Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction

Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction

Be Exceptional

Fundamentals & Applications for

Non-Destructive Testing
1st Edition

www.eclipsescientific.com

1st Edition

Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Copyright Information ........................................................................................................................................ 1
Preface .................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................................................... 3
Table Of Contents ................................................................................................................................................ 4
Chapter (1): Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1
General Ultrasonic Theory .............................................................................................................. 1
1.2
Ultrasonic Testing In Relation To Other NDT Methods ............................................................. 3
1.3
Physical Principles Of Ultrasound ................................................................................................. 5
1.4
Waveforms ......................................................................................................................................... 7
1.5
Boundary Interactions Of Ultrasonic Waves .............................................................................. 10
1.6
Critical Angles ................................................................................................................................. 13
1.7
Attenuation Of Ultrasound ........................................................................................................... 15
1.8
Attenuation Due To Scattering ..................................................................................................... 16
1.9
Absorption ....................................................................................................................................... 17
1.10 Calculation Of Total Attenuation ................................................................................................. 17
1.11 Ultrasonic Equipment .................................................................................................................... 18
1.12 Piezoelectricity ................................................................................................................................ 19
1.13 Monocrystalline And Polycrystalline Piezoelectric Materials .................................................. 20
1.14 Ultrasonic Probes ............................................................................................................................ 23
1.15 Sound Fields .................................................................................................................................... 25
1.15.1 The Near Zone................................................................................................................... 26
1.15.2 Beam Size ........................................................................................................................... 26
1.15.3 Focal Zone .......................................................................................................................... 27
1.15.4 Beam Spread And Half Angle......................................................................................... 28
1.16 Summary Of Basic Ultrasonic Principles..................................................................................... 29
Chapter (2): The Principles Of TOFD ............................................................................................................ 31
2.1
A Brief History of TOFD ................................................................................................................ 31
2.2
General Principles........................................................................................................................... 36
2.3
Diffraction As It Applies To TOFD .............................................................................................. 39
2.4
Data Visualisation........................................................................................................................... 42
2.5
Advantages And Limitations Of TOFD ....................................................................................... 44
2.5.1
Advantages ........................................................................................................................ 45
2.5.2
Limitations ......................................................................................................................... 47
Chapter (3): Instrumentation Used In TOFD ................................................................................................ 49
3.1
Background Of The Electronics .................................................................................................... 49
3.2
Pulsers and Receivers ..................................................................................................................... 50
3.2.1
Pulsers ................................................................................................................................ 51
3.2.2
Receivers ............................................................................................................................ 56

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Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction

3.2.3
Filters (Broadband and Bandpass) ................................................................................. 57
3.2.4
Video Smoothing .............................................................................................................. 58
3.2.5
Gates ................................................................................................................................... 58
3.2.6
TCG/TVG ........................................................................................................................... 58
3.3
Data Acquisition And Automated Systems ................................................................................ 59
3.3.1
System Components ......................................................................................................... 60
3.4
Motion (Automated And Semi-Automated Systems) ............................................................... 61
3.4.1
Motion Control.................................................................................................................. 61
3.4.2
Encoders ............................................................................................................................. 62
3.5
TOFD Equipment Packages .......................................................................................................... 65
Chapter (4): Digital Aspects Of TOFD ........................................................................................................... 69
4.1
NDT Instruments - Overview ....................................................................................................... 69
4.2
Asynchronous Versus Synchronous Systems ............................................................................. 70
4.3
Memory and Digitisation Aspects ................................................................................................ 72
4.3.1
Instrument Outputs .......................................................................................................... 72
4.3.2
Bit-Depth And Sampling Rates ....................................................................................... 73
4.3.3
RF versus Rectified Digitisation ..................................................................................... 75
4.3.4
Logarithmic Amplifiers.................................................................................................... 77
4.3.5
File Size Calculations........................................................................................................ 80
4.3.6
Data Processing ................................................................................................................. 81
4.3.7
Scanning Speed ................................................................................................................. 83
4.3.8
Acquisition Rate ................................................................................................................ 84
Chapter (5): TOFD Calculations ...................................................................................................................... 85
5.1
Depth and Ring-time Calculations ............................................................................................... 85
5.2
Flaw Position Errors ....................................................................................................................... 90
5.2.1
Timing Error ...................................................................................................................... 90
5.2.2
Acoustic Velocity Error .................................................................................................... 91
5.2.3
PCS Error ........................................................................................................................... 91
5.2.4
Lateral Position Error ....................................................................................................... 92
5.2.5
Constant Time Locus ........................................................................................................ 93
5.2.6
Couplant Thickness .......................................................................................................... 94
5.3
Hyperbolic Arcs .............................................................................................................................. 95
Chapter (6): TOFD Technique Development................................................................................................ 99
6.1
Probe Selection And Placement .................................................................................................... 99
6.2
Basic Probe Arrangements .......................................................................................................... 104
6.2.1
Single TOFD Zone .......................................................................................................... 104
6.2.2
Two TOFD Zone ............................................................................................................. 104
6.2.3
Three TOFD Zone ........................................................................................................... 105
6.3
Alternative Probe Arrangements................................................................................................ 106
6.3.1
Offset Scans ..................................................................................................................... 106
6.3.2
Same-Side TOFD ............................................................................................................. 107
6.3.3
Special Probes For Near Surface Flaws ........................................................................ 108

Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction

6.3.4
PA TOFD .......................................................................................................................... 109
6.3.5
Immersion And Gap Testing Options And Issues ..................................................... 110
6.3.6
TOFD On Curved Surfaces ............................................................................................ 112
6.3.7
TOFD On Tapers And T-Sections ................................................................................. 116
6.3.8
Focussed TOFD ............................................................................................................... 119
6.4
Modelling the Weld Inspection Scan Plans ............................................................................ 120
6.5
Summary Of TOFD Parameters .................................................................................................. 120
Chapter (7): TOFD Sensitivity Settings ....................................................................................................... 123
7.1
TOFD Sensitivity Requirements ................................................................................................. 123
7.1.1
Reference Signal Amplitude.......................................................................................... 124
7.1.2
Diffracted Or Reflected Signals From Machined Targets.......................................... 125
7.1.3
Sensitivity Gain Setting Using Grain Noise ................................................................ 128
7.2
Qualification And Demonstration Blocks ................................................................................. 130
Chapter (8): TOFD Calibration And Checks ............................................................................................... 133
8.1
Instrument Calibrations ............................................................................................................... 133
8.1.1
Time Base Linearity (Horizontal Linearity) ................................................................ 134
8.1.2
Display Height Linearity ............................................................................................... 135
8.1.3
Amplitude Control Linearity ........................................................................................ 136
8.2
Performance Characteristics Of The Probes .............................................................................. 137
8.2.1
Probe Exit Point .............................................................................................................. 137
8.3
Performance Characteristics Of Scanners (Encoders) .............................................................. 138
Chapter (9): TOFD Data Collection Software ............................................................................................. 139
9.1
Ultrasonic Setup Options............................................................................................................. 139
9.2
Acquisition Options ..................................................................................................................... 140
Chapter (10): TOFD Data Analysis ............................................................................................................... 145
10.1 File Structure ................................................................................................................................. 145
10.2 TOFD Data Assessment ............................................................................................................... 147
10.2.1 Quality Assessment ........................................................................................................ 147
10.3 TOFD Data Analysis..................................................................................................................... 152
10.3.1 Essential TOFD Analysis Features ............................................................................... 153
10.3.2 Enhanced TOFD Analysis Features.............................................................................. 157
10.3.3 Data Assessment ............................................................................................................. 159
10.3.4 Flaw Images ..................................................................................................................... 160
10.3.5 Double Imaging And Shear Mode ............................................................................... 167
10.3.6 Flaw verification Procedures......................................................................................... 169
10.4 Automation Of The TOFD Process............................................................................................. 171
Chapter (11): Digital Signal Processing ....................................................................................................... 175
11.1 One Dimensional Signal Processing........................................................................................... 176
11.1.1 Soft Gain........................................................................................................................... 176
11.1.2 Fast Fourier Transforms ................................................................................................. 176
11.1.3 Signal Filtering ................................................................................................................ 177
11.2 Two Dimensional Filtering Processes ........................................................................................ 178

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Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction

11.2.1 Lateral Wave (Back-Wall) Straightening ..................................................................... 179

11.2.2 Lateral Wave (Back-Wall) Removal ............................................................................. 179
11.2.3 Lateral Wave Equalisation............................................................................................. 180
11.2.4 Synthetic Aperture Focussing Technique (SAFT) ...................................................... 181
11.2.5 Hysteresis Or Backlash Compensation ........................................................................ 182
11.3 Other DSP ...................................................................................................................................... 183
11.3.1 Data Compression .......................................................................................................... 183
11.3.2 Split Spectrum Processing ............................................................................................. 183
11.4 DSP Illustrations ........................................................................................................................... 184
Chapter (12): Codes, Standards, Procedures, Techniques, And Written Instructions ......................... 193
12.1 Documentation Hierarchy ........................................................................................................... 193
12.2 Procedure Guidelines ................................................................................................................... 196
12.2.1 Scope................................................................................................................................. 196
12.2.2 Standards And References ............................................................................................ 196
12.2.3 Definitions ....................................................................................................................... 196
12.2.4 Personnel.......................................................................................................................... 196
12.2.5 Identification And Datum Points ................................................................................. 196
12.2.6 Surface Preparation ........................................................................................................ 196
12.2.7 Extent Of Inspection ....................................................................................................... 197
12.2.8 Equipment Specification ................................................................................................ 197
12.2.9 Equipment Calibration................................................................................................... 197
12.2.10 Equipment Checks .......................................................................................................... 197
12.2.11 Assessment Of Test Results Acceptance Criteria .................................................... 197
12.2.12 Reporting Of Test Results .............................................................................................. 197
12.2.13 Attachments..................................................................................................................... 197
Chapter (13): Industrial Applications Of TOFD ........................................................................................ 199
13.1 Heavy-Wall Pressure Vessel Construction................................................................................ 199
13.2 Weld Root Erosion ........................................................................................................................ 200
13.3 Cladding Interface Inspection ..................................................................................................... 200
13.4 Stress Corrosion Cracking ........................................................................................................... 201
13.5 Fatigue Cracking ........................................................................................................................... 201
13.6 Shear Mode TOFD ........................................................................................................................ 203
13.7 HDPE Fusion Butt Welds ............................................................................................................ 203
Exercises ............................................................................................................................................................. 206
Appendix (A): Glossary Of Terms ................................................................................................................ 221
Appendix (B): TOFD Depth Uncertainty Error Accumulation ................................................................ 222
Appendix (C): Sample TOFD Written Instruction ..................................................................................... 224
13.8 Written Instruction Outline ......................................................................................................... 224
13.9 Elements Of An NDT Instruction ............................................................................................... 224
13.9.1 Title, Status, Authorisation ............................................................................................ 224
13.9.2 Foreword And Scope...................................................................................................... 225
13.9.3 Referenced Documents .................................................................................................. 225

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Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction

13.9.4 Personnel.......................................................................................................................... 225

13.9.5 Apparatus To Be Used ................................................................................................... 225
13.9.6 Product/Area To Be Tested............................................................................................ 225
13.9.7 Test Conditions ............................................................................................................... 225
13.9.8 Detailed Instructions For Application Of Test............................................................ 225
13.9.9 Recording And Classifying Results.............................................................................. 226
13.9.10 Reporting The Results .................................................................................................... 226
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................................... 236
List of Tables..................................................................................................................................................... 242
Works Cited ...................................................................................................................................................... 243
Index ................................................................................................................................................................... 247

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Chapter (6): TOFD Technique Development

CHAPTER (6): TOFD TECHNIQUE DEVELOPMENT

The principles of TOFD chapter described the basic layout of probes which are arranged on either side
of a weld (the same principles can be used to carry out a form of corrosion tests where there may not
be any weld to use as a reference). The image in Figure 2-10 shows the basic setup. However, aspects
of the diffraction process along with the limitations caused by ring-time, the electronic equipment and
the part tested need to be considered in greater depth when developing a TOFD technique for a
specific application.
In this chapter, we consider some of the essential parameters when configuring the setup. In addition,
we also consider variations on probe layouts.

6.1

PROBE SELECTION AND PLACEMENT

TOFD is usually applied to inspect the entire volume of a weld. In many cases, this can be done with a
single pair of probes. The TOFD operator needs to then position the TOFD probe pair(s) in a way that
ensures the area of concern is suitably ensonified. This requires consideration of several factors, some
of which are interrelated. Design of the TOFD technique is a compromise of all the parameters
considered.
Factors considered include (but are not limited to):
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

Material tested
Geometry of component
Instrumentation available (single or multi-channel)
Probes (size, frequency, angle (s), number of pairs)
Detection requirements
Sizing requirements
Inspection speed and accuracy requirements

Applications involving complex geometries, such as T, K and Y joints, can be inspected using TOFD.
However, the calculations involved will often require dedicated algorithms to determine indication
positions relative to the test surface. These calculations are not standard and generally require
customised software. Such calculations and applications are outside the scope of this handbook. For
the purpose of this handbook only the more common configurations of basic butt welds will be
considered.
Initially probe selection is based on the material tested. TOFD considerations for frequency are
identical to pulse-echo. Coarse-grained materials and very thick materials will require lower
frequencies to overcome the attenuation effect of scatter.
The probe size is then considered. It is also based, at least partially, on the material tested. To some
extent larger probe dimensions produce a higher intensity pulse over a greater distance. But the need
for divergence is better addressed using smaller probe dimensions.

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Chapter (6): TOFD Technique Development

The probe refracting angle is selected based on the geometry of the component tested. Very thick
sections will require small refracted angles to ensure the back-wall can be detected. When the weld
cap is not removed, it will present a restriction that may require a higher angle of refraction to ensure
that the near surface is adequately addressed. Because of the large divergence in TOFD probes, the
actual angles used may be off by as much as 5 degrees from the nominal and no significant
deterioration of the technique will result.
In some cases, the thickness of the component tested is sufficiently large, so that no single probe pair
can be expected to cover the entire thickness. Guidance on all of these items can be found in the
several Codes and Standards now available for TOFD. A typical table found in the standards is
reproduced here as Table 6-1. In this table we indicate the minimum number of zones that must be
used to address the thickness of welds tested by a TOFD setup.
Table 6-1 Recommended TOFD setups for simple butt welds dependent on wall thickness
Thickness
t (mm)

Number
of TOFD
setups

Depthrange

Centre
frequency
f / MHz

6-10
10-15
15-35
35-50

1
1
1
1

0-t
0-t
0-t
0-t
0-t/2

15
15-10
10-5
5-3
5-3

Beam-angle
(degrees)
( long.waves)
70
70
70-60
70-60
70-60

50-100

t/2-t

5-3

60-45

6-12

0-t/3
t/3-2t/3

5-3
5-3

70-60
60-45

3-6
6-12

2/3t-t

5-2

60-45

6-20

0-t/4
t/4-t/2
t/2-3t/4

5-3
5-3
5-2

70-60
60-45
60-45

3-6
6-12
6-20

3t/4-t

3-1

50-40

10-20

100-200

200-300

Element
size (mm)

Beam
intersection

2-3
2-3
2-6
3-6
3-6

2/3 of t
2/3 of t
2/3 of t
2/3 of t
1/3 of t
5/6 of t;
or t for
2/9 of t
5/9 of t
8/9 of t;
or t for
1/12 of t
5/12 of t
8/12 of t
11/12 of t;
or t for

In Table 6-1, the column identified as Number of TOFD Setups, refers to the number of TOFD probe
pairs used
Having selected the appropriate probe pair parameters for the application, the operator then needs to
position the probes to provide appropriate volume coverage. The effects of energy redistribution,
upon diffraction, should also be taken into consideration.
The tabulated recommendations, for PCS values, indicate that the beam crossing points are generally
set to two thirds through the test piece (for a single probe pair TOFD setup). For many applications
the guide is adequate; however, it is useful to confirm that the coverage on the far-wall will be
adequate. When the TOFD inspection is carried out on a single V weld, the root area on the far-wall

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Chapter (6): TOFD Technique Development

can be adequately addressed by a single probe pair. However, for a double V weld, the width of the
weld cap on the far surface may not be adequately covered with a single probe pair.
As a guide to volume coverage, we can initially use the 24dB pulse-echo beam divergence
calculations. When designing a TOFD setup, it is accepted that a symmetrical arrangement be used to
indicate the beams. This, in spite of the fact that only one probe is transmitting. Since the probes used
are to be matched with respect to frequency, size and angle, the reciprocity concept of transmitter
and receiver can be assumed (i.e., probes can be interchanged with no apparent effect on the signal).
To verify the beam divergence and associated detection, a simple experiment can be set up. Using a
small slit, 1.5mm to 2mm high in a 25mm plate (or a small side-drilled hole in a thicker section), the
TOFD pair is placed symmetrically with respect to the slit on the opposite side. By moving the pair
perpendicular to the slit (i.e., a parallel scan with PCS fixed) until the slit is no longer detected, the exit
point of the transmitter positions for the peaked and dropped detection points can be compared. In
most cases, the offset will be close to the calculated divergences, at the angles corresponding to the 2024dB drop for that probe. When calculating the divergences, for a TOFD probe, the standard formula
is used; with the medium used for calculations being the wedge material. The standard formula
provides the half-angle of divergence. In order that adequate provision is made, for the angled
incidence from the wedge, the rays are drawn from the probe element centre at the half angles, until
the interface with the test materials (e.g., steel or aluminium). Then, Snells Law is applied. All three
rays are usually used, i.e., the front of beam, the back of beam and the centre ray. These are illustrated
in Figure 6-1, where the front and back of beams are indicated by the shaded regions and the centre of
beam is indicated by the red lines.

Figure 6-1 TOFD far surface detection verification

In the illustrated case, an offset of approximately 7mm would indicate the limits of detection from the
root centre for the setup of a 5mm diameter 7MHz probe, for nominal 60 degree refraction.
In TOFD, the exit points of the wedges are used as the reference for setting the probe separations. The
Probe Centre Separation is abbreviated PCS and used as the parameter of measure for probe
placement. As noted, although only one of the probes in the pair is used in transmit mode, the centre
ray that corresponds to the nominal refracting angle is drawn for both the transmitter and receiver
probes. The crossing point is set based on these centre rays. This is used to determine the Beam

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Chapter (6): TOFD Technique Development

Intersection, referred to in Table 6-1. In Figure 6-1, the front of beam edge is not actually seen, as it
glances parallel to the test surface. From this illustration, it can be expected that a lateral wave will be
detected. For a probe with a smaller divergence (such as would occur for a 10MHz probe) the front of
beam could be assessed by the detection of a side-drilled hole placed near the test surface. This is
indicated in Figure 6-2. The lack of response from the side-drilled hole, when the probes are centred
over the weld centreline, would indicate that the probe setup would not be suitable for flaw detections
near the surface.

Figure 6-2 TOFD volume detection verification

Beam assessments, to establish coverage, are one of the functions of the calibration blocks and
machined targets described above (in addition to setting sensitivity).
Relying on drawings of divergence boundaries to verify coverage is not a guarantee of flaw detection.
Further consideration must be made for the pressure variation with respect to angle. Optimum
diffraction energy is obtained when the included angle at the centrelines is approximately 120 degrees.
This is based on diffraction theory for a vertical slit diffractor. EN 583-6 suggests that a working region
of -35 degrees to +45 degrees from this value may still provide useful signals. This produces an
incident angle range of about 8 to 38 with the vertical slit. However, at the 38 degree incidence,
nearly all compression energy is lost, as it coincides with the critical angle. Therefore, examinations
that rely on angles in this range (35-40 degrees) should be avoided.
In addition to the pressure drop associated with
the transmitted beam, there is a further
consideration for the beam pressure distribution.
Figure 6-3 illustrates a pulse emitted from a
probe striking a vertically oriented crack. This
figure illustrates how a specular reflection occurs
for the bulk of the beam. As it radiates off the
crack, it has a directivity that includes lobes. The
figure also illustrates the rings representing the
diffraction off the crack tips. These diffraction
rings are also subject to directivity effects.

102

Figure 6-3 Reflection & diffraction directivity (28)

Chapter (6): TOFD Technique Development

A similar directivity occurs for the diffracted waves.

Figure 6-4 is reproduced from Charlesworth and Temple
to illustrate the effect of incident angle on the relative
amplitude of the diffracted signals in a TOFD setup.
Incident angle theta is plotted as the horizontal axis and
corresponds to the refracted angle emitted and received by
the TOFD probes. From the curve, we see that a refracted
angle, of about 65 incident on the upper and lower tips of
a vertical planar flaw, will provide the maximum signal
amplitude (pressure) at the receiver. The plot also
indicates that, for the upper tip of a planar flaw, the signal
amplitude drops to a minimum of about 13dB lower for a
0 incidence (this would be equivalent to a normal beam
placed directly over the upper tip). For increasing incident
angles over 65, the amplitude will eventually drop to
zero, at about an 85 incident angle. The amplitude
response from the lower tip is more complicated. At about
a 35 incident angle, the flaw face at the lower tip will
provide the conditions for the first critical angle; and the
signal amplitude drops to zero. Upon further decreasing
the incident angle, some rise in the lower tip amplitude
can be seen, to a maximum at about 18. Further decreases
in incident angle result in amplitude decreases to zero, at
an incidence angle of zero degrees.

Figure 6-4 TOFD Tip signal amplitudes

vs. Angle of Incidence (7)

The dashed line in Figure 6-4 indicates the resolution, theoretically achieved for a 5MHz probe on
steel. The fact that amplitude drops off, for a particular range of angles within TOFD beam coverage,
is further evidence of the need for multiple TOFD zones (setups) as component thickness increases.
The compromise requirements for TOFD configurations should now start to be apparent. In order to
obtain optimum probe separation for maximum volume ensonification, a wide separation is used.
Optimum probe separation, for resolving a separation between the upper and lower tips of a flaw, is
when the total distance travelled is a maximum and occurs with a minimum probe separation. When
considering the optimum diffraction pressure for detection of diffracted signals from flaws, a PCS,
that provides a 120 included angle of the probe beam axes at the flaw tip, is required.
The recommendations in Table 6-1 indicate the beam intersections occurring at 2/3 the thickness of the
zones. This results in an included angle of nearly 120 degrees. Because of the compromises that are
required to obtain suitable coverage, resolution and detection amplitudes, the exact angle and PCS in
Table 6-1 should be considered as guidance and the optimum combination of parameters is to be
established based on the specifics of the application.
As noted previously, the precise angle used is not normally critical and deviation of 5 degrees is
usually tolerable.

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Chapter (6): TOFD Technique Development

Under some conditions, where Table 6-1 indicates that one probe setup may be adequate to fulfil
inspection requirements, the operator may still decide that more than one probe pair and more than
one PCS may be required, in order to obtain improved coverage and resolution. Depending on the
electronics and probe holders available, this may require more than one scan.

6.2

BASIC PROBE ARRANGEMENTS

When a simple plate is welded, the probe parameters can be selected to provide the required volume
coverage in a single pass non-parallel scan. With guidance from Table 6-1 and consideration for the
weld cap in a single V weld, typical setups can be modelled. Beam spread is considered essential in
the single zone, so as to ensure adequate near surface coverage in proximity to the lateral wave. As
weld thickness increases, the beam spread and suitable refracted angles are required to provide both
the required volume coverage and the incident angles at the region of interest, ensuring adequate
amplitude responses from upper and lower tip echoes.

6.2.1

SINGLE TOFD ZONE

Diameter
Frequency
Angle
PCS
Crossing depth
Max. angle
Min. angle

3
10
70
71
13mm
90
50

Figure 6-5 Single V 20mm wall technique

6.2.2

TWO TOFD ZONE

Figure 6-6 Single V 50mm wall technique

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Chapter (6): TOFD Technique Development

Diameter
3
6

6.2.3

Frequency
5
5

Angle
70
60

PCS
90
138

Crossing depth
16mm
40mm

Max. angle in zone

90
70

Min. angle in zone

60
44

THREE TOFD ZONE

Figure 6-7 Double V 100mm wall technique

Diameter
3
6
6

Frequency
5
5
5

Angle
70
60
45

PCS
90
173
200

Crossing depth
16mm
50mm
100

Max. angle in zone

90
73
57

Min. angle in zone

60
51
32

Note: It was decided that the zone spacing would not be made equal for all three vertical extents.
Instead, a near surface limit of 25mm depth was designed. This left a thickness of 75mm to address.
When divided in half, each of the lower zones is 37.5mm high. The 2/3 crossing point in the zone from
25mm to 62.5mm is about 50mm from the surface. With the 6mm diameter 5MHz probe selected for
the lowermost zone, the beam spread is getting close to the limit needed for coverage of the far
surface. Guidance from Table 6-1 indicates that we can direct the crossing point at the full depth when
using a 45 refracted angle. The curves, in Figure 6-4, indicate that this beam angle will suffer from
weak lower tip signals if detected below the centre of beam. However, the sensitivity to the upper tip
diffractions should still be adequate to provide flaw detections. If flaws that are located in this region
require vertical extent sizing, it may require extra TOFD scans or the pulse-echo sizing technique
applied.

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Chapter (6): TOFD Technique Development

6.3

ALTERNATIVE PROBE ARRANGEMENTS

For various reasons, the simple TOFD setup, with a matched probe on either side of the weld, may not
be possible or adequate in all cases. The following are some examples of other considerations when
setting up a TOFD inspection.

6.3.1

OFFSET SCANS

In the previous examples of TOFD setups, the probe placement was symmetrical at about the weld
centreline. In some cases, this results in areas not being included in the inspection volume, especially
on the far surface. A related problem occurs due to the locus of equal time and the far surface dead
zone. When a specified minimum flaw size on the far surface is to be detected, it may require that the
region of interest be close to the beam crossing centreline.
Figure 6-8 illustrates a 25mm double V weld with a single zone TOFD setup (3mm diameter 10MHz
probe). The PCS has the 70 beams crossing at 2/3 depth. But, the beam coverage is seen to be
inadequate to detect a relatively large 2mm deep toe-crack on the far surface. The image also
illustrates the calculated dead zone (0.9mm) and the locus of equal time. Any flaws in the weld cap
deeper than the 25mm plate thickness, less the far surface dead zone, would not be resolved from the
back-wall signal (i.e., signals originating in the cap, deeper than 24.1mm would likely not be seen).
Even relatively deep flaws (like the 2mm toe-crack) will be missed, when scanning with the
symmetrical setup in Figure 6-8, due to the locus of equal time. The pink arc at the bottom of the
image in Figure 6-8 indicates the start of the back-wall ringing. The toe crack occurs at a time later
than the back-wall arrival time, so it will be masked by the ringing.

Figure 6-8 Double V 25mm wall with 2mm toe-crack on opposite wall, not detected
The solution to this problem is the offset scan. By offsetting the probe pairs, from the centreline of the
weld and making 2 scans (or using 2 pairs of the same probes), the toe crack will be detected on the
offset that places the crack above the locus of equal time, as illustrated in Figure 6-9.

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Figure 6-9 Offset scan with 2mm toe-crack on opposite wall detected

6.3.2

SAME-SIDE TOFD

In the description of the principles of TOFD, in section 2.3, the TOFD technique was defined as being
two probes arranged in opposition. There is a possible variation of that configuration called one-sided
TOFD. This is a tandem arrangement of the TOFD probes on the same side of the weld. Under certain
conditions this can have an advantage, in that access can be limited to a single side for some geometry.
Placing a pair of probes facing a weld, with some spacing between them, it is possible to collect backdiffracted signals. A noticeable difference with one-sided TOFD is the lack of reference signals as with
the traditional TOFD. With both probes facing the same direction, there is no lateral wave and no
reflected back-wall. Refracted angles need not be identical and the display is not as straight forward to
interpret for depth assessment.

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Figure 6-10 Same-side TOFD layout and responses

Figure 6-10 illustrates the setup and the sort of B-scan display that results from the same-side TOFD
configuration. Note that the root and cap signals are not possible to reference with respect to the
lateral wave and back-wall signals. A mathematically calculated top and bottom would be required to
assess the true depths of the indications.

6.3.3

SPECIAL PROBES FOR NEAR SURFACE FLAWS

The presence of the lateral wave ring-time has long been considered an impediment to TOFD. Lateral
wave removal is available on most systems, but not always used by the technician. Therefore, when a
scan is made and no abrupt changes are seen in the lateral wave, the assumption is made that no near
surface flaws exist. In some cases, this assumption is not adequate for the codes. Extra scans are then
required to investigate the upper region of the component.
Three options are generally considered feasible for ultrasonic tests; high angle shear wave with a dual
element probe, a full skip pulse-echo scan or a high angle compression wave in pulse-echo mode. A
simple pulse-echo scan, limited to monitoring the upper surface of a weld, is useful if it is feasible to
restrict the region of interest to just a few millimetres on either side of the toe of the weld. This option
becomes less attractive for very thick sections. For example, when a weld is made in a plate 100mm
thick, the sound path for even a 45 beam is 280mm to the top surface. The resulting beam spread at
that distance will make the detection relatively imprecise. An effective option in some cases is to use a
high angle dual element probe designed for use in transverse mode. A popular option to the dual
element probe is to use a high angle compression mode probe in pulse-echo. In some cases, users have

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even configured the hardware to fire the TOFD probes, first in transmit-receive mode for the TOFD
data, and then in pulse-echo mode to generate the so-called creeping wave (which is nothing more
than the compression mode glancing along the near surface).

6.3.4

PA TOFD

With adequate electronics built into the system, phased array probes can also be operated in a TOFD
mode.
The probe arrangement is identical to the single element configurations, with a probe either side of the
weld. An appropriate number of elements are then selected to pulse and receive in each probe. The
number of elements and the refracted angles are selectable from the software menu in the phased
array system. The resultant signals are no different from those seen using single element probes with
similar parameters. Figure 6-11 illustrates a phased array setup for TOFD, and Figure 6-12 illustrates
the B-scan collected.

Figure 6-11 PA TOFD layout with 7MHz probe and 4 elements at 0.6mm pitch

Figure 6-12 Sample B-scan from PA TOFD setup (not noticeably different from mono-element)
Where multiple zones are used, there can be a limitation for phased array TOFD. A single phased
probe pair may be able to configure two zones, but it will be limited to the single frequency of the
probe. Applications with phased array systems often take advantage of the combined pulse-echo and

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TOFD potential of the phased array, but may augment the phased array TOFD with a mono-element
TOFD, using a dedicated small diameter high frequency probe pair for the uppermost TOFD zone.

6.3.5

IMMERSION AND GAP TESTING OPTIONS AND ISSUES

Replacing the refracting wedge, in a TOFD configuration with water, is perhaps not common, but it is
feasible. With water or similar liquid, as the refracting material, issues of intermittent coupling are
eliminated.
Immersion testing implies the test piece is immersed in the coupling liquid. The probe may be
partially or completely immersed, as well. The transducer uses the couplant as a delay line. Being
fluid, the angle and time in the refracting medium are infinitely adjustable.
The biggest advantage to coupling by immersion is uniformity. Contact coupling always has
fluctuations in proximity and amount of couplant under the shoe. Immersion testing does not have
this variable contributing to amplitude variation.
Incident angle is easily changed in immersion testing and is not limited to discrete angles, as is the
case for contact tests. Since no direct contact to the part is made, no wear occurs and contouring of the
probe is not necessary.
Probes used for immersion testing are relatively straight forward. Except for waterproofing of
electrical connections, construction of the basic unit is the same as for contact probes. Since no wedge
is used, the probe housings need not incorporate wedge adapters; and the elements can be mounted in
a housing with little or no protective face. In fact, PVDF (polymer) probes are constructed with gold
electrodes exposed to the water (providing very high frequency pulses).
Focussing of the beam is simplified in immersion techniques. Cast synthetic resins and moulded
ceramic or polymer elements allow straightforward focussing.
When the immersion fluid is restricted to a small volume in front of the probe, the immersion
technique is more accurately called gap testing. Devices are designed to provide a fixed gap between
the probe-face and test part. The gap is filled with water (or similar couplant). Couplant can
constantly be fed into the gap by a pump or the test may be configured to prevent water loss as the
part is moved past the probes. Plate and tubular products are often tested using these devices.
When the couplant is trapped in a small cavity and provides a fixed water path, the device is
sometimes termed a bubbler. Depending on surface conditions and thickness, the gap may be several
microns or several centimetres. Relative movement, between the probe and part coupled with surface
tension, will ensure some water is always lost, so a reservoir must be drawn from. A single probe with
gravity fed water-flow can be used in manual scanning or the same principle can be employed for
automated systems with multiple probes. Several gap testing methods are illustrated in Figure 6-13.

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Figure 6-13 Gap testing options

Of the illustrated options for gap testing in Figure 6-13, the one indicating the probes with wedges in a
holder being fed with irrigation (lower left) is essentially the same as most contact setups where water
is pumped through irrigation channels in the wedges. When the gap is used, but is not sufficiently
large so as to avoid sound bouncing between the wedge and the test piece, a gap multiple occurs. This
appears as a double (or treble) lateral wave. Use of gap testing with wedges and just carbide wear tips
should avoid any gap, i.e., carbide tips should be adjusted to ensure the tips are flush with the wedge
surface. In these applications, the purpose of the carbide wear tip is to reduce wear, not to provide a
gap. The result of the gap when carbides are used is seen in Figure 6-14.

Figure 6-14 Lateral wave multiple due to excessive gap

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