Objective 4: The Integration Movement

1). West Indies Federation

The West Indies Federation, also known as the Federation of the West Indies, was a short-lived political union that existed from 3 January 1958 to 31 May 1962. Various islands in the Caribbean that were colonies of the United Kingdom, including Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Jamaica, and those on the Leeward and Windward Islands, came together to form the Federation, with its capital in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. Britain intended that the Federation would shortly become a fully independent state, thus simultaneously satisfying the demands for independence from all the colonies in the region, however, before that could happen, the Federation collapsed due to internal political conflicts. The politics of the embryonic Federation were wrecked by struggles between the federal government and the provincial governments, and between the two largest provinces (Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago) and the smaller provinces. The West Indies Federation had an unusually weak federal structure. For instance, its provinces were not contained in a single customs union. Thus, each province functioned as a separate economy, complete with tariffs, largely because the smaller provinces were afraid of being overwhelmed by the large islands' economies. Also, complete freedom of movement within the Federation was not implemented, as the larger provinces were worried about mass migration from the smaller islands. Also, the initial federal budget was quite small, limiting the federal government's ability to use its small budget effectively. It was dependent upon grants from the United Kingdom and from its member states. The provincial budgets of Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago were both larger than the federal budget. This led to repeated requests for those states to provide greater financing to the federal government. These requests were not well received, as Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago together already contributed 85 percent of the federal revenue, in roughly equal portions. Furthermore, the office of the Prime Minister was a weak one. Unlike other Westminster systems with Prime Ministers, the West Indian Federation's PM could not dissolve Parliament. These challenges posed the starting point for the Federations dissolution. However, by 1961, the main catalyst for collapse was Jamaicas withdrawal from the Federation, due to the lack of major influence in the Federation itself, the surplus of funds it had to provide and Jamaicas main intention of joining the Federation was for a pathway to Independence, but due to the Federations colonial status, Jamaica felt the need to seek independence singularly. The onus was now on Trinidad to finically sustain the Federation, this ultimately led to Trinidads withdrawal from the Federation on January 14th 1961.

Intellectual Property of Matthew Mahabir, March 16th 2014.

2.) Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA)

Subsequent to the dissolution of the West Indies Federation in 1962, the Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA) was formed to provide an economic linkage between countries of the English speaking Caribbean. The notion of a free trade between Caribbean countries was a premature gesture in a meeting between the Prime Ministers of Barbados and Guyana in 1965, initially solely between these 2 countries, the policy expanded to the rest of the Caribbean when the other countries were ready to join. Dr. Eric Williams was a huge advocate for a Caribbean Economy Community, this helped push the venture further, signing the CARIFTA agreement in March 1968 with Barbados, Guyana, Antigua and Trinidad & Tobago, with the rest of the Caribbean joining by August 1968. CARIFTA was formed to boost intraregional relations and to increase the quota of goods to be sold. Specifically, CARIFTA was intended to encourage balanced development of the Region by the following:

increasing trade - buying and selling more goods among the Member States diversifying trade - expanding the variety of goods and services available for trade liberalizing trade - removing tariffs and quotas on goods produced and traded within the area ensuring fair competition - setting up rules for all members to follow to protect the smaller enterprises

In addition to providing for free trade, the Agreement sought the following:

ensure that the benefits of free trade were equitably distributed promote industrial development in the Less Developed Countries (LDCs) rationalize agricultural production and facilitate marketing of selected products

In 1973, CARIFTA was integrated into CARICOM in the hopes of establishing a Caribbean community where the common market would be an integral part.

Intellectual Property of Matthew Mahabir, March 16th 2014.

3). Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM)

The Caribbean Community (CARICOM) is an organization of 15 Caribbean nations and dependencies. CARICOM's main purposes are to promote economic integration and cooperation among its members, to ensure that the benefits of integration are equitably shared, and to coordinate foreign policy. Its major activities involve coordinating economic policies and development planning; devising and instituting special projects for the less-developed countries within its jurisdiction; operating as a regional single market for many of its members (CARICOM Single Market); health, education and cultural improvements; and handling regional trade disputes. CARICOMs headquarters is in Georgetown, Guyana. The Caribbean Community (CARICOM), originally the Caribbean Community and Common Market, was established by the Treaty of Chaguaramas which came into effect on 1 August 1973. CARICOM oversaw Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA), which had been organized to provide a continued economic linkage between the English-speaking countries of the Caribbean following the dissolution of the West Indies Federation. Presently, CARICOM has 15 full members, 5 associate members and 8 observers. Associate members are British overseas territories and observers are states which engage in at least one of CARICOMs technical policies. The 15 member states are divided into 2 main groups: LDCs and MDCs. With the LDCs being: Antigua & Barbuda, Belize, Dominica, Haiti, Montserrat, St. Kitts & Nevis, St. Lucia and St. Vincent and the Grenadines. The MDCs being: Bahamas, Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, Suriname and Trinidad & Tobago. In 2001, the heads of government signed a Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas thus clearing the way for the transformation of the idea for a Common Market aspect of CARICOM into instead a Caribbean (CARICOM) Single Market and Economy. Part of the revised treaty among member states includes the establishment and implementation of the Caribbean Court of Justice. Since 2013 the CARICOM along with the Dominican Republic is tied to the European Commission via an Economic Partnership Agreements known as CARIFORUM signed in 2008. The treaty grants all members of the European Union and CARIFORUM equal rights in terms of trade and investment. CARICOM has formed many institutions to aid in regional development such as: CDERA, CCJ, CXC, UWI, CDB, OECS etc. The multiplicity of negotiations and subsequent organizations held by CARICOM, it affects development by:

Advantages and Achievements of CARICOM:

1. Common market to stimulate trade, this is instrumental in promoting free movement of factors of production. 2. Enhance co-operations in economics (CSME & CDB), politics and disaster preparedness. 3. Enhances negotiating power on a global scale (trading bloc). 4. Promotes active institutions for education (UWI & CXC), Sport (WICB), Health (CDERA) and Justice (CCJ). 5. CARICOM continues to keep peace in politically unstable territories such as Haiti. 6. Promotes social cohesion and a Caribbean identity. Intellectual Property of Matthew Mahabir, March 16th 2014.

Challenges and Achievements to CARICOM:

1. There has been competition among member states in areas such as air transport eg. Caribbean Airlines and LIAT. 2. The ideals of a common currency and full adoption of a CARICOM passport is still not achieved. 3. Though CARICOM is a group, there appears to be several sub groups such as OECS and ACS that continue to challenge full regional consolidation and solidarity. 4. Many governments still place a focus on national development rather than regional development. Through CARICOM, the main thrust has been regional development and integration. However, with the successes there are also challenges to this vision.

Factors Promoting Regional Integration:

1. 2. 3. 4. Close proximity to each other by air and sea travel. Shared common history (Colonial past). Shared common culture, in terms of dress, language, cuisine, music and lifestyle. Similar economic, political and social occurrences such as problems and achievements of political and public sector.

Factors hindering Regional Integration:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Different strategies for economic growth. Socio-economic polarization in the region (Trinidad more developed than Grenada). Stifled regional trade due to similarity of most products (LOME agreement). The concession for extra-regional investors rather than CARICOM investors. Separatism and Particularism, highlighted by the parochialism and xenophobia present in most regions eg. The media fiasco in the Jamaicans being barred from entering Trinidad.

Intellectual Property of Matthew Mahabir, March 16th 2014.

4). Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS)

The Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) is an inter-governmental organisation dedicated to economic harmonization and integration, protection of human and legal rights, and the encouragement of good governance between countries and dependencies in the Eastern Caribbean. It also performs the role of spreading responsibility and liability in the event of natural disaster, such as a hurricane. The secretariat of the OECS is present in Castries, St. Lucia. The OECS was created on 18 June 1981, with the Treaty of Basseterre, which was named after the city of the same name, the capital city of St. Kitts and Nevis. The OECS currently has nine members, spread across the Eastern Caribbean comprising of the Leeward and Windward Islands. Membership of the OECS is a result of: close geographical proximity and the strong, historical, cultural and economic ties with them being former British colonies (this is well represented by the Queen appearing on their currency though most of their member states are sovereign). The main function of the OECS is to help the small island members to cope with the changing economic environment, characterized by: globalization and trade liberalization, both of which are posing serious challenges to the economic and social stability of the islands. To help respond to these challenges, the OECS co-operates with regional and sub-regional agencies such as Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) and the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (ECCB).

Intellectual Property of Matthew Mahabir, March 16th 2014.

5). Association of Caribbean States (ACS)

The Association of Caribbean States is a union comprising of 25 nations within or near the Caribbean region formed in 1994, with the current secretariat being located in Port of Spain, Trinidad. Together, they form a population of over 327 million people and is the 4th largest trading bloc, after the EU, NAFTA (North American Free Trade Association) and ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations). It was formed with the aim of promoting economic co-operation by the means of greater trade ventures and consultation for common issues of importance across the region e.g. transport, health, education, natural disasters etc. The organization intends to promote regionalism by 1. Accentuating common interests that Caribbean nations share and 2. Working to eliminate past barriers left by the colonial past The organization hopes to use its geographic proximity and regional cooperation for political and economic advantages with specific interest to: trade, transport, sustainable tourism and natural disasters. However, despite these goals and successes, the ACS is controversially debated. On one side, the ACS is seen as successful due to its large population and good relations with international organizations such as the EU. On the other side, skeptics note how by the end of the 90s, the ACS failed to establish a distinct track record to be worthy enough to be considered a developmental coalition, unlike CARICOM. This, and the increasing influence by NAFTA in the Western Hemisphere, suggest that the ACS is unlikely to become an international player.

Intellectual Property of Matthew Mahabir, March 16th 2014.

6). University of the West Indies (UWI)

The University of the West Indies (UWI) is a public university system that began in 1949 in Mona, Jamaica and currently serves 18 English speaking territories in the Caribbean. From the 1960s, UWI has since established 2 other campuses in Cave Hill, Barbados and St. Augustine, Trinidad. The aim of the university is to help unlock the potential for economic and cultural growth within the region, thus allowing for improved regional autonomy and improved regional integration. However, there are several factors that combat this perspective. Advantages and Achievements of UWI: 1. It provides adequate education to train and provide an adequate labor force for the public and private sector. 2. It is tailored to Caribbean needs. 3. Instrumental as a stepping stone for upward social mobility eg. 1st degree in UWI and post grad in foreign universities. 4. UWI prepares people to become leaders in the Caribbean, such as in the Black Intelligencia. 5. It is a common center for interculturation practices. 6. It may provide a consumer demographic for the distributional sector (on campus living). 7. Reduces dependency on the foreign intellectual sector by being an easy, accessible tertiary institution for many Caribbean nationals. 8. Brings about international recognition. Challenges and Disadvantages faced by UWI: 1. Creates a social cleft between campus and non-campus territories, fueling nationalism, separatism and particularism. 2. Underemployment in campus territories such as in Trinidad and Tobago. 3. Lack of faculties to be adequately a competitive University in a global sphere. 4. The level of student intake reduces credibility of the university and the courses. 5. May cause inflation in certain campus territories. 6. UWI fosters the loss of the intellectual elite (as in all education policies). 7. Possible parochialism by induced patriotism.

Intellectual Property of Matthew Mahabir, March 16th 2014.

7). Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC)

The Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC) was established in 1972 by an Agreement among 15 English speaking Commonwealth Caribbean Countries and Territories and is an institution of CARICOM. The operations of CXC are funded chiefly by contributions from participatory governments and examinations fees while funds for special projects are obtained from donor agencies. CXC is governed by a Council comprising of representatives from each participating country. CXC has replaced the General Certificate of Education (GCE) examinations used by England and some other members of the Commonwealth and offers two levels of examinations and certifications: The Caribbean Secondary Education Certification (CSEC), similar to O Levels. The Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations (CAPE), similar to A Levels.

CXC aims to: provide regionally and internationally recognized secondary school leaving examinations relevant to the needs of the region, produce teaching materials such as textbooks, train teachers and to advise regional governments on Education matters.

Advantages and Achievements of CXC:

1. A measure of its success can be gathered from the fact that, one of the CXCs signature approaches to certification, the School Based Assessment, was adopted by the UK when it redesigned its examination programme for the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) 2. CXC has improved Caribbean regional development as a whole, corresponding to the Human Development Paradigm in Education. 3. Regional integration has been fostered by empowering students with an acute sense of pride. 4. CXC has allowed upward social mobility by contributing to the education of all the regions diplomats and parliamentarians, proving the ongoing success and credibility of its programmes. 5. The curriculum is standardized, therefore making it easy for employers across the region to confidentially hire a Caribbean resident, regardless of nationality. 6. It raises sensitivity and awareness to Caribbean History, Literature, Geography and Culture, seen by the creolisation of the syllabus.

Challenges and Disadvantages of CXC:

1. CXC isnt globally recognized by many international education boards, with the acceptance of CXC qualifications being questioned. Eg. SATs in America. 2. The need for a diverse curriculum, employability practicality and the quality of education stagnates any utopic view CXC might have for possible economic development with education. 3. The structure of the examinations were initially questioned as concepts like objective tests, SBAs, criterion etc. were new to the region. 4. The volume of work the ambitious CXC syllabus tries to cover is not practical in terms of teaching times and teacher qualifications in some cases. 5. Internationalization of tests such as the SATs have had a general decline in students pursuing CXC mandated exams such as CAPE, in favor for the more internationally accepted standard.

Intellectual Property of Matthew Mahabir, March 16th 2014.

8). West Indies Cricket Board (WICB)

The West Indies Cricket Board (WICB) is the governing body for professional and amateur cricket in the West Indies, originally formed in the early 1920s as the West Indies Cricket Board of Control, but changed its name in 1996.The WICB has been a full member of the International Cricket Council (ICC) since 1926. The WICB is comprised of members from the different national cricket board associations from its territories. It operates the West Indies Cricket team by organizing Test tours and one-day internationals with other teams. It also organizes domestic cricket in the West Indies, including the Regional Four Day Competition and the WICB Cup domestic one-day (List A) competition.

Achievements and Advantages of the WICB:

1. Due to the WICB, in 1981, the respective national cricket associations of the member states were given international recognition. 2. When the WICB has earned a profit, it compounds on the need for Caribbean regional integration. 3. Fosters regional identity, cultural retention and promotion. 4. May promote possible FDI in the region due to sponsorships eg. Digicel 5. International recognition due to cricket heroes. Eg. Brian Lara.

Challenges and Disadvantages of the WICB:

1. The need for more financiers to fund the continuity of the programme. 2. The recent poor performances means the WICB would be in debt and would eventually need private government intervention to continue. 3. The reduction in public morale due to a streak of disappointing performances. 4. When the performances are poor, it promotes separatism and division among Caribbean nationals due to the blame of the performance being put on players from countries who are not their own. 5. The move away from traditional test matches by the WICB to cater international viewership has accelerated cultural erasure and imperialism within the region. 6. Allegations of corruption and bribe.

Intellectual Property of Matthew Mahabir, March 16th 2014.

9). Caribbean Institute of Media and Communication (CARIMAC)

CARIMAC started in 1974 out of research by the United Nations Economic, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and a subsequent partnership between UWI and the French Ebert Stiftung Foundation (FES). The institute was created to give regional communicators a Caribbean orientation with professional grounding while ensuring that Caribbean media and communication performed while assisting the regions development. CARIMAC started with 31 students doing a 1 year diploma in Mass Communication in 1974, in 1977 it introduced a BA in Mass Communication, in 1194 a MFA in Communication Studies and in 2004 a MFA in Communication for Social Behavioral Change.

Achievements and Advantages of CARIMAC:

1. It produces skilled workers in multimedia (like producers, back stage crew) by lacing through foreign officials, due to the primary lack of knowledge by the citizenry. 2. It brings FDI from UNESCO to upgrade communication services. 3. Stimulates technological advancement in the region. 4. Creates a position for jobs such as TV anchors, radio hosts etc in the region.

Challenges and Disadvantages of CARIMAC:

1. CARIMAC is not widely known to the general Caribbean public, therefore not establishing itself as much as it would like to be. 2. Possible migration of the now skilled multimedia workers. 3. The constantly evolving technology presents concerns in terms of sustainability of the industry with respect to investments. 4. Technology required for the result of CARIMAC is expensive and most CARICOM nations simply do not possess the necessary capital to fund this. 5. It does not assist the private and public sector in bridging the technological gap across the region causing polarity.

Intellectual Property of Matthew Mahabir, March 16th 2014.

10). CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME)

In 1973, the integration process of the Caribbean was deepened, through the signing of the Treaty of Chaguaramas which included provisions to create a form of Common Market in the region. To the preexisting arrangements, to support the liberalization of trade in goods, was added the establishment of a common external-tariff designed to provide some measure of protection to regional industries. The 1973 Treaty also contained provisions relating to the removal of restrictions in respect of the establishment of businesses, provision of services, the movement of capital and the coordination of economic policies. However, this was combated by certain territories employing structural adjustment programs as recommendations of international lending agencies, which far exceeded their commitments as expressed in the Treaty of Chaguaramas. Due to this, in 1989, the CARICOM Heads of Government, agreed to advance beyond the Common Market towards a more comprehensive economic integration, via the Grand Anse Declaration, signed in Grenada. This led to the creation of the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME) which is a single economic space to facilitate the free movement of goods, services, capital and technology, as well as the establishment of commercial enterprises.

Key Components of the CSME:

1. Free movement of goods and services - through measures such as eliminating all barriers to intra-regional movement and harmonising standards to ensure acceptability of goods and services traded; Status: Implemented 2. Right of Establishment - to permit the establishment of CARICOM owned businesses in any Member State without restrictions; Status: Implemented 3. A Common External Tariff - a rate of duty applied by all Members of the Market to a product imported from a country which is not a member of the market; Status: Implemented 4. Free circulation - free movement of goods imported from extra regional sources which would require collection of taxes at first point of entry into the Region and the provision for sharing of collected customs revenue; Status: Not implemented 5. Free movement of Capital - through measures such as eliminating foreign exchange controls, convertibility of currencies (or a common currency) and integrated capital market, such as a regional stock exchange; Status: Not implemented 6. A Common trade policy - agreement among the members on matters related to internal and international trade and a coordinated external trade policy negotiated on a joint basis; Status: Implemented 7. Free movement of labour - through measures such as removing all obstacles to intra-regional movement of skills, labour and travel, harmonizing social services (education, health, etc.), providing for the transfer of social security benefits and establishing common standards and measures for accreditation and equivalency. 8. Harmonisation of Laws: such as the harmonization of company, intellectual property and other laws.

Intellectual Property of Matthew Mahabir, March 16th 2014.

Advantages and Achievements of the CSME:

1. Possibility for increased production and trade of competitive products of better quality and prices in a combined market of over 14 million people. 2. Improved services provided by enterprises and individuals. 3. Creation of more opportunities for investment. 4. Creation of greater opportunity for travel. As of 2009, the CARICOM passport was issued by the 15 member states of CARICOM for their citizens. It can be used both intra-regional and international travel. The CARICOM passport creates awareness that CARICOM nationals are nationals of the Community, as well as a specific country. 5. Creation of more opportunities for nationals to study and work in CARICOM countries of their choice. UWI is a common institution with branches in Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados and Grenada. This allows for a common curriculum to be shared across different locations. Mobile labour also ensures that our regional pool of skills is fully exploited and can move quickly to areas of greatest needs. It also ensures that the common market is free from bias as a result of either very high or very low-priced labour in some areas of the region.

Disadvantages and Challenges of the CSME:

1. It is uncertain whether the intention is to treat all service suppliers equally with respect to the freedom of movement, since the requirements of a supplier who is associated with a commercial enterprise would be very different from the requirements of a small businessperson or itinerant salesperson and the latter category of persons is currently the target of great obstruction within CARICOM. 2. Many of the delays encountered in the implementation of the freedom of movement provisions are related to resource deficiencies and a lack of determination in specific communities and there has been no discussion of how such hurdles can be overcome. 3. The freedom of movement initiative has been pursued without any complementary legislation attempting to harmonise other national policies that will affect free movement. For instance, failure to harmonise certain incentive regimes in individual countries could perpetuate bias and discrimination within the Member States. 4. Throughout the CSME Social Security and related benefits are unequal and therefore this will cause problems as claimants move among the Member States. 5. Community nationals are sometimes discriminated against on the basis of nationality when seeking work in the public sector of a community member 6. Community nationals, who move between the public service in different states, often lose their rank upon the assumption of a similar post in a different territory.

Intellectual Property of Matthew Mahabir, March 16th 2014.

11). Regional Security System (RSS)

The RSS was formed in October 1982 by Barbados, Antigua, Barbuda, Dominica, St. Lucia and St. Vincent and the Grenadines due to the socialist policy, a growing security threat, present in Grenada at that time, under Maurice Bishops regime. The RSS combined with the US to form and design this security system as the US was also uneasy about the socialist structure.

Advantages and Achievements of the RSS:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Troops and forces, coupled with international aid can be easily notified and mobilized. The RSS can aid in natural disaster cleanups and rebuilding programmes. Can be utilized for peaceful settlement of disputes Common agreement on policies concerning drugs, arms trafficking, terrorism. Improves the communication and defense technologies in the region.

Disadvantages and Challenges to the RSS:

1. The capital needed to carry out operations and the advanced technology needed make it an expensive venture for the countries. 2. There is not adequate funding to maintain the quality of the programme. 3. The US involvement is frowned upon in some territories. 4. It is sectionalized as few independent states are involved and not the entire CARICOM body, reducing efficiency and inducing division.

Intellectual Property of Matthew Mahabir, March 16th 2014.

12). Caribbean Development Bank (CDB)

The CBD is a financial institution that assists Caribbean nations in financing social and economic programs in member countries, to help optimize their spending patterns. It was formed in 1969 in Kingston, Jamaica and its current headquarters is in Bridgetown, Barbados.

Advantages and Achievements of the CDB:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Promotes private sector investments. Provides technical assistance to developing islands. Helps fund infrastructural developments in the region for development. Investments in the agricultural and production sector. Seeks to be more mutually advantage than international lending agencies like WB.

Disadvantages and Challenges to the CDB:

1. There is a need for financiers for ample efficiency and productivity of the bank. 2. The imposition of prerequisites and conditions, like any bank, that may stagnate small island countries in dire need of funds. 3. Promotion in private sector investment which may lead to capitalist issues.

Intellectual Property of Matthew Mahabir, March 16th 2014.

13). Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO)

The CTO is made up of government and private sector operatives in the tourism industry across the Caribbean. It is a collective agreement to make tourism into a sustainable industry. It serves as a body of integration because it represents 32 Caribbean nations and secondly it is an agent of development. The CTO has several responsibilities: it conducts negotiations with airlines, cruise ship companies and hotel chains; it collects and disseminates data on the development of the regional industry; the CTO has agents worldwide that promote Caribbean tourism; the CTO advises tourism ministries on new areas for tourism for sustainable development e.g. Eco tourism in Guyana.

Advantages and Achievements of the CTO:

1. It has mobilized governments, ministers, Caribbean leaders, tourism associations, NGOs, economists and environmentalists to convene forums such as tourism conferences where they discuss the tourism complex in the Caribbean. 2. Influences tourism based infrastructure. 3. Has had significant impact on some territories tourism sector by influencing government decisions.

Disadvantages and Challenges of the CTO:

1. There is a high level of FDI in the tourism sector by foreign hotel chains, airlines, accommodations etc. This stagnates the influence the CTO has on these bodies, and may result in a counterproductive venture. 2. The CTOs stance has always been using the natural attractions of the Caribbean, with the degrading environmental conditions due to pollution, manmade destruction etc. this reduces the capacity for tourist opportunities and poses a threat to the CTOs aim. 3. The CTOs efforts are limited to individual governments budgetary allocation for tourism and overall revenue. This is problematic in the socio-economic polarized Caribbean. 4. The CTO acts as a middleman whereby they use local agencies to generate revenue, however, with the increasing prevalence of tourists paying for their trips via foreign agencies is problematic.

Intellectual Property of Matthew Mahabir, March 16th 2014.