Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Lab Manual
Stephen W. Ziser
Department of Biology
Pinnacle Campus

for

BIOL 2404
Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Laboratory Activities, Homework and Lab Assignments 2013.8

Biol 2404 Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology; Lab Manual, Ziser, 2013.8

Biol 2404 Lab Manual

Table of Contents
I. General Laboratory Orientation . II. Lab Safety .
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III. Laboratory Activities & Homework Assignments

1. Units of Measurement & Metric System Homework . 2. The Language of Anatomy . . . . . . . 3. Organ Systems Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 15 17

4. Experiment: Identification of Organic Molecules . . . . . 18 5. Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 6. The Cell & Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 7. Human Tissues & Tissue Identification . 8. Dissection of the Fetal Pig. . . . . 9. Body Membranes . . . . . . 10. The Integumentary System . . . 11. The Skeletal System . . . . . 12. Articulations and Body Movements . 13. The Muscular System 14. The Nervous System . 15. Sense Organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 30 35 36 37 40 41 43 47 50 52 55 56 57 62 64 67 71 73 78 79 81

16. The Endocrine System . 17. The Circulatory System . 18. The Lymphatic System .

19. Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20. Experiment: Hematology, Heart Sounds & Blood Pressure . 21. The Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . 22. Experiment: Measuring Vital Capacity . 23. Experiment: Enzyme Activity . . . 24. The Digestive System . . . . . 25. Experiment: pH and Buffers . 26. The Urinary System . . . 27. The Reproductive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28. A Survey of Human Development

Biol 2404 Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology; Lab Manual, Ziser, 2013.8

Biol 2404 Lab Orientation

The laboratory portion of this course is designed to study anatomical details of each body system more thoroughly than it is presented in lecture. While human models are also used, your core learning will come from your dissections and tissue studies. If you have a real moral objection to animal dissections then you should not take this course at ACC since you would not be able to learn some of the essential lab skills and would therefore be missing an essential part of the course. This method of hands on learning should also enhance and strengthen the knowledge you gain in lectures. At times you will be working individually, in pairs or in groups of three or four. Each lab period is loosely structured to begin with a short introduction to the exercise that highlights the activities of the day, what materials are available for use and any changes in procedures. After that you will work independently to learn the material. There is never enough time in lab to go over each and every item that you are assigned. The lab is a designated a time when you have access to materials that you will not have available during home study time. Some of the information assigned in lab you can learn at home, other items, particularly anatomical terms identified on dissected organs, animals and models and microscopic details viewed with a microscope can only be learned adequately in the lab room.

General Lab Rules:

1. Read the lab exercise before you come to lab. There is not time to review every aspect of each exercise and still give you time to work on your own. I will assume that you know what the exercise covers in general and I will only review changes or specific materials that you will use. 2. Before each lab, use the terminology list to mark the items in your manuals text and illustrations that you are responsible for learning. 2. Read and memorize the laboratory safety rules of the lab below. The preservatives are irritants and some of you may be allergic to them. Gloves must be used during dissections and will be provided. Your dissecting tools will be provided for you as well. 3. The PIN lab room is open on Fridays, 8:00 am to 12:00 pm for extra lab study time.

Dissections:
Dissections are an integral part of the anatomy and physiology lab experience. There is no substitute for handling and dissecting real tissues and organs as a way to learn anatomy:

Why Dissection?
The value of the dissection is not how neatly the students manage to do it, but what they see while they are doing it. Plastic models and 2-dimensional pictures are no substitute for real, if preserved, tissues. One of the major revelations during a dissection is that skin, muscles, blood vessels and nerves are all held together by connective tissue. There is no other way to teach this. They see the distribution of lymph nodes and the way that the intestines are held in place by mesenteries. They see all the places where there is fat. They can pull on a muscle and see the insertion move. This is hands-on, active learning at its best! Doing anatomy without dissection Biol 2404 Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology; Lab Manual, Ziser, 2013.8 3

is like doing micro without bacteria! I know there are several reasons that people may object to dissection. I also know as an educator that it is a valuable and irreplaceable tool for learning structure. -A&P Instructor The term dissection means to expose to view. Many beginning students assume that dissecting automatically means cutting things up but actual cutting is rare and then it will usually be done with scissors, not scalpels. Scalpels more often damage the material and make things harder to see and their use is discouraged in most cases. While you will occasionally use scissors to begin the process of dissection your primary tools of dissection will be forceps and blunt probes and fingers. Any dissections will be performed as a group. Typically one person reads the instructions and one or two other students will actually do the dissection. Your instructor will be watching to ensure that this is a shared project. Rolls should be rotated frequently. Generally, the person actually doing the dissection is the one who learns the material best. Dissecting tools and gloves are provided in the student drawers. Any dissected materials to be discarded must be placed in the designated container; NOT in the sinks. You will be expected to rinse your i tray, rinse and dry your pins and utensils and replace them where you found them and clean off your counter with disinfectant spray. FAILURE TO FOLLOW THESE PROCEDURES WILL RESULT IN A LOSS OF 1 POINT FROM YOUR TOTAL FOR EACH INFRACTION

Biol 2404 Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology; Lab Manual, Ziser, 2013.8

ACC Biology Lab Safety Procedures and Information

Health and safety are paramount values in science classrooms, laboratories and field activities. You are expected to learn, understand and comply with ACC environmental, health and safety procedures and agree to follow the ACC science safety policy. You are expected to conduct yourself professionally with respect and courtesy to all. You can read the complete ACC science safety policy at: http://www.austincc.edu/sci_safe/ All safety policies and procedures apply to scheduled lab classes as well as open labs. Consequences for not complying with safety procedures: 1. You will not be able to participate in a lab activity if: a. you are late for class and have missed safety training specific for that days lab or field activity; b. you have forgotten your personal protective equipment; c. you refuse to wear personal protective equipment; d. you have not followed safety policies and procedures for that lab or field activity. 2. You may be withdrawn from the class and not reinstated if: a. you missed required safety training at the beginning of the semester; b. you repeatedly fail to follow lab safety policies and procedures. 3. You may be expelled from ACC if you thoughtlessly or intentionally jeopardize the health or safety or another individual. Emergencies If there is a fire, major chemical spill or other emergency: 1. Call ACC Police Dispatch as soon as possible. Tell the operator your campus _______ and exact location in the building _____________. Location of nearest ACC phone: ________________________________ ACC POLICE DISPATCH: 222 (from an ACC phone) 223-7999 (from a cell or other phone) 2. If evacuation is necessary: a. take your personal belongings with you if possible; b. on your way out, close but do not lock the classroom door; c. go to the designated rally point away from this building. Directions to nearest exit: ______________________________________ Location of rally point:_________________________________________ Safety Equipment and How to Use It: Information about chemicals used in this laboratory can be found in Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) and in a chemical inventory located __________________________________________. Fire extinguishers are located: ________________________________.

To use a fire extinguisher: 1) twist the pin and then pull it out of the handle 2) hold the end of the hose and point it at the base of the fire 3) squeeze the handle Fire blankets are located: __________________________. 5

Biol 2404 Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology; Lab Manual, Ziser, 2013.8

If you are on fire, stop, drop and roll. Let someone else to get the fire blanket. An eyewash is located ________________________________. If a chemical is splashed or rubbed into your eyes you must use an eyewash for at least 20 minutes with your eyes held open. Someone will help you with this. If a person is experiencing electrical shock from touching wires or equipment, use a belt or other non-conducting material to pull them away from the electrical source. First aid kits are located: ____________________________. a. Only minor cuts and burns will be treated in the lab. Serious injuries must be treated in a medical facility. Emergency Medical Services (EMS) will be called if you are injured and are unable to take yourself to a medical facility. b. The instructor must fill out a report describing your injury.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 1. Safety Eyewear: a. You must wear safety eyewear (safety glasses or goggles) marked Z87 when directed to do so by the lab instructor or lab safety instructions. You must bring your protective eyewear with you to every lab class. If you forget your eyewear and the lab room does not have a pair to loan to you, you will not be able to participate in the lab and may forfeit your lab grade for that day. ACC cannot guarantee that loaned safety glasses or safety goggles are uncontaminated by microbes or chemicals. b. People who wear contact lenses must wear goggles and may not wear safety glasses. 2. Gloves You will be provided with nitrile gloves for handling hazardous chemicals and may be provided with latex gloves for handling biohazards. Please notify the instructor if you have a latex allergy. 3. Shoes You must wear closed-toed shoes in lab. 4. Apron You may be told to wear an apron (or lab coat) over your clothes when handling chemicals. 5. Other: a. tie back long hair in labs involving open flames; b. do not wear clothing with long, loose sleeves; c. wear natural fiber clothing (synthetic material melts onto skin in a fire); d. remove watches, rings, and bracelets during lab activities involving chemicals. Waste Disposal You must precisely follow the waste disposal procedures. Never dispose of anything in lab without prior direction from the instructor. Hazardous chemical waste containers are located: _________________________________________________________ Biohazard bags are located: __________________________________________ Sharps containers are located: ________________________________________ Glass (rinsed test tubes and broken glass) disposal boxes are located: ______________________________________ Regular trash containers are located: ___________________________________

Lab Conduct 1) At the beginning of any class held in a lab room, do not enter the room until your instructor is present. Wait in the hall, even if the door is open. Biol 2404 Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology; Lab Manual, Ziser, 2013.8 6

2) Do these things: follow all procedures in manuals, in handouts, and as given by the instructor; store backpacks, coats, and other personal items as directed; report broken glass and chemical spills to your instructor immediately. 3) Do NOT do these things: come to class while intoxicated or while under the influence of drugs that impair your ability to safely perform the lab or field activity; horse around or perform unauthorized experiments; eat, drink, or chew (tobacco or gum); bring drinks or food (even in closed containers) into the lab; pipet by mouth; taste chemicals or directly smell chemical fumes. Lab Hygiene Clean up your individual work area/equipment and community work areas/equipment (e.g., sinks, balances). Put lids back on bottles and containers immediately after use. Do not put excess chemicals back into original containers. Dispose of chemicals and waste only as directed by the instructor. Wash your hands prior to leaving lab. Assume that chemicals used in lab are corrosive or irritating. If at any time chemicals come into contact with your skin wash the affected area immediately. Disease Diseases such as HIV and hepatitis can be transmitted from person to person through contact with human blood or other body fluids. Follow the Universal Precautions whenever exposure to human body fluids is possible: Consider all body fluids (saliva, blood, urine, feces, vomit) to be potentially infected with a harmful pathogen. Do not touch or come into contact with anyone else's body fluids. Chemical Hazard Labels Label containers/test tubes if you are using more than one container per lab. Inform your instructor immediately if a label is damaged in any way. Read all labels and pay special attention to hazard information. A typical chemical hazard label conveys two kinds of information: the category of the hazard (flammable, toxic, reactive, or corrosive) and the level of the hazard. There are two main types of labels: those shaped like diamonds and those shaped like bars. In both types the category of hazard is represented by a color and the level of the hazard is represented by a number. 1. Hazard categories are coded by color: red blue yellow white (diamondshaped labels) white (barshaped labels) fire hazard, flammability health hazard, toxicity reactivity provides more specific information about the hazard (example: acid) tells you what kind of protective equipment (PPE) is required for handling that chemical 7

Biol 2404 Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology; Lab Manual, Ziser, 2013.8

2. Hazard level is coded by a number: 0 1 2 3 4 minimal slight moderate severe, serious extreme

3. Refer to the training poster in your lab for examples. 4. Other types of hazard warning labels you must recognize are: a. biohazards; b. radioactive materials.

Biol 2404 Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology; Lab Manual, Ziser, 2013.8

Course Specific Cautions (PIN Biol 2404) 1. Do not bring food or drinks into the lab room. 2. Learn the locations of the vent switch, safety shower, extinguisher, glass disposal boxes, discarded tissue buckets, first aid kit and spill kits and be able to use each 3. Wash lab benches with lysol spray BEFORE and AFTER each lab period 4. Place your books beneath the lab bench, if you have a jacket or sweater there are hooks available on which to hang them. Keep your countertop clear of all but your lab manual and materials you are actually working with. 5. Check your lab stool to be sure the back is tightened 6. If you drop and break a beaker or other glassware do not pick it up, notify me and Ill take care of it. 7. If the floor is wet cover it with paper towels and notify the instructor 8. Follow the procedures as directed for proper handling and care of microscopes and slides 9. Do not have more than one or two prepared slides at your bench at any time. 10. Slides and coverslips that you prepare should be discarded in the glass disposal boxes, do not attempt to clean them (Do not discard any of the prepared slides). 11. Make sure the venting switch is on when dissections are being done. 12. Use latex or nitrile gloves while dissecting since the preservatives used can be quite strong and may be toxic. 13. Aprons are available as needed to protect your clothes, we recommend that you wear older clothes for lab. 14. Wash and dry any dissecting utensils that you used and return them to the case in your lab drawer. 15. Wash your hands after dissecting. Assuming reasonable care and caution required for any lab procedure, exposure to preservatives will require special attention as you work in this lab: Some specimens will be preserved in either 70% alcohol or 10% formalin. both solutions are irritants, some students may be allergic. Overall, the hazard levels are low as long as the vents are on, you are wearing protective gloves, and you rinse your specimens well before dissecting or handling them. Notify your instructor if you know you are allergic to these solutions Your instructor will discuss additional precautions available in lab.

Biol 2404 Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology; Lab Manual, Ziser, 2013.8

Laboratory Safety & Equipment

Familiarized yourself with the various supplies and equipmentin the labroom. Keep this sheet accessible throughout the semester.
Assume the blackboard is at the front of the room and the windows are on the left side

Describe The Specific Location of Each latex gloves aprons safety glasses/goggles eyewash station sinks disinfectant spray bottles paper towels biohazard bag glass disposal boxes deionized water spigots fire extinguisher first aid kit hazardous materials spill kit dissecting kits blank slides & coverslips trash & recycling containers prepared A&P slides
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Units of Measurement and the Metric System

Biol 2404 Laboratory & Homework Activities
Materials Needed: meter sticks metric rulers calculators It is essential that people working in scientific and medical fields develop some facility with units of measurement including the ability to convert between different systems of measurement. Unlike the English (Apothecaries) system, conversions within the metric system are relatively easy; all being based on increments of 10.

Quantity

Metric Unit
millimeter centimeter

Symbol
mm cm

Approximate Equivalents
thickness of dime or paper clip wire width of a paper clip 1 yard or 3 feet height of door is about 2m 0.6 miles distance you can walk in 12 minutes area of this space:

Length meter kilometer square centimeter Area square meter m2 m km cm2

area of a card table top

hectare

ha

area of a football field including end zones 11

Biol 2404 Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology; Lab Manual, Ziser, 2013.8

milliliter liter Volume cubic centimeter

ml l cm3 m3 mg g kg

a teaspoon holds about 5 ml a quart volume of this cube:

cubic meter milligram gram Mass kilogram

a cubic yard a grain of salt 3 small paperclips 2.2 lbs weight of Websters Collegiate Dictionary 1.1 tons a Volkswagen Beetle 0C = 32F; 100C = 212F 1 lb of fat stores 3500 Calories of food energy

metric tonne centigrade Energy Calorie

mt or tonne C Cal

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Name:_________________________ Due:_____________

The Metric System

Biol 2404 Homework Sheet

The following activities will help to familiarize you with units of the metric system, use your text or lab manual to answer each: 1. What is the metric prefix that means: one thousand ___________________ one hundred ___________________ one thousandth ___________________ one hundredth ___________________

2. Complete the following sentences with the correct word(not abbreviation). One thousand grams is a One one thousandth of a gram is a One thousand meters is a One one thousandth of a meter is a One one hundreth of a meter is a 3. Convert the following: .45 liters = ________ml 1250 ml = 0.065 mg = 3.7 km = 3.6 kg = ________ l ________g ________m ________g 670 cm = 1250 g = ________m ________kg _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________

0.15 liters = ________ml 120 mm = 5000 m = ________cm ________km

4. Make a diagram of your textbook, below, use arrows to indicated how the terms below apply, then measure and record these dimensions of your textbook in centimeters below: superior to inferior medial to lateral __________ __________

anterior to posterior __________ dorsal to ventral

Biol 2404 Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology; Lab Manual, Ziser, 2013.8

__________ 13

5. What is the average normal body temperature in degrees Fahrenheit and Celsius (show your work, or formula used)?

6. What was yesterdays high and low temperature in degrees Celsius (show your work or formula used): high: __________ low: ___________

7. If someone weighs 154 lbs how much do they weigh in kilograms (show your work):

8. When you leave the ACC parking lot (either light on 290) and have driven one kilometer, where are you (be specific)?

9. Find and describe an everyday object not mentioned in this exercise, the textbook, or the lab manual that measures approximately: one meter: one centimeter one millimeter one liter one gram one kilogram ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________

Biol 2404 Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology; Lab Manual, Ziser, 2013.8

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The Language of Anatomy

[Landmarks, Cavities, Planes, Organ Systems]
Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: male & female surface landmarks models various models Lab Activities: 1. Define and give examples of the following directional terms:
su perior ! inferio r anterio r ! pos ter io r med ial ! later al dor s al ! v e ntr al pro xi m al ! d is tal su per ficial ! deep

2. Use the models above to find and describe the location of common surface landmarks listed below
ax i al regi on ap p en d ic ular r eg io n head " neck " tho rax " ab do men " p elv is n as al " or bital " o ral " bu cc al " o ccip ital " c erv ic al " ax illar y " tho racic " u mb ilic al " lu mb ar " sacr al " g luteal " b r ac hial " pelvic " ab do min al " p u bic " ing u in al " femor al " p atellar " c alc an eal

3. Describe and recognize the variety of sections on all many models in the lab that show various types of sections.
sagittal plan e fro n tal plan e tr ans v er se plan e

4. List the major body cavities and name organs found in each
Do rs al Cr anial Sp in al Ve ntr al Tho racic Abdo m i nop e lv ic Abdo m i nal Pelv ic

5. Study torso models and illustrations to be able to name which abdominal quadrants or regions various organs are found in.
up p er r ig h t an d left q u ad r ate; lo wer r ig h t an d left q u ad r ate ep ig astri c h ypog as tr ic " u mb i li cal rt & lft h ypo ch on dr i ac " r t & lft lu mb ar " r t & lft in gu i nal

Terminology List for Landmarks, Cavities, Planes, Organ Systems:

Body Orientation and Direction: su perior ! inferio r anterio r ! pos ter io r med ial ! later al ceph alad ! c aud ad dor s al ! v e ntr al pro xi m al ! d is tal su per ficial ! deep Body Planes and Sections
Biol 2404 Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology; Lab Manual, Ziser, 2013.8

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sagittal plan e fro n tal plan e tr ans v er se plan e Body Cavities Do rs al Cr anial Sp in al Ve ntr al Tho racic Abdo m i nop e lv ic Abdo m i nal Pelv ic Body Landmarks and Surface Features: ax i al regi on ap p en d ic ular r eg io n head " neck " tho rax " ab do men " p elv is n as al " or bital " o ral " bu cc al " o ccip ital " c erv ic al " ax illar y " tho racic " u mb ilic al " lu mb ar " sacr al " g luteal " b r ac hial " pelvic " ab do min al " p u bic " ing u in al " femor al " p atellar " c alc an eal Abdominopelvic Quadrates Abdominopelvic Regions ep ig astri c h ypog as tr ic " u mb i li cal rt & lft h ypo ch on dr i ac " r t & lft lu mb ar " r t & lft in gu i nal

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Organ Systems Overview

Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: Tables and Illustrations Torso Models Lab Activities: 1. Use models and charts to learn the major systems and some of the major organs of each organ system listed below. Terminology: Integumentary System Skeletal System
#the skin can be considered a membrane" a single organ or an organ system$ each individual bone is a separate organ of the skeletal system %eg& humerus" radius" femur" etc& ' each individual muscle is a separate organ of the muscular system %eg& biceps" triceps" gastrocnemius& etc&'

Muscular System

Nervous System
br ai n " sp i n al c or d " eac h cr ani al n e rv e " e ac h s pi n al ne r ve

Endocrine System
anterio r p itu itar y g lan d " pos ter io r p itu itar y g land " th yro id gland " p anc reas " ad r en al cor tex " adr enal med ulla " o v ar ies " tes tes

Circulatory System
hear t " each individual artery and vein is a separate organ of the circulatory system %eg& aorta" pulmonary artery" hepatic portal vein" etc&'

Lymphatic System Immune System

rig h t lymph atic du ct " tho r ac ic du ct " ton si ls " s p leen " lymph no d es #Specific cells and chemicals in virtually every body organ help to protect the body from pathogens$

Respiratory System Digestive System

nos e " ph ar yn x " lar yn x " tr ach ea " bro nc h i " lu ng s " diap h r ag m mo u th " p h ar ynx " es op h ag us " s to mac h " s mall i n tes ti n e " larg e i n tes tin e " li v er " g all bladd er " p anc re as " m es en ter i es " te eth " s aliv ary glan ds kid n eys " ur eter s " ur in ary bladd er " ur eth r a

Urinary System Reproductive System

male: p enis " s cro tu m " tes tes " ep idid ymu s " v as defer ens " ejac ulato ry d uc t " ur eth r a " semin al v esic les " p ros tate gland " b ulbo ur eth r al glan ds fem ale: v ulv a " " mammar y g land s " ov ari es " o v id uc ts " u ter us " c er v ix " v ag in a
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Identification of Biomolecules
Biol 2404 Experiments in Physiology Our physical bodies are essentially a collection of both common and some exotic chemicals. Many of these chemicals are simple inorganic combinations such as sodium chloride, hydrochloric acid, molecular oxygen, and carbon dioxide. Most of the different kinds of chemicals comprising our bodies are larger more complex organic molecules. The biochemical reactions that are occurring constantly within our cells synthesize new, larger molecules or decompose larger molecules into smaller pieces. Anabolism is a term used for all the synthesis reactions occurring at any time; Catabolism is a term that refers to all the decomposition reactions occurring at any time. Metabolism is a term that refers to ALL of these reactions together. While our bodies can metabolize a wide variety of organic molecules, the vast majority belong to three major groups: carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a ration of (CH2O)n where n can be any number depending on the complexity of the carbohydrate. Simple sugars such as glucose and fructose are called monosaccharides. More complex carbohydrates such as starches are polymers of these monosaccharide units and are called polysaccharides. Simple carbohydrates are broken down or catabolized in a process called glycolysis which provides the cells with most of its energy. Lipids, including fats and steroids are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. They are important components of cell membranes and are used as hormones and for energy storage. Excess food is usually stored as fat in adipose tissue cells. Proteins are constructed from long chains of amino acids and contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur atoms. Proteins provide the major structural components of our cells and therefore our bodies. Other proteins serve as enzymes which are the major catalysts that facilitate complex biochemical reactions in our cells We can perform simple tests to identify the presence of some of these kinds of molecules by adding indicators to a solution to be tested. A change in color or other physical characteristic indicates the presence or absence of a particular kind of organic molecule. A. Simple carbohydrates (sugars). Benedicts solution causes some sugars to turn green, yellow, orange or red when heated to boiling. The color of a positive reaction depends on how much sugar is present (green indicates low levels; red high sugar levels) B. Complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides or starches). Lugols iodine causes a solution containing starch to turn dark blue to black. The more starch there is the darker the color. C. Lipids (fats and oils). Large amounts of concentrated lipids leave a translucent spot on absorbent paper after drying. D. Proteins (and Polypeptides) Biuret solution causes a protein solution to turn pink or violet. The first step in learning to detect these chemicals is to perform control tests with substances known to contain or not to contain specific chemicals. You will perform each of the above tests on a positive Biol 2404 Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology; Lab Manual, Ziser, 2013.8 18

and a negative solution (the negative is usually water). After completing the tests you will see both the positive and negative results for each of the different kinds of molecule above. Then you can compare your experimental tests to these control results to see if any of the different kinds organic molecules are present in each test (unknown) solution.

Control Test Procedures: 1. Sugars: a. take two clean test tubes and label one su+ and the other su-. b. add about 1 cm (use ruler to measure) of glucose solution (10% Karo) to su+ test tube c. add about 1 cm of DI water to sud. add 5 drops of Benedicts solution to each test tube e. using test tube clamp, place both test tubes in a boiling water bath at your table for about 2 minutes f. record the reaction as either + or - in the table on your data sheet 2. Starches a. swirl the starch bottle to mix then add a drop of starch solution (1% starch) to one of the wells in the spot plate and a drop of DI water to another well b. add 1-3 drops of Lugols iodine to each of the wells c. record the reaction as either + or - in the table on your data sheet 3. Lipids a. with a dropper add a drop of oil (vegetable oil) to one half of a paper towel b. with another clean dropper add a drop of DI water to the other half of a paper towel c. place the paper towel in the incubator on a warming tray for 5 minutes d. record the reaction as either + or - in the table on your data sheet 4. Proteins a. swirl the protein bottle to mix then add a drop of protein solution to a clean spot plate b. then add a drop of Biuret solution to the same well c. add a drop of DI water to another well on the spot plate d. then add a drop of Biuret solution to the same well e. record each of the two reactions as either + or - in the table on your data sheet Experimental Test Procedures In the second part of this exercise you will be testing each of the unknown solutions that you are given by adding indicators (like you did to the controls) to test for the presence of the above molecules. But before you actually perform the tests you must first make predictions (hypotheses) by noting which organic molecules you would expect to find in each of the solutions. Indicate which organic molecules you expect to find in each of the test solutions by placing a + sign in the expected results column of your data table. Place a - if you do not expect to find that kind of molecule. As you make your predictions be able to explain why you did or did not expect to find a particular kind of molecule in each sample.

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Now, test for the presence or absence of each kind of organic molecule by using the same indicator solutions that you used in your control tests. Record your results in the experimental results columns of your table on your data sheet. Notes: Use the spot plate for the starch tests & protein tests Use a paper towel for the oil test Use test tubes for the sugar test. You will need to clean and rinse the test tubes in DI water and reuse them during this lab. At the end of the lab you can discard the test tubes in the glass disposal boxes. Cleanup and Disposal Discard all test solutions into the sink with the water running Do NOT empty water or boiling stones from beaker on hot plate Make sure the hot plate is turned off and unplugged before you leave; leave the beaker and boiling stones on the hot plate Dispose of used test tubes in the glass disposal box; keep any unused tubes in the rack Dispose of plastics and paper towels in trash Clean spot plates with soap and water and return it to the tray on your lab table Return all dropper bottles to the tray on your table, make sure caps are screwed on Wipe down counters with disinfectant

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Name:_________________________ Group:_________ Due Date:___________

Identification of Biomolecules
Bio 2404 Lab Data Sheet

Control Tests: For each control test below record your results as a + or - in the column to the right. Control Tests Result +/-

sugar test
Sugar Sol DI water

starch test
Starch Sol DI water

lipid test
Oil DI water

protein test
Protein Sol DI water Did all the control tests give the expected results, if not explain?

Why are these called control tests

What would be the consequences for the rest of this experiment if any of the control tests did not produce the expected results? Describe a specific example.

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Experimental Tests: Write out your hypothesis being tested (your expected results) for each solution below and then record your experimental results as a + or - in the columns to the right. Hypotheses (Expected Results) [+/-] solution
apple juice diet soda powdered sugar sol potato sol bottled water tuna sol sugar starch lipid protein

Experimental Results [+/-]

sugar starch lipid protein

Circle any experimental result that does not support your hypothesis, i.e. any discrepancies between what you expected to find (your hypotheses) and what you actually found (your experimental tests) in each of the solutions. Then try to explain each of these specific discrepancies, ie. why, specifically, do you think you did not get your expected results in each case? Was it a problem with your hypothesis? Was it a problem with the data you collected? Be VERY specific with your explanation; eg. I was wrong is NOT an explanation. (use additional sheets as needed):

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The Microscope
Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: Slides: Lab Activities: 1. Identify the major parts of the microscope and know the functions of each:
ocu lar len s " ob jec tiv e lens es " n os ep iec e " p o wer switc h " lig h t co n tr ol switc h " mec h an ic al s tag e " c on d en ser " ir is diaph r ag m " c oars e & fin e foc u s " po inter

Letter e colored threads

2. Be able to define and understand the following terms related to microscopy:

mag n ific ation " r eso lutio n " c on tr as t co mpo u nd mic ros cop e " diss ec tin g micro sco p e

3. Distinguish between the scanning, low power, high power, and oil immersion objectives. 4. Demonstrate proper focusing techniques and light adjustments at all magnifications and determine the total magnification you are using when viewing the two slides listed above 5. Demonstrate proper handling, use and care of the microscope and of prepared slides. 6. Learn the meanings of the abbreviations below that are used on prepared slides: wm sec cs ls sag sm ts = = = = = = = whole mount section of an organ or tissue; no specific kind of section designated cross section longitudinal section sagittal section smear ! cells are spread out in a single layer across the slide teased ! individual cells are pulled apart from each other on the slide

Terminology List for Microscope:

mag n ific ation " r eso lutio n " c on tr as t co mpo u nd mic ros cop e " diss ec tin g micro sco p e ocu lar len s " ob jec tiv e lens es " n os ep iec e po we r s wi tc h " lig h t co n tr ol s wi tc h " m ec h an ic al stag e " co nd e ns er " ir is di ap hr ag m " coars e & fin e fo cu s " poin ter terminology for microscope slides: wm " s ec " cs " ls " s ag " s m " ts

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The Cell & Cell Division

Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: Models: Slides: animal cell mitosis plaque epithelium simple squamous oral smear wet mount of cheek cells sperm smear, human Human blood Wrights smear amphibian smooth muscle, teased fish blastodisc mitosis, sec

All living matter is composed of cells. The human body contains trillions of cells. The metabolism of living organisms, all their biochemical activities, takes place within cells and as a result of cellular activity. All cells arise from other cells by cell division. All cells are surrounded by a cell membrane which encloses the cytoplasm (protoplasm) and various other internal structures. The cell membrane restricts passage of materials in and out of the cell and helps to protect the cells structural and functional integrity. Internally, floating in the cytoplasm, are various organelles (small organs), each with a specific function similar to some of the organs found in our bodies. A nucleus is found in almost all of our cells and is often the largest cellular structure present. The nucleus contains the genetic material, the chromosomes, which are made of DNA and control all metabolism. Most cells also contain mitochondria which contain most of the enzymes for extracting energy from organic foods, a chemical process called respiration. Additional organelles and cellular structures are listed in the lab activities below.

Lab Activities: 1. Study the cell model and identify the following organelles and structures:
cell memb r an e cyto plas m nu cleus & nu cleo lu s org anelles: ribo so me " en dop las mic retic ulu m " golgi bod ies " mitoc ho nd ria " c en trio les " lysos o mes " c ilia & flag ella

2. Study the general functions of each cell structure and organelle listed above 3. Make a wet mount of cheek cells following your instructors directions and identify as many cellular structures as you can 4. Compare some of the different kinds of cells (epithelium, blood, muscle and sperm) from the slides indicated above and describe their visible similarities and differences 5. Identify the stages of mitosis on prepared slides and models and be able to find good examples of each of the major stages of mitosis in the whitefish mitosis slides
in ter p has e " p ro ph ase " metap h as e " an ap h as e " telop h as e

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Terminology List for Cells and Cell Division:

Cell Structures: cell memb r an e cyto plas m nu cleus nu cleo lus org anelle s ri boso me en do plas mi c r etic u lu m golgi bod i es mitoc hon d ria cen tr ioles lysos o mes cilia & flag ella Cell Division (Mitosis) in ter p has e " p ro ph ase " metap h as e " an ap h as e " telop h as e

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Human Tissues
Biol 2404 Laboratory Activity
Lab Materials: Slides: epithelium: epithelium simple squamous (oral smear) connective: mammal areolar tissue spread muscular: skeletal muscle ts nervous: mammal, neuron, motor nerve cells, smear

In multicellular organisms such as humans various groups of cells become specialized for specific functions. Some cells are responsible for movement, others for protection and still others for transferring food and oxygen throughout the body. None of these cells could survive independently from the others. Each has become specialized not only in function but in shape and internal makeup to perform a relatively few functions. Groups of cells with similar morphology and function are called tissues. Tissue cells are usually embedded in a noncellular matrix. The proportion of cells to matrix varies between tissue types. The matrix of many tissues also contains one or more kinds of protein fibers such as collagen, elastin and reticular fibers. All mammalian organs and organ systems are composed of just 4 basic or primary tissue types: Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, and Nervous Tissues. Each of these four primary tissue types can be further subdivided into several more specific tissue types. Epithelial tissues line body surfaces and the lumen of all tubes and ducts within the body; including the digestive system, lungs, kidneys, exocrine glands, etc. Epithelial cells function in protection, filtration, secretion and absorption. They are packed tightly together with little or no intercellular matrix. Epithelium generally lacks a direct blood supply and is bound to underlying tissue layers by the basement membrane. Connective tissue morphology is less well defined than the other 3 tissue types. Noncellular matrix material often accounts for a major portion of the space occupied by connective tissues. Tissue cells are scattered throughout the usually highly vascularized matrix. The matrix itself consists of an amorphous jelly-like collection of mucopolysaccharides which sometimes contain fibers of collagen or elastin. Connective tissue provides support in the form of cartilage and bone, stores fats in the form of adipose tissue, and transports oxygen and metabolic products as blood and lymph. Muscle tissue is composed of elongated spindle shaped cells that can be up to a foot long arranged in layers or bundles. Each muscle cells (=muscle fiber) is bounded by a cell membrane called a sarcolemma. The cytoplasm inside is referred to as the sarcoplasm. Contractile threadlike organelles called myofibrils fill the interior of the cells. Nervous tissue is made up of highly specialized cells called neurons whose primary job is to conduct impulses throughout the body for coordination and control of body activities. Another type of nervous tissue is neuroglia which supports, protects, insulates and nourishes the neurons.
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Lab Activities: 1. Examine the slides of each of the four primary (basic) tissue types as assigned, make sketches of each and be able to distinguish them from each other 2. Review the general functions of each specific tissue type you view

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Tissue Identification
Biol 2404 Homework Assignment After discussing primary and specific tissue types in lecture and lab complete the following exercise on your own. List 3 different organs that contain each of the specific tissue types in the table below. Remember, an organ is a group of tissues working together to perform a specific function. Refer to the Organ System Overview exercise that you studied earlier in this manual. Your text and lab manual gives you some suggestions but in some cases they do not mention specific organs; it may only mention a general location or a part of an organ. Make sure you know whether the structure you are listing is actually an organ. Also, you must name specific organs; for example humerus, not bones, or gluteus maximus not muscles, or aorta, not blood vessels, etc. There may be a few tissue types that you cannot find in 3 different organs, in those cases list as many organs as you can find.

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Name:__________________________
due date:_________________

Specific Tissue Types

Simple Squamous Simple Cuboidal Simple Columnar

Epithelial Tissues 3 Specific Organs

Specific Tissue Types

Striated (Skeletal, Voluntary) Smooth (Visceral) Cardiac

Muscle Tissues 3 Specific Organs

Specific Tissue Types

Neurons Neuroglia

Nervous Tissues 3 Specific Organs

Specific Tissue Types

Areolar Adipose Fibrous (Dense, Regular) Hyaline Cartilage Fibrous Cartilage Elastic Cartilage Bone Blood

Connective Tissues 3 Specific Organs

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Dissection of the Fetal Pig

Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
In this course, we are primarily concerned with learning anatomical terminology as it pertains to the human organism. Ideally, human cadavers would provide the best subjects for examination. Lacking enough student volunteers, we are forced to make use of the fetal pig, Sus scrofa, as a fairly reasonable substitute. These pigs are usually within one or two weeks of births and are obtained from the sows at the time of their slaughter. A sow produces, on average, eight piglets per litter, which are about 30 cm long at birth. Pigs have a gestation period of 112-115 days. In contrast, humans average one baby per litter, about 50 cm long at birth, and the human gestation period is about 275 days. Measure the length of your pig from snout to the base of the tail, in millimeters, and the use the graph provided in lab to estimate the gestational age of your fetal pig. Review the general instructions for dissections on pages 3 & 4 of the course packet. Obtain a pig and rinse it in the sink then place it in a dissecting pan for observation. Begin your study by examining the surface features of the pig. Determine the possible orientations of the pig in terms of dorsal/ventral; anterior/posterior; superior/inferior; superficial/deep. Note from the illustrations provided that some of these terms have different meanings in 4 legged animals than in humans. Note the snout with prominent nostrils and the eyes which may be sealed closed in smaller specimens. Also note the external ear or pinna. Notice the pigs short, stocky neck with its powerful muscles adapted for rooting. Posterior to the neck is the thorax. Palpate the ribs and sternum under the skin. In the abdominal area, note the umbilical cord with its injected arteries and vein. Along the sides of the ventral region are pairs of mammary papillae, commonly called teats or nipples, which become functional mammary glands only in mature females. The male is identified by finding the urogenital opening directly posterior to the attachment of the umbilical cord. Posterior to the hind legs is the scrotum, a sac of skin which will contain the testes in a mature male. In both sexes, the anus is directly ventral to the base of the tail. A female pig is recognized by the opening to the urogenital opening directly ventral to the anus. This is a common opening for the urinary tract and vagina. We will begin our study of the pig digestive and respiratory systems by taking a close look at the mouth. Stick one point of the scissors into a corner of the pigs mouth and cut posteriorly through the masseter muscle for approximately 3.5 cm. Now make the same cut on the other side. Shove the lower jaw ventrally and examine the mouth cavity and find the following structures: hard and soft palates, pharynx, tongue. In the back of the pharynx find the esophagus, and ventral to it, the glottis, or opening to the larynx and lower respiratory system. Air enters the glottis of the larynx and passes into the trachea, leading to the lungs. Associated with the glottis is a flap of cartilage called the epiglottis which prevents food being swallowed from entering the glottis. Place the pig on its back in the dissecting tray. Tie one end of a string to the front foot and then pass the string under the pan and tie the other end to the opposite foot. Make sure the limbs are spread widely apart. Tie the hind legs in the same manner. With scissors and forceps make a shallow, midventral incision in the neck, beginning near the base of the lower jaw and continuing to within
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about 15 mm of the umbilical cord. Cut all the way through the body wall and at the same time lift the body wall toward you to avoid cutting into any internal organs. Avoid gouging by holding the scissors parallel to the surface of the abdomen. Next make a pair of incisions, each lateral to the umbilical cord and posterior teats. Your incisions should appear as illustrated by your instructor. Roll the strip back slightly and locate the umbilical vein, then cut it. Examine the abdominal cavity and find the muscular diaphragm separating it from the thoracic cavity. Now make lateral incisions through the body wall just posterior to the attachment of the diaphragm. Follow the attachment of the diaphragm to the body wall all the way to the back muscles. Cut through the diaphragm on both sides where it attaches to the body wall. Carefully cut the membranes binding the thoracic organs to the ventral thoracic wall. Bend back the flaps of body wall and wash out any coagulated blood and fluid. The thoracic cavity is partitioned to form two lateral pleural cavities containing the lobed lungs. A pericardial sac containing the heart is located between the pleural cavities. above and partly covering the heart is a large, brownish, elongated mass of tissue which is the thymus gland. Open the pericardial sac to expose the heart. Note that both the pericardial sac and the surface of the heart is made of serous membrane. Also note that the inner wall of the thoracic cavity and the outer surface of the lungs is covered in serous tissue. Distinguish between visceral and parietal pleura and visceral and parietal pericardium. The serous tissue of the abdominopelvic cavity is called peritoneum. Again, distinguish between parietal and visceral peritoneum. Note also that serous membrane forms thin, clear mesenteries between many of the abdominal organs. These mesenteries are composed of two layers of peritoneum. Between the layers are connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves that supply the various abdominal organs. Continue your study of the respiratory system by finding the trachea which leads from the larynx and branches into three bronchi. (After entering the lungs the bronchi branch and eventually divide into smaller bronchioles. The bronchioles continue to divide into smaller and smaller branches and finally end in grape-like clusters of hollow sacs called alveoli. The alveoli are surrounded by a rich network of capillaries and it is across the walls of the alveoli and capillaries (=the respiratory membrane) that gas exchange occurs). Flip the left lung over to the right side being extremely careful to avoid disturbing the heart and associated vessels. Carefully remove enough parietal pleura to locate the esophagus. Trace the esophagus through the diaphragm and into the peritoneal cavity to find the stomach which is nearly covered by the left lobe of the liver. The cardioesophageal valve of the stomach is located at its juncture with the esophagus and closes upon swallowing to prevent gastric fluids from ascending into the throat. A pyloric valve separates the stomach from the small intestine and allows food to pass once it has been thoroughly mixed with gastric juices. Make an incision into the stomach and note any greenish meconium present; bile stained mucus and cells of the digestive tract mixed with swallowed amniotic fluid. Also note the folds or rugae on the inner walls of the stomach. Note the large liver, often blue for the latex dye. Lift the liver and examine its inferior surface to locate a greenish gallbladder embedded there. The spleen is a long fingerlike organ extending down the left side of the stomach. Note that it is proportionately larger than the human spleen. The pancreas is located along the ventral border of the stomach and often extends along several intestinal folds. Follow the coils of the small intestine and note the supporting mesentery loaded with blood vessels and lymph nodes. Cut open a section of the small intestine. Remove a portion of the velvety lining and prepare a wet mount. Observe your slide under the microscope and note the numerous fingerlike villi. These villi help to increase the surface area of the intestine for the absorption of nutrients into the blood
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Finally, the small intestine enters the large intestine, along one side. The large intestine is subdivided in the the caecum, colon, and rectum as is ours. The first part of the large intestine is a short blind sac called the caecum which extends down from the point where the small and large intestines join. Note that the pig caecum lacks an appendix. Make an incision in the colon opposite the entrance of the small intestine and find the papilla-like ileocaecal valve. The rectum is the terminal part of the large intestine and opens to the outside through the anus. Carefully shove the intestines to one side. The kidneys lie dorsally, just inside the body wall, but outside the peritoneal cavity against the ventral surface of the back muscles (= retroperitoneal). Gently tear the peritoneal layer away without damaging the attached blood vessels. Note the ureter which exits each kidney near the attachment of the renal artery and renal vein. Trace the ureters posteriorly along the dorsal body wall. They will turn ventrally and enter the urinary bladder, an elongated sac between the two umbilical arteries. Trace the bladder into the umbilical cord where it continues as the allantoic stalk. After birth, the allantoic stalk degenerates. If you have a male pig, you previously located the testis in the scrotal sac. The testes begin embryonic development in the body cavity immediately posterior to the kidneys. usually they descend into the paired scrotal sacs before birth. Open one of the sacs and find a testis. Examine the testis and find a band of tissue, the epididymus, which begins at the anterior end of the testis and proceeds posteriorly along one side of the testis to its most posterior point where it joins the vas deferens (=ductus deferens). Locate the penis in the midventral body wall strip that also contains the urinary bladder. Tease apart enough tissue so that the penis may be freed and pushed to one side. Cut into the pelvic cavity by making an incision through the midventral portion of the pelvic muscles and the pelvic girdle. The pelvic cavity and its related organs may now be viewed by spreading the hind legs far apart. Trace the vas deferens through the abdominal cavity. The vas deferens and associated nerves and blood vessels are referred to as the spermatic cord. Gently pull the spermatic cord and note that it slides through a minute opening in the posterior wall of the abdomen. This cavity, the inguinal canal, is the opening between the abdominal cavity and the scrotal sac. The testes descend into the scrotal sac via these canals. Find the urethra and follow it posteriorly and then anteriorly to the penis and urogenital opening. In the female pig, find the kidneys and locate the paired ovaries posterior and ventral to them. They are loosely supported by thin mesenteries. The mouth of the oviduct (ostium) partially covers the ovarys dorsal surface. The egg produced by the ovary is released and moves into the oviduct (uterine tube) where it can be fertilized. Trace the oviducts until they lead into larger, much coiled, projections called uterine horns. Trace the horns until they convert to form a common tube, the body of the uterus. This tube leads to the neck of the uterus or cervix. Disentangle the urethra from the uterus and from the vagina. Note that the urethra and the vagina unite to form a common passage, the urogenital sinus, which leads to the bodys surface near the tail and ventral to the anus. The mammalian circulatory system consists of two main circuits. The Pulmonary Circuit travels to and from the lungs while the Systemic Circuit supplies blood to and from the rest of the body. Pulmonary circulation replenishes the blood with oxygen wile releasing carbon dioxide into the alveoli for removal from the body. If the fetus depends upon the placenta for a supply of oxygen and nutrients and for the elimination of wastes, we should expect to find differences between prenatal and postnatal
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circulation. These differences are minor and represent a few additional structures in the fetus which soon degenerate after birth. Begin your study of the pigs circulatory system by removing any vestiges of the pericardial sac from the heart. Examine the heart and located a surface groove that is a line of demarcation between the right and left ventricles. Notice that the left ventricle is much larger than the right ventricle. Running along this groove is the coronary artery which is the major supplier of blood to the heart. Next locate the two darker anterior projections making up the right and left auricles, these are pouches of the atria that can expand when the atria fill with blood. Trace the pulmonary artery from the anterior part of the right ventricle, over the hearts ventral surface to the left side. Expose the pulmonary artery by teasing away tissue. Immediately dorsal to this artery and partially obscuring it is the aorta which leads outward for the left ventricle. The aorta bends 180 to the left as it passes down toward the diaphragm. The aorta can be viewed by shoving the heart and lungs to the right. The pulmonary artery leads posteriorly and branches to the lungs. A short duct, the ductus arteriosus, connects the pulmonary artery with the aorta. The ductus arteriosus shunts fetal blood away from the lungs. After birth, the smooth muscles in the wall of this duct constrict and close off this shunt. Return to the pleural cavity and cut away tissue in the neck to expose the aortic arch and its major branches. Locate the right and left subclavian arteries which take blood to the arms, and the right and left carotid arteries which take blood to the head. Note which of these are supplied by a single brachiocephalic artery. Now look at the venous system. In the same area, the anterior vena cava receives blood from two short brachiocephalic veins. The brachiocephalic veins receive blood from subclavian veins that drain the arms, and the jugular veins that return blood from the head. Locate the abdominal aorta and find the renal arteries that supply blood to the kidneys. Below the kidneys the aorta divides into two large common iliac arteries that supply blood to the lower torso and the legs. Posterior to them are two large umbilical arteries that can be traced to the umbilical cord. In the same area, find two common iliac veins which lay beside the arteries and return blood from the lower torso and legs. These two veins join to form the posterior vena cava which leads back to the heart. The posterior vena cava receives several large vessels as it progresses toward the liver. At the liver, numerous veins arising from the digestive organs combine to form the hepatic portal vein which takes blood to the liver for processing. Trace the posterior vena cava into the liver. Also, trace the umbilical vein into the liver where it becomes a large ductus venosus that empties into the posterior venal cava. The ductus venosus degenerates after birth. Disposal & Cleanup after Dissection: 1. after each dissection dispose of materials as below: slides and coverlsips ! glass disposal box dissecting scraps ! scraps bucket gloves, paper towels, etc ! regular trash 2. spray and wipe down your table with disinfectant spray 3. clean off your dissecting tray and place on drying rack 4. rinse and dry your dissecting tools and pins and return them to their proper containers
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Terminology List for Fetal Pig Dissection

External Anatomy Head: s no u t no s tr ils eyes pin n a n ec k Trunk: tho r ax " ribs " s ter nu m " ab do men " u mb ilic al cor d " mammar y p ap illae " u rog enital open in g " scr otu m " anu s " tail " Internal Anatomy Digestive System mas seter " h ard p alate " so ft p alate " p h ar ynx " to ng u e " p h ar ynx " esop h ag us " s to mac h " liv er " c ar dio es op h ag eal v alv e " pylo ric v alv e " ru gae " liv er " g all b lad d er " sp leen pan cr e as " s m all i n te s ti n e " v i lli " larg e in tes tin e " caec u m " colo n " ileo c ae c al v alv e " rectu m " an us Respiratory Systems glo tti s " ep ig lo tti s " lar yn x " tr ac h ea " lu ng s " d i ap hr ag m Cavities & Membranes thoracic cavity: th or ac ic c av i ty " s ero u s membr an es " p leur al c avi ties " vi sc er al an d par ie tal p le u ra " p er ic ard i al s ac " vi sc er al an d p ari e tal pe ri c ar di u m " abdominopelvic cavity: v is cer al and p ar ietal p eriton eu m " mesen ter ies Urinary & Reproductive Systems kid n eys " ur eter " ur in ar y b lad d er " sc ro tal s ac " tes tes " ep ididymu s " v as d efer en s " sp er matic co rd " ing uin al c an al " ur eth r a " pen is " ov ar ies " o vid uc t " u terin e h or ns " v ag in a Circulatory System Heart: righ t & left v en tr ic le " r ig ht an d left aur icles " atria Pulmonary Circuit: p ulmo n ar y ar ter y Systemic Circuit: Arteries: ao r ta " d uc tus ar ter io su s " s u bc lav ian ar ter ies " c aro tid ar ter ies " br ac h ioc ep h ali c ar te ri e s " r e n al ar ter i es " co m m on i li ac ar ter ies " u mb ilic al ar ter ies Veins: an terior ven a c av a " b r ac hioc ep h alic v ein s " s ub clavian v ein s " ju g ular v ein s " co mmon iliac v eins " po sterio r v en a c ava " h ep atic po r tal vein " umb ilic al vein

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Body Membranes
Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: Diagrams and illustrations sheep heart with pericardium fresh knee joint (if available) Torso Models and Male & Female Pelvic Models Lab Activities: 1. Identify and be able to describe the structure and function of all membranes as indicated on models, preserved materials and figures
M uco us Sero us Syno vi al Cu taneo u s

2. Distinguish between visceral and parietal pleura, pericardium and peritoneum.

ple ur a: pe ri c ar di u m: pe ri to n eu m: par ie tal " v is ce r al par ie tal " v is ce r al par ie tal " v is ce r al

Terminology List for Body Membranes:

Kinds of Membranes: M uco us Sero us ple ur a: p ari e tal " v isc e ral pe ri c ar di u m: p ari e tal " vi sc e ral pe ri to n eu m: par ie tal " v is c er al Syno vi al Cu taneo u s

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The Integumentary System (Skin)

Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: Models: Slides: skin section models skin section plaque human scalp, hair shafts, ls human palmar skin, sec palmer skin silver human sec mammal palmar skin sec

Lab Activities: 1. Describe and identify the three major layers of the skin: epidermis, dermis and hypodermis on the models available 2. Locate and identify the sublayers of the epidermis and dermis on models of the skin.
Ep id er mis: Der mis str atu m c or neu m str atu m bas ale %( s & g er min ativ u m ' pap illar y layer retic ular layer

3. Locate and identify the layers and sublayers of the epidermis of the dermis, and the hypodermis on the slides above
Ep id er mis: str atu m c or neu m str atu m bas ale %( s & g er min ativ u m ' Der mis pap illar y layer retic ular layer Hyp od er mis ad i pos e ti ss ue %( s ub cu tan eou s layer '

4. Locate and identify the major histological features of a hair follicle and its associated structures on microscopic examination.
Hair: fo llicle " roo t " s h aft " b u lb " h ai r p api lla " s eb aceo u s glan ds " arr ec to r p ili mu sc le

5. Determine which slides above will have sweat glands and which will have oil (sebaceous) glands and be able to recognize each on microscopic examination
Glan ds: s weat g lan ds " seb ac eo us gland s

Terminology List For Integumentary System:

Skin Layers Ep id er mis: str atu m c or neu m str atu m bas ale %( s & g er min ativ u m ' Der mis pap illar y layer retic ular laye r Hyp od er mis ad i pos e ti ss ue %( s ub cu tan eou s layer '

Structures Hair: fo llicle " roo t " s h aft " b u lb " h ai r p api lla " arr ec to r p ili Glan ds: s weat g lan ds " seb ac eo us gland s
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The Skeletal System

Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: slides: human white fibrous tissue, tendon, ls mammal hyaline cartilage, sec bone dry ground human, cs, models and bones: articulated skeleton bone tissue model sectioned long bones skulls (natural bone & casts) vertebral column with pelvis ear ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes) articulated arm and pectoral girdle articulated leg and pelvic girdle male and female pelvis models articulated vertebral column disarticulated bones; including sphenoid, ethmoid, vertebrae sectioned skulls xrays (if available) fetal skull model model of bone tissue section trachea model ear model preserved material: fetal pig skeletal preparation Reminder: Do not use pencils and pens to point to bones and bone markings; use the blunt or pointed probe in your dissection kit Lab Activities: 1. Study the microscopic structure of compact bone on the model & slide below; model: bone tissue model Identify:
pe ri os teu m " h ave rs i an c an al " lamellae " c an alic uli " lac un ae " o steo c ytes " en dos teu m

slide: bone dry ground human, cs, Identify:

h av er sian c an al " lamellae " c analic uli " lac un ae

2. Study the microscopic structure of hyaline cartilage on the slide below: slide: mammal hyaline cartilage, sec Identify:
hyalin e c artilag e: matr ix " lac u n ae " c ho nd roc ytes

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3. Know the locations and kinds of cartilage in the human skeleton and internal organs 4. Be able to recognize fibrous connective tissue on the slide below: slides: human white fibrous tissue, tendon, ls 5. Study the general terminology for types of bones and be able to recognize examples of each: long, short, flat, irregular 6. Know the definition of each of the general kinds of bone markings (see table in text) and be able to give an example of each from the list of markings belos 7. Study the anatomy of a typical long bone and be able to identify the following terms:
ep ip h ys es " d i ap h ys is " medu llar y c av i ty " ar tic ular c ar ti lag e " p er ios teu m " en dos teu m " spo ng y bon e " co mp act bo n e " tr ab ecu li " yello w mar ro w " red mar ro w

8. Distinguish between the bones of the axial and bones of the appendicular skeleton as listed below 9. Locate and identify the fontanels on the fetal skull model; frontal (anterior), occipital (posterior), sphenoid, mastoid fontanels 10. Identify all the major bones and bone markings of the axial skeleton and sinuses in both the articulated skeleton and on individual bones as listed below. 11. Identify all the major bones and bone markings of the appendicular skeleton in both the articulated skeleton and on individual bones as listed below. 12. Observe in the preserve pig fetus the process of ossification as the cartilaginous skeleton is converted to bone tissue Terminology List for the Skeletal System:
Histology (slides): fibr ou s co n necti ve tis su e: co llage n fi b ers hyalin e c artilag e: matr ix " lac u n ae " c ho nd roc ytes bon e: hav er si an c an al " lame llae " c an ali c uli " lac un ae " o s teo c yte s Sectioned Long bone: ep ip h ys es " d i ap h ys is " medu llar y c av ity " ar tic ular c ar tilag e " p er ios teu m " en dos teu m " spo ng y bon e " co mp act bo n e " tr ab ecu li " yello w mar ro w " red mar ro w Bones and Markings: Fontanels of fetal skull: fro n tal % ante rio r '" oc cip ital % p os ter ior '" sp h eno id " mas to id fo n tan els Skull %cranium' Fro ntal Bo ne %frontal sinus" coronal suture' Par ietal Bo n e %sagittal suture' Sp heno id B on e %sella turcica" sphenoid sinus ' Temp or al Bon e %mastoid process" styloid process" zygomatic process" external auditory meatus" malleus" incus" stapes' Oc ci pi tal Bo ne %occipital condyle" foramen magnum' Eth mo id B on e %nasal conchae" cribriform plate" crista galli" ethmoid sinus" perpendicular plate' Lac ri m al Bo ne Zygo matic B on e
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M ax illa Bo ne %hard palate" palatine process" maxillary sinus' Palatin e Bo n e Nas al Bo n e Vom er B on e M an d ib le Hyo id Bo n e Vertebral Column %general markings: body" vertebral foramen" transverse process" spinous process" superior and inferior articular processes" intervertebral discs' Cerv ic al V er teb r ae %transverse foramina' Atlas %absence of body" )yes) movement' Axis %dens" )no) movement' Tho racic V er teb r ae %facets on body and transverse processes' Lu mb ar Ve r te br ae %largest' Sacr al Ver teb rae %* fused vertebrae' Cocc yx %+ to * vestigial vertebrae" body only' Bony Thorax Ri bs %costal cartilage" true ribs" false ribs" floating ribs" facets' Stern u m M an u br iu m Bod y Xip ho id P roc es s

Upper Limb Pectoral Girdle Sc ap u la %acromion" coracoid process" glenoid cavity' Clavicle Upper Arm Hu mer us %head" greater tubercle" lesser tubercle" olecranon fossa' Forearm Rad ius Uln a %olecranon process' Hand Carp als M etac ar p als Ph alang es Lower Limb Pelvic Girdle Os Cox ae %sacroiliac joint" acetabulum" obturator foramen" false pelvis" true pelvis" difference between male and female pelvis' Iliu m %iliac crest' Is ch i u m %ischial tuberosity' Pub is %pubic symphysis' Thigh Femur %head" neck' Patella Lower Leg Tib ia Fib u la Foot Tars als M etatars als Ph alang es

Appendicular Skeleton

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Articulations and Body Movements

Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: articulated skeleton models of hip, knee, shoulder and elbow joints fresh beef joint (if available) joint X-rays (if available) Lab Activities: 1. Find and describe examples of each of the three major kinds of skeletal articulations on the skeletons and models available 2. Describe the major features and anatomy of a typical synovial joint 3. Identify major anatomical features on models of selected synovial joints as assigned from the list below: a. Examples of Ball and Socket Joints Ball shaped head of one bone fits in concave depression of another; allows movement around three or more axes, in three or more planes Shoulder: Hip: note fit of acetabulum with head of femur, b. Examples of Hinge Joints Articulating heads of bones form hinge-shaped joint; permits movement around only 1 axis, in only 1 plane Elbow: Knee: note that the knee is the largest and most complex joint in body it allows flexion and extension and a little rotation note fit of femur onto articular surfaces of tibia note lateral and medial meniscus (fibrocartilage) note anterior and posterior cruciate ligament note patella or kneecap embedded in ligaments and tendons note numerous other ligaments enclosing the joint capsule note fit of olecranon process into olecranon fossa note attachment of ligaments (see illustration) note fit of glenoid cavity with head of humerus, note ligaments enclosing the joint capsule (see illustration)

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The Muscular System

Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: slides: models: skeletal muscle, teased motor nerve endings, wm muscle cell model (3B; Not Somso) motor end plate model human torsos mini and half size human models sagittal heads eye model with extrinsic eye muscles respiratory system plaque muscular arms & legs male and female pelvis lymphatic system plaque any other models showing specific voluntary muscles

Lab Activities: 1. Identify the primary and specific tissue type on the slide of muscle; also note the striations and nuclei; understand what produces the striations 2. Identify the muscle fibers, nerve fibers, synapse and motor end plates (neuromuscular junction) on the slide and the model of motor nerve endings 3. Identify the parts of skeletal muscle cells as seen on the muscle cell model:
sarco lemma " s arco plas m " s arco plas mic r etic u lu m " myo fibr ils " thick and th in fi lamen ts " n uc lei " T , tub u les " mo to r n euro n " moto r en d p late " n eu ro musc u lar ju nc tio n " s yn ap se " en do mysiu m

4. On the motor end plate model identify:

mo to r n e uro n " mo to r e n d p late " s yn ap tic cle ft " musc le c ell

4. Study illustrations of a muscle organ to identify the structures below:

fasc ic le " ep i mys iu m " p er i mysi u m " endo mysi u m " ten do n " ap on euro si s

5. Recognize and identify the assigned human muscles & their functions from the terminology list below on all models available
note: note: note: note: extrinsic eye muscles are the 6 muscles attached to each eyeball (see senses chapter) the rhomboideus is actually several muscles, you can refer to all of them as one not all muscle models show both the internal and the external intercostals not all muscle models show all three muscle layers of the abdominopelvic body wall

Terminology:
Muscle Cell Structure: sarco lemma " s arco plas m " s arco plas mi c r etic u lu m " myo fi br i ls " thi ck and th i n fi lamen ts " n uc lei " T , tub u les " mo to r end p late " neu ro mu sc u lar ju nc tio n
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General Muscular Anatomy: fasc ic le " ep i mys iu m " p er i mysi u m " endo mysi u m " ten do n " ap on euro si s

Human Muscles a. Muscles on the Head and Neck fro n talis ! r aises eyeb ro ws orb ic ularis or is ! clo s es mo u th; pu ck er up orb ic ularis oc u li ! clo s es eyes; sq uin t ex tr i ns ic eye mus cles ! all eye mo v emen ts mas seter ! clo s es jaw tempo r alis ! clo ses jaw ster no cleido mastoi d ! flexes an d ! o r r otates head b. Breathing Muscles di aph r ag m ! ins piratio n ex ter n al in ter cos tals ! r aise ribc age; for c ed in sp ir ation in ter n al interco stals ! lo wer ribc ag e; for ced ex pir atio n c. Muscles of the Abdominal Wall ex ter n al o bli qu e ! su p por ts bo dy wall in ter n al ob liqu e ! su p por ts bo dy wall tr ans v er se abdo mi ni s ! co mp r ess es ab do men rectu s abd o mi ni s ! flexes v ertebr al co lu mn d. Muscles that Move Pectoral Girdle rho mbo id eus ! su p por ts an d allo ws s ever al mo v emen ts o f s cap ula serr atus an ter io r ! su p por ts an d allo ws s ever al mo v emen ts o f s cap ula , e. Muscles that Move Upper Arm pe c tor ali s majo r ! flexes h u mer us main musc le o f - p ec s . de ltoi d ! abd uc ts u pp er ar m tr ap ezi u s ! ex tend s h ead; allo ws s ev eral mo vemen ts o f sc ap u la latis simus dor si ! add uc ts & ex tend s h u mer us f. Muscles that Move Forearm bi ce ps br ac h ii ! flexes for ear m br ac h ialis ! flexes for ear m tr ic eps b r ac hi i ! ex tend s fo r e ar m g. Muscles that Move Hand and Fingers flex or s of h and ! flexes p h alan ges br ac h ior adi ali s ! flexes lower ar m ex ten sor s o f h and ! ex tend s p h alang es h. Muscles that Move Thigh glu te us m ax i m us ! ex tend s th ig h ad d uc to r lo ng us ! add uc ts th ig h gr ac ilis ! add uc ts th ig h; flex es lo wer leg sar tor ius ! flexes th ig h ten sor fas cia latae ! abd uc ts th ig h i. Muscles that Move Lower Leg bi ce ps fe mor is ! ex tend s th ig h; flex es lo wer leg semimembr ano su s ! ex tend s th ig h; flex es lo wer leg - hams tr in g . mu sc les semitend inos us ! ex tend s th ig h; flex es lo wer leg rectu s femo ri s ! ex tend s lo wer leg v as tu s later ali s ! ex tend s lo wer leg mos t o f - q u ad s . v as tu s me d ialis ! ex tend s lo wer leg j. Muscles that Moves Foot gas tro cn e m iu s & ac hilles tend on ! plan tar fle xio n o f foo t soleus ! plan tar flexio n o f foo t ti bi alis an ter io r ! do rs iflex ion o f foo t

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The Nervous System

Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: slides: mammal neuron motor nerve cells, smear nerve cs & ls spinal cord and ganglia cs [Wards/Turtox] models: neuron with Schwann cells human brain brain ventricles brain stem spinal cord cross sections vertebral column with spinal column and spinal nerves cross section of spinal cord in vertebrae with sympathetic ganglia peripheral nervous system plaque preserved materials: human brain sheep skull-sag sec sheep brain sheep meninges cat nervous system biosmount Lab Activities: 1. Recognize and identify the cell body and processes on the motor neuron slide. 2. Identify the structures and layers indicated on nerve cell model:
neu ron " c ell b od y " ax on " d en dr i te " axo n te r mi n al " n e uro gli a " Sc h wan n c ells " mye li n " neu rilemma " end on eur iu m

3. Locate and identify the anatomical features as assigned below on the human brain models
Cereb ru m: c er ebr al h emis ph er es " g yri " su lc i " lo bes % fron tal " par ietal " oc cipita l " tempo r al '" o lfac to ry bu lbs " o lfac tor y tr ac ts " o ptic n er v es " o p tic c hias ma " cor pu s c allo su m " Dienc eph alo n: epith alamus % or pin eal gland '" th alamu s hypo th alamus " pitu itar y glan d Cereb ellu m: arbo r v itae Brain S tem: mid br ain: c or por a qu adr ig emin a %superior and inferior colliculi' pon s med u lla

4. Identify the surface features of the sheep brain, then make a midsagittal section to identify the internal structures as assigned below
Cereb ru m: cerebr al h emis ph eres " g yri " s ulc i " o lfac to ry bu lbs " o lfac tor y tr ac ts " o p tic ner ves " o ptic ch ias ma " cor p us c allos u m Dienc eph alo n: epith alamus % or pin eal gland '" th alamu s hypo th alamus " pitu itar y glan d Cereb ellu m: arbo r v itae Brain S tem:
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mid br ain pon s med u lla

5. Locate and identify the major layers and structures associated with the meninges on all appropriate models:
layers of meninges: folds of meninges: du r a mater " ar ac h noi d layer " p i a m ater falx c er eb ri " falx cer eb elli " ten tor i u m c er eb elli

6. Meninges of sheep brain dissection: some of the sheep brains have the meninges still attached. Identify the three layers of the meninges on the preserved sheep brain. Also locate the falx cerebri and the tentorium cerebelli ( the sheep meninges does not have a falx cerebelli) 7. Locate and identify the ventricles, canals, and capillary beds associated with the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid on appropriate brain models and preserved sheep brains:
later al ven tr ic les " third v en tricle " c erebr al aq u ed uc t " fo u rth ven tr ic le " c ho roi d p lex us es " ar ach no id vi lli %( ar ach no id gr an ulati on s '

8. Identify the major features on the models and slide of a cross section of the spinal cord; also note the three layers of the meninges on the cross section models
cen tr al c an al " pos ter io r median s ulc us " an terio r median fis s ur e " g r ay matter " white matter % tr ac ts '" men ing es; d u r a mater " ar ac h noid layer " p ia mater

9. Review the difference between a nucleus and a ganglion; and between a tract and a nerve. 10. Distinguish between a nerve and a nerve fiber. Observe and recognize the microscopic anatomy of a nerve and its connective tissue coverings on illustrations:
ep i neur i u m " p eri n eu ri u m " endo n eu r iu m " n er v e fi ber

11. Identify the major features on the models and slide of a cross section of the spinal cord that includes its attachments to each spinal nerve.
dor s al roo t " d or sal r oo t g an glio n % s en so ry '" v e ntr al roo t % mo tor '

12. Identify the major groups of spinal nerves on nervous system plaque and the cat nervous system preparation 13. Find and be able to identify the major spinal nerve plexuses as available on models and illustrations
Cerv ic al Plex u s (C1 - C5) Phr enic N er ve - innervates diaphragm Brac hial Plex us (C5 - C8, T1) [T2 - T12 - No Plexus Formed] Lu mb ar Plex us (L1 - L4) Sacr al Plex us (L4 - S4)

14. Locate and list the function of some of the major nerves arising from each plexus as discussed in lecture.
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15. Locate and identify any parts of the autonomic system on models available
Symp ath eti c Br anc h: sympathetic trunks are comprised of fibers mainly from the thoracic spinal nerves which form a pair of "chain ganglia" anterior and lateral to the vertebral column Par asymp ath etic Br anc h: individual fibers from cranial nerves III, VII, IX and X and sacral spinal nerves S2, S3, and S4. Innervation of most visceral organs is from fibers of the Vagus (X) Nerve

16. On the cat nervous system biosmounts: a. observe the general structure and interrelationships between the Central and Peripheral nervous systems; b. note the relationship between eyes, optic nerve and brain c. note the relationship between the brain stem and the spinal cord d. locate and identify the brachial and lumbosacral plexus e. locate and identify the vagus nerve Terminology:
Organization of the Nervous System: I. Central Nervous System: Brain interneurons Spinal Cord motor neurons Spinal Nerves 31 pairs II. Peripheral Nervous System sensory neurons Cranial Nerves 12 pairs

Somatic motor neurons Autonomic motor neurons Sympathetic Parasympathetic Histology (slides &/or models): n euro n " cell bo d y " ax on " den dr ite " axo n ter min al " n eu ro glia " Sc hwan n c ells " myeli n " neu ri lemma Distinguish between: n u clei & gan glia; trac ts & n er ves; gr ay matter & wh ite matter Structure of a nerve: epin eur iu m " p er ineur iu m " en d on eu riu m Brain - External Anatomy: ( on brain models and sheep brains) Cereb ru m:c erebr al h emis ph eres " g yri " su lc i " lo bes % fron tal " par ietal " oc cipital " tempo ral ' olfac tor y bu lb s " o lfac tor y tr acts " o p tic n er v es " op tic c hias ma " Dienc eph alo n: pitu itary glan d Cereb ellu m Brain S tem: mid br ain pon s med u lla Brain - Internal Anatomy: (on brain models and sheep brains) Cereb ru m: cor pu s c allo su m Dienc eph alo n: ep i th alamu s % or pi n eal g land '" c ho ro id plex us " th alamu s " thi rd ven tr ic le " hypo thalamus " pituitary gland Cereb ellu m: ar bo r v i tae Brain S tem: fo ur th v entri cle " ch oro id p lexu s Meninges: (on models and sheep brain) structures: falx c er eb ri " falx cer eb elli " ten tor i u m c er eb elli layers: du r a mater " ar ac h noi d layer " p i a m ater Spinal Cord - cross section (models and slide) Spinal Cord: cen tr al c an al " pos ter io r median s ulc us " an terio r median fis s ur e " g r ay matter " white matter % tr acts '" men in g es
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Spinal Nerve: dor s al roo t " d or sal r oo t g an glio n % s en so ry '" v e ntr al roo t % mo tor ' Spinal Nerve Plexuses And Their Major Nerve Branches (cat demo & models) Cerv ic al Plex u s (C1 - C5) Phr enic N er ve - innervates diaphragm Brac hial Plex us (C5 - C8, T1) [T2 - T12 - No Plexus Formed] Lu mb ar Plex us (L1 - L4) Sacr al Plex us (L4 - S4) Autonomic Nervous System Symp ath eti c Br anc h: sympathetic trunks are comprised of fibers from the thoracic and two lumbar spinal nerves which form a pair of "chain ganglia" anterior and lateral to the vertebral column Par asymp ath etic Br anc h: individual fibers from cranial nerves III, VII, IX and X and spinal nerves S2, S3, and S4. Innervation of most visceral organs is from fibers of the Vagus (X) Nerve

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Sense Organs
Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: Slides: Mammal vater-pacini corpuscle wm cochlea guinea pig ls mammal foliate papillae with taste buds, sec eye monkey, ls Models: skin models eye models ear models Cochlear duct cross section sagittal section of head Preserved Materials: sheep eyes temporal bone ear ossicles Lab Activities: 1. Locate and identify examples of simple receptors of general sensation. These receptors are in the form of free nerve endings or sensory neurons encapsulated by connective tissue. Find the following receptors in the skin models using the illustrations provided:
Free nerve endings: Encapsulated receptors: Merkel discs Meisners corpuscles Pacinian corpuscles epidermis papillary layer papillary layer reticular or subcutaneous layer pain, heat, cold light touch and pressure light touch, changes in texture deep pressure, fast vibrations

2. Observe the slide of Pacinian corpuscles (vater-pacini corpuscles) and be able to recognize them and know their general function 3. Identify the location of the olfactory epithelium and its relationship to the olfactory bubs and the cribiform plate on the sagittal head model. 4. Recognize the histological structure of the papillae with taste buds on the taste bud slide:.
to ng ue " p api llae " tas te b u ds " tas te % g us tator y ' cells

5. Observe the slide of the monkey eye and be able to recognize:

scler a " co rn ea " ch oro id layer " c iliar y bod y " su s pens or y lig aments " lens " iris " p u pil " retin a

6. Identify the following anatomical features of the eye on appropriate models:

ex tr i ns ic eye mus cles % s u peri or & i n fer ior rec tus musc les " s up er io r an d i n ferio r o bliq u e musc les; med ial and lateral r ectus mus cles '" eyelid s " co n ju n ctiv a " eyelash es " lacr imal gland " n aso lac ri m al d uc t % te ar d uc t '
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scler a " co rn ea " ch oro id layer " c iliar y bod y " su s pens or y lig aments " lens " iris " p u pil " retin a " op tic d isc " fov ea c en tr alis " aq ueo u s h u mor " v itreo u s h u mor

7. Section the preserved sheep eye as shown in the illustration provided. Use a scalpel or sharp point of scissors to first penetrate the sclera, then use scissors to cut the rest of the way around the eye (you might need a penlite to see some of the structures). Identify the following anatomical features of the eye on the preserved sheep eye:
scler a " co rn ea " ch oro id layer " c iliar y bod y " su s pens or y lig aments " lens " iris " p u pil " retin a " op tic d isc " aq ueou s h u mo r " v itr eo us h u mor

8. Identify the major anatomical features on the ear models provided.

ou ter % extern al ' ear: mid dle ear: in n er ear: pi n na " e x te rn al au di to r y c anal " ce r u mi no us %( wax ' g lan ds " tymp anic membr an e oss ic les # malleus % hammer '" inc us % anv il '" s tap es % s tir ru p '$" aud itor y % eus tach ian ' tub e " o v al win do w bony labyrinth: ves tibu le " c oc hlea " s emic ir cu lar can als " perilymp h membranous labyrinth: u tricle " s acc ule " coc h lear du ct " s emicirc ular d uc ts " en do lymp h Or gan o f C or ti % in coc hlear d uc t ' : h ai r c ells " tec tor ial memb r an e

9. Recognize the histological structure of the cochlear duct including the Organ of Corti on cochlear duct section model and slide:
Or g an of Cor ti % i n co ch lear d uc t ' : h air ce lls " te cto ri al memb ran e

10. Identify the mechanoreceptors for static and dynamic equilibrium on models available:
M ac ula % in u tr uc le & s acc u le ' Am pu llae % i n m e mb r ano us s em ic i rc ular c an als '

Terminology:
Cu taneo u s Rec ep tor s: (skin model and slide) Free ner ve end in gs: M erk el d is cs M eisn er / s c or pu sc les Pac inian co rp us cles Vis u al Rec ep to rs: The Eye - External Anatomy: (models and sheep eye) ex tr i ns ic eye mus cles % s u peri or & i n fer ior rec tus musc les " s up er io r an d i n ferio r o bliq u e musc les; med ial and lateral r ectus mus cles '" eyelid s " co n ju n ctiv a " eyelash es " lacr imal gland " n aso lac ri m al d uc t % te ar d uc t ' The Eye - Internal Anatomy: (models, sheep eye, slides) scler a " co rn ea " ch oro id layer " c iliar y bod y " su s pens or y lig aments " lens " iris " p u pil " retin a " op tic d isc " fov ea c en tr alis " aq ueo u s h u mor " v itreo u s h u mor Aud i tor y Rec ep to rs: The Ear - Gross Anatomy: (models & charts) ou ter % extern al ' ear: pin n a " ex ter n al aud itor y can al " c er u mino us gland s " tymp anic memb r an e mid dle ear: ossic les # malleu s % h ammer '" in cu s % an vil '" stapes % s tirr u p '$" aud itor y % eus tach ian ' tub e " o v al win do w in n er ear: bon y lab yr i nth: v e stib u le " co ch lea " s e mi ci rc ular c an als " p er ilym ph memb r ano u s lab yrin th: u tr ic le " s ac cu le " co ch lear du ct " s emicirc ular d uc ts " en do lymp h The Ear - Microscopic Anatomy (models & slides)
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Or g an o f Cor ti % in coc h lear d uc t ' : Prop rioc ep to rs o f th e I n ner Ear:

h air c ells " tec tor ial membr ane "

M ac ula % in u tr uc le & s acc u le ' Am pu llae % i n m e mb r ano us s em ic i rc ular c an als ' : cris ta am pu llari s Taste: Taste: (slide) to ng ue " p api llae " tas te b u ds " tas te % g us tator y ' cells Smell: Smell (models) n as al c av ity " olfac to r y epith elium " r ec eptor c ells " c ribifo r m p late " olfac to r y b ulb " olfac tor y tr act

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The Endocrine System

Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: models: human torso endocrine glands plaque kidney with adrenal glands thyroid and parathyroid glands pancreas model male and female reproductive organs any other model showing major endocrine glands human pancreas sec human adrenal gland sec mammal hypophysis pituitary gland sag sec H&E

slides:

Lab Activities: 1. Be able to locate and identify endocrine glands listed below on all appropriate models available and be able to list the major hormones produced by each.
Endocrine Glands Anterior Pituitary Posterior Pituitary Thyroid Gland Parathyroid Glands Pancreas Adrenal Cortex Adrenal Medulla Ovaries Testes Thymus Pineal Gland Major Hormones Secreted Tropic Hormones: TSH,ACTH,FSH,LH; and GH, & PRL Oxytocin, ADH TH, Calcitonin PTH Insulin, Glucagon Glucocorticoids, Mineralocorticoids, Gonadocorticoids Epinephrin, Norepinephrin Estrogen Progesterone Testosterone Thymosin Melatonin

3. Recognize histological structure of selected glands and be able to distinguish between the endocrine glands listed below: Pituitary Glands Slide: mammal hypophysis pituitary gland sag sec H&E

+Distinguish between the anterior and the posterior pituitary glands Pancreas Slide: human pancreas sec.

+ Note pancreatic islets (Islets of Langerhans) which are the endocrine portion of the pancreas Adrenal Glands Slide: human adrenal gland sec

+ Distinguish between the darker cortex with vertically arranged rows of cells and the lighter medulla

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Terminology:
Endocrine Glands Anterior Pituitary Posterior Pituitary Thyroid Gland Parathyroid Glands Pancreas Adrenal Cortex Adrenal Medulla Ovaries Testes Thymus Pineal Gland Major Hormones Secreted Tropic Hormones: TSH,ACTH,FSH,LH; GH, PRL, MSH Oxytocin, ADH TH, Calcitonin PTH Insulin, Glucagon Glucocorticoids, Mineralocorticoids, Gonadocorticoids Epinephrin, Norepinephrin Estrogen Progesterone Testosterone Thymosin Melatonin

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The Circulatory System

Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: slide: models: mammal intercalated discs artery, vein, capillary section heart models artery/vein model blood vessel plaque liver model torsos skull with blood vessels muscular arms and legs male and female pelvis respiratory system model lymphatic system model sheep heart cow heart

preserved: Lab Activities:

1. Identify the major structural features of the human heart on the models available:
External Anatomy: pe ri c ar di u m " ape x " b ase " au ri cles " r t & lft atrio ven tr ic u lar s u lc us " layers o f hear t wall % ep ic ar di u m " myo car di u m " en do card i u m ' Major Vessels: s up er io r an d i n fe ri or ve n a c av a " p ulmo n ar y tr u nk " ao r ti c ar ter y % aor ta '" pu lmo n ar y v e in s Cardiac Circulation: coro n ar y ar ter ies " cor on ary v eins Internal Anatomy: Heart Chambers: r & l atri a " r & l v en tri cles Heart Valves: r & l atri ov en tr ic ular v alv es % tr ic u sp id & bic u s pi d " r esp & '" p ulmo n ar y semilu n ar valve " aor tic s emilun ar v alve Other: in ter v en tricu lar sep tu m " c hor d ae tend in ae " p apillary mus cles

2. Note the serous tissue surrounding the heart on appropriate models and on a sheep heart still enclosed within the pericardial sac
pe ri c ar di al s ac ( p ar i etal p e ri car di u m ep ic ard iu m ( v is cer al peri c ar di u m

3. Dissect and identify the major structural features of the cow and sheep hearts. Identify the same features that you found on the human models.
note: for the major blood vessels trace them from the chambers to which they connect, do not try to identify them from outside the heart

4. Recognize and identify cardiac muscle tissue on the slide listed. Note:
card iac mus cle tiss ue " in terc alated d is cs " striation s " br anc hing

5. Distinguish between an artery and a vein on the model and slide

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6. Identify the three layers of the blood vessel walls on the artery & vein model and microscope slide.
Note: the model shows 2 veins (one with valves) and one artery; the gray layer represents the tunica externa, the pink layer is the tunica media and the orange layer is th tunica interna tu n ic a ex ter n a " tu n ic a med ia " tu ni c a i n ti ma

7. Locate and identify the major human arteries and veins from the terminology list below on all appropriate models 8. Locate and describe the special circulation patters discussed in lecture and the major blood vessels associated with each:
Circ le o f W illis Coro n ar y V es s els: coro n ar y ar ter ies base of aorta just above aortic SL valve coro n ar y veins coronary sinus at jct with right atrium Hep atic Po rtal S ys tem with h e p atic por tal v ei n

Terminology:
Histology (slide) : c ar di ac m us cle ti ss u e " i n ter calated di sc s " s tr iatio n s " b r an ch ing Vessel Layers (slide & models): tu n ic a ex ter n a " tu ni c a med ia " tu ni c a i n ti ma

Heart Anatomy
External Anatomy: pe ri c ar di u m " ape x " b ase " au ricles " r t & lft atrio ven tr ic u lar s u lc us " layers o f hear t wall % ep ic ar di u m " myo car di u m " en do card i u m ' Major Vessels: s up er io r an d i n fe ri or ve n a c av a " p ulmo n ar y tr u nk " ao r ti c ar ter y % aor ta '" pu lmo n ar y v e in s Cardiac Circulation: coro n ar y ar ter ies " cor on ary v eins Internal Anatomy: Heart Chambers: r & l atri a " r & l v en tri cles Heart Valves: r & l atri ov en tr ic ular v alv es % bi cu sp id & tric u s pi d " r esp & '" p ulmo n ar y semilu n ar valve " aor tic s emilun ar v alve Other: in ter v en tricu lar sep tu m " c hor d ae tend in ae " p apillary mus cles

Major Human Arteries and Veins

(where right and left are not indicated you do not need to distinguish)

Pulmonary Circuit Arteries pu lmo n ar y a & Veins Systemic Circuit Arteries ao rta ao rtic arc h rt & b rac hio cep h alic a & rt co mmo n c aro tid a & in ter n al c aro tid a & ex ter n al caro tid a & cir cle o f Willis rt su bc lav i an a & lft c o mmon c aro tid a & lft s u bc lav i an a celiac tru nk co mmon h ep atic a & su perior mes enteric a & ren al a & in fer ior mesen ter ic a & Veins: su perior ven a c av a br ac h ioc ep h ali c v & in t & jug ular v & ex t & jug ular v & su bc lav ian v & in fer ior v en a c av a hep atic v & hep atic po r tal v & ren al v & co mmon iliac v & in ter n al iliac v & ex ter n al ili ac v & gr e at s ap h eno us v & pu lmo n ar y v &

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co mmon iliac a & intern al iliac a & extern al iliac a & Special Circulation Patterns: Circ le o f W illis Coro n ar y V es s els: coro n ar y ar ter ies base of aorta just above aortic SL valve coro n ar y veins coronary sinus at jct with right atrium Hep atic Po rtal S ys tem

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The Lymphatic System

Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: models: human torsos lymphatic system plaque head sag section villi with lacteals heart with thymus gland pancreas/spleen model human lymph node sec or mammal lymph node sec lymph vessel valve wm

slides: Lab Activities:

1. Identify the major anatomical features of the human lymphatic system including the lymphatic vessels, lymph ducts (trunks), nodes and accessory organs on models and illustrations
lymphatic ducts: Ri g ht L ymph ati c Du c t Tho racic Du c t cis ter n a c h yli lymphatic vessels major lymph nodes: cerv ic al ax illar y in gu inal accessory organs & structures: th ymus sp leen to ns ils; p h ar yn g eal % ad enoi ds '" p alatin e " li ng u al lac teals

2. Be able to recognize lymph nodes, and to identify the sinuses on the slide 3. Be able to recognize the one-way valves on the slide of a lymphatic vessel Terminology:
Histology (slides): lymph no des " v alv es o f lymph atic vess els Anatomy of Lymphatic System (models & illustrations): lymphatic trunks: Ri g ht L ymph ati c Du c t Tho racic Du c t cis ter n a c h yli lymphatic vessels major lymph nodes: cerv ic al no d es ax illar y nod es in gu inal nod es accessory organs & structures: th ymus sp leen to ns ils; p h ar yn g eal % ad enoi ds '" p alatin e " li ng u al lac teals

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Blood
Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: slides: Lab Activities: 1. Recognize and identify the three major formed elements in Blood
er yth ro cytes (red blood cells) leuc oc ytes (white blood cells), th ro mboc ytes (platelets)

blood smear-Wright's stain sickle cell anemia

2. Recognize and identify the major types of leucocytes as instructed

neutrophils, lymphocytes

3. Compare the shapes of the red blood cells in sickle cell with that of normal cells and explain how the shape of sickle cells affect their function 4. Identify red blood cells, platelets and the major types of white blood cells by microscopic examination of your own blood smears Terminology:
formed elements erythrocytes (red blood cells) leucocytes (white blood cells), neutrophils, lymphocytes thrombocytes (platelets) plasma

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Hematology, Heart Sounds, & Blood Pressure

Biol 2404 Experiments in Physiology

Safety Precautions:
Note: Failure to observe the safety precautions for this lab will result in your being evicted from the lab and receiving a zero for this lab report! 1. If you know you have a blood disorder that might endanger you or the class do not perform this exercise. Let me know and I will give you an alternate exercise to do to get your points. 2. No food or drink in the lab room. 3. Work alone 4. Collect and test only your own blood 5. Spray table with disinfectant before and after lab 6. Wear latex gloves on both hands except while you are doing finger punctures 7. Do not recap or reuse lancets 8. Safely dispose of all disposable and reusable supplies and equipment that you have used on your own blood. See the handout 9. Wash the lab bench area that you have been using with disinfectant solution before you leave.

I. Blood Analysis
A. Collecting and handling Blood Follow instructions given at the beginning of the lab Disposal: Dispose of lancets in plastic sharps container on your lab table immediately after use Dispose of cotton balls, alcohol swabs and contaminated paper towels in biohazard bag B. Examining the Formed Elements of Blood Microscopically 1. Prepare a smear of a drop of your own blood as directed (see illustration):
-get 2 glass microscope slides from your drawer -take one slide and place a drop of blood toward one side of the slide -take the other slide and, holding it at a 45 angle, back it up until it touches the blood drop -then carefully and smoothly push the angled slide across the surface of the blood slide -if done correctly you should end up with a continuous smear of blood that thins an one end

2. allow the smear to air dry on the slide 3. stain the blood smear using the Hemacolor system on side counter; see instructions at the station 4. Find and draw examples of each of the three kinds of formed elements on your data sheet. 5. Find and identify two of the 5 different kinds of WBCs and draw them as well Disposal: Dispose of alcohol swabs, cotton balls, and other paper supplies in biohazard bag Dispose of slides used to make smear in bleach beaker
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C. Typing for ABO and RH Blood Groups 1. We will use Eldon Cards to determine blood types; 2. Follow the instructions in the pamphlet at your lab table; note: use tap water, not DI water Disposal: Dispose of Eldon Cards, combs and contaminated paper towels in biohazard bag Dispose of paper towels used to clean counter in regular trash

II. Listening to Heart Sounds

You can listen to your own heart sounds or those of your lab partner (with their permission, of course) Insert each of the two ear pieces into your ears. Be sure that the ear pieces fit snugly and have a good seal to keep out ambient noise. It is best to use stethoscopes on bare skin but for this demonstration you will probably be able to hear the heart sounds well enough through a single layer of clothing. In cold weather, warm up the stethoscope, or the first sound you will hear is a screech from your poor victim. Be careful not to make any loud noises near the chest piece after you have inserted the earpieces. Hold the round part (the chest piece) up to the person's chest or heart. You should hear a steady lubdub, lub-dub sound. Different heart sounds are best heard at different areas of a person's chest. Also, heart sounds differ depending on the patient's position: i.e., sitting, standing, lying on one's side, etc. Breathing is best heard with the diaphragm (or flat side) of the stethoscope. The diaphragm is used to listen to high pitch sound while the bell is used to listen to low pitch sounds. However, if you put pressure on the bell, it will pick up higher pitch sounds. Describe the sound you hear on your data sheet. Can you detect any murmurs?

III. Measuring Blood Pressure

Sit down comfortably in the chair with your feet flat on the floor. Follow instructions for using the blood pressure cuff given at the beginning of the lab and illustrated on the cuffs Record your blood pressure and pulse rate on the data sheet

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Name:________________________
Due Date:___________

Hematology, Heart Sounds & Blood Pressure

Biol 2404 Data Sheet The microscopic analysis of blood (prepared slides/your own blood sample): 1. Define and distinguish between blood, plasma, serum and formed elements.

2. Draw an example of each of the three kinds of formed elements:

Erythrocytes

Leucocytes

Thrombocytes

3. Describe the general functions of each of the three kinds of formed elements.

4. Of the 3 different kinds of formed elements in normal blood: a. which are the most abundant b. which are the largest c. which are the shortest lived
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5. How does the shape and function of erythrocytes in a person with sickle cell anemia differ from those of normal cells?

6. Which two white blood cells were the most abundant in your own blood sample? Identify and draw each of them below:

Blood typing for ABO and RH Blood Groups: 7. If you already know your blood type report it here: Your Blood Type from this lab test: ___________ ___________

8. Based on your blood type as determined in this exercise, (ABO & Rh): what blood antigens present in your blood?: what blood antibodies present in your blood?: ___________ ___________

9. Based on your blood type as determined in this exercise, (ABO & Rh), what blood types can you receive? Explain

10. What recipients can you donate to? Explain

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Listening to Heart Sounds 11. Describe the heart sounds you were able to hear

Blood Pressure and Pulse Rate 12. If you have checked your blood pressure in the last few months record it here:______________ Your blood pressure recorded here:______________ Your pulse rate: ____________ 13. compare your lab values to normal values and interpret your data; ie are your values normal, above or below normal.

14. List two reasons why a persons blood pressure might be above normal and two why they might be below normal

15. List two reasons why a persons pulse rate might be above normal and two why they might be below normal.

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The Respiratory System

Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: slides: models: lung mammal sec H&E human torsos human respiratory system larynx-trachea-bronchi model human head sagittal sec trachea and larynx bronchiole & alveoli model rabbit lungs

preserved: Lab Activities:

1. Recognize and identify the major organs of the human respiratory system on models available
nos e: ex ter n al n ar es " n asal s eptu m " n as al c avity " n as al co nc h ae " p ar an as al s in us es mo u th: h ar d p alate " so ft p alate ph aryn x: n aso ph ar yn x: aud itor y tu b e " p h ar yng eal to n sils orop h arynx: palati n e an d lin g ual to ns ils lar yn go ph aryn x lar yn x: ep ig lo tti s " th yroid c artilag e " c ricoid c artilag e " false vo cal co r ds " tr u e v oc al cor ds " glo ttis tr ach ea: no te the sh ap e o f th e tr ac h eal c artilag es bro nc h i no te the b an ds o f car tilag e lu ng s: bro nc h ioles " alv eoli " the - re sp ir ato r y tre e .

2. Understand the relationships between the serous membranes associated with the thoracic and pericardial cavities
med ias tin u m " par ietal p leu ra " v is cer al pleur a " diaph r ag m

3. Recognize the histological structure of lung tissue including:

alv eo li " sq u amo us ep i th eliu m " bro nc h ioles " b lood v ess els

Terminology:
Upper Respiratory System: nos e: extern al n ares " n as al sep tu m " n as al c av ity " n asal co nc h ae " p ar an as al sinu s es mo u th: har d p alate " s oft p alate ph aryn x: n aso ph ar yn x: aud itor y tu b e " p h ar yng eal to n si ls orop h arynx: palati n e an d lin g ual to ns ils lar yn go ph aryn x lar yn x: ep ig lo tti s " th yroi d c arti lag e " c ri coi d c arti lag e " false vo cal co r ds " tr u e v oc al cor ds " glo tti s

Lower Respiratory System: tr ach ea: tr ac h eal c ar tilag es bro nc h i 0 C / , s h ap e d b ands of c ar ti lag e
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lu ng s:

bro nc h ioles " alv eoli " the re sp ir ato r y tr ee

The Human Lungs and Pleural Coverings med ias tin u m " par ietal p leu ra " v is cer al pleur a " diaph r ag m Histology of the Respiratory System (slides) lung: alv eo li " sq u amo us ep ith eliu m " bro nc h ioles " b lood v ess els

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Measuring Vital Capacity

Biol 2404 Experiments in Physiology
Vital Capacity is the maximum amount of air you can get into or out of your lungs in a single breath. A measure of vital capacity provides a relatively simple way to assess the condition of ones respiratory system. A persons vital capacity is compared to a standardized chart based on gender and height. Many factors can affect ones vital capacity; general health, respiratory diseases, regular exercise, etc. Measuring Your Vital Capacity using a Wet Spirometer 1. The spirometer measures the volume of air in an exhaled breath. Take one of the cardboard mouthpieces, firmly attach it to the end of the hose and blow briefly into the tube. Note that the black indicator will move as the chamber fills with air. The numbers on the scale are liters. After each use you will need to slide the black indicator back to the zero mark. 2. Put the cardboard mouthpiece on the spirometer and inhale as much as possible before placing your mouth on the mouthpiece. 3. Hold your nose or use a nose clip and blow as much air as you possibly can into the spirometer. 4. Record the volume, your vital capacity, on your data sheet. Record this value in milliliters not liters. 5. Use the table provided to determine your predicted vital capacity and enter this value in the table on your data sheet.

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Name:______________________
Due Date:___________

Measuring Vital Capacity

Biol 2404 Data Sheet

A. Measuring Your Vital Capacity using iWorx

Vital Capacity
Vital Capacity
(ml)

Predicted

Vital Capacity
(from table)

VC VC

Directly Measured

Vital Capacity
(from spirometer measurement)

dm

1. Calculate the difference between your predicted vital capacity and your directly measured vital capacity: VCdm VC = ___________
p

2. How well did your actual vital capacity match your predicted vital capacity. Explain.

3. Describe one factor, not related to respiratory disease, that would tend to cause ones vital capacity to be greater than the value on the standardized chart.

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4. Describe one factor, not related to respiratory disease, that would tend to cause ones vital capacity to be significantly less than the value given in the table.

5. List and describe some other major factors that are related to respiratory diseases that could affect ones vital capacity.

6. What three lung volumes, when added together, should equal ones vital capacity? List and define each of these lung volumes

7. Define residual volume and how it is related to pneumothorax.

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Enzyme Activity
Biol 2404 Experiments in Physiology
Human Physiology at its most basic level is biochemistry. For every physiological activity that our body performs; individual cells are carrying out dozens or hundreds of specific chemical reactions required for that activity. Almost all of the chemical activity that is occurring inside our body cells involves enzymes. Enzymes are the biological catalysts that allow these reactions to occur. Many enzymes are found in the body and each facilitates a specific chemical reaction. Enzymes are required for both anabolic and catabolic reactions. In catabolic reactions a substrate is broken down into one or more smaller end products. In this exercise we will investigate one of the simplest and best known of these kinds of catabolic reactions, called hydrolysis, that is involved in the chemical digestion of foods. Specifically, we will study the enzyme amylase that decomposes the substrate starch (=a polysaccharide), a large organic molecule, into its products, monosaccharides. Amylase enzymes are found in saliva and begin the process of chemical hydrolysis as soon as we put food in our mouths. You will be collecting your own saliva (amylase enzymes) in order to perform this experiment. Like all enzymes, amylase is very sensitive to changes in temperature and pH, even slight changes can denature the proteins and slow or stop the activity of the enzyme.

Enzyme Activity - Effects of Temperature

1. Work in groups of 3 or 4 (write your group number on your data sheet) 2. Collect 1 ml of saliva in the 10 ml graduate cylinder provided (dont count foam). 3. Take 8 of the test tubes at your counter and label each as below: 2 0 C 2 37 C = Experimental Tubes 2 100 C 2C = Control Tubes 4. Gently shake the bottle of starch then place 2 ml of starch and 1 ml of DI water in one of the control tubes and 3 ml of DI water in the other using the plastic disposable pipettes, add 5 drops of Iodine (IKI) solution to both tubes and note the reactions: Iodine (Lugols) is an indicator for the presence of starch. Iodine is normally a yellowish orange liquid. When added to the tube with water this should be the color you see, ie. no reaction. When starch is present and iodine is added, the solution will turn dark blue to black, this is a positive test for starch. Save these control tubes for comparison to your experimental tubes at the end of the experiment. 5. Dilute the saliva mixture in the graduate cylinder by adding DI water up to the 10 ml line. Swirl to mix. 6. Use a clean disposable plastic pipette to add 1 ml of the saliva mixture to each of the 6 experimental test tubes. 7. Place the tubes at the designated temperatures as labeled: 2 in the ice; 2in the 37 water bath, and
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2 in the beaker of boiling water (use test tube clamps) at your counter. Allow all tubes to incubate about 5 minutes. After 5 minutes, add 2 ml of starch solution (when the dropper in the starch bottle is half full it contains about 1 ml) to each of the 6 test tubes being incubated at the three temperatures (do not remove them from the temperatures) and note the time. Gently swirl each tube after adding the starch. 8. Continue to incubate tubes at their designated temperatures for exactly 2 minutes. 9. Remove the tubes from incubation and return to your test tube rack at your table and immediately add 5 drops of the iodine indicator to all 6 tubes, gently swirl, and note the color of each. Use the scale below to record the color change on your data sheet: = yellow or no change, same color as the negative control tube + = very slight hint of blue or black ++ = distinct change in color to blue or black +++ = same color as the positive control tube with starch

Enzyme Activity effects of pH

1. Collect three additional test tubes and label them 4, 7, and 10 2. Place 2 ml of the appropriate pH buffer solution (pH = 4,7,10, respectively) into each of the tubes. 3. Add 1 ml of the saliva mixture to each tube, swirl to mix 4. Add 2 ml of starch to each tube, gently swirl the tubes to mix, and note the time 5. Allow the tubes to incubate at room temperature for exactly 2 minutes. 6. Immediately add 5 drops of the iodine indicator to all 3 tubes and note the color change as you did above. Record the information on your data sheet.

Cleanup & Disposal 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Empty all test tubes in the sink with water running Dispose of the empty test tubes in glass disposal box Wash your graduate cylinder and return to the tray on your table Dispose of plastic pipettes in the trash Wipe your table down with disinfectant before you leave

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Name:____________________ Group:_________

Enzyme Activity
[Effects of Temperature and pH on Enzyme Activity]
Biol 2404 Lab Data Sheet

1. What exactly is the reaction you are investigating; include substrate, enzyme & product?

2. Explain how the iodine indicator can show you whether the enzyme was working or not (be specific)?

The Effects of Temperature on Enzyme Activity

Temp
Tube Number

Presence of Starch

Presence of Starch
(total # of + for both tubes)

(+/-)

0 C 37 C 100 C

1 2 1 2 1 2

3. Which temperature produced the greatest enzyme activity? Is this what you expected? Why or why not.

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The Effects of pH on Enzyme Activity

pH of Tube
Presence of Starch

(+/-)

4 7 10
4. At which pH did you get the greatest enzyme activity? Explain.

5. Based on where the enzyme, amylase, is found in the body, do your results from these two experiments make sense? Explain.

6. Name 3 other specific enzymes used by the body and describe or diagram the reaction that each facilitates.

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The Digestive System

Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: slides: pancreas human sec liver pig sec mal tooth root human cs human tooth crown sec torsos and digestive system models liver model liver lobules model pancreas & duodenum model teeth in skull model tooth male and female pelvis model cross section of GI tract model (esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine) villi model see mesenteries on cat display

models:

preserved: Lab Activities:

1. Identify the four layers of the GI-tract on the model showing the cross section of the esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine, and on the villi model
muco s a " s ub muc os a " mus cu lar is " s ero s a

2. Locate and identify the major organs and structures of the human digestive system on all appropriate models:
Mouth: Pharynx: lips " p alate " h ar d p alate " so ft p alate " uv u la " to ng u e " fr en u lu m " p ar otid " s ub lin gu al and s u b maxillar y s aliv ar y g laln ds n aso ph ar yn x " p h aryng eal to n sils " oro ph ar yn x " palatin e ton sils " ling u al to ns ils " lar yngo ph ar yn x

Esophagus Stomach: c ard i ac r egio n " card io es op h ag e al sp hi nc ter " fun d us " bo dy " p ylor ic regio n " p ylo r ic sp hinc ter " r ug ae " g r eater c ur v atu re " les ser c ur v atu re " gr eater o men tu m Small Intestine: mes enteries " d uo den u m " jejun u m " ileu m " ileoc ec al v alve " v illi " go blet c ells Large Intestine: cecu m " ap pen dix " co lo n % asc en d ing " tr an sv ers e " d esc en din g " s ig mo id '" h au str a " taen ia co li " r ec tum " an us Teeth: in cisor s " c anin es " p remo lar s " mo lar s " c ro wn " ro ot " enamel " d en tin " pu lp " c emen tu m Salivary Glands: p ar otid " s ub man dibu lar " s ub ling u al g land s Liver & Gall bladder: h ep atic d uc t " c ommon bile d uc t " c ystic d uc t Pancreas: p an cr eatic d uc t

3. Locate and identify the serous membranes on the cat dissection display:
par ie tal p er i ton e u m " vi sc er al p er i to ne u m " m es en ter i es

4. Recognize the general histological structure of accessory organs of the digestive system including the teeth, liver and pancreas
Teeth: (model: tooth; slide: tooth root cs; human tooth crown cs)
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cemen tu m " den tin " p ulp " en amel Liver: (model: liver lobule) liv er lob u le " c en tral vein " b ile du cts " sinu s es " h ep atic ar ter ies " h ep atic po r tal vein " hep atic v ei n (slide: liver pig section mal) liv er lob u le " c en tral vein " s in u ses Pancreas: (slide: pancreas human sec) distinguish between exocrine and endocrine tissue (=Is le ts of L an ge r h an s )

Terminology:
Organs of the G I Tract Mouth: lips " p alate " h ar d p alate " so ft p alate " uv u la " to ng u e " fr en u lu m " p ar otid " s ub lin gu al and s u b maxillar y s aliv ar y g laln ds Pharynx: n aso ph ar yn x " p h aryng eal to n sils " oro ph ar yn x " palatin e ton sils " ling u al to ns ils " lar yngo ph ar yn x Esophagus Stomach: c ard i ac r egio n " card io es op h ag e al sp hi nc ter " fun d us " bo dy " p ylor ic regio n " p ylo r ic sp hinc ter " r ug ae " g r eater c ur v atu re " les ser c ur v atu re " gr eater o men tu m Small Intestine: mes enteries " d uo den u m " jejun u m " ileu m " ileoc ec al v alve " v illi " go blet c ells Large Intestine: cecu m " ap pen dix " co lo n % asc en d ing " tr an sv ers e " d esc en din g " s ig mo id '" h au str a " taen ia co li " r ec tum " an us Accessory Organs Teeth: de ci du ou s " pe r m an e n t " i nc is ors " c ani n es " pr e m olar s " molars " cr o wn " roo t " gu m " en amel " d en ti n " pu lp " c e me n tu m Salivary Glands: p ar otid " s ub man dibu lar " s ub ling u al g land s Liver & Gall bladder: liv er lo b ule " c en tr al v ein " bile du c ts " sin us es " h ep atic ar ter ies " h ep atic por tal vein " hep atic v einc o mmon h ep atic d uc t " b ile d uc t " c ystic d uc t Pancreas: p an cr eatic d uc t Membranes: p arietal p er iton eu m " vis c er al p er ito neu m " mes en teries Microscopic Structure and Histology General Histology: muco s a " s ub muc os a " mus cu lar is " s ero s a Teeth: cemen tu m " den tin " p ulp " en amel Liver: lob u le " c en tral vein Pancreas: Isle ts o f L ang er h an s Intestine: villi " gob let cells

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pH and Buffers
Biol 2404 Experiments in Physiology Electrolytes are molecules that tend to disperse in solutions as charged atoms or molecules (ions). Many atoms and molecules in the body are electrolytes. Large organic molecules, especially proteins, are extremely sensitive to changes in electrolyte concentrations, particularly to particular groups of electrolytes called acids and bases. Any dramatic change in the balance between acids and bases in the body can denature proteins and wreak havoc within our cells. The ratio of acids and bases is measured on the pH scale where a pH of 7 indicates a neutral solution, where the concentrations of acids and bases are evenly balanced. A value below 7 indicates acidity, ie. there are more acids than bases; and above 7, alkalinity, ie. there are fewer acids than basis. The pH of our blood varies only slightly between 7.35 and 7.45. A change in pH to a value less than 7 or greater than 7.8 is lethal. One of the primary ways our bodies have to combat such drastic changes is by using buffers. Buffers are chemicals that have the ability to absorb excess acids or bases to prevent drastic changes in pH within our cells or body fluids. You will be using a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid (=HCl) to change the pH of three body fluids. You will measure the pH of various solutions in this exercise using a pH meter. Your instructor will demonstrate how to correctly use the equipment. I. Activity: Effects of acids on buffered and unbuffered solutions: a. HCl in deionized water 1. rinse all glassware with deionized water 2. Add deionized water to a 100ml beaker up to the 50 ml mark 3. Use the pH meter to record the initial pH of the solution by immersing the electrodes and stirring them in the solution and recording the pH on your data sheet. 4. Add HCl solution drop by drop while stirring with the pH electrode continuously. Continue to slowly add and count the drops of HCl until the pH decreases by one complete unit. 5. Record the final pH of the solution and the number of drops of HCl in the table on your data sheet 6. Rinse the pH probe well with a stream of DI water b. HCl in saliva 1. rinse all glassware with deionized water 2. Collect at least 2 or 3 ml of saliva in a small graduated cylinder (chewing on a rubber band or a piece of parafilm stimulates saliva production), pour the saliva into a 100 ml beaker then add DI water to the 50ml mark 3. Use the pH meter to record the initial pH of the solution by immersing the electrode in the solution and slowly stirring it or swirling the beaker. When the pH stops changing dramatically, record the pH on your data sheet in the first 2 tables 4. Add HCl solution drop by drop while stirring with the pH electrode continuously. Continue to slowly add and count the drops of HCl until the pH decreases by one complete unit. 5. Record the final pH of the solution and the number of drops of HCl in the table on your data sheet 6. Rinse the pH probe well with a stream of DI water c. HCl in urine
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1. rinse all glassware with deionized water 2. Add 50 ml of urine solution (provided) to a 100ml beaker 3. Use the pH meter as above to record the initial pH of the solution by immersing the electrodes and stirring them and recording the pH on the first 2 tables of your data sheet. 4. Add HCl solution drop by drop while stirring with the pH electrode continuously. Continue to slowly add and count the drops of HCl until the pH decreases by one complete unit. 5. Record the final pH of the solution and the number of drops of HCl in the table on your data sheet 6. Rinse the pH probe well with a stream of DI water d. HCl in Plasma 1. Remove and rinse the electrode with deionized water. 2. Place 50 ml of plasma (provided) into a clean 100 ml beaker, and record its initial pH with the pH meter. Again, record this value on the first 2 tables of your data sheet. 3. Add HCl drop by drop, counting the drops while continuously stirring with the pH electrode, until the pH changes one complete unit. 4. Record the final pH of the plasma and the number of drops of HCl used in the table on your data sheet. 5. Rinse the pH probe well with a stream of DI water II. Effect of CO2 Gas on the pH of Water Carbon dioxide naturally dissolves in water as it does in our blood. This dissolved CO2 is spontaneously converted to carbonic acid and then to bicarbonate and hydrogen ions. The more CO2 in the water the more acidic the water becomes. A similar reaction occurs in the blood so that the more carbon dioxide that our blood is carrying, the more acidic our blood will become. 1. Using a pH meter, determine the pH of 50 ml of DI water in a 100 ml beaker and record on your data sheet . 2. Have subject pinch nostrils shut and blow into the bottom of the flask through a straw for 15 seconds. 3. Record the pH of the water immediately after blowing into it. 4. Immediately repeat, blowing into the water 5 additional times, taking a deep breath each time and record the pH of the water after each exhaled breath. 5. Graph your results on a piece of graph paper with pH on the y (=vertical) axis and number of breaths on the x (=horizontal) axis and attach the graph to your data sheet. Disposal 1. 2. 3. 4. Dispose of all test solutions from the beakers into the sink with water running Return remaining stock solutions to your tray Clean and rinse glassware and return it to your tray Rinse pH electrode, cover with cap or leave in buffer solution as directed, turn off and close the pH meter 5. Wipe down counters with disinfectant.

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Name: _____________________ Group: _____________________

Due Date:______________

pH and Buffers
Bio 2404 Lab Data Sheet

I. Activity: Effects of Acids on Buffered and Unbuffered Solutions

A: Determining the pH of biological solutions using a pH meter

Biological Fluid

pH

DI Water Saliva Urine Plasma

B: Activity: Effects of Acids on the pH of biological solutions
Test Solution initial pH final pH # drops of HCl

DI Water
Saliva

Urine
Plasma
II. Effect of carbon dioxide on the pH of water pH after deep breaths original pH after 1st exhalation after 2nd exhalation after 3rd exhalation after 4th exhalation after 5th exhalation

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Questions: 1. How did the initial pH of the three biological solutions vary. Which of them was closer to the normal pH of blood.

2. What exactly is a buffer?

3. How is the number of drops of acid needed to change the pH of a solution related to that solutions buffering capacity?

4. Compare the effects of acids on the four solutions. How does the buffering ability of each of the three biological solutions compare with that of deionized water?

5. A change in blood pH to below ~7 or above ~7.8 is usually lethal. How do you account for the fact that the pH of saliva and urine can vary considerably and can be below 6.8 or above 7.8 even in healthy individuals?

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6. Diagram the reaction of carbon dioxide and water (where do you think you might find this equation in your textbook?)

7. Interpret your graph; describe and explain the effects of exhaled air on the pH of the water in the beaker with each breath.

8. What exactly caused the change in pH of the water? Where did the hydrogen ions come from?

9. How do you think the amount of Carbon Dioxide in the blood would affect body pH? How does the body prevent a build up of excess carbon dioxide in the blood?

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The Urinary System

Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: slides: models: human kidney sec human models and torsos as available kidney models nephron models

Lab Activities: 1. Locate and identify the major organs of the human urinary system on models available.
kid n eys " retro perito n eal pos itio n " r en al ar ter ies " r enal veins " ur eter s " u rin ary bladd er " ur eth r a " pen is % male '

2. Identify the major layers and structures seen on a frontal section of the kidney.
cor tex " med u llary r eg ion " p yr amid s " c alyc es " r en al pelvis

3. Locate and identify the microscopic structure of the nephron on the models available
cor tex: ren al cor p usc le " g lo mer u lu s " Bo wman 1 s C ap su le " p ro xi mal co nv olu ted tu b ule " distal co n volu ted tub ule " affer en t ar ter io le " effer en t ar terio le " p eritub ular capillar ies med u lla: loo p of Henle " collec tin g tub u le

4. Locate the following structures on the slide of a kidney section

cor tex " med u lla " glo meru lus " B o wman 1 s c ap s ule " r en al cor p usc le

Terminology:
Gross Anatomy of Human Urinary System (models, charts) kid n eys " retro perito n eal pos itio n " r en al ar ter ies " r enal veins " ur eter s " u rin ary bladd er " ur eth r a " pen is % male ' Gross Internal Anatomy (models) cor tex " med u llary r eg ion " p yr amid s " c alyc es " r en al pelvis Microscopic Anatomy (models, slides) cor tex: ren al cor p usc le " g lo mer u lu s " Bo wman 1 s C ap su le " p ro xi mal co nv olu ted tu b ule " di stal co n volu ted tub ule " affe r en t ar ter io le " e ffe r en t ar te rio le " p e ri tub ular capi llar ie s med u lla: loo p of Henle " collec tin g tub u le

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The Reproductive System

Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: slides: penis, mammal, cs (do not use slides marked H&E) mammal testis, sec. mammal ovary-Graafian follicle, sec mammal ovary-corpus luteum, sec human sperm smear, wm human male and female reproductive systems meiosis and gametogenesis model

models: Lab Activities:

1. Locate and identify the major organs and structures of both the male and female human reproductive system on models available
Gross Anatomy of Male Reproductive System tes tes " scr otal s ac " ep id id ymus " d uc tu s d efer en s " ejac u lato r y d uc t " ur ethr a " pr os tate gland " se m i n al ve si cle s " b u lbo ur ethr al g lan ds " pen is Gross Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System ov ar ies " u terin e tu bes % fallop ian tub es " ov idu c ts '" fimb riae " uteru s " b ro ad lig amen t " ov ar ian lig amen t " c erv ix o f u teru s " v ag in a " v ulv a

2. Identify the features below in a slide and models of a penis cross section including:
cor por a cav er no sa " co rp us sp on gio su m " u r eth r a

3. Identify the layers in a model of the uterine wall including:

endo metr iu m " myo metriu m " epimetr iu m %( seros a; p er imetr iu m '

4. Identify the seminiferous tubules and the interstitial cells on a slide of testes 5. Distinguish between the head and tail of sperm cells on the slide provided 6. Identify the Graafian follicle with egg and the corpus luteum on the slides provided Terminology:
Gross Anatomy of Male Reproductive System tes tes " scr otal s ac " ep id id ymus " d uc tu s d efer en s " s per matic cor d " ejac ulato ry du c t " ur eth r a " pro state g lan d " semin al vesicles " b ulb our ethr al glan ds " p en is Microscopy of Male Reproductive System Testes: s e min i fe ro us tu b ules " in ters titial c ells " d ev elop ing s p er m " matur e s p er m Penis: cor po ra c av er no s a " co rp u s sp on gios u m " ur eth r a Gross Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System ov ar ies " u terin e tu bes % fallop ian tub es " ov idu c ts '" fimb riae " uteru s " b ro ad lig amen t " ov ar ian li g amen t " c erv ix o f u teru s " v ag in a " v ulv a Uterus: end ometriu m " myo metriu m " epimetr iu m
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Microscopy of Female Reproductive System Ovary: fo lli cle c ells " o vu m " Gr aafi an follicle " co rp us lu te u m Spermatogenesis: s e mi n ife rou s tu b ules " i n te rs titi al c ells " sp er mato go nia " sp er m " lu men o f semin ifero us tub ules Oogenesis: fo llicle c ells " Gr aafian follic le " ov u m " cor pu s lu teu m

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A Survey of Human Development

Biol 2404 Laboratory Activities
Lab Materials: slides: starfish development starfish all stages starfish, early cleavage wm starfish, late cleavage wm chick 18 hr wm chick 33 hr wm chick 72 hr wm (Do not use high power with this slide) human pregnancy series models cell to embryo plaque tailbud stage model fetal circulation model illustrations and other materials as available

models:

other:

Review the main stages of human development as discussed in lecture. Be able to relate these stages to the study materials available in lab Lab Activities: [Preembryonic Stages] 1. View the various slides of starfish development and the appropriate models to find examples of the early cleavage divisions
cleav age div is ion s

2. View the slide of starfish late cleavage and the appropriate models to identify
mo ru la

3. Implantation begins at the Blastocyst Stage. Identify the blastocyst in appropriate illustrations and distinguish between the inner cell mass and the trophoblast cells. Describe the fate of each. 4. View the slide of the 18 hour chick (this is equivalent to about 2-2.5 weeks of human development) and appropriate models to identify the primitive streak and describe its significance. 5. Name the three embryonic tissue layers and name two organs or systems derived from each:
ec to der m " meso d er m " endo d er m

[Embryonic Stages] 6. The neurula stage is seen in the 33 hr chick embryo slide. Identify the nervous and circulatory systems.
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7. Identify the tailbud stage in appropriate models and in the slide of the 72 hr chick embryo and locate the
br ai n " e yes " sp in al co rd " so m i te s an d h e ar t

[Fetal Stages] 8. Recognize and identify and be able to distinguish between the various models of embryonic and fetal stages of human development. Identify the amnion (bag of waters), placenta, and umbilical cord on appropriate models. 9. Identify the 4 temporary modifications of the fetal circulatory system in the model and illustrations and describe the function and the fate of each structure after birth
u mb ilic al ar ter ies & v ein s du ctu s v e nos us for ame n ov ale du ctu s ar te ri os is

Terminology:
Stages of Human Development: a& Fertilization b& Preembryonic Stage: c leav age di v is ion s " mo ru la " blasto c ys t " in n er cell mass " tro p hob las t " ec to d er m " mes od er m " en dod erm " c& Embryonic Stage: emb r yon ic membr anes " p lac en ta " tailbu d " d& Fetal Stage: fetus " u mb ilic al ar ter ies & v ein s " du ctus v en os us " fo r amen o v ale " du c tu s ar ter io su s

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