M.Griffith eds., TMS,
Warrendale, Pennsylvania (1988) p.309.

15. Rosler J., R.Joos and E.Arzt, Met.Trans., 23A (1992) p.1521.

16. Kucharova K., A.Orlova, H.Oikawa and J.Cadek, Mat.Sci.Eng., A102 (1988)
p.201.

17. Orlova A., K.Kucharova, J.Brezina, J.Krejci and J.Cadek, Scripta met.mater.,
29 (1993) p.63.

18. Pandey A.B., R.S.Mishra, A.G.Parakdar and Y.R.Mahajan, Acta mater., 45

(1997) p.1297.

19. Hasegawa T., K.Minami and T.Miura, Creep behaviour of an Al-Al2O3

particle alloy produced by a mechanical alloying process, in “Creep and
Fracture of Engineering Materials and Structures”, R.W.Evans and B.Wilshire
eds., The Institute of Metals, London (1990), p.159.

TALAT 1253 25
20. Cadek J., Acta Technica CSAV, 38 (1993), p.651.

21. Li Y. and F.A.Mohamed, Acta mater., 45 (1997) p.4775.

22. Li Y. and T,G.Langdon, Met.Trans., 28A (1997) p.1271.

23. Dragone T.L. and W.D.Nix, Acta metall.mater., 40 (1992) p.2781.

24. Nieh T.G., Met.Trans., 15A (1984) p.139.

25. Nardone V.C. and J.R.Strife, Met.Trans., 18A (1987) p.109.

1253.15 List of Figures

Figure No. Figure Title (Overhead)

1253.02.01 Example of the typical shape of the creep curve
1253.03.01 Steady state creep rate vs. applied stress at constant T (a) or creep rate vs. T at
constant stress (b); time to rupture vs. applied stress
1253.04.01 Time to rupture dependence on applied stress (a) and Larson-Miller master
curve (b) for an experimental Al-Fe-V-Si-Er alloy
1253.05.01 Steady state dependence on applied stress for pure metals
1253.05.02 Mechanisms of climb controlled creep
1253.05.03 Mechanisms of purely diffusive creep
1253.05.04 Steady state dependence on applied stress for solid solution alloys
1253.06.01 Steady state dependence on applied stress for particle reinforced alloys and
composites.
1253.07.01 Mechanisms of intergranular damage produced by grain boundary sliding
1253.08.01 Steady state dependence on applied stress for pure aluminium
1253.09.01 Steady state dependence on applied stress for Al-Mg solid solution alloys
(T = 573 K)
1253.09.02 Steady state dependence on applied stress for Al-Mg solid solution alloys
(T = 827K)
1253.10.01 Larson-Miller master curves for Aluminium and a 2xxx alloy
1253.10.02 Steady state creep rate vs. applied stress for Al-Mg solid solution alloy and for
2024 alloy produced by powder metallurgy
1253.11.01 Steady state creep rate vs. applied stress for an Al-Fe-V-Si-Er alloy
1253.11.02 Steady state creep rate vs. applied stress for an Al-Fe-V-Si alloy
1253.11.03 Steady state creep rate vs. applied stress for an Al-Al4C3 particle reinforced
alloy at different temperatures
1253.11.04 Steady state creep rate vs. applied stress for an Al-Al2O3 particle reinforced
alloy at different temperatures
1253.12.01 Steady state creep rate vs. applied stress for an Al-Mg + Al2O3 fibres reinforced
alloy at different temperatures
1253.12.02 Steady state creep rate vs. applied stress for a 6061 + SiC, for a 2124 + SiC and
for a 2024 + SiC

TALAT 1253 26