Palani Control Systems.
Palani Control Systems.
M, RB, A Ry B, le My CUky | cpi/ky hoy ip a Vp RoB ty ° (iia) Cat/K Fig. 3.3(6) Force-Voltage Analogous Circuit Rove ea re any lau Fig. 3.3(c) Force-Curremt Analogous Circuit Solution Fores-Voltage Analogous Circuit 1. Masses M, and M, of the mechanical system shown in Fig. 3.3(a) will have v, and v, velocities. These are the only two dependent variables in the system, 2. Corresponding to v, and v, loop currents i, and i, are created. ‘The force /;(1) is applied on mass M,. The mass M,, spring K, and the dash-pot B, all have the same velocity v,. Hence, current i, flows through a series combination of ¢ (:)-» f(e, L+M,C ++ and 2 + 4, The force f(1) is applied on mass M,. The mass M,, spring K, and the dash-pot B, all have the same velocity v,. Hence, current i, flows through a series combination of e,—»/,(0), Ly > My. G aa and Ry > By 5. The velocity difference of (», ~¥:) is applied across the spring Kand the dash-pot B. Hence the current (j,i) should flow through the series combination of C—>-- and R-» 2. The entire circuit is shown in Fig. 3.3(b). For the mechanical system shown in Fig. 3.3(a) the following equations are written. M, Sisk, frrde eK, (0,- 04) + & fl, = )de= KO G.11) M, Fa ay ok, Pratt BO, -¥) 4K [(m-v)ar= LOs (3.12)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Analogue 3.11 For the nodal system shown in Fig, 3.4(c) the following equations are written. At node e,, co Boz beat flee) y flee Jat = ic) (3.23) At node e,, o,f Tle e)dr+ fered 0 (3.24) At node e,, ‘ qe-at T fle -e)ar=0 (3.25) Equations (3.23), (3.24) and (3.25) of the electrical nodal system is analogous to equations (3.17), (3.18) and (3.19) respectively. Hence Fig. 3.4(c) the electrical system is analogous to the mechanical system shown in Fig, 3.4(a). Example 3.4 For the mechanical system shown in Fig. 3.5(a) draw the torque-voltage and torque-current electrical analogous circuit. on) ~) &) D4 tm mim, ae als ole Fig. 3.5(a) Mechanical Rotational System Ri>B, Lipp Rp Be lye in wg ig > wy C,50K, CK, Ry By yb) Y (ais) Fig. 3.5(8) Torque-Voltage Analogous Circuit Solution Torque-Voltage Analogous Circuit 1. The three inertias /,, J, and J, have angular velocities «@,,@, and @,. Corresponding to these velocities, the currents are marked as i,, i, and i,, The dash-pots B,, B, and B, also rotate with the velocities «,,«, and «, respectively. 2. The torque 7(1) is applied on inertia /,. The voltage source e(f)->7(), the inductance L,—> J, and resistance R,—> B, are all connected in series and current i, flows through this series combination. 3. The inductance L, > J, and resistance R,—» B, are connected in series and current i, flows through this since the velocity of J, and B, is «,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Analogue @ 9.15 easy, 2? avy e+e scm, Aw BoM, Fig. 3.6(c) Force-Current Analogous Circuit Force—Current Analogous Circuit 1. In the mechanical system given, there are two velocities and corresponding to these velocities nodal points with voltage e, and e, are created as shown in Fig. 3.6(c). 2. The mass M,, spring K, and dash-pot B all move with velocity v, and the voltage is applied to M,. Hence one end of the current source i(t)~» f(¢),C, > Mj.) ++ and R at are connected to e,-> v,and their other ends are connected to the common point. 3. Mass M, moves with a velocity v,.Hence one end of C; > M; is connected to e,-> v, and its other end is connected to the common point. 4. The spring K, moves with a velocity difference of v,-v,). Hence L, ~» 1 is connected across the nodes e, and e, where the voltage difference is (e, -e,). The complete foce-current analogous circuit is shown in Fig. 3.6(c). For Fig, 3.6(c), the following nodal equations are written. Node ¢, det 4 1 Opes + are fla-a)ameo 6.39) Node le, L OG +z Me-a)ano (3.40) Equations (3.39) and (3.40) are analogous to equations (3.35) and (3.36) of the mechanical system shown in Fig. 3:6(a). Hence, it is proved that they are anologous to each other. Example 3.6 For the mechanical system shown in Fig. 3.7(a), draw the force-voltage and forcecurrent analogous electrical circuits. Fig. 3.7(@ Mechanical Systemaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Analogue m 3.19 Fig. 3.9{a) Mechanical System Fig. 3.9(b) Force-Voltage Analogous Circuit Force-Voltage Analogous Circuit 1. Mark v, as the velocity of Mand v,, the velocity of the junction point of the springs K, and K, 2. Corresponding to v,and v, current i, and i, are identified in the electrical circuit. Mmoves with a velocity v, and f(t) is connected to M. Hence in Fig. 3.9(b), a branch is created for the flow of current i,—> v, and in this branch e(t) > f(#) and L — M are connected in series. 3. The velocity difference (v, ~ v,) appears across K,. Hence a branch current (i, ~ i,) is taken and to this branch C; > a is connected 4. The velocity difference across K, is v, and the branch current i, created will flow through C, +L. The complete analogous circuit is shown in Fig. 3.9(b).. written for mass M. For the mechanical system shown in Fig. 3.9(a), the equatior a, MEK IO- 1, )dt = £0) G51) The following equation is written at the junction point of the springs X, and X,. K,J(, -y)dt+ K,fyyat=0 (3.52) For the electrical circuit the following equations are written. Loop e-L-C, di, 1 Lag, Mawar =e G.53) Loop C,-C, le Ly, ale “iat fia =0 3.54) Equations (3.53) and (3.54) of electrical circuit are analogous to equations (3.51) and (3.52) of mechanical system. Hence Fig. 3.9(b) is analogous to Fig. 3.9(a). Force-Current Analogous Circuit 1. For the velocities v, and v,, two nodal points at e, > v, and ¢,—> v, are created. 2. Mass M moves with velocity v, and force is applied on mass M. Hence, one end of the current source i(t)— f(t) and C > M are connected to the node e, and their other ends are connected to the common point. 3. The velocity across the spring K, is (v, - v,). Hence, , + Lis connected between the nodes K, e, and e,.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Analogue m@ 3.23 = iy ig Re aBe RomsBs 4, ani i i » RB a R78, Coatk, bom ig LgaMz ig, bya aq) >) Fig. 3.11(6) Force-Voltage Analogous Circuit Solution Force-Voltage Analogous Circuit I Nv There are three masses M,, M, and M,. These masses move with velocities v,, v, and v, respectively. Current i, >» flows through £ > M,C > $a — B, through the voltage source e(r) > /(0), since they all move with v, velocity. From the branch current j,, two branches with i, and (i,—i,) currents are created. The current 4, ~ v, flows through L, > M2. The current (i,-i,) flows through R, > B;, since the velocity difference across B, is (v,-v,). Branch currents (i,~/,), (i,~i,) and i, are created. These currents satisfy Kirchhoff’s loop current law. Current i, flows through L, > M,. ‘The current [i,~/,]—> {»,-¥,] flows through R— B. The current [i,-i,]> [v;-»,] flows through R, > 8;. The complete force-voltage analogous circuit is shown in Fig. 3.11(b). The following equations for the mechanical system shown in Fig. 3.11(a) are written Mass M, iM, Bes By, +B, (vt BO, =H )+ KJ ydt= 0) G.63) Mass M, dy, My tBa (v4) BY, —%) =O 3.64) Mass M, M, Sosa, (¥ -¥,)+B(y, -v,) =0 (3.65) Pa fh load | con system of Fig. 3.11(b), the folliigeiguaicis ae wei: Loop e-R,-C-L,-R-R, eh ee ee nae Rie Rl J+ R(i-i)+cfid= ao G.66)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Analogue m 3.27 3. To the ev, node, C, + M, is connected. 1 4. The velocity difference across spring K, is (¥,~ ,). Hence 4, ~» 5 is connected in between e, and e, nodes. 5. From the current source 12)» /(#) another current transformer with a turns ratio (a + & Bb : (a+ 5) is connected. In the secondary of this transformer, nodes ¢,->v, is created. L, > z 1 is connected to node e,. 6. Tothee, node, C, +> M, is connected. The complete force-current analogous circuit is shown in Fig. 3.12(0). (arbre) (a+b) en eg Louk, ® q g 1k M1 Faw, Ke envy le =O, em, {atd+c):a Fig. 3.12(c) Force-Current Analogous Circuit For the Fig. 3.12(c), equating the ampere turns of the secondary to the ampere turns of the primary, the following equation is written. oc org fedtar oe tft —2,)dta=i(t)(a+b+c) (3.76) For the currents at node e,, the following equation is written. ded - agai eat =0 (.77) Equations (3.76) and (3.77) of the electrical network are analogous to equations (3.72) and (3.73) of the mechanical system. Hence, the analogy is proved. Example 3,12 Consider the mechanical system shown in Fig. 3.13(a). The differential gear is , 8, ss described as 9, oP tee . Draw the torque—voltage and torque—current analogous circuits.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Analogue m 3.31 Example 3.13 For the mechanical system shown in Fig. 3.14(a) draw the force—voltage and foree—current analogous circuits. Fig. 3.14(a) | Mechanical System LyaMp ip Liam, iy ett) 9 0, Fig. 3.14() Force-Voliage Analogous Circuit Solution Force-Voltage Analogous Circuit 1 ‘There should be five currents /,,i,, i, i,and /, corresponding to the velocities v,, v,, Vy, ¥, and v, respectively, for M,, M, and points A, B and C. Current i,->¥, should flow through L, > M, which is in series with the voltage source e(1). One end of the spring K, is connected to the mass M, and the other end is connected to the 1 reference frame. Hence, C, + through them is i,>v, is connected in series with L, + M, and the current passing Current i,>v, should pass through L, -» M,. Hence, a branch with current i, is created. The current /, flows through 4 M,. From the branch current i,, two branch currents i,->v, and (i,~i,)->(v,-v,) are created. Single current i, flows through C, +—-. The current (i,—i,) flows through R, -» By.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Analogue m 3.35 CuK, i+ fT) ewony Fig. 3.15(b) Force-Voliage Analogous Circuit Single current i, should pass through L, -> M,. Hence a branch current i, is created in which L, is connected. The velocity difference across the dash-pot B, is v,. Hence R, is connected in series with L, and the current flow here is i,. From i, branch current, two branch currents i, and (i, — i.) are ereated. The velocity difference across the spring K, is v,, Hence in the branch where the currenti, flows C, > is connected. The velocity difference across the dash-pot B, is (v,- v,). Hence R, -> 8, is connected in the branch where the current flow is (i, ~i,). Again from the branch current i, two branch currents i, and (i, ~i,) are created. Single current i, should flow through L) > M,. Hence L, is connected in this branch. The velocity difference across the spring K, is v,. Hence C, oe is connected in series with L,. The velocity difference across the dash-pot B, and the spring K, is (v,-v,). Hence , — B, and ). a> ¢ are connected in series and included in the branch where the current flow is (i, - 2aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Analogue m 3.39 > fit e(t) Fig. 3.16(0) Analogous Mechanical System Solution In the voltage-force analogue e(t) > /(0),R > B,C > z and LM, Let the current through the inductance Z be i,->v, current through the capacitance C be ( i,~i,)—>(v,-v,) and the current through the resistance R be ( i,~i,)-»(v,-v,) and the source current be i,>v,. Single current must be marked in the electrical circuit where the inductance L isconnected. Hence MM — L moves with a velocity v,. To one end of the mass M, the one end of the spring x 1 is connected where the - velocity is v,. Hence, the spring K moves with a velocity difference of ( v,-v,)-»(i,-i,). To the right end of the spring K, the dash-pot B-» R is connected. Since the current flowing through the resistance R is (i,—i,)->(v,—v,), the one end of the dash-pot is connected to the spring K and the force f(t) —» e(/) is applied to the other end of the dash-pot. The entire mechanical system is shown in Fig. 3.16(b). For the electrical network shown in Fig. 3.16(a), the following loop equations are written. Loop L-C alee, ; Leaf ~i,)dt=0 (3.120) oop C-R HIG -iar+ RG -i)=0 3.121) Loop e(1)-R Ri.) =e) (3.122) For the mechanical system shown in Fig. 3.16(b), the following equations are written. Mass M a, M+ K[O-y)dt=0 3.123) At point a K f(r. -)dt-+ BO, -%,)=0 (3.124) Atpoint 6 BE, =) = SO (3.125) , Equations (3.120), (3.121) and (3.122) of electrical network of Fig. 3.16(a) are analogous to equations (3.123) (3.124) and (3.125) respectively of mechanical system of Fig. 3.16(b). Hence these two systems are analogous.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Anclogue m- 3.43 a) Capacitance b) Reciprocal of capacitance c) Inductance d) Reciprocal of inductance 14. The dash-pot in a mechanical system is analogous to the following in a loop system of an electric circuit. a) Resistance b) Conductance © c)_ Inductance d) ‘Capacitance 15. The dash-pot in a mechanical system is analogous to the following in a nodal system of an electric circuit. a) Resistance b) Conductance ¢) Inductance d) Capacitance 16. The lever arrangement which has length ratio of é in mechanical system is analogous to the following in the ioop system of an electric circuit. My, , Oy, a) A voltage transformer with turns ratio Ne b) A voltage transformer with tums ratio ae A 1 Ny, ©) A current tranformer with tums ratio a 4) A current transformer with tums ratio 2 \ N, 17. A gear arrangement which has teeth ratio NL ig analogous to the following in the nodal system of an electric circuit. y, : N, ) A voltage transformer with turns ratio {' _b) A voltage transformer with turns ratio 2 f 2 y, 18. Ina hydraulic system, the pressure drop is analogous to the following in the loop system of an electric circuit. a) Voltage drop Sb) Rate of voltage drop c) Current flow d) Rate of change of current flow 19. Ina hydraulic system, the rate of discharge is analogous to the following in the loop system of an electric circuit. N, r WN, c) A current transformer with turns ratio wy d) A current transformer with turns ratio’ — a) Voltage drop b) Rate of voltage drop ¢), Current flow d) Rate of change of current flow 20. The current flow in a loop sysem of an electric circuit is analogous to the following in a pneumatic system. a) Mass flow rate 6) Volumeric flowrate c) Pressure drop 4) Heat flow rate 21. The current flow in a loop system of an electric circuit is analogous to the following in a thermal system. . a) Mass flow rate b) Volumetric flow rate c) Temperature difference. d) Heat flow rate 22. Which of the following system does not have inertia? a) Mechanical sysem b) Hydraulic system c) Pneumatic system d) Thermal system An. i.b 2b 3.a 4c Re 6d 2d 8b %b We Ia 12b 13d 14a 15.b 16b 17.d 18a 1%¢ 20a 2d 224aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Analogue ™@ 3.47 C+ uk hy Ly 4h PIO SOOGES tk ‘« fe ‘ boty Cot eT eee iy Fig. 3.26(a) Electrical Force-Voltoge Analogue of Figure 3.21 Ry 178, Fig. 3.26(6) Electrical Force-Current Analogue of Figure 3.21aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Block Diagram Reduction Technique and Signal Flow Graph m 43 in parallel. The single equivalent block having the same terminal input and output replaces n blocks in parallel and is shown in Fig. 4.4. Here G,, = G,+G; +G,...+G, Input Output R oa c Fig. 4.4 Blocks in Parallel ™ 43.3 Feedback Connection Input ® Output “ Cc () Fig. 4.5 Block Diagram of Feedback System and its Equivalent Two blocks shown in Fig. 4.5(a) are said to be connected in feedback when the output of the first block is fed back to become the input to the second block. The output of the second block is compared with the reference input and the difference becomes the input to the first block. If the output of the second block aids the reference input, the feedback is known as positive feedback. If the output of the second block epposes the reference input, the feedback is known as negative feedback. Usually in the first block G is called the forward path transfer function or open loop transfer function and is represented by G(s). H is called feedback transfer function and is usually represented by H(s). GH{(s) is usually called loop transfer function. The single equivalent block for the above feedback system, for the same terminal input-output is shown in Fig. 4.5(b). The equivalent feedback transfer function is derived as follows: E=R£HC (4.1) C=GEaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Block Diagram Reduction Technique and Signal Flow Graph m 4.7 Successive block diagram reduction is shown in Fig, 4.6(b), (c), (d) and (e). In Fig. 4.6(a), the block containing G, has an unity feed-forward path. This is combined in a single block as (1+G,). Similarly the blocks with G, and G, are in the feed-forward mode and they are combined in a single block as (G, + G,), This is reprensented in Fig. 4.6(b). The blocks (1+G,) and (G,+G,) are in cascade and with this combination the negative feedback loop with a gain H, is connected. The cascade combination is combined and represented in a single block as (1+G,) (G,+G,). This combination with negative feedback gain H, is reduced and shown in Fig. 4.6(c¢). Q+G,)G;+G,) . % . 7 The block G, and 71Z(14c,\G.+G,)H,] M8 in cascade and they are simply multiplied and the resultant block is shown in Fig. 4.6(d).. 4, The two blocks in Fig. 4.6(d) are in feedback and the ratio C/R is obtained as given in Fig. 4.6(e). Example 4.2. For the block diagram shown in F IC GG + GG, + Gs) R_ [0+ 0+ GG, + GH} ++ GNG, +A} c a) find Solutionaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Block Diagram Reduction Technique and Signal Flow Graph @ 4.11 Solution ) R. G Se ”| T58.GiHe oo «) GiG,G c 14G,GsH2+G,GH, Fig. 4.9 Block Diagram Reduction of Example 4.4 |. The input of #, block is shifted to point A. While shifting, the block has to be multiplied by G, to maintain the same output. This is shown in Fig. 4.9(b). 2. The blocks G, and H,G, are in feedback mode and is reduced using the formula 7——-> . This is TE shown in Fig. 4.9(c). 3. The block G,-and Team are in cascade and they are combined as Teen This combination is in negative feedback mode with the block H,. Using the formula <2. itis GG, GG ____ reduced 8 (14G.G,H,+GG,H,)° 4. This block is in cascade combination of the block G,. The successive reduction is shown in Fig. 4.9(b), 4.9(c) etc. e GEG, R (1+G,G,H,+6,G,H,)|aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Block Diagram Reduction Technique and Signal Flow Graph m 415 Solution 2 (eae }—t [we] HG (G2G5+G5) Gy [| [he © (B2Gs+Gs)G Gq HiGe (G2Go+G.)G, (a) (G2Ga+ Gs) G,Gy c (1 + Gig {Ga Hy ~ GaGgGqHo— GyGe] {e) Fig. 4.12 Block Diagram Reduction of Example 4.7 1. The input of 4, block is shifted from E, to E, point. Now the gain of the H, block is changed to H,G,, The block G,G, and G, are in feed-forward mode and are represented by its equivalent block with a gain of (G,G,+G,). This is in cascade with G, block and hence multiplied and represented with an equivalent block as shown in Fig. 4.12(b).. 2. The block HG, is shifted from point E, to point C, Now the blocks G, and (G,G,+G,)G, are in cascade and in the forward path. The forward path gain is (G,G,+G,)G,G,.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Block Diagram Reduction Technique and Signal FlowGraph ® 4.19 and (G, +G,) are in cascade and they are combined and represented 3. The blocks -GG.m as shown in Fig. 4.14(c). 4. Fig. 4,14(c) is in negative feedback mode and is reduced as shown in Fig. 4.14 (d). a om GGG) 3s The GRrations RO) 10-GG,H,)+ GGG, +6) @ 4.5 MULTIPLE INPUT SYSTEM Sometimes the system is given more than onc input.The output response is found for cach input separately assuming other inputs are absent. Then the total output response is found by adding the responses due to individual inputs. This is illustrated by the following examples. Example 4.10 For the Fig, 4.15(a) find C(s). c ® S-E 2 ® [=] o) © (@ Fig. 4.15 Block Diagram of Multiple Input System L. If we assume R; =0, Fig, 4.15(a) reduces to Fig, 4.15(b). From Fig. 4.15(b) GG, OR THGG, 2. If we assume R,=0. Fig. 4.15(a) reduces to Fig, 4.15(c). R,G, ij see FromFig. 4.15) = Ateaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Block Diagram Reduction Technique and Signal Flow Graph 4.23 D G,G, Gy & "| TG, nGH, Hy i) D Gs Cy +) "| i GH, ~ GiGaH, 1+ Gy (9) D Galt+Gy) (14G3H))0+6,}+G ,G.G,H,) (h) Fig. 4.17 Block Diagram Reduction of Example 4.12 Assume the disturbance D=0. Successive block diagram reductions are shown in Fig. 4.17(b). Now the output is C, and is given by c= RG,G,G, [CFG 0+ GH) +GG,G,4,] Now let us assume R = 0. Successive block diagram reductions are shown in Fig. 4.17(e). Now the output is C, and is given by, . DG,(1+G,) (U+G))0+G,H,)+6,G,G,4,] Cr When R and D are simultaneously present, the output is C=C, +Cy GRG,G, + DU+G,)] [0+ G)0+G,H)+G,G,G,H.]aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Block Diagram Reduction Technique and Signal Flow Graph m 4.27 2. Assuming R,= 0, and ignoring C,, the input/output relationship at C,, is obtained as shown in Fig. 4.19(c). ~G,G.G.R, Gre 1-GG.G,G, 3. When R, and R, are simultaneously present, the output C, due to R, and R, is C,=C,' + G". = [AR =9G8)] (I-GG,GG,) 4. Assuming R, = 0, and ignoring C,, the input/output relationship at C, is represented as C)' as shown in Fig, 4.19(4).. GR, (1-G,G,G,G,) 5. Assuming R, = 0, and ignoring C,, the input/output relationship at C, is represented.as.C,” as shown in Fig, 4.19(e). -G,G,G,R, cr AGsGR, * (1-GG,6,G,) 6. When R, and R, are simultaneously present the output C, due to R, and R, is given by C= C+ . G(R, -G,G4R)] (I-GG,G,G,) Example 4.15 Using block diagram reduetion technique find the T.F. from each input to theoutput C for the system shown in Fig, 4.20(a). (A.U,, May 2005) X(s) Gy “QR -R-ELY Solution = {s,| = [33] 3 = af a; roraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Block Diagram Reduction Technique and Signal Flow Graph m@ 4.31 @ 49 BASIC RULES OF SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH 1. Asignal always flows along the branch in the direction of the arrow. 2. When the signal flows through a branch, its strength gets multiplied by the branch gain. 3. The value of the signal at a node is the sum of all signals entering the node. 4. The value of the signal at a node is present on every branch leaving the node. ™ 410 BASIC CONNECTION FOR SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH Cascade Connection Three or more nodes are said to be connected in cascade if all the connected branches are pointing in the same direction and the cascade connection is reproduced by two terminal nodes and one equivalent branch gain which is equal to the product of all the branch gains of the cascade connections [Fig, 4.22(a)] o_o» 0 = o>» 0 x 8 De oH ab x @ = oe x an asd Xe . (b) s rs x % MM a Xe GH -H ) Fig. 4.22 (a) Cascade Connection of Signal Flow Graph (b) Parallel Connection of Signal Flow Graph (c) Feedback Connection of Signal Flow Graph Paratiel Connection If two nodes are connected by two or more branches such that one is the pure input node and the other is the pure output node, then the graph is called a parallel graph. The whole combinations are replaced by a single branch with a gain equal to the sum of branch gains of all the branches connecting to nodes. Refer Fig. 4.22(b). Feedback Connection The usual form of basic single I6op ~ve feedback system is represented by a signal flow graph shown in Fig. 4.22(c) The above signal flow graph is replaced by x, and x, with equivalent branch gain _@ __. The above formula is alternatively written in the form. 1+GH Forward path gai T= Loop gaaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Block Diagram Reduction Technige end Signal Flow Graph m 4.35 Solution ™ Xe % Xs Xs Xe a b e d e x Xp X Xs x % ° ° a 9 h Fig. 4.25 Signal Flow Graph of Example 4.18aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Block Diagram Reduction Technique and Signal Flow Graph m 4.39 Solution ‘There is only one forward path. The forward path gain is, T= GGG, ‘S.No._| Feedback Loop LoopGain 1 L,=-GG,H, 2: Hmm L, =-G,H, 3. %-%—%a 1, =-G,H, Ta hm —% 1, =-G,G,G,H, 2 All the feedback rae are in touch with the forward path. Hence, A, Lb, Cs) dete ee letermine Fr Fig. 4.29 Signal Flow Graph of Example 4.22aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Block Diagram Reduction Technique and Signal Flow Graph m 4.43 Example 4.25 Considering the signal flow graph shown in Fig. 4.32, find = xs Si G5 As, Xn W% Gs &, & “ @ " & Fig. 4.32 Signal Flow Graph of Example 4.25 Solution There is only one forward path with a branch gain of 7, =G,G,G,G,. The Mason’s gain formula becomes, Xe TAL x OA Identification of loops SI.No. Loop Leop Gaia WD aea ona b= GGG, 2. x, -%\—%, X57 Xs LDP ath the Lebthth G, Gy +GyG\, + GG,GG,G, + GGG,G,, +G,G,, + GGG, +Gy] Loops | & 7,2 & 7 and 5 & 7 are not touching. Hence the sum of gain product of these two non-touching loops is given below. - LL, = G,G,G,G, Lyby = GG Gy LL, =G,G,G, Hence, D Par = GGG + GyG.Gy + GG.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Block Diagram Reduction Technique and Signal Flow Graph m 4.47 1. For the block diagram shown in Fig. 4.35(a), the variables £,, £,, £,, and E, are marked in addition to the input variable R and output variable C. 2. For each variable noted in step 1,a node is marked. To node £,, node & is connected with branch gain 1 and node £, is connected with branch gain ~H,. Thus at £,, the relationship £,= R—E,H, is satisfied. 3. To node E,, node C is connected with the branch gain -H, and node E, is connected with a branch gain 1. This satisfies the E, relationship E, = E,— CH, as in the block diagram. 4. Tonode E,, node £, is connected with the branch gain G, and node £, is connected with the branch gain I. This satisfies the relationship £, ~ E,G,~ as in the block diagram. 5. Tonode C, node E, is connected with a branch gain G,. This satisfies the relationship C = E,G, in the’block diagram. 6. Tonode £,, node C is connected with the branch gain H7, to satisfy the relationship £, = CH, as in the block diagram. The signal flow graph of Fig. 4.35(a) is shown in Fig. 4.35(b). There is only one forward path and forward path gain 7, =G,G,. From Fig, 4.35(b), Since there are no non-touching loops, A=1-(L,4+1,+L,)=1+G,H,+GG,H, +G,H,G,H, Since all the feedback loops are broken when removed from the forward path Ay=1 14G,H, 4G, Example 4.28 Convert the block diagram representation of a system as shown in Fig. 4.36(a) into a signal flow graph. Accordingly, find the .F. oH (A.U,, April 2004) “&e&) abil os) (a)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Block Diagram Reduction Technique and Signal Flow Groph @ 4.51 Solution (b) Fig. 4.38 Block Diagram and Equivalent Signal Flow Graph of Example 4.30 The signals x, to x, are marked in the block diagram as shown in Fig. 4.38(a) just by inspection. The six variables are represented by six nodes and the functional relations by branches. The equivalent signal flow graph is constructed as shown in Fig. 4.38(b). Hdentification of Forward Paths S.No. Forward Path Forward Path Gain Lo] Rex-x-4 0 -C T, =GG.G, 2 | R-x,-x, he ‘The Mason Gain formula is c TA, +Tabe Calculation of A S.No. Loop Gain 1 1, =-G,0,G,H, 2. 3, 4 [xy C-yenny 5. xy-x,-C—% “Ly =-G,GjH, (L,+L, + by +L, +L) =1+G,G,G,H, +H, +G.G,H,-GH\H, + G.G,H, ze There are no two non-touching loops, since all the loops are in touch with each other 5)?,,=0 Hence, A =1+G,G,GH, + H,+G,G,H, -G,H,H, +G,G,H, .aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Block Diagram Reduction Technique and Signal Flow Graph m 4.55 Example 4.32 Using Mason’s gain formula, obtain C/R ratio of Fig. 4.40. Fig 440 Signal Flow Graph of Example 4.32 Solution 1, Identification of forward paths. S.No. Forward Pati Forward Path Gain lL. R-¥-%-4- GW T=6,G,G, | i Rx 7x -% 4 -C T,=G,GG, | 3 T= G,G,G, | 4. T,=G,G.G, 5. T,=-G,GH,GG, 6 T, =-G,GHGG, 2. Identification.of feedback loops S.No. | Feedback Loop Loop-Gain 1 L,=-G,H, 2 L, =-G.H; 3 X,-- — 1, =+GHGH, 3. Sum of individual loop gains DP ath thy = GH, -GH, +G\H,GA, 4. The loops | and 2 are not touching each other. Hence DP hh, = GUGM,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Block Diagram Reduction Technique and Signal Flow Graph m 4.59 There are two combinations of two non-touching loops. They are I and 3 and 2 and 3. DP, hl, + Ll, =G,H,H, +H, AMIAE A) HEA: AMGH, + H+ Ha) + (GH Hy + HH) 34 UGG,G.G.G,)+(GG,G.H.)+ GH A+ GH, + Hy +H, +(G,H,H,)+ (HHH Pox, (1+G,H,- HHH, +G,H, +H, +H, +(G,H,H, ~ H\H, HH, +G,H,A, + HA, +G,H,H, +(GH,HH,)) x, x Calculation of |: To obtain yan artificial node x; =x, is created and the Mason’s gain formula x, 7 applied for input node x, and output node «/ as shown in Fig. 4.42 1. Identification of forward paths S.No. Forward Path Forward Path Gain 1 | =m -5-¥ 7,=GG, 2 [soa ee T= -GHM, TA +h: A The value of Ais same as given earlier since 4 is the property of the whole signal flow graph Calculation of A, If the nodes constituting the first forward path are removed, the following loops are not broken. They are x,—x, and x, —x,. DP = (+h) =, +4) Dhan = (ba) = AA, Hence, 4, (Lt hy) + LL, = 1+ (Hy + Hy) MH Calculation of A, If the nodes constituting the 2nd forward path are removed there is only one loop not broken and its loop gain Z,=-H,. Hence A, =(I-L,)=1+, 33 IGG, {1+ (A, + Hy) + HH }-GiHy Hs (U4 A] x, (+G,H,—H,H,H, +G,H, +H, + H, +(G,H,H, +G,H,H, + HH, - HHH, + GAH, + GH) HH) Example4.35_ For the electrical network shown in Fig. 4.43 draw the signal flow graph and hence find V,/V. The current source produces current a times the current that is passing through the resistance R,. (A.U,, Apr. 2004)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Block Diagram Reduction Technique and Signal Flow Graph m 4.63 Loop | and 2 are non-touching, Hence L,., s?, There are no 3 non-touching loops. (h tht hth =(1F RCs + RCys + R,C,8 + RRCCyS*) 4. Calcualtion of A, With the forward path 1, if the connections of the feedback loops are removed, the loops are all broken. Hence, there are no feedback loops for the forward path | and so 4,=1. 5. Calculation of Ay With the forward path 2, if the connections of feedback loops are removed, feedback loop | and 3 are not broken. However, these loops are touching each other. Hence, sand LL, =0 Hence, a, L, +1.) =(14+R,C,s + R,C,s) 6. T=RRCCs° T=1 7. Using Mason’s gain formula, we get, Veg Tibi hay ¥, a RR CC,s? +14 RCs + B,Cys) * [IF RC s+ RCS + RCS + RRC S | Fae [RAC +R (C, +C,)s +1] KTR RCs BC+ RG RG )s+t] ¥, Example 4.37 For the network shown below, draw the signal flow graph and find 7. Ry 2 Ro ic pare 1 2 3 Fig. 4.45. Signal Flow Graph of Electrical Network of Example 4.37aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Block Diagram Reduction Technique and Signal Flow Groph m 4.67 Itis to be noted that fora signal flow graph, A is the same for any output node to any input node. The suffixes a and & denote the nodes between x, tox, and x, tox,respectively. Substituting the Xe . ss above relationships in the expression for ,*. we get the following equation. eS Towne * OD Tu Aan a ‘Thus, Mason’s gain formulas applied between output node and non-input node. The determination of A is not required which is somewhat tedious. The following example illustrates the above procedure. Example 4.39 Consider the signal flow graph shown in Fig. 4.47. Determine ** x Fig. 4.47 Signal Flow Graph of Example 4.39 To determine > Tan. (from x, tox, node) SNo. | ForwardPath Forward Path Gain 1 Xray BBM, Ta=G,G,G,G,G, 2 Xr, Te=G66,G,G, All the 3 feedback loops are touching the first forward path. Hence when their connections are removed they are all broken. Hence 4), =! With the second forward path, the loop with gain -H, alone is not touching, Hence 42, =(I+ 2) bn 5 Tab = Tahia + Fybre ™ =G,6,6,G,G,+G,G,G,G,(1+H,) To determine ¥ Ty,nu (From x, to x, node) There is only one forward path between x, to x, node and the forward path gain 7,,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Block Diagram Reduction Technique and Signal Flow Graph ™ 4.71 input and becomes input to the first block. If the output of the second block aids the reference input the feedback is known as positive feedback. If the output of the second block opposes the reference input, the feedback is known as negative feedback. If the output at a point is obtained by summing more than one variable, such variables are said to be in feed forward connection. What do you understand by multiple input system? Sometimes, the system is given more than one input. The output response is found for each input separately assuming other inputs are absent. Then the total output response is found by adding the response due to the individual inputs. Such systems are called multiple input systems. What are the advantages of block diagram representation? (a) Easy to form the overall block diagram for the whole system by of each component. (b) The functional operation of the system is readily visualised by examining the block diagram rather than the physical system itself. What do you understand by non-interaction of blocks? ‘The basic assumption in the block diagram representation of a system is that what is inside the block is not affected by what is outside of the block except for the inputs. This means there is no interaction between blocks. Explain how important functions are concealed in block diagram representation. A serious drawback of block diagram representation is the possibility of important functions being concealed (omitted or hidden) within the walls of the block. This is due to manipulations of the physical equation for obtaining the T.F model and putting it in the block diagram form. ply connecting the blocks Explain the terms reciprocity and non-reciprocity with reference to block diagram representation? Passive symmetrical pi networks are reciprocal because input and output are interchangeable and any aniplifier network is non-reciprocal because input and output are not interchangeable, but both are represented by block diagrams without any reference to the above property. What is an input node, output node and mixed node of a signal flow graph? (a) Input node A node which has only outgoing branches is called input node. Input node represents independent variable or source. . (b) Output node A node which has only incoming branches is called output node. Output node represents dependent variable or sink. (c) Mixed node A node which does not belong to either input or output is called mixed node. It is necessary to note the above definition of input or output node because it often involves the drawing of artificial duplicate input or output node when input or output node appears as a mixed node in the graph. Define path and loop of a signal flow graph. A path is a traversal of branches connected by nodes in the direction of the arrows. If no node is encountered more than once, then the path is called open path. If the path ends at the starting node and does not encounter any node more than once, it is called closed path. If the path ends at the starting node and does not encounter any node more than once, it is called a loop.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Block Diagram Reduction Technique and Signal Flow Graph @ 4.75 6, For the block diagram shown in Fig. 4.56 determine oa by block diagram reduction technique. Gs R Ols) EQ c la-Bre eho Hs, Fig. 4.56 Block Diagram of Question 6 i, +G,G,) iG, +G,GH, ~GyH\H,) cl 7. Consider the signal flow graph shown in Fig. 4.57. Determine oo using Mason’s gain formula. cls) Fig. 4.57 Signal Flow Graph of Question 7 Forward path gains are 7, =G,G,G,G,G,G, and T, =G,G,G,G,G,G, Loop gains (1) £,=G,H, (2) £,=G,H; (3) L, CE) _ G,G,GGG(Gs + G,) RG) [(-G,H, GH, -G,G,H, CGH, + GH\G,H, +G,G,H, +G,G,H,)] VGH, (4) Ly = yy 4, = Land A, =1 8. Obtain the ratio C/R for the system represented in the block diagram of Fig. 4.58. >| G3 a >| Go Hy Fig. 4.58 Block Diagram of Question 8 (G,+G,) 2H(G,+G M+ Ay) Fis) ow) >aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Time Response of Feedback Control Sysiems m 5.7 Solution The input applied is a ramp of slope @, F ©, As already derived, £,, = 10X27 | o5radisec Fo, _102«10 «1.05 E, | * 05x 513 =1.23x107 N.m/rad error For this controller gain and for other specifications given in the problem the damping factor cannot be 0.35.unless some external damping is added. Let F' be the new frictional coefficient. Then, Ks: Fl = 02S KS =2x0.35V 1.23107 «18x 10% 33010" N.mv/rad/see. Already there exists a friction of 102 x 10-* N.m/rad/sec. Hence the required external friction to be added to the system for the above specifications is, (330-102) x10 =228x 10° N.m/rad/sec ™ 5.6 TRANSIENT RESPONSE (OR TIME RESPONSE OR DYNAMIC RESPONSE) OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS The transient response or time response or otherwise called dynamic response of a system gives the variation of the system output variable with respect to time. Consider the block diagram shown in te) Fis) £8) oe Output H(e) Feedback Fig. 5.4 Block Diagram Representation of a Feedback System In Fig.5.4, R(s) is the input variable, C(s) is the output variable, E(s) is the error, G(s) the forward path transfer function and H(s) is the transfer function of the feedback path. From Fig.5.4, the following relationship is easily obtained. £(s)= 6.9)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.16 m Control Systems Engineering ™@ 5.11 GRAPHICAL METHOD OF DETERMINING THE RESIDUES Let K(s+ + PMs+ Pr)(s+ r)(s+ rs) Let p, and p, be real and p, and p, be complex. The above expression is written as Pala) Fig. 5.9 Graphical Method of Determining the Residues First let us locate the poles and zeros of the given transfer function in thes plane. The pole is marked by a cross x and a zero is marked by a sinall cricle o. The pole-zero configuration is shown in Fig, 5.9. Suppose, we ate interested in determining the residue 4, atthe pole p,. Vectors are drawn from other poles and zeros to p,. The vector length to , from other poles and zeros are marked as A, B, C and D and the corresponding angles these vectors make with the reference lines are @;,6;,90°,@). The residue at p, is given by K x Product of directed distances from each zero to P, Product of directed distances from all other poles to F, KDz6, © AZ0,BZ0,C L390" The angles 0,,0,,0, and 90° should be measured positive in the anti-clockwise direction from the reference and negative in the clockwise direction. Reference line at any point is drawn horizontally to the right, from where the vector starts.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.20 m Control Systems Engineering @ 5.12 TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF A FIRST ORDER SYSTEM Example 5.9 Derive the step response for a first order system. 0.6esT T=1 aT aT atts 5T Fig. $.13 Step Response of a First Order System Any first order system is characterised by the following transfer function c K <(s)=G(s)= Z=99 (s +a) where K and a are free parameters of the first order system. For unit step input A(s)= 1. The 5 following equation is written. . atl eal Taking inverse Laplace transform for the.above equation the following expression for c/1) is obtained. The step input response curve is as shown in Fig. 5.13. Example 5.10 Derive the ramp response of a first order system and plot the response. (A.U., Nov.2004) c(t) Fig.'5.14 Romp Response ofa First Order Systemaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.24 m Control Systems Engineering The constants 4,, 4, and A, are determined by referring to Fig. 5.15. From Fig, 5.16, (i-<") g R90°-8 “a ee -@)\90° “af o) A, = Conjugate of 4, aire where @=2-@ C(]R i 2ft-2)(erto, 70.) 2k Anis + j0,) Taking Laplace inverse, the following equation is obtained. = Rwhere tang = (60-10, -f +9} ostinato 58) L'e(s}=R| emo a 2 elt) = Since 0=(x-¢), (5.17) c(t)= Rl-— Te sin(w,t+9)] 5.15.2 Critically Damped Case ¢=1 where | tang= For the critically damped case of ¢ =1, for step input, the following expression for c(t) is derived on similar lines. et) = R[I-™! ~ 4 te] (5.178)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.28 w Control Systems Engineering ‘The amount of maximum overshoot is obtained by substituting ¢ = on (-<) sing ee aise?) Since the steady state final value is 1, the first maximum overshoot My =C-l (6.21) Ifthe input R is considered, the first maximum over-shoot is, ie =Re WS M,=Re (5.22) The percentage maximum overshoot is given by. sei * 100 4 Ree %M , =—e eR abn My = eS 100 (5.23) Hence the overshoot depends on the damping ratio only. The curve damping ratio versus the percentage maximum overshoot is shown in Fig. 5.17. % Over-shoot 8 pi Fig. 5.17 Overshoot as a Fuinction of Dampingaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.32 i Control Systems Engineering ™ 5.18 IMPULSE RESPONSE OF A SECOND ORDER SYSTEM Sometimes systems are subjected to shock inputs. For example, when a gun is fired, there isa reaction that has a large magnitude occuring for a very short duration of time. Such a disturbance occurring for a small interval of time is called an impulse. It has been already derived that the Laplace transform of an impulse is 1. For unit step, the Laplace tranform is I/s. The letter ‘s' is nothing but d/dt. Hence the response of the system to an impulse is nothing but the derivative of response of the system to step input. In the usual way of finding the transient response, the impulse response for the critically damped case is derived. For other cases, it is derived from step response by taking the derivative of it. By plotting the impulse response curve, one could conclude that the system is stable if the area under this curve is finite (see Chapter 6). Case I: Critically damped case ‘¢=1 The input-output equation for a second order system is, c(s : R(s) For an unit impulse R(s) =1, For.critical damped case ¢. (s) (s+e,) Hence, taking Laplace inverse for C(s) we get e=bCs)=oe™ The same result is derived by taking the derivative of the unit step resonse for the criti case. For unit step, of critically damped case, the output response is derived as (see equation (5.17a)). -e™ (14,0) de(t) at =0-[-c,e™ (I+0,1)+0,e™ ] el)=au Case Il: Underdamped case <1 For a second order underdamped system for unit impulse input, the following equation is written. 2 Oy (s° +2C0,s+03) oo, 4 (t0,4 70,40, =J0,) (+80, +70,) ” (+E0, ~70,) esaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.36 m Control Systems Engineering ett) Fig. 5.20 Transient Response Curve of Example 5.12 Solution From equation (5.5) the steady state error for unit step input is, Ek K It is given that £, = 0.1 rad and T= 1. Hence K= 10 From Fig. 5.21 the damped frequency of oscillation a rad oy= “°° 0.12 sec But (6.32) From equation (5.7), the steady state error for velocity input is © Buy = 26 se a a id It is given that for velocity input the steady state error is 2° for @; = = pie 2 and 5 “Oe 57g M4 (@, = lrad/see and £, =2°) “0, =57.36 28 Note :1 rad = 57.3° 10, = 57.36 5 (Note :1 rad = $7.3°) (5.33) Substituting equation (5.32) in equation (5.33), we get srt (ine) = salle )=ai5 ¢4-¢7+021=0 67 =0.7 0r 03 + $= 0.835 or 0.547aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.40 m Control Systems Engineering Taking Laplace inverse transform, we get e(t) =0.524[0.1-0.1e7" -1e™ ] et) = 0.524[ 01-2" (0.14 trad] Example 5.15 A unity feedback control system has an open loop TF. 10 Ge) = 4D) Find the rise time, percentage overshoot, peak time, time delay and settling time for a step input of 12. units. (A.U, Dee, 2003) Solution 10 G9) Ty Cs)__ Gs) 10 Ris) 1+G(s) s?+2s+10 Comparing this with the standard second order system equation, we get oe) Rs) 8+ 2a,s+07 162 rad/sec. The rise time 0, =0,\1- 2 =3.162V1- 031? =3rad/sec + cos" =9 SS 5100 =e%-™ 100 = 36% %Overshoot Actual peak overshoot M, = 0.36 x 12= 43.2 units For estimating the settling time unless otherwise mentioned, the permissible error is taken as 2%. For 2% error, the expression for the settling time is, =m.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.44 @ Control Systems Engineering Let , be the damping factor for 75% overshoot and ¢, for 25% overshoot. ie ev 20.75 or wee” 75 = -0.2876 Solving the above equation, we get 6, = 0.0911 025 or In0.25 = -1.386 Solving the above equation,-we get £, = 0.4037 From the expression derived earlier for ¢, , we get the following equations 1 = 0.0911 or K,7 = 30.12 (K,7-) £29.12 1 (K,T -1) = 0.53 Dividing one by the other, we get (KT) _ 29.12 _ 5 (K,T-1) 053 . (KF! =55 (KT) Example 5.19 The open lcop -F ofa unity feedback control system is given by G(s) = — _ = ses By what factor should the amplifier gain A be multiplied so that the damping ratio is increased from 0.2 to 0.67 : Solution The closed loop TF. of the given system is written as, C(s)__ Gs) A RG) 1G) Ts? +544 A CO) RY 4d gr4aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.48 @ Control Systems Engineering (14K Ky) or = 2K +K Ky _ (26, -1) _(2x0.456x3.53~1) : K 12.46 Ky = 0178 The rise time But 0, =0, {i$ =3.53xVi-0456 = sec = cos! ¢ =cos™! 0.456 = 62.87° or I. trad Hens |g = 2h 0.65 se z For 2% error, m= 4 and time constant 7 =—1- =! __ 0.621 sec. Co, 0.456x3.53 Settling time 1, = mT =4%0.621 = 2484500 Answers K=12.46 K, =0.178 1, =0.65sec - 1, =2.484sec. Example 5.23 A closed loop servo system is represented by the differential equation. He ode 5 i ” P atte = 64e where c is the displacement of the output shaft, r is the displacement of the input l shaft and e = rc. Determine the undamped natural frequency, damping ratio and percentage maximum overshoot for the step input.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.52 m Control Systems Engineering The transient response of the given system and that of the standard second order system is same at all time / except that the given system output is multiplied by a factor 2 at all times. Now, comparing the characteristic equations, we get w, = V5 and 2a, =4 or 6 = 0.894 m 0.89470 =3.8x10" Overshoot M,, = eVi-C” evi-0.8947 M,, = 3.810 38 %M, x10° x100= 0.19 Answers $=0894 M,, =3.8x10° %M, = 0.19% Example 5.27 Determine the damping ratio, undamped natural frequency for the system shown in Fig,5.25. What is the response c(¢) of this system to a unit step function excitation r(/) = u(r) when all initial conditions are zero? Ris) ote Fig. 5.24 Block Diagram of Example 5.27 Solution Compare the given G(s) to the standard second order system equation . 25 s(v+260,) s(s-+2) imal = Spm Lil or ¢ 3 * og = N10. 9rad /sec. The step function response of a second order system is derived as, : anos) cialis S° or 1.37 rad Since w = 1, and o=cos'f [e(t) = [1 1.026" sin (4,91 + 1.37],aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.56 m@ Control Systems Engineering Taking Laplace inverse, we get é c(t) ‘Taking the initial equilibrium value 1, we get the total response as, e(t)=1+e" -e™ The transient response curve is shown in Fig. 5.27. Example 5.30 Determine the values of K and a, of the closed loop system shown in Fig. 5.28, so that the maximum overshoot in unit step response is 25% and the peak time is 2 sec. Assume that J=Ikg.m?. (A.U,, Nov. 2004) Gs) Fig $.28(a) Block Diagram of Example 5.30 cs) Fig $.28(b) Reduced Block Diagram of Fig. 5.28(a) Solution From Fig .5.28 (a) Cs) __Ki ds he The given block diagram represented in Fig, $.28(a) after successive reduction is shown in Fig. 5.28(b). From Fig. 5.28(b), the following closed loop T.F. is obtained. = s(Js+ Ka) Compare this with the standard second order equation. Co) Rs) (5? +260,8+ 0,7)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.60 m Control Systems Engineering Time constant Alternative method For unit step input the Laplace transform of the output variable is written as, 1 @.4s+1) 3 (st +54l) A, +A) As? +s+1)+4,5+ +541) s(s? +541) ci)= Comparing the numerators, we get the following equation. (O4S+1I)= Als’ +5+1I+AS+AS B(AtA)S H(A +A4)S+ 4, Comparing the coefficients of s?we get 4,+ 4, =0 or 4, =—A, Comparing the coefficients of s, we get (4 +4,)=04 Comparing coefficients of the free term, we get 4, =1 From the above we obtain that 4, = |; 4. = —0.6 and 4; = —1. Substituting these values in the equation for Cis), we get, (s+0.540.1) GET OO). (9? +541) S +541 =(s? +5+0.8667 +.25) But, 2 2 = (s+.5)) +0.866° 1_f 0.1 6 c++ -} 4 + FS Henee, 5” |(x05) +866 * 0.866 (540.5)? + 8607 +05 si ye, 050.8661 We know that Tea snee 0-88 =e 5! sin 0.8661 and, (s+.5)? +0866" Hence, eft) = £'C(s) = 1-0" {0s 0.8661 + 0.1 15 sin 0.8667} ale Ors? {sina 86+ 5 i} Answer elt) = 1-2 sin(0,8661 +1.46)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.64 w Control Systems Engineering Type 0 System Type 0 system is written as K, (i+52,)(1+52,).. = A A GHG) = Tee leap) From equation (5.43) K, = Lt GH(s)= K, R R oT) TAK From equation (5.44) Type 1 System K,(1+52,)(1+52,).. F I stem, let = ‘or a type I system, let GH(s) Tenia K, = LtGH(s)=0 R "TS Type 2 System The type 2 system is considered as K,(+sz,)(1+s2,)... = Killtse (lt s2,).. GHO)= Ses lap, K, = LAGH(s)== R t= $o2 2g, (6.43) (6.46) (6.47) (6.48) (5.49) Hence for step input, other than type 0 system, the steady state error is zero. Only for type 0 system, it gives finite steady state error. @ 5.21 STEADY STATE ERROR FOR VELOCITY INPUT Let the velocity input »(t) = Rt where R is the stope of the ramp in rad/sec. Hence R(s)= = # sR F.> E()= MoT GAG] oF R. O+sGH(s) Ky where = LesGM(s)| and Ege. kK, (6.50) (5.51) K, is called the velocity error constant and has a unit of sec”'. The steady state error for various types of the system is determined in terms of K,,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.68 & Control Systems Engineering Example 5.34 For a control system (0) = 10u(0) ~ St where u(0) is unit step. The output C(s) is 75(s +a) (2s~1) given as C(s)= 3 (s+16) (5430) Determine the steady state error £.,. Solution r(Q)=10u(s)—5¢ and u(e)=1 rye 5 pic Error E(s)= RG) c(s) _5(2s 15(s+ a)(2s—1) - *(s+16)(s+30) £(s)= 5(2s-1)[(s+16)(s+30) ]-75(s+a)(2s-1) 2 (s+16)(s+30) Steady state error g = Lise(s) fe = ue 25(28-1) 1) [(s-+16)(s+30)]-75(s+a)(2s-1}s rw ar (s+16)(s+30) Boe (-5)[(16%30)]+75a_ a 0x16 x30 Example 5.35 Find the response as ¢ approaching infinity of the system having a T.F 15 OTe a ae 4 ©) 70)= Fas) Comment on the responses. Solution Since the type of input is not mentioned, the response is determined for impulse, step and velocity. (a) For impulse input R(s) = 1. If we denote C(s) as the output, then cs) R(s) Clo)= poe sC(s)= tt soa =2 T(s)= For unit step input, R(s)=4 = ’ 8 OTH Clee)= Lt sCis)= uae For velocity and acceleration inputs, the output is infinity as f°aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.72 m™ Control Systems Engineering Hence we need to determine only C, and C,. (541) F(s)= now" Gell C= LF (s)= u-th- a aF(s)_(U+s)-(s+1) ds (+s) _ ) (il+s)=(s41)_ 10 Oe esy) TT Constants C,, C, etc., need not be determined since #(), #0) etc. are zero, Hence, £, = LifCr(1)+Gr(1)] = Lt iva] “10 li 121 a ett) Hence the error is given in terms of time ¢, It gives an idea of how the error accumulates with time. Example5.38 A unity feedback systems has G(s) = at 5 The input tothe system is described s+ by (0) = 4 + 6¢ + 2P. Find the generalized error coefficients and hence the steady state error. Solution r(t)=4+ 6142" F=6+6" F(t) = 120 ' F(Q=12 #()=0 The constants C,, C,, C, and C, are to be determined. 1 (st+s F(s)= Tee = oy C= Lt F(s)=0 AF (5) _(s +541) Qs4I)-(s? +5) 2541) __ 2s41) as (f+st) (st+s41) gay) ve (s+se1) 2(2st)'(s'+s41) -6(s?+5) (easel) (6 stl)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.76 m Control Systems Engineering Solution The inner loop of Fig. 5.31 is reduced as follows: LE) _ gy Ze 7) eh __G)___ 6410) 14+GH(s) ,, Ks s(s-+10) K K 6@-—— = eID B k= LpsG=% uty = SOT Steady state error, Example 5.43 A certain unity negative feedback control system has the following forward path TR. Gls) Me) .When the system is subjected to unit step input, it is observed that the steady s+ state error is 0.25. The system is to have a natural frequency of oscillation , =2 rad/sec and damping factor £ =0.6. Determine the value of K, a and b. Solution The closed loop T.F. of the given system is obtained as, chs) Gs) Rs) 1+G(s) _ K(s+a) _ K(s+a) © (stb) K(st+a)) (s? +(K+26)s+ (Kat 5%] Compare the characteristic equation with that of the standard second order system. Thus, 8? +200,5+@} = 5s? +(K +2b)s+(Ka+e")aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.}0 @ Control Systems Engineering Consider the system represented in block diagram form as shown in Fig. 5.33. G(s) = TF. of the controller Gy(s)= T.F.of the plant R(s) = Input tothesystem D(s) = Disturbance E(s) = Error C(s) = System output From Fig. 5.33 the following equation is written. C(s) = E{s)G\(8)G,(s)+ DCS) G(s) But Cls) = R(s)~ Els) « R(s)~ E(s) = E(s) G(s) G,(s) + D(s) G(s) oro Espen ee fie UD Gy 1+G,(s) G(s) 1+G,(3) G3) The first term on the right hand side represents the error due to R(s) and the second term due to the disturbance D(s). By applying final value theorem. £,, is obtained. Eqg= Lt sE(3) Example 5.45 Consider the system represented in Fig. 5.34, Determine the steady state error due to unit step input and a step disturbance of 10 unit. Des) Ris) as) Fig. 5.34 Block Diagram of Example 5.45 Solution The error due to input disturbance is, Ris) eh 2O"TG@ Gan ere ROn; 1 ; (s+215+4) gi ttt mete te Fi 1005) 5] [sle+2Xs+4)+ 5006+5)] (s+2) s(s+4), Steady state error is, = & bye SENT) Boo, = LES BUS) = Ut ey ays +4)+5006645)] =0aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.84 m Control Systems Engineering The closed loop transfer function of a second order system with PD controller is GEO) ay (4) (Kp +Kgs)o} eR £ RO G.Ge | 2 4(2l0, + Kyo? )s+ Kpar Kp From equation (5.77) it is evident that a zero at -—" is added to the system. We have already 4 shown that a system with addition of a zero executes more oscillations with increased amount of overshoot and decreased rise time and fastness of response as K,, is reduced, However from equation (5.77) it is evident that the coefficient of s of the characteristic polynomial is modified from 2¢w, to (go, + K,~2) which increases the effective damping of the system. The increased damping ultimately reduces the peak overshoot. The transient response curves of a typical second order system with =0.6 and @, =2 for unit step input are given in Fig, 5.38. ee ; ti Fig. 5.38 Transient Response with PD Comroller ™@ 5.28 Pl CONTROLLER The transfer function of a PI controller is given by _ Ky) _[ Ks 4K, c.O)=(«+4 } [ +8] (6.78) The closed loop transfer function of a second order system with Pl controller is obtained as, é GING) of (K,s+K,) Cpa GIGS) _ yy RO) Tea aM)" 4 2Go,5+0iK,ss0iK, (5.79) ee . a Ky This is equivalent to adding zero to the closed loop transfer function at s =~. From equation ie (5.79) it is evident that the forward path transfer function G(s) G(s) has its type incréased from one to two, and the order of the system from two to three. By increasing the type of the system by one, the steady state error of the original system (without integral controller) is improved by one. That isaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.88 M Control Systems Engineering x ee — 3 = 0.2416 rad/sec 8.666 For2%error et 4 208 sec fo, 05x10 where 7 =< fu, - aa 05x fet %M, =e" * x100 = x100= 16.3% The period of oscillation is given by, 2n_ In 7-22 aZZ 207 om ggg 7 O 72SEC The number of oscillations completed before reaching the settling time is given by, qr 08 21 1 eycles % 0.725 With Derivative Feedback Control The new damping factor with derivative feedback is given by, (from (5.80a)) " K, gecetto, where ¢=0.5, 6’=0.8 and @, =10 Substituting these values, we get (/-6)2 _ (08-0.5)x2_ K, = tt = CATE 0.06 ®, 10 Now, = cos 0.8 = 0.6435 rad i=? = 10V1=0.64 = Gradisec 0.6435 6 = 0.4163 sec 4 08x10 4 =4T= = 05sec Percentage M, = e* x 100 = 1.52%aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.92 m Control Systems Engineering d) Both a, and a,’are complex with their real parts being negative. The pole location for this case is shown in Fig. 5.44(d). The following expression is derived for c(t). eli)= Ke sinar o The above expression is plotted and shown in Fig. 5.44(d°). e) Both a, and a, are complex with their real parts being positive. ‘The pole location for this case is shown in Fig. 5.44(e). The following expression for c(t) is derived. K saat g yak ot sina e()= Set sin The above expression is plotted and shown in Fig. 5.44(¢’). From the above plots, it is evident that case (a) indicates stable operation. Case (b) and case (e) denote unstable operation where the response curve increases exponentially with respect to time. Case (c) is purely oscillatory and case (d) belongs to stable operation with exponentially decaying oscillations @ 5.33 THE SENSITIVITY ‘ The change in environment, aging of components used and drift in operating conditions cause variation of parameters in the system. These variations in the system parameters alter the T.F. of the system which in turn gives a totally different characteristics from the predicted ones with the original parameters. The system should be insensitive to such variations. A measure of system sensitivity is called sensitivity function. Thus, 1 _ Ye change in Mf “ee change in G A) 5 / x yo a5 o%s) H(s) Fig. 5.45 Block Diagram of a Feedback System For the block diagram shown in Fig. 5.45, the closed loop T.F. is derived as cw Rs) M(s) Gs) 1+GH(s) 1. The sensitivity of M to change in G is obtained as, AM sf = te Gaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.3.96 @ Control Systems Engineering CHAPTER SUMMARY |. A second order system dynamic equation is derived in a standard form and expressed in terms of two parameters namely the damping ratio ¢ and natural frequency of oscillation @, . 2. The steady state error of a second order system for step and ramp inputs are derived under no load and load conditions. 3. Todetermine the tranisent response of a system for any input, the transfer function of the system is put into partial fraction and the residues are determined. Both conventional (Comparing the coefficients of s) as well as graphical methods are used for this. The above two methods are explained with examples. However, it is emphasized that the graphical method of determining the residues is much simpler than the conventional method. The graphical method is especially convenient when the given TF. is complex and has repeated poles. It is to be noted here that one need not draw any graph for this. Further, the solution is obtained very quickly and expressed in compact form. 4. Time response of a first order system for step and ramp inputs are dervied and performance specifications are defined. 5. Expressions for the transient response of a second order system for step, ramp and impulse input signals are derived. 6. The transient response curves of a second order system to step input are plotted for various damping factors. Time response specifications such as rise time, settling time, time delay, peak- overshoot, the time at which the peak overshoot occurs, time constant, the period of oscillations and the number of oscillations before the settling time is reached are defined and the expressions for these specifications in terms of damping factor and natural frequency of oscillations are derived. 7. The steady state performance of any system for step, ramp and parabolic inputs are determined using static error constants K,, K, and K,, respectively. To know the variation of the error with respect to time, dynamic error constants C,,C,,C, ... C, are used. 8. The transient and steady state performance characteristics of a second order system with and without PID controller are determined and compared. 9. The effect of pole locations in the s plane of a second order system is studied in terms of transient response and stability. Finally, the sensitivity of the system for variation of parameters is discussed and illustrated with examples. EXERCISE Give brief answers in about.three lines 1. Compare the step responses of the first order and second order systems. The step response of the first order system is free from any oscillation. However, for the second order system, the system response contains oscillations for under damped systems as shown in Fig. 5.49.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.5.100 m Control Systems Engineering 25, What is the time constant of a control system? Time constant is the time when the output reaches 63.2% of its final value for the very first time Lower the time constant, faster the response of a control system is. 26. Define overshoot. Overshoot of a system indicates the relative stability of the system. It is often expressed as percent age overshoot. Peak overshoot = (Maximum peak value ~ Final value). Percentage peak overshoot (Maximum peak value-Final value) %M p = 100 , Percentage overshoot is also defined as the amount Final value that the under damped step response overshoots the steady state or final value at the peak time expressed as a percantage of the final value. 27, What is the importance of impulse response curve of a system? From impulse response, the transfer function of a system is easily derived. By plotting the impulse response curve one concludes that the system is stable if the area under this curve is finite. It is also possible to derive response due to other inputs from this. 28, Explain why a system is tested for step input? 1. Step input is easy to generate and apply to the system. 2. Itis sufficiently drastic. If the system gives satisfactory performance for step input, it is likely to give satisfactory response to other type of commonly used signals. 3. Ifthe response to step is known, from this it is possible to derive the response to other type of inputs. . 4. The application of step input is equivalent to the application of numerous sinusoidal signals with a wide range of frequencies. 29, What do you understand by damped frequency of oscillation? @, =0, ¢°) is called the damped frequency of oscillation of the system where @, Re type 0 2nd order tstonder type 1 t (a) (b) Fig. 6.6 (a) Terminating Part of Polar Plot (b) Starting Part of Polar Plot ™@ 6.6 MINIMUM AND NON-MINIMUM PHASE TRANSFER FUNCTIONS Aminimum phase transfer function is one whose poles and zeros all fall in left half of the complex s plane (LHP). G(s)= "S75 is aminimum phase TF. and G(s)= ZA is anon-minimum phase TF. If atleast one pole or a zero of G(s) falls in RHP, then the LF. is called a non-minimum phase T-F.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.6.10 m Control Systems Engineering @ 6.7 MINIMUM PHASE TRANSFER FUNCTION Transfer functions having poles and zeros all in the left half s plane (LHP) are said to be minimum phase transfer functions. Those transfer functions having any pole or zero in the right half s plane (RHP) or in the imaginary axis are said to be non-minimum phase transfer functions. Systems with minimum phase transfer function are called minimum phase systems, whereas those systems with non-minimum phase transfer functions are called non-minimum phase systems. The following T.F belongs to minimum phase category. K(s+2) ‘The following transfer functions belong to non-minimum phase category. a) GG)= K(s-2) s(s+1)(5-+3) K(s+2) 5(8=1)(s+3) K(s~2) s(5=1Xs+3) It is to be noted that the magnitude of the zero of the sinusoidal TF. (j@~2) and that of a) G(s)= b) G(s)= c) G)= (jo+2) is Vo? +4 in both the cases. However the phase angle for (ja-2) is 180°—tan” ra whereas itis tan" 2 forthe sinusoidal TF. (w+ 2). Therefore itis advisable to put the poles and zeros ofthe sinusoidal non-minimum phase T-F. in thes plane and the corresponding phase angle is determined. ™ 68 ALL PASS TRANSFER FUNCTION The transfer functions which have poles and zeros located symmetrically with respect to the imaginary axis are called all pass transfer functions. The following transfer functions are examples of all pass transfer functions, Their pole-zero locations are shown in Fig, 6.8. (5-2) (5-2) (543) (st +2544) G(s)= (b) G(s) = ——————— aj=> @ =O MGO= a ays-3) =O a544) 1 p -l+j3 0 x +H+p3 2 » ae S32 [) wae Be o -1L-N3 0 x +p Gte)= 3 Gi EAE ote) FBTR @ © @ Fig. 6.8. Representation of All Pass Transfer Function in s Planeaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.6.14 @ Control Systems Engineering 3. Now consider the zero (s~2) and pole 7,5. Theit sinusoidal transfer functions are (jo~2) I and Fig. 6.11(a). From Fig. 6.1 1(a), the vector OA makes an angle of | (190-1 2) from the reference and the vector OB makes an angle of -tan' from the reference. respectively and these vectors are represented as OA and OB respectively in The angle of G(/o) is therefore, For @=0,9=0 and for @ =, =~90". The following table is prepared, transferred and plotied in Fig. 6.11(b). Table 6.2 @fo,i [2s 8 [.@ @ | 0 | -24 |-40° | -62° | =70.6° | -90° la] | = | 1.06 | 0.29 [0.047 | 0.015 | 0 When @=0, the phase angle ¢=0 and the magnitude of |G(jo)|=~. When o = the phase 1@ , is dominating over tan’ =. Hence ¢ isalways negative which is further increased by ~ tan”! — Hence the polar plot is always in the fourth quadrant and is sketched as shown in Fig. 6. 1. angle @=-90° andthe magnitude of | G(jo) = 0 .In the expression for phase, the term tan Example 6.9 Draw the polar plot for the transfer function 10 (+1) (s+10) G)= (A.U. Nov. 2004) Im 10(s+1) (+10) Fig. 6.12 Polar Plot for G{s)=aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.6.18 m Control Systems Engineering mn. lus co _ya0 Ro Fig. 6.16 Polar Plot of a Second Order System Just like the transient response curves, we have frequency response curves in the frequency domain. The magnitude versus frequency, phase angle ¢ versus frequency plots are shown in Fig. 6.14 and 6.15 respectively for various values of damping. The polar plot is shown in Fig, 6.16 for second order system for various damping factors. Example 6.11 Asecond order system has a natural frequency of oscillation of 2 rad/sec. with its damped frequency of oscillation as 1.6 rad/sec.calculate (a) the % over-shoot when subjected to step input (b) the maximum ratio of output when sujected to a sinusoidal input. Solution Given In Chapter 5, we have derived that (a) % over-shoot M,= sev) x 100 = 9.48% (b) From expression (6.5), resonant peak 5 1 Wace 2x06x08 Answers © =0.6and My = 9.48% M, = 1.042aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Frequency Domain Analysis of Control Systems m 6.41 7. At point ¢, again a pole interferes altering the slope from +20 dB/dec to 0 dB/dec. Hence horizontal line ed is drawn. 8. At w=5, the dB =28. The gain K should make this dB = 0 at @ =5 to meet this requirement. In other words 20log K = -28 or K= 0.04. The Bode plot is shown in Fig. 6.33. Example 6.23 For the transfer function shown below, sketch the Bode phase angle plots. 10+ ses s(1+0.2s) Gs)= 10+s)e Fig. 634° Phase Plot for Oe ea Solution For the transportation lag ¢~®'s_ the expression for the magnitude and phase angle are, ee = -o.lorad or 1|-0.10%57.9° Hence |G(jo) = tan" @ = 0.1057.3° -90°- tan“"0.20. Using the above expression ¢ is calculated for various values of » as given in Table 6.7. The phase-angle curve is sketched and shown in Fig. 6.34, Table 6.7 @| 0 1 2 10 100 @ | —90° | —62° | - 60° | -126° | - 303° ™@ 615 DETERMINATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION FROM BODE MAGNITUDE PLOT If one is able to draw the Bode magnitude plot for the given transfer function then it should not be difficult to get the transfer function if the Bode magnitude plot is given. However, the method described below is valid only for transfer functions of minimum phase. The following steps are followed to get the transfer function from Bode magnitude plot. 1. Identify the low frequency response portion (start) of the Bode plot. 0 dB/dec. (Horizontal plot) corresponds to K +20 dBidec. to Ks, 40 dB/dec. to Ks? etc. and —20 dB/dec. corresponds to 73 ~40 aBldec. to % ete. 2. Wherever there is a change of slope, assign the comer frequencies 7,, 7, etc.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Frequency Domain Analysis of Control Systems m 6.51 Consider the following TF. of a closed loop second order system. N=, O= Fito,seet i [fig ene St f ay + 4g?oFa? |? Let @, be the frequency at which the gain is reduced to 1/V/2 times its low frequency value. This frequency is called as cut-off frequency. Thus putting w= a, .we get, 1 o V2 fe? -ot) +4%ate} Solving the above equation for m, we get, oy -e4[ 1-262 4a a Hence the bandwidth of a second order system whose magnitude is non-zero at @ =0 is given by q B.W.=0,[1-26¢ + fal" =a" F (6.16) It is to be noted here that for some system, large bandwidth is necessary for the system to respond to a wide frequency range of input signal. For certain other systems small bandwidth is necessary so that it provides attenuation to the high frequency noise in the input signal. Large bandwidth corresponds to a small rise time and fastness of response. However it requires high cost components, 8. Cut-off -Rate The slope of the log-magnitude curve near the cut-off frequency is called cut-off rate. It is the frequency rate at which the magnitude ratio decreases beyond the cut-off frequency. Example 6.29 Determine analytically, the gain margin and phase margin for the system with the following transfer function. Also determine the gain cross-over and phase cross-over frequencies. GH(s)= Solution (6.17) Let @p_ be the frequency at which the polar plot ex crosses the -ve real axis. Thus, 90° tan 2 — tan? Se = -180° 2 6aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.6.58 m Control Systems Engineering ‘To find the phase margin and gain margin, the Bode plot is preferred. For this, the magnitude and phase plots are required. To draw the magnitude plot 1. For the given G(s), the corner frequencies are identified as 5, and 50. Vertical dotted lines passing through @ = 5 and w= 50 are drawn. At-these frequencies, the slope of the dB line changes. . The low frequency Bode plot is duc to —. The comer frequency is 1 and the slope is ~20dB/dec. At w= 5, the dB = 20 log i —144B. At =, the dB = 0. A straight line is drawn connecting these points. At w= 5, the dB slope changes from —20dB/dec. to -40dB/dec. and this goes upto w= 50, which is one dec. from @ = 5. Hence at w= 50, the dB = - 14 - 40 =—54. Hence a straight line with 40 dB/dec slope from —14 dB to ~ 54dB at w= 50 is drawn. |. At = 50, the slope changes from — 40 dB/dec. to — 60 dB/dec. w = 150 is taken. The increase in dB from @ = 50 to » = 150 is calculated as follows. Increase in dB =60 ere = 28.63 Hence at o= 150, dB = -54 — 28.63 = -82.63 dB. Hence a straight line from —54 dB at = 50 to — 82.63 dB at © = 150 is drawn and extended. This completes the Bode magnitude plot. To draw the Bode phase plot ‘The expression for the phase angle of the given T.F. is, $= —90°-tan“! 0.2@-— tan“! 0.0200 For @ 70, $= -90° For @ >, g=-270° The phase plot varies from ~90° to -270°. It is not necessary to calviilate the phase angle for all values of w . Only the following two cases need to be considered. lL The gain cross-over frequency @g- where the dB = 0 is at a= 1 as seen from the magnitude plot. Corresponding to this frequency, the phase angle is calculated as, $= -90~tan™!0.2-tan™'0.02 =-102° Hence, the phase margin ¢, = 180°-102° = 78° and it is positive. The phase cross-over frequency @p. where the phase angle is 180° is calculated as follows. -90°—tan“'0.20,, - tan“! 0.020, = -180°V2 or tan“'0.2m,, + tan™'0.020,, = 90° 1 0.20j_ + 0.020 1-0.20,,0.020,, 0.220, or ———#— = tan90° = 1-0.0040,. Oor Ope = 15.82 or tan e This is possible if 1-0.004a,.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.“Frequency Domain Analysis of Control Systems m 6.65 60, parm 0.5770, + 60,, =8X0.577 @ +1040, =8 Solving the quadratic equation we get, @, =0.719 Ata, — |G(je,)I=1 —— Hence, ,,4f(@2, + 4)(«2, +16) K =1 0.719(0.719° +4)(0.719° +16) K=621 Example 6.39 Determine the phase margin and gain margin using Bode plot for the T-F. 40(5 +1) s* +25 +41 +55) 1 Gs)= 90" + °180"aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Frequency Domain Analysis of Control Systems Ml 6.71 ju) plot (b) Fig. 6.54 To Obtcin Closed Loop Magnitude using Constant M Circles l r sR For M=1, we have from equation(6.21), » 5 which is the equation ofa straight line parallel 1 to the y axis and passing through (-£0) point. The constant M loci are shown in Fig. 6.54. This set of curves are readily available. The constant M loci are symmetrical with respect to M = I straight line and the real axis. The G( jw) plotis plotted in a transparent paper drawn to the same scale as the M cricles are drawn and superimposed on the constant M-circles. The point of intersection of the Gio) plot and the circle gives the value of M for that frequency. The tangential point of the Gia) plot with M circle gives the peak vlue Mand the corresponding frequency gives the resonant frequency «, . This is repeated for other values of « also. From Fig. 6.54(b) M_= 1.4and the resonant frequency is 4. The closed loop frequency response calcualted from Fig. 6.54(b) is shown in Table 6.11. Table 6.11 o [il2t3tatstoet7isto fioti M S Li fn2]rs}i4a sis} 12 ]ir}1}o9)o8|o7 1 1 ™ 6.17.2 The Constant N Circles The loci of constant phase shift of the closed loop system also called constant N circles, simplifies the laborious process of determining the closed loop phase shift. Just like the constant M circles, there are a set of readymade constant phase angle circles available which give the phase angle of the closed loop system. The equation of these circles is derived below. Let the closed loop phase shift be #. Let tan ¢=N of @= tan”! N . From Fig. 6.53. we get where.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Frequency Domain Analysis of Control Systems ™ 6.79 Table 6.14 ao 05 1 12 1.732 2 | © in degrees 126° -153° -162° 180° 187.3" |eUja)| 3.33 1,342 1 0s 0372 20 |G(J0) N 235 0 ~ | 86 indB ‘The data prepared in Table 6.14 is transferred to Nichol’s chart in Fig. 6.63. 4 1. oy fot 4 Fig. 6.63 To Determine $,,and G,, from Nichol’s Chart To find the phase margin To find the phase margin, the phase angle corresponding to 0 dB is obtained. Corresponding to 0 dB, the G(je) plot is cut at w =1.2. This frequency is the gain cross-over frequency and the corresponding phase angle in the chart is obtained as -162°. Hence, the phase margin 9, = 180°-162°=18° which is +ve. To find the gain margin ‘To find the gain margin, the gain corresponding to -180° phase angle is obtained. Corresponding to 180° phase, the G(jo) plot is cut at @ = 1.732 and the corresponding dB = ~6. Hence, the gain margin is +ve. The phase cross-over frequency is @, = 1.732.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.i. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16, 17. Frequency Domain Analysis of Control Systems m 6.85 Define the terms resonant peak M, and. resonant frequency @,. Resonant peak is the peak value of the magnitude plot of the frequency response curve. Resonant frequency is the frequency at which resonant peak occurs. For a second order system the following expressions are derived. Resonant peak M,= Resonance frequency @, = w,/1-2¢" . 2 2(s+1) Determine the phase margin for GH = e =180°+ tan”! w. For M = ©, = 180° + 180°+ tan ‘2.2 = 65.6° This is positive phase margin. In such case the closed loop system is stable. What are the two Bode plots? Magnitude of the sinusoidal T.F. expressed in dB versus logw and phase angle of the sinusoidal LF. versus log @ are the two Bode plots. What are the uses of Nichol’s chart? By superimposing the open loop frequency response plot on the Nichol’s chart it is possible to get the closed loop magnitude and phase at various frequencies. Thus one could get closed loop freqency response by noting the points of intersection on the constant dB plots and constant phase plots. It is also possible to obtain the required gain for the ‘desired resonant peak M., It is also possible to determine the stability and other frequency domain specifications from Nichol’s chart. Define gain cross-over frequency. Gain cross-over frequency is the frequency at which the magnitude of the open loop sinusoidal transfer function is unity. How is location of roots of the characteristic equation related to sta ity? fall the characteristic roots fall in LHP of the s plane the system is stable. [fany one root falls in RHP, the system is unstable. The presence of complex conjugate roots in the imaginary axis indicates that the system is oscillatory. What is bandwidth? The frequency range 0a, in which the magnitude of the closed loop sinusoidal T.F. Ca) R(ja)| What is phase cross-over frequency? Phase cross-over frequency is defined as the frequency at which the phase angle of the open loop sinusoidal transfer function is 180°, M (jo does not drop below -3 dB is called bandwidth.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is 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unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.9.30 m Control Systems Engineering Example 9.9 Consider the forward path transfer function of a certain unity feedback system i 6G)=_—"__. (52,5410) Design a Pl controller, Solution . The system is to have a phase margin of 50° at a frequency of 10 rad/sec. 200) — tan! tan M2 alte) yo? +4)(a? +100) Gijlo) = 24 104x200 =139[ 2123.7 = 180° +50" +123.7 _ 6086.3" ~ 139 _ -@sin@ _ 100.1097 © |e(foyy 1.39 Hence Gels) -(ons+ 9) = 0.715 1 = 0.789 Example 9.10 A unity feedback control system has the following forward path transfer function 9 100 Gsy- 0 (s+ D+ 2)(s-+10) phase margin should be greater than 50° at a frequeney of 5 rad/sec. Design a PID Controller. Solution The steady state error for unit ramp input is less than 0.08 rad and the +K,s") 100 (K+ GGls)= ae 5 (s+ Dis +2\(s+10) The velocity error constant ' steady state erro Li sG,G(s) 5 0.0! K.= K,= 100 (5+ 5+ 2075+ 10) = jokin Satan—15/2—tan"!5/10 26x29 125 = 0.325| =173.5 = [80° +50° +173.5°= 43.5° GUS) =aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Copyrighted materialaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Control System Components ml 10.13 (10.16) Also, (10.17) Usually, the step movement is in the range of 1.8°, 2.5°, 5.0°, 7.59, 10° ete. 26- For example if NV, =26.N, =24, then @ = 20— 49) 369° =1.15° 26x24 360 Suppose the machine is wound for 2 phase and N= 24, then the step movement == 7.5°, The resolution of the stepper motor is the number of steps taken for one complete revolution. Thus Resolution’ Number of steps _ 360° 10.18 Revoh 6 (10.18) ‘Thus, with 7.5? step movement there would be 36° - 4g steps per revolution. The rotor shafi speed is given by Ox { f (10.19) rps | 360 P| where fis the pulse rate of the stator input signal expressed in number of pulses per second. Example 10.1 A stepper motor has 10 poles in the armature and 8 teeth under each pole. The rotor teeth are 100. Calculate the step angle. Solution Stator teeth = 10 * 8 = 80 The step angle is given by equation (10.16) as, (A, = N, )360° _ (100-80) Nx N 10080, 360° = 0.9% Example 10.2 A stepper motor has a step angle of 1.8°, Find the resolution of the stepper motor. What is the speed of the stepper motor if the pulse frequency is 300 pulses per second? Determine the number of steps moved in 15 revolutions. Solution 360 Resolution = Ts 200 steps/revolution axs 1.8300 Speed of the stepper motor n= 2% ips = e me 360° 360 Number of steps moved in 15 revolutions + Resolution x Revolution = 200 x 15 =3000 steps rps = 1.5 rps =1.5x 60 = 90 rpmaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.10.18 m Control Systems Engineering @ 10.3.12 How the Rotor Moves? Now we clearly understand how the rotor moves. We imagine two axes on the rotor at right angle to each other, one along which permeance is maximum and the other along which the permeance is minimum. It is obvious that the first one coincides with the tooth axis and the second with the slot axis. If the whole rotor is polarised to S (Fig. 10.17) the rotor tends to occupy that position where the maximum permeance axis (teeth) coincides with the stator north pole and the minimum permeance axis (slot) with the stator south pole. In short. the permeance axis keep itself in synchronism with the stator mmf. However, the actual rotor speed is much less because the rotor movement by only one rotor slot pitch makes the permeance axes move through two stator pole pitches. Thus if f is the frequency of stator supply. 1 Speed of the rotor = > "PS The revolving stator mmf is produced by connecting the two phases of the stator windings to two phase supply in which case the rotor runs with synchronous speed given by the above expression and the motor is usually referred to as synchronous inductor motor. On the other hand, for the operation as a stepper motor, the two phases are to be energised with D.C. with periodic changes in polarity. We have two sequences of switching. one for clockwise and the other for counter-clockwise rotations of the rotor. The two sequences are given in Table 10.3. Table 10.3 cw cow 1\ | ty | Angte of Stator mmf Ay 1y | Angle of Stator mmf 1 1 0 ul Wl 0 i +90" 1 : 90° i t =180° 1 U 180° 1 ol 270° +1 1 270° ‘The construction of commercially available stepper motor slightly differs in the winding connection of the stator. The schematic diagram of a two phase four stator winding (eight poles) stepper motor is shown in Fig, 10.17(a). This wiring technique is known as the four-step switching sequence, The nature of waveform of the stator supply is shown in Fig. 10.17(b). This is realised by the battery E and switches SW, and SW, in Fig. 10.17%(a). The windings A, and Aj belong to A phase and windings B, and Bj belongto B phase. Windings A, and A, are not energised at the same time since they create fields that are equal and opposite. The switches SW, and SW, are operated manually or by control logic circuit to generate waveform as shown in Fig. 10.17(b). Whenever there is a change from +E to -E or vice versa in any one phase as indicated in the figure. the stepper motor moves through one step. The switching sequence for CW and CCW is shown in the Table 10.4.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.A A.C. Motors 10.8 Absolute Stability 7.1 Aceeleration Error Constant 5.66, 6.91 Acceleration Input 5.67 Acceleration Signal 5.10 A.C. Servomotor 10.1 A.C, Stepper Motors 10.1 AC. Tachogenerator 10.23 Actuator 1.14 Addition of a Pole 5.81 Addition of a Zero 5.82 Additivity 1.13 All Pass Transfer Function 6.10, 6.89 Amplidyne 1.15 Angles of Arrival 8.6 Angles of Departure 8.6 Angular Displacement 2.39 Ant Colony 1.2 Armature Controlled D.C. Motor 2.27, 10.8 Asymptote of the Root Loci 8.6 Asymptotic Stability 7.3 Automatic Control Systems 1.1 B Bandwidth 1.12, 6.50, 6.85, 9.34 BELL Telephone Systems 7.3! BIBO 7.1 BIBO Stable 7.7 Biological System 1.8 Block Diagram 2.1,4.2 Bode Magnitude Plot 6.41 Bode Phase Plot. 6.58 Bode Plot 6.2, 6.20 Break in Point 8.29 Breakaway Points 8.7 Buffer Amplifier 2.24 © Capacitance 4.70 Cascade Connection 4.2 Centrifugal Governor 1.1 Index Centroid 8.6 Characteristic Equation 5.101, 7.6 Characteristic Polynomial 5.62, 7.6 Classical Control Theory 1.2 Closed Loop Regulator System 1.9 Closed Loop System [.5 Computer Control System 1.11 Conditionally Stable System 5.98 Conformal Mappings 7.24 Constant M Circle 6.69, 6.83 Constant N Circles 6.71 Contour in the s-plane 7.25 Control Action 1.6 Control Systems 1.3 Control Transformer 10.4 Control Valve 1.12 Controller 5.1 Comer Frequencies 6.24, 6.86 Critically Damped 5.24. 5.32 Cut-off-rate 6.51 D D'Alembert’s Principle 3.4 Damped Frequency 5.100 Damping Factor 5.97, 6.18 Damping Ratio 5.28 Dash-pot 2.3 D.C. Generators 2.27 D.C. Motor 1.10, 2.40, 10.8 D.C. Servomotor 2.40 D.C. Tachogenerator 10.22 Delay Time 5.98 Denominator Polynomial 5.62 Derivative Feedback 5.87, 5.101 Deterministic Systems 1.14 Discrete Signals 1.14 Discrete Systems 1.14 Displacement 2.4 Distributed Parameter Systems 1.14 Dominant Roots 7.2 Drag Cup Rotor 10.8 Dynamic Error Constants 5.73 *INX.2 m™ Control Systems Engineering E Electrical Analogous Circuits. 3.1 Electrical Network 2.21 Electrical System 3.4 Electro-mechanical System 2.18 Electronic Amplifiers 10.1 Esror 5.2 Emror Detector 1.6, 10.28 Error Signal 1.7 F Feed-forward Compensator 9.1 Feedback Compensator 9.1 Feedback Connection 4.3, 4.31 Feedback Control Theory 1.2 Feedback Controller 9.26 Feedback Element 16 Feedback Ratio 1.15 Feedback Transducer 10.1 id Comtrolled D.C. Motor 2.29, 10.8 Final Displacement 2.6 al Value 5.100 1 Value Theorem 5.12 Final Velocity 2.6 t Maximum Overshoot 5.27 1 Order System 5.20 Force-Current Analogy 3.2 Force-Voltage Analogy 3.1 Forced Sinusoidal Response 6.80 Forward Path 4.30 Forward Path Gain 5.2 Free Body Diagram 2.3 Frequency Domain 1.2 Frequency Response Method 6.1 Frequency Response Plot 6.86 Friction Coefficient 5.2 Fuzzy Logic 1.2 G Gain Adjustment 6.75 Gain Crossover Frequency 6.49 Gain Margin 6.83, 8.16 Gear Arrangement 2.18 Gear Ratio 5. Gear Trains 10.21 Generalized or Dynamic Error Coefficients 5.70 Generator 1.15 Genetic Algorithm 1.2 Graphical Method 5.96 Gun Positioning Systems 1.2 H Homogeneity 1.13 Hybrid Mechanical System 2.35 Hybrid Stepper Motor (HSM) 10.12 Hydraulic Amplifier 10.1 Hydraulic Servomoter 10.20 I Impulse Response 5.32 Impulse Response Function 7.4 Impulse Signal 5.8 Initial Displacement 2.6 Value Theorem 5.12 Initial Velocity 2.6 Input 1.4 Input Node 4.30 Input Variable 2.2 Intelligent Controllers. 1.2 Interaction of Blocks 4.29 Intermittent Variable 2.22 Inverse Root Locus 8.58 K Kinetic Energy 2.3 Kirchhoff’s Current Law 3.4 Kirchhof?’s Voltage Law 2.21, 3.4 L Ladder Network 4.69 Lag Compensator 9.9 Lag-Lead Compensator 9.16 Laplace Transform 2.2,5.11 Lead Compensator 9.2 Left Half of s-Plane (LHP) 7.3 Linear System 1.13, 5.98 Liquid Bulk Modulus 2.42 Load Compensators 9.35 Load Torque 5.2 Long Division 7.11 Loop 4.30 LoopGain 4.30,5.7 Loop System 1.43.2 Lumped Parameter 1.14M Magnetic Amplifiers. 10.1 Magnitude 6.86 Magnitude Criterion 8.67 Magnitude Plot 6.58 Marginal Stability 7.3 Marginal Value 7.17 Mason's Gain Formula 4.32 Mathematical Modeling 2.1 Maximum Overshoot 5.98 Maximum Peak Value 5.100. Maximum Power Transfer 2.17, Mechanical Systems 2.2 MIMO 1.14 Minimum Phase Transfer Function 6.10 fixed Node 4.30,4.71 Moment of Inertia 5.2 Muitiple Input System 4.19 N Natural Frequency 5.97 Negative Feedback 1.5 Neural Network 1.2 3 Newton’s Law 2. Nichol’s Chart 6. Nodal System 3.2 Non-interaction of Blocks 4.71 Non-linear System 1.13 Non-minimum Phase Transfer Funciton 6.13 Non-reciprocity 4.71 Non-touching Loops 4.30 ‘Number of Encirclement 7.33 Number of Oscillations 5.101 Nyquist Contour 7.32 Nyquist Plot 7.2.7.37 Nyquist Stability Criterion 7.31 oO On-Off Control System 5.101 On-Off or Two Position Contioller 5.89 Open Loop System 14 Order of the System 5.3 Oscillatory System 7.10 Output 14 Output Node 4.30 Output Variable 2.2 Overdamped 5.25 Overshoot 5:29 Index ml INX.3 P Pair of Synchros 10.1 Parabolic Signal 5.10 Parallel Connection 4.2, 4.31 Partial Differential Equations 1.14 Partial Fraction Expansion 5.10 Particle Swarm 1.2 Path 4.30 Path Gain 4.30 , PD Controller 5.83, 9.31 Peak Overshoot 5.31 Peak Time 5.97 Percentage Maximum Overshoot 5.28 Period of Oscillation 5.31 Period of Oscillation 5.101 Permanent Magnet Stepping Motor 10.15 Phase 6.1, 6.86 Phase Angle 6.18 Phase Angie Criterion 8.66 Phase Angle Plot 6.36 Phase Crossover Frequency 6.48 Phase Margin 6.56, 8.16 Phase on Mode Operation 10.15 Phase Shift Plot 6.86 Pi Controller 5.84, 9.35 PID Controller 5.1, 9.32 Pneumatic Amplifier 10.1 Pneumatic Controllers 10.20 Polar Plot 6.2 Polarised Solenoid 2.18 Poles 5.11, 5.101 Pole Location 5.96 Position Control System 10.5 Position Error Constant 6.90 Positional Error Coefficient 5.63, 5.66 Positive Feedback System 1.5 Potential Energy 2.3 Potentiometer 1.4, 10.6. 10.29 Pressure Control System 1.11 Pressure Transmitter (PT) 1.11 Principte of Arguments 7.24 Proportional Error 5.38 Pure Integrators 5.62 R Radar Antenna 1,10 Ramp Input 5.4 Ramp Signal 5.9 Rate Controller 5.101INX.4 m Control Systems Engineering Rate or Tachogenerator Feedback Control 5.85 Reciprocity 4.71 Regulator System 1.4 Relative Stability 7.2 Reset Controller 5.101 Residues 5.13 Resonant Frequency 6.50 Resonant Peak 6.50 Right Half s-Plane (RHP) 7.12 Rise Time 5.31 Root Locus 8.68 Root Locus Technique ‘8.1 Rotating Amplifiers 10.1 Rotational System 2.3 Rotor Moverment 10.15 Routh’s Array 7.8 Routh's Stability Criterion 7.8 s Second Order System 2.2, 5.22 Selsyns 10.29 Sensitivity 5.92, 5.101 Separately Excited D.C. Generator 2.26 ies Compensator 9.1 Servo Amplifier 10.1. 10.30 Servomechanism 1.4 Servomotor 10.1 Settling Time 5.22 Shift Theorem 5.13 Signal Frow Graph 2.1, 4.30 Sink Node 4.70 Sinusoidal Input 6.1 Solenoid 2.38 Solid tron Rotor 10.8 Spring 2.3 Squirrel Cage Rotor 10.8 Stability Condition 7.6 State Error 5.62 State Space Model 1.2 Static Error Coefficients 5.62 Static Error Constants 5.98 Steady State Error 5.3, 5.62 Steady State Response 5.1 Step Input 5.3. 5.100 Step Response 5 Step Signal 5.9 Stepper Motor 10.8, 10.29 Stochastic Systems 1.14 Superposition 1.13 Synchro Generator 10.2 ‘Synchro Transmitter 10.29 Synehros 10.2 System 1.3, 1.13 System Modeling 2.40 System Parameters 1.4 System Representation 1.4 System with Time Delay 7.80 T Tachogenerator 1.4, 10.22 Tachometer Feedback 9.26 ‘Temperature Control System 1.11 Test Signals 5.8 Time Invariant System 1:14 Time Constant 7° 5.29 Time Delay #, 5.29 ‘Time Domain 1.2 Time Invariant 7.4 Time Varying System 1.14 ‘Torque-Speed Characteristics 10.39 Transducer 1.7, 10.30 ‘Transfer Function 2.2, 2.7 ‘Transient Response 5.1. 5.99 ‘Translational Systems 2.3 Transmittance 4.69 ‘Transportation Lag 6.94, 7.23 ‘Two Phase Servomotor 10.8 ‘Two Stack Reluctance Type Stepper Motor 10.17 ‘Type 5.3, 5.99, 6.6 ‘Type and Order 5.62 U Underdamped 5.23, 5.32 Unit Step Input 5.27 v Variable Reluctance (V.R.) Stepper Motor 10.12 Variables 1.4 Velocity 2.4, 5.67 Velocity Error Constant 5.66 ZL Zero Displacement 2.7 Zero Initial Conditions. 2.1 Zero Input Stability 7.3 Zeros 5.11,5.101a EDITIO At 7 | Control Engineering is a multi-disciplinary subject and finds widespread application in the guidance, navigation and control of missiles, spacecrafts, aeroplanes and ships, as well as in the pro control industry. This book presents clear theoretical concepts reinforced by worked out numerical | examples. It includes topics on Nyquist Stability Criterion, Signal Flow Graph, RootLocus Technique Pe eu Lenco cS cure eerie > Comprehensive treatment on System Modelling, Block Diagram and Signal PMC eC a mac em emu mel ETE eae Rev ole MRS Cees unl enn ul en » Linear System stability by Routh-Hunwitz and Nyqusit criterion are-illustrated STENNIS Provides astep-by-step approach to solving problems Pam OHIO L CIMA SS MUNSHI | > Pedagogical features include DAUR C us Yi) Rack res mete Rel cea ca ena Prreiercd + Summary atthe end of each chapter for quick reference. | BetUS cece) Iu) Mv || ! ‘fay Higher Education JUN,