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4.5 Signal Flow Graphs

Reading Assignment: pp. 189-197
Q: Using individual device scattering parameters to analyze a

complex microwave network results in a lot of messy math! Isnt there an easier way?

A: Yes! We can represent a microwave network with its signal flow graph. HO: SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS Then, we can decompose this graph using a set of standard rules. HO: SERIES RULE HO: PARALLEL RULE HO: SELF-LOOP RULE HO: SPLITTING RULE Its sort of a graphical way to do algebra! Lets do some examples: EXAMPLE: DECOMPOSITION OF SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS EXAMPLE: SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH ANALYSIS
Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/19/2009

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Signal Flow graphs can likewise help us understand the fundamental physical behavior of a network or device. It can even help us approximate the network in a way that makes it simpler to analyze and/or design! HO: THE PROPAGATION SERIES

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Signal Flow Graphs

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Signal Flow Graphs

Consider a complex 3-port microwave network, constructed of 5 simpler microwave devices:

S1

S2

S3

S
S4 S5

where Sn is the scattering matrix of each device, and S is the overall scattering matrix of the entire 3-port network. Q: Is there any way to determine this overall network

scattering matrix S from the individual device scattering matrices Sn ?

A: Definitely! Note the wave exiting one port of a device is a wave entering (i.e., incident on) another (and vice versa). This is a boundary condition at the port connection between devices.

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Signal Flow Graphs

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Add to this the scattering parameter equations from each individual device, and we have a sufficient amount of math to determine the relationship between the incident and exiting waves of the remaining three portsin other words, the scattering matrix of the 3-port network! Q: Yikes! Wouldnt that require a lot of tedious algebra! A: It sure would! We might use a computer to assist us, or we might use a tool employed since the early days of microwave engineeringthe signal flow graph. Signal flow graphs are helpful in (count em) three ways! Way 1 - Signal flow graphs provide us with a graphical means of solving large systems of simultaneous equations. Way 2 Well see the a signal flow graph can provide us with a road map of the wave propagation paths throughout a microwave device or network. If were paying attention, we can glean great physical insight as to the inner working of the microwave device represented by the graph. Way 3 - Signal flow graphs provide us with a quick and accurate method for approximating a network or device. We will find that we can often replace a rather complex graph with a much simpler one that is almost equivalent.
Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Signal Flow Graphs

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We find this to be very helpful when designing microwave components. From the analysis of these approximate graphs, we can often determine design rules or equations that are tractable, and allow us to design components with (near) optimal performance. Q: But what is a signal flow graph? A: First, some definitions! Every signal flow graph consists of a set of nodes. These nodes are connected by branches, which are simply contours with a specified direction. Each branch likewise has an associated complex value.

j
-j0.2 0.1 0.7 -0.1

0.5

Q: What could this possibly have to do with microwave

engineering?

A: Each port of a microwave device is represented by two nodesthe a node and the b node. The a node simply represents the value of the normalized amplitude of the wave incident on that port, evaluated at the plane of that port:

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Signal Flow Graphs

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an

Vn + ( zn = znP ) Z 0n

Likewise, the b node simply represents the normalized amplitude of the wave exiting that port, evaluated at the plane of that port: Vn ( zn = znP ) bn

Z 0n

Note then that the total voltage at a port is simply:

Vn ( zn = znP ) = ( an + bn ) Z 0n
The value of the branch connecting two nodes is simply the value of the scattering parameter relating these two voltage values:

an

Vn + ( zn = znP ) Z 0n

Smn

bm

Vm( z m = z mP ) Z 0m

The signal flow graph above is simply a graphical representation of the equation:

bm = Smn an
Moreover, if multiple branches enter a node, then the voltage represented by that node is the sum of the values from each branch. For example, the signal flow graph:

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Signal Flow Graphs

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b1

S11
a1 a2

S13

S12

a3

is a graphical representation of the equation:

b1 = S11 a1 + S12 a2 + S13 a3

Now, consider a two-port device with a scattering matrix S :
12 S = 11 S21 S22

So that:

b1 = S11 a1 + S12 a2 b2 = S21 a1 + S22 a2

We can thus graphically represent a two-port device as:

a1

S21 S11 S22

S12

b2

b1

a2

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Signal Flow Graphs

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Now, consider a case where the second port is terminated by some load L :

We now have yet another equation:

V2+ ( z 2 = z 2P ) = L V2 ( z 2 = z 2P ) a2 = L b2
Therefore, the signal flow graph of this terminated network is:

a1

S21 S11

b2 S22

b1

S12
a2

Now lets cascade two different two-port networks

Sx

Sy

Here, the output port of the first device is directly connected to the input port of the second device. We describe this mathematically as:

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Signal Flow Graphs

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a1y = b2x

and

b1y = a2x

Thus, the signal flow graph of this network is:

a1

x x S21 x S11

b2x
1
x S22 x S12

a1y
y S21 y S11

b2y

y S22 y S12

b1

a2x
transmission lines?

b1y

a2y

Q: But what happens if the networks are connected with

A: Recall that a length of transmission line with characteristic impedance Z0 is likewise a two-port device. Its scattering matrix is:
0 e j S = j 0 e

Thus, if the two devices are connected by a length of transmission line:

a1x b1
x

Sx

a2x

b2x

Z0

b1y

a1

Sy

b2y
a2
y

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Signal Flow Graphs

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a1y = e j b2x
so the signal flow graph is:

a2x = e j b1y

a1

x x S21 x S11

b2x
e j
x S22 x S12

a1y
y S21 y S11

b2y

y S22 y S12

b1

j

a2x

b1y

a2y

Note that there is one (and only one) independent variable in this representation. This independent variable is node a1x . This is the only node of the sfg that does not have any incoming branches. As a result, its value depends on no other node values in the sfg. From the standpoint of a sfg, independent nodes are essentially sources! Of course, this likewise makes sense physically (do you see why?). The node value a1x represents the complex amplitude of the wave incident on the one-port network. If this value is zero, then no power is incident on the networkthe rest of the nodes (i.e., wave amplitudes) will likewise be zero!

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Signal Flow Graphs

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Now, say we wish to determine, for example: 1. The reflection coefficient in of the one-port device. 2. The total current at port 1 of second network (i.e., network y). 3. The power absorbed by the load at port 2 of the second (y) network. In the first case, we need to determine the value of dependent node b1x :

b1x in = x a1

For the second case, we must determine the value of wave amplitudes a1y and b1y : a1y b1y y I1 =

Z0

And for the third and final case, the values of nodes a2y and b2y are required:

Pabs =

b2y

a2y

Q: But just how the heck do we determine the values of

these wave amplitude nodes?

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Signal Flow Graphs

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A: One way, of course, is to solve the simultaneous equations that describe this network. From network x and network y:
x x b1x = S11 a1x + S12 a2x y y b1y = S11 a1y + S12 a2y

x x b2x = S21 a1x + S22 a2x

y y b2y = S21 a1y + S22 a2y

From the transmission line:

a1y = e j b2x
And finally from the load:

a2x = e j b1y

a2 = L b2

But another, EVEN BETTER way to determine these values is to decompose (reduce) the signal flow graph! Q: Huh? A: Signal flow graph reduction is a method for simplifying the complex paths of that signal flow graph into a more direct (but equivalent!) form. Reduction is really just a graphical method of decoupling the simultaneous equations that are described by the sfg. For instance, in the example we are considering, the sfg :

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

a1x
x S11

b2
x S21 x S22 x S12

Signal Flow Graphs x y

a1

b2
y S21

11/12 y

e j
y S11

y S22 y S12

b1

e a2x

j

b1y

a2y

might reduce to:

0.1 e j

a1

0.6

b2x

a1y
0. 3

b2y

b1x

0.2

j 0.1 a2x

0.05

j 0.2

From this graph, we can directly determine the value of each node (i.e., the value of each wave amplitude), in terms of the one independent variable a1x .

b1y

a2y

b1x = 0. 2 a1x b2x = 0. 6 a1x b1y = 0. 05 a1x b2y = 0. 3 a1x a2x = j 0. 1 a1x a1y = 0. 1 e j a1x

a2y = 0. 2 a1x

And of course, we can then determine values like: 1.

b1x 0. 2 a1x in = x = = 0. 2 a1 a1x

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Signal Flow Graphs

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2.

I1

j 0. 05 x a1y b1y 0. 1 e = = a1 Z0 Z0

3.

Pabs =

b2y

a2y

( 0. 3)

( 0. 2 ) x a1 2

Q: But how do we reduce the sfg to its simplified state?

Just what is the procedure?

A: Signal flow graphs can be reduced by sequentially applying one of four simple rules. Q: Can these rules be applied in any order? A: No! The rules can only be applied when/where the structure of the sfg allows. You must search the sfg for structures that allow a rule to be applied, and the sfg will then be (a little bit) reduced. You then search for the next valid structure where a rule can be applied. Eventually, the sfg will be completely reduced! Q: ???? A: Its a bit like solving a puzzle. Every sfg is different, and so each will require a different reduction procedure. It requires a little thought, but with a little practice, the reduction procedure is easily mastered. You may even find that its kind of fun!
Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Series Rule

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Series Rule
Consider these two complex equations:

b1 = a1

a2 = b1

where and are arbitrary complex constants. Using the associative property of multiplication, these two equations can combined to form an equivalent set of equations:

b1 = a1

a2 = b1 = ( a1 ) = ( ) a1

Now lets express these two sets of equations as signal flow graphs! The first set provides:

a1

b1

a2

b1 = a1 a2 = b1

While the second is:

a1

b1

a2

b1 = a1 a2 = a1

Q: Hey wait! If the two sets of equations are equivalent,

shouldnt the two resulting signal flow graphs likewise be equivalent?

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Series Rule

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A: Absolutely! The two signal flow graphs are indeed equivalent. This leads us to our first signal flow graph reduction rule:

Rule 1 - Series Rule

If a node has one (and only one!) incoming branch, and one (and only one!) outgoing branch, the node can be eliminated and the two branches can be combined, with the new branch having a value equal to the product of the original two.

For example, the graph:

a1
0. 3

b1
j

a2

b1 = 0.3 a1 a2 = j b1

can be reduced to:

0.3

b1

a1
j 0. 3

a2

b1 = 0.3 a1 a2 = j 0.3 a1

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Parallel Rule

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Parallel Rule
Consider the complex equation:

b1 = a1 + a1
where and are arbitrary complex constants. Using the distributive property, the equation can equivalently be expressed as: b1 = ( + ) a1 Now lets express these two equations as signal flow graphs! The first is:

a1

b1

b1 = a1 + a1

With the second:

a1

b1

b1 = ( + ) a1

the two resulting signal flow graphs likewise be equivalent?

Q: Hey wait! If the two equations are equivalent, shouldnt

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

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Parallel Rule

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A: Absolutely! The two signal flow graphs are indeed equivalent. This leads us to our second signal flow graph reduction rule:

Rule 2 - Parallel Rule

If two nodes are connected by parallel branchesand the branches have the same directionthe branches can be combined into a single branch, with a value equal to the sum of each two original branches.

For example, the graph:

a1

0.2

b1

b1 = 0.3 a1 + 0.2 a1

0. 3

Can be reduced to:

0.5

a1

b1

b1 = ( 0.3 + 0.2 ) a1 = 0.5 a1

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Parallel Rule

3/5

Q: What about this signal flow graph?

note direction!

a1

0.2 0.3

b1

Can I rewrite this as: a1

- 0.2
0.3

b1

so that (since 0.3-0.2=0.1):

0.1

a1
A: Absolutely not! NEVER DO THIS!!

b1

???

Q: Maybe I made a mistake. Perhaps I should have rewritten:

note direction!

a1

0.2 0.3

b1

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Parallel Rule

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as this:

a1

5 = 1 0.2
0. 3

b1

so that (since 5.0+0.3=5.3):

5.3

a1

b1

???

A: Absolutely not! NEVER DO THIS EITHER!! From the signal flow graph below, we can only conclude that b1 = 0.3 a1 and a1 = 0.2 b1 .

a1

0.2

b1

0. 3 Using the series rule (or little bit of algebra), we can conclude that an equivalent signal flow graph to this is:

a1 = 0.06 a1 b1 = 0.3 a1

0.06

a1
0. 3

b1

the same node?

Jim Stiles

Q: Yikes! What kind of goofy branch begins and ends at

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Parallel Rule

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A: Branches that begin and end at the same node are called self-loops.

Q: Do these self-loops actually appear in signal flow graphs? A: Yes, but the self-loop node will always have at least one other incoming branch. For example:

a1 = 0.06 a1 j b2 b1 = 0.3 a1 0.06 a1 b2

j
0. 3

b1

Q: But how do we reduce a signal flow graph containing a

self-loop?

A: See rule 3 !

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Self Loop Rule

1/4

Self-Loop Rule
Now consider the equation:

b1 = a1 + a2 + b1
A little dab of algebra allows us to determine the value of node b1 : b1 = a1 + a2 + b1

b1 b1 = a1 + a2

(1 ) b1 = a1 + a2
b1 =
1

a1 +

a2

The signal flow graph of the first equation is:

b1 a2

b1 = a1 + a2 + b1

a1

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Self Loop Rule

2/4

While the signal flow graph of the second is:

b1 =

a1 +

a2

b1

a1

a2

These two signal flow graphs are equivalent! Note the self-loop has been removed in the second graph. Thus, we now have a method for removing self-loops. This method is rule 3.

Rule 3 Self-Loop Rule

where Ssl is the value of the self loop branch.

A self-loop can be eliminate by multiplying all of the branches feeding the self-loop node by 1 (1 Ssl ) ,

For example:
0. 6

0.2

b1

b1 = 0.6 a1 + j 0.4a2 + 0.2b1

a2
j 0.4

a1

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Self Loop Rule

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can be simplified by eliminating the self-loop. We multiply both of the two branches feeding the self-loop node by:
1 1 = = 1.25 1 Ssl 1 0.2

Therefore:

0.6 (1.25 )

b1 a2
j 0.4 (1.25 )

a1

And thus:
0.75

b1
j 0.5

b1 = 0.75 a1 + j 0.5 a2

a1

a2

Or another example:

a1 = 0.06 a1 j b2 b1 = 0.3 a1

0.06

a1 b2
j

b1

0.3

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Self Loop Rule

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becomes after reduction using rule 3:

j a1 = b2 0.94

a1 b2
j 0.94
0. 3

b1

b1 = 0.3 a1

Q: Wait a minute! I think you forgot something. Shouldnt you also divide the 0.3 branch value by 1 0.06 = 0.94 ?? A: Nope! The 0.3 branch is exiting the self-loop node a1. Only incoming branches (e.g., the j branch) to the selfloop node are modified by the self-loop rule!

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Splitting Rule

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Splitting Rule
Now consider these three equations:

b1 = a1 a2 = b1 a3 = b1
Using the associative property, we can likewise write an equivalent set of equations:

b1 = a1 a2 = a1 a3 = b1
The signal flow graph of the first set of equations is:

a1

a2

b1 a3

While the signal flow graph of the second is:

a1 b1

a2

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas

a3
Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Splitting Rule

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Rule 4 Splitting Rule

If a node has one (and only one!) incoming branch, and one (or more) exiting branches, the incoming branch can be split, and directly combined with each of the exiting branches.

For example:

0.3

a2

a1

b1 a3

b1 = j a1 a2 = 0.3 b1 a3 = 0.2 b1

can be rewritten as:

j 0.3

0.2

a2 b1

a1

0. 2

a3

b1 = j a1 a2 = j 0.3 a1 a3 = 0.2 b1

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Splitting Rule

3/5

Of course, from rule 1 (or from rule 4!), this graph can be further simplified as: j 0. 3

a2

a1

b1 a3
j 0. 2

b1 = j a1 a2 = j 0.3 a1 a3 = j 0.2 a1

The splitting rule is particularly useful when we encounter signal flow graphs of the kind:
0.3
j
Note this node has two incoming branches !!

j 0.1
0.2
Note this node has only one incoming branch !!

We can split the -0.2 branch, and rewrite the graph as:
0.2 ( 0.3) j 0.2

j 0.1

Note we now have a self-loop, which can be eliminated using rule #3: j 1 + 0.06 0.2 j 0.1

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Splitting Rule

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Note that this graph can be further simplified using rule #1.

j 0.94

j 0.1
j 1.89

Q: Can we split the other branch of the loop? Is this signal

flow graph:

0.2 ( 0.3) j 0.2

j 0.1

Likewise equivalent to this one ??:

0.3 j

j 0.1
0. 2

A: NO!! Do not make this mistake! We cannot split the 0.3 branch because it terminates in a node with two incoming branches (i.e., -j and 0.3). This is a violation of rule 4. Moreover, the equations represented by the two signal flow graphs are not equivalentthey two graphs describe two different sets of equations!

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Splitting Rule

5/5

It is important to remember that there is no magic behind signal flow graphs. They are simply a graphical method of representingand then solvinga set of linear equations. As such, the four basic rules of analyzing a signal flow graph represent basic algebraic operations. In fact, signal flow graphs can be applied to the analysis of any linear system, not just microwave networks.

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Example Decomposition of Signal Flow Graph

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Example: Decomposition of Signal Flow Graphs

Consider the basic 2-port network, terminated with load L .

a1

S21 S11 S22 S12

a2

b2

b1
Say we want to determine the value:

V1 ( z = z1P ) b1 1 + = V1 ( z = z1P ) a1

??

In other words, what is the reflection coefficient of the resulting one-port device? Q: Isnt this simply S11 ? A: Only if L = 0 (and its not)!! So lets decompose (simplify) the signal flow graph and find out!

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

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3/13/2009

Example Decomposition of Signal Flow Graph

2/3

Step 1:

Use rule #4 on node a2

a1

S21
S11

b2 S22L

b1

S12 a2 b2

Step 2: Use rule #3 on node b2 S21 1 S22L a1

S11 b1

S12
a2

Step 3: And then using rule #1:

a1

S21 1 S22L S21L 1 S22L

L S21 S12 1 S22L
The Univ. of Kansas

b2

S11
b1
Jim Stiles

a2
Dept. of EECS

3/13/2009

Example Decomposition of Signal Flow Graph

3/3

Step 4: Use rule 2 on nodes a1 and b1

a1
L S21 S12 1 S22L

S21 1 S22L S21L 1 S22L

b2

S11 +

b1
Therefore:
1 = S S b1 = S11 + L 21 12 a1 1 S22L

a2

Note if L = 0 , then

b1

a1 = S11 !

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/25/2009

Example Signal Flow Graph Analysis

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Example: Analysis Using Signal Flow Graphs

Below is a single-port device (with input at port 1a) constructed with two two-port devices ( Sx and Sy ), a quarter wavelength transmission line, and a load impedance.
j2
= 4

Z0

Sx

Z0

Sy

L = 0 .5

port 1x (input)

port 2x

port 1y

port 2y

Where Z 0 = 50 . The scattering matrices of the two-port devices are:

0.35 0.5 Sx = 0 0.5 0 0.8 Sy = 0.8 0.4

Likewise, we know that the value of the voltage wave incident on port 1 of device Sx is:

a1x

+ V01 ( z = z1xP ) j 2 j 2 x 1x = = V 5 50 Z0

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/25/2009

Example Signal Flow Graph Analysis

2/6

Now, lets draw the complete signal flow graph of this circuit, and then reduce the graph to determine: a) The total current through load L . b) The power delivered to (i.e., absorbed by ) port 1x. The signal flow graph describing this network is:

a1x

S21x

b2x

e j

a1y

S21y

b2y

S11x

S22x S12x
e
j

S11y

S22y S12y
L

b1x

a2x

b1y
j

a2y

Inserting the numeric values of branches:

a1x = j

0.5

b2x

a1y

0.8

b2y

0.35

0.0 0.5

0.0

0.4
0. 8

b1x

0.5

a2x

b1y

a2y

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/25/2009

Example Signal Flow Graph Analysis

3/6

Removing the zero valued branches:

a1x = j

0.5

b2x

a1y

0.8

b2y

0.35

0.4
0.5

b1x

0.8

0.5

a2x
0.5

And now applying splitting rule 4:

b1y a1y
0.8

a2y b2y

a1x = j

b2x

0.35

( 0.4 ) 0.5 = 0.2

0.5

b1x

0.8

0.5

Followed by the self-loop rule 3:

a2x

b1y

a2y
0. 8 = 1. 0 1 0.2

a1x = j

0.5

b2x

a1y

b2y

0.35

b1x

0.5

0.8

0.5

a2x

b1y
The Univ. of Kansas

a2y
Dept. of EECS

Jim Stiles

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Example Signal Flow Graph Analysis

4/6

Now, lets used this simplified signal flow graph to find the solutions to our questions! a) The total current through load L . The total current through the load is:

I L = I ( z 2y = z 2yP )
= = =
+ V02 y ( z 2 y = z 2 yP ) V02 y ( z 2 y = z 2 yP )

a2y b2y Z0
50

Z0

b2y a2y

Thus, we need to determine the value of nodes a2y and b2y. Using the series rule 1 on our signal flow graph:

a1x = j

j 0.5

b2y

0.35

b1x

j 0.4

0.5

Note weve simply ignored (i.e., neglected to plot) the node for which we have no interest!

a2y

From this graph we can conclude:

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/25/2009

Example Signal Flow Graph Analysis

5/6

b2y = j 0.5 a1x = j 0.5

and:

j 2 = 0.1 2 5

a2y = 0.5 b2y = 0.5 0.1 2 = 0.05 2

Therefore:

IL =

b2y a2y
50

( 0.1 0.05 )
50

0.05 = 10.0 mA 5

b) The power delivered to (i.e., absorbed by ) port 1x. The power delivered to port 1x is:

Pabs = P + P
= =
+ V1x ( z1x = z1xP ) 2

2Z 0

V1x (z1x = z1xP )

2Z 0

2 Thus, we need determine the values of nodes a1x and b1x. Again using the series rule 1 on our signal flow graph:

a1x b1x

a1x = j

0.35
0.1

b1x
Jim Stiles

Again weve simply ignored (i.e., neglected to plot) the node for which we have no interest!
Dept. of EECS

The Univ. of Kansas

3/25/2009

Example Signal Flow Graph Analysis

6/6

And then using the parallel rule 2:

a1x = j

0.25 = 0.35 0.1

b1x
Therefore:

b1x = 0.25 a1x = 0.25 ( j

) = j 0.05

and:

Pabs =

2 5

j 0.05 2 2

0.08 0.005 = 37.5 mW 2

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/19/2009

The Propagation Series.doc

1/18

The Propagation Series

Q: You earlier stated that signal flow graphs are helpful in

(count em) three ways. I now understand the first way:

Way 1 - Signal flow graphs provide us with a graphical means of solving large systems of simultaneous equations.

But what about ways 2 and 3 ??

Way 2 Well see the a signal flow graph can provide us with a road map of the wave propagation paths throughout a microwave device or network. Way 3 - Signal flow graphs provide us with a quick and accurate method for approximating a network or device. A: Consider the sfg below:

a1
0.144

0.5

b2
j

a3
0.4

0.8

b4

0.35

0.5
0.8

b1

0.5

a2

b3

a4

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/19/2009

The Propagation Series.doc

2/18

Note that node a1 is the only independent node. This signal flow graph is for a rather complex single-port (port 1) device. Say we wish to determine the wave amplitude exiting port 1. In other words, we seek: b1 = in a1 Using our four reduction rules, the signal flow graph above is simplified to:

a1

0.5

j 0 .5

b2

a3
j 0 .4

b4

0.36

b1

a2

j 0.36

b3

j 0.2

a4

this mean?

Q: Hey, node b1 is not connected to anything. What does

A: It means that b1 = 0 regardless of the value of incident wave a1 . I.E.,:

in =

b1 =0 a1

In other words, port 1 is a matched load! Q: But look at the original signal flow graph; it doesnt look

like a matched load. How can the exiting wave at port 1 be zero?
Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/19/2009

The Propagation Series.doc

3/18

A: A signal flow graph provides a bit of a propagation road map through the device or network. It allows us to understandoften in a very physical waythe propagation of an incident wave once it enters a device. We accomplish this by identifying from the sfg propagation paths from an independent node to some other node (e.g., an exiting node). These paths are simply a sequence of branches (pointing in the correct direction!) that lead from the independent node to this other node. Each path has value that is equal to the product of each branch of the path. Perhaps this is best explained with some examples. One path between independent (incident wave) node a1 and (exiting wave) node b1 is shown below:

a1
0.144

0.5

0.8

j
0.35

0.4

j b1
0.5

0.5 0.8

Well arbitrarily call this path 2, and its value:

p2 = ( 0.5 ) j ( 0.4 ) j ( 0.5 ) = 0.1

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/19/2009

The Propagation Series.doc

4/18

Another propagation path (path 5, say) is:

a1
0.144

0.5

0.8

j
0.35 0.4

j b1
0.5 0.8

0.5

p5 = ( 0.5 ) j ( 0.4 ) j ( 0.35 ) j ( 0.8 )( 0.5 )( 0.8 ) j ( 0.5 )

= j 4 ( 0.35 ) ( 0.4 ) ( 0.8 ) ( 0.5 )
2 3

= 0.0112

Q: Why are we doing this? A: The exiting wave at port 1 (wave amplitude b1 ) is simply the superposition of all the propagation paths from incident node a1 ! Mathematically speaking:

b1 = a1 pn
n

in =

b1 = pn a1 n

Q: Wont there be an awful lot of propagation paths? A: Yes! As a matter of fact there are an infinite number of paths that connect node a1 and b1 . Therefore:

b1 = a1 pn
n

b1 in = = pn a1 n

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/19/2009

The Propagation Series.doc

5/18

Q: Yikes! Does this infinite series converge? A: Note that the series represents a finite physical value (e.g., in ), so that the infinite series must converge to the correct finite value. Q: In this example we found that in = 0 . This means that

the infinite propagation series is likewise zero:

in = pn = 0
n

Do we conclude from this that all propagation paths are zero:

pn = 0 ?????
A: Absolutely not! Remember, we have already determined that p2 = 0.1 and p4 = 0.0112 definitely not zero-valued! In fact for this example, none of the propagation paths pn are precisely equal to zero! Q: But then why is:

pn n

= 0 ???

A: Remember, the path values pn are complex. A sum of nonzero complex values can equal zero (as it apparently does in this case!).

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/19/2009

The Propagation Series.doc

6/18

Thus, a perfectly rational way of viewing this network is to conclude that there are an infinite number of non-zero waves exiting port 1:
in = pn
n

where pn 0

It just so happens that these waves coherently add together to zero:

in = pn = 0
n

they essentially cancel each other out ! Q: So, I now appreciate the fact that signal flow graphs: 1)

provides a graphical method for solving linear equations and 2) also provides a method for physically evaluating the wave propagation paths through a network/device. But what about helpful Way 3:
Way 3 - Signal flow graphs provide us with a quick and accurate method for approximating a network or device. ?? A: The propagation series of a microwave network is very analogous to a Taylor Series expansion:

d nf ( x ) n f (x ) = x a ( ) n n =0 d x x =a

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/19/2009

The Propagation Series.doc

7/18

Note that there likewise is a infinite number of terms, yet the Taylor Series is quite helpful in engineering. Often, we engineers simply truncate this infinite series, making it a finite one:

d nf ( x ) n f (x ) x a ( ) n n =0 d x x =a
N

Q: Yikes! Doesnt this result in error? A: Absolutely! The truncated series is an approximation. We have less error if more terms are retained; more error if fewer terms are retained. The trick is to retain the significant terms of the infinite series, and truncate those less important insignificant terms. In this way, we seek to form an accurate approximation, using the fewest number of terms. Q: But how do we know which terms are significant, and

which are not?

A: For a Taylor Series, we find that as the order n increases, the significance of the term generally (but not always!) decreases. Q: But what about our propagation series? How can we

determine which paths are significant in the series?

The Univ. of Kansas

Jim Stiles

Dept. of EECS

3/19/2009

The Propagation Series.doc

8/18

A: Almost always, the most significant paths in a propagation series are the forward paths of a signal flow graph.

forwardpath\forwrdpth\noun
Apaththroughasignalflowgraphthatpassesthroughanygivennode nomorethanonce.Apaththatpassesthroughanynodetwotimes(or more)isthereforenotaforwardpath.

In our example, path 2 is a forward path. It passes through four nodes as it travels from node a1 to node b1 , but it passes through each of these nodes only once:

a1
0.144

0.5

0. 8

j
0.35

0.4

j b1
0.5

0.5 0.8

Alternatively, path 5 is not a forward path:

a1
0.144

0.5

0.8

j
0.35 0.4

j b1
Jim Stiles

0.5 0. 8

0.5
The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/19/2009

The Propagation Series.doc

9/18

We see that path 5 passes through six different nodes as it travels from node a1 to node b1 . However, it twice passes through four of these nodes. The good news about forward paths is that there are always a finite number of them. Again, these paths are typically the most significant in the propagation series, so we can determine an approximate value for sfg nodes by considering only these forward paths in the propagation series:

pn pnfp n n
=1

where pnfp represents the value of one of the N forward paths. Q: Is path 2 the only forward path in our example sfg ? A: No, there are three. Path 1 is the most direct:

a1
0.144

p1 = 0.144
0.5 0.8

j
0.35 0.4

j b1
0.5
0. 8

0.5

Of course we already have identified path 2:

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/19/2009

The Propagation Series.doc

10/18

a1
0.144

p2 = 0.1
0.5 0. 8

j
0.35

0.4

j b1
0.5

0.5 0.8

And finally, path 3 is the longest forward path:

p3 = ( 0.5 ) j ( 0.8 )( 0.5 )( 0.8 ) j ( 0.5 )

= j 2 ( 0.8 ) ( 0.5 )
2 3

a1
0.144

0.5

= 0.08

0. 8

j
0.35

0.4

j b1
0.5

0.5 0.8

Thus, an approximate value of in is:

in =

b1 a1
3

pnfp = p1 + p2 + p3 = 0.144 0.1 0.08 = 0.036

n =1

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/19/2009

The Propagation Series.doc

11/18

your saying that in = 0.036 . Which is correct??

Q: Hey wait! We determined earlier that in = 0 , but now

A: The correct answer is in = 0 . It was determined using the four sfg reduction rulesno approximations were involved!

Conversely, the value in = 0.036 was determined using a truncated form of the propagation seriesthe series was limited to just the three most significant terms (i.e., the forward paths). The result is easier to obtain, but it is just an approximation (the answers will contain error!). For example, consider the reduced signal flow graph (no approximation error):

a1
0.0

0.4

j 0 .4

b2

a3
j 0.32

b4

Exact SFG
a4

b1

0.288

a2

j 0.288

b3

j 0.16

Compare this to the same sfg, computed using only the forward paths: j 0. 5

a1

0.5

b2

a3
j 0. 4

b4

0.036

Approx. SFG
b1
Jim Stiles

0.36

a2

j 0.36

b3

j 0.2

a4

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/19/2009

The Propagation Series.doc

12/18

No surprise, the approximate sfg (using forward paths only) is not the same as the exact sfg (using reduction rules). The approximate sfg contains error, but note this error is not too bad. The values of the approximate sfg are certainly close to that of the exact sfg. Q: Is there any way to improve the accuracy of this

approximation?

A: Certainly. The error is a result of truncating the infinite propagation series. Note we severely truncated the series out of an infinite number of terms, we retained only three (the forward paths). If we retain more terms, we will likely get a more accurate answer. Q: So why did these approximate answers turn out so well,

given that we only used three terms?

A: We retained the three most significant terms, we will find that the forward paths typically have the largest magnitudes of all propagation paths. Q: Any idea what the next most significant terms are? A: Yup. The forward paths are all those propagation paths that pass through any node no more than one time. The next most significant paths are almost certainly those paths that pass through any node no more than two times.

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/19/2009

The Propagation Series.doc

13/18

Path 4 is an example of such a path:

a1
0.144

0.5

0. 8

j
0.35

0.4

j b1
0.5

0.5 0.8

There are three more of these paths (passing through a node no more than two times)see if you can find them! After determining the values for these paths, we can add 4 more terms to our summation (now we have seven terms!):
in =

b1 a1
7

pn = ( p1 + p2 + p3 ) + ( p4 + p5 + p6 + p7 ) = ( 0.036 ) + ( 0.014 + 0.0112 + 0.0112 + 0.0090 ) = 0.0094

n =1

Note this value is closer to the correct value of zero than was our previous (using only three terms) answer of -0.036. As we add more terms to the summation, this approximate answer will get closer and closer to the correct value of zero. However, it will be exactly zero (to an infinite number of decimal points) only if we sum an infinite number of terms!

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/19/2009

The Propagation Series.doc

14/18

Q: The significance of a given path seem to be inversely

proportional to the number of times it passes through any node. Is this true? If so, then why is it true?

A: It is true (generally speaking)! A propagation path that travels though a node ten times is much less likely to be significant to the propagation series (i.e., summation) than a path that passes through any node no more than (say) four times. The reason for this is that the significance of a given term in a summation is dependent on its magnitude (i.e., pn ). If the magnitude of a term is small, it will have far less affect (i.e., significance) on the sum than will a term whose magnitude is large. Q: You seem to be saying that paths traveling through fewer

nodes have larger magnitudes than those traveling through many nodes. Is that true? If so why?

A: Keep in mind that a microwave sfg relates wave amplitudes. The branch values are therefore always scattering parameters. One important thing about scattering parameters, their magnitudes (for passive devices) are always less than or equal to one!

Smn 1

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/19/2009

The Propagation Series.doc

15/18

Recall the value of a path is simply the product of each branch that forms the path. The more branches (and thus nodes), the more terms in this product. Since each term has a magnitude less than one, the magnitude of a product of many terms is much smaller than a product of a few terms. For example:
j 0.7 = 0.343
3

and

j 0.7

10

= 0.028

In other words, paths with more branches (i.e., more nodes) will typically have smaller magnitudes and so are less significant in the propagation series. Note path 1 in our example traveled along one branch only:

p1 = 0.144
Path 2 has five branches:

p2 = 0.1
Path 3 seven branches:

p3 = 0.08
Path 4 nine branches:

p4 = 0.014

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/19/2009

The Propagation Series.doc

16/18

Path 5 eleven branches:

p5 = 0.0112
Path 6 eleven branches:

p6 = 0.0112
Path 7 thirteen branches:

p7 = 0.009
Hopefully it is evident that the magnitude diminishes as the path length increases. Q: So, does this mean that we should abandon our four

reduction rules, and instead use a truncated propagation series to evaluate signal flow graphs??
A: Absolutely not! Remember, truncating the propagation series always results in some error. This error might be sufficiently small if we retain enough terms, but knowing precisely how many terms to retain is problematic. We find that in most cases it is simply not worth the effortuse the four reduction rules instead (its not like theyre particularly difficult!).

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/19/2009

The Propagation Series.doc

17/18

Q: You say that in most cases it is not worth the effort.

Are there some cases where this approximation is actually useful??

A: Yes. A truncated propagation series (typically using only the forward paths) is used when these three things are true: 1. The network or device is complex (lots of nodes and branches). 2. We can conclude from our knowledge of the device that the forward paths are sufficient for an accurate approximation (i.e., the magnitudes of all other paths in the series are almost certainly very small). 3. The branch values are not numeric, but instead are variables that are dependent on the physical parameters of the device (e.g., a characteristic impedance or line length). The result is typically a tractable mathematical equation that relates the design variables (e.g., Z 0 or ) of a complex device to a specific device parameter. For example, we might use a truncated propagation series to approximately determine some function:
in ( Z 01 , 1 , Z 02 , 2 )

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

3/19/2009

The Propagation Series.doc

18/18

If we desire a matched input (i.e., in ( Z 01 , 1 , Z 02 , 2 ) = 0 ) we can solve this tractable design equation for the (nearly) proper values of Z 01 , 1 , Z 02 , 2 . We will use this technique to great effect for designing multi-section matching networks and multi-section coupled line couplers.

a1 b1 b3 a3
e

e j
jc1 sin e
j

e j
jc2 sin e
j

e j
jc3 sin e
j

b2 a2 a4 b4

jc1 sin e
j

jc2 sin e

jc3 sin e j

e j

e j e j
jc3 sin e j jc3 sin e j

e j
jc1 sin e j jc1 sin e j

e j
jc2 sin e j jc2 sin e j

e j

e j

e j

The signal flow graph of a three-section coupled-line coupler.

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS