Computer Organization and Software Systems

(SS ZG516)
BITS Pilani
K K Birla Goa Campus

Dr. Lucy J. Gudino

Dept. of CS and IS

Text and Reference Books

Prescribed Text Book (S) Stallings William, Computer Organization & Architecture, Pearson Education, 9th Ed., 2013 (T1) A. Silberschatz, Abraham and others, Operating Systems Concepts, Wiley Student Edition, 8th Edition, 2008. (T2) Reference Book (S) J. Hennessy and D. Patterson. Computer Architecture A Quantitative Approach, Morgan Kaufman, 1990. William Stallings, Operating Systems Internals and Design Principles. Prentice Hall of India, 2001.
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Contd
Reference Books from 24x7 C. Madana Kumar Reddy, Operating Systems Made Easy Laxmi Publications, India, 2009 Nirmala Sharma, Computer Architecture Laxmi Publications, India, 2009

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Evaluation Components
Three Evaluation Components
EC1 : Online Quiz (15%) EC2: Mid Semester Test (35%) EC3: Comprehensive Examination (50%)

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BITS Pilani
K K Birla Goa Campus

Lecture 1: Introduction

Source: Most of the Slides are based on original slides of William Stallings

Contents
Computer Components Functions Interconnection Structures

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Definition of a Computer
Device capable of performing computations and making logical decisions
Is a complex system
Is a programmable device Must be able to process data Must be able to store data Must be able to move data

Must be able to control above three functions

Computers process data under the control of sets of instructions called computer programs
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Computer Architecture and

Organization
Architecture is those attributes visible to the programmer
Logical aspects of system as seen by the programmer. Instruction set, instruction formats, data types, number of bits used for data representation, I/O mechanisms, addressing techniques: addressing modes. e.g., Is there a multiply instruction?

Organization is how features are implemented

physical aspects of computer system. Control signals, interfaces, memory technology. e.g. Is there a hardware multiply unit or is it done by repeated addition?
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Computer Architecture and Organization

Why study computer organization and architecture?
Design better programs, including system software such as compilers, operating systems, and device drivers. Optimize program behavior. Evaluate (benchmark) computer system performance. Understand time, space, and price tradeoffs.

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Parts of a Computer System

Computer System

Computer Hardware

Computer Software

System Software

Application Software

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Five components in every computer

Input unit
Obtains information from input devices (keyboard, mouse)

Output unit
Outputs information (to screen, to printer, to control other devices)

Memory unit
Rapid access, low capacity, stores input information

Central processing unit (CPU) ALU+ CU

Performs arithmetic calculations and logic decisions Supervises and coordinates the various components of the computer

Secondary storage unit

Cheap, long-term, high-capacity storage Stores inactive programs
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Contd
CPU Input ALU Output

CU

Memory

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Structure & Function

Computer is a complex system
describe it as a hierarchical system

Structure is the way in which components relate to each other Function is the operation of individual components as part of the structure

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Function
Functions of Computer:
Data processing Data storage Data movement Control

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Operations : Data movement

Important Terms : I/O Devices or peripherals Data communications

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Operations: Storage

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Operation :Processing from/to storage

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Operation: Processing from storage to I/O

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Structure - Top Level

Peripherals COMPUTER

Central Processing Unit

Computer

Main Memory

Systems Interconnection

Input/ Output Communication lines

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Structure - Top Level

CPU

ALU Registers

CPU

Internal CPU Interconnection (Bus)

Control unit

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Structure - Top Level

CONTROL UNIT

Sequencing logic

Control unit

Control unit registers and decoders

Control memory

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Von Neumann Architecture and Harvard Architecture

Von Neumann Architecture
Stored program concept

Three key concepts:

Data and instructions are stored in a single read write memory The contents of this memory are addressable by location, without regard to the type of data contained there Execution occurs in a sequential fashion ( unless explicitly modified) from one instruction to the next
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Contd
Stored-program computers have the following characteristics:
Three hardware systems: A central processing unit (CPU) A main memory system An I/O system The capacity to carry out sequential instruction processing. A single path between the CPU and main memory. This single path is known as the von Neumann bottleneck.

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Non-von Neumann Models

Conventional stored-program computers have undergone many incremental improvements over the years. These improvements include adding specialized buses, floating-point units, and cache memories, to name only a few. But enormous improvements in computational power require departure from the classic von Neumann architecture. Adding processors is one approach.

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Harvard Architecture
Uses separate memory for data and program Example: MIPS processor

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What is a program?
A sequence of steps For each step, an arithmetic or logical or data movement operation is done For each operation, a different set of control signals is needed Hardwired program: process of connecting various components in the desired configuration as a form of programming
Data Sequence of arithmetic and Logic functions Results

(a) Programming in Hardware

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Contd
Software program: Uses general purpose configuration of arithmetic and logic functions and instruction interpreter which decodes the instruction codes and generates control signals that drives general purpose hardware.
Instruction Codes

Instruction Interpreter
Control Signals General Purpose Arithmetic and Logic functions

Data

Results

(b) Programming in software

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Contd
Hardwired systems are fast but inflexible Using software program general purpose hardware can do different tasks, given correct control signals Instead of re-wiring, supply a new set of control signals

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Computer Components: Top Level View

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Instruction Cycle
Two steps:
Fetch Execute

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Fetch Cycle
Program Counter (PC) holds address of next instruction to fetch Processor fetches instruction from memory location pointed to by PC Increment PC
Unless told otherwise

Instruction loaded into Instruction Register (IR) Processor interprets instruction and performs required actions
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Execute Cycle
Processor-memory
data transfer between CPU and main memory

Processor-I/O
Data transfer between CPU and I/O module

Data processing
Some arithmetic or logical operation on data

Control
Alteration of sequence of operations e.g. jump

Combination of above
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Hypothetical Machine
0 Opcode 3 4 Address 15

Fig: Instruction Format

0 1 Magnitude 15

Fig: Integer Format

With 4 bits of opcode we can represent 16 different instructions With 12 bits address we can address 212 = 4096 (4K) memory locations

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Hypothetical Machine
Program Counter (PC) = Address of instruction
Instruction Register (IR) = Instruction being executed Accumulator (AC) = Temporary storage

Fig: Internal CPU register

0001 = Load AC from memory

0010 = Store AC to memory 0101 = Add to AC from memory

Fig: Partial list of opcodes

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Program statement
Write a program to add the contents of the memory word at address 940H to the contents of the memory word at address 941H and store the result in the location 941H

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Program statement
Write a program to add the contents of the memory word at address 940H to the contents of the memory word at address 941H and store the result in the location 941H need 3 instructions:
Load AC from memory address 940H opcode is 0001 1H

Instruction : 1940H
Add to AC from memory address 941H opcode is 0101 5H

Instruction : 5941H
Store AC to memory address 941H opcode is 0010 2H

Instruction : 2941H

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Example of Program Execution

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Instruction Cycle State Diagram

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Interrupts
Mechanism by which other modules (e.g. I/O) may interrupt normal sequence of processing Program
e.g. overflow, division by zero

Timer
Generated by internal processor timer Used in pre-emptive multi-tasking

I/O
from I/O controller

Hardware failure
e.g. memory parity error
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Program Flow Control

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Interrupt Cycle
Added to instruction cycle Processor checks for interrupt
Indicated by an interrupt signal

If no interrupt, fetch next instruction If interrupt pending:

Suspend execution of current program Save context Set PC to start address of interrupt handler routine Process interrupt Restore context and continue interrupted program
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Transfer of Control via Interrupts

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Instruction Cycle with Interrupts

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Program Timing Short I/O Wait

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Program Timing : Long I/O Wait

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Instruction Cycle (with Interrupts) State Diagram

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Multiple Interrupts
Disable interrupts
Processor will ignore further interrupts whilst processing one interrupt Interrupts remain pending and are checked after first interrupt has been processed Interrupts handled in sequence as they occur

Define priorities
Low priority interrupts can be interrupted by higher priority interrupts When higher priority interrupt has been processed, processor returns to previous interrupt
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Multiple Interrupts - Sequential

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Multiple Interrupts Nested

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Time Sequence of Multiple Interrupts

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