I

Int r oduc t ion

II
Over view of pulp and paper
manuf ac t ur ing pr oc esses
III
Envir onment al and ec onomic c ont ext
f or t he r ec ommendat ions
IV
Rec ommendat ions f or pur c hasing paper made
w it h envir onment ally pr ef er able pr oc esses
V
Implement at ion opt ions
VI
Answ er s t o f r equent ly asked quest ions
5
PULP AND PAPER
M A N U F A C T U R I N G
I. INTRODUCTION
Thischapter presents the Paper Task Fo rc esre c o m m e n d a t i o n s
and implementation options for buying paper productsmade
with environmentally preferable manufacturing processes. It
also provides a summary of the supporting rationale for the
recommendations and an ove rv i ew of pulp and paper manu-
facturing pro c e sse s.
How Is Pul p and Paper Manuf ac t ur i ng
Rel evant t o Pur c has er s?
Pulp and paper manufacturing accountsfor the vast majority of
the environmental impactsof the paper lifecycle. Themanufac-
turing processthat transformswood from treesinto thin, uniform
paper products re q u i res the intensive useof wood, energy and
chemicals. Thisprocessalso consumesthousandsof gallonsof a
finitere so u rce, clean water, to make each ton of paper. Po l l u t i o n
literally re p resentsawasteof thesere so u rces, in theform of air
emissions, waterborne wastes (effluent), solid waste and waste
heat. Among primary manufacturing industries, for example,
paper manufacturing isthe fourth-largest user of energy and the
largest generator of wastes, measured by we i g h t .
1
The paper industry and the nati ons envi ronmental laws
h a ve donemuch to reducethe environmental impacts of pulp
and paper manufact uri ng over t he l ast 25 years. In t hi s
re so u rc e - i n t e n si ve industry, howe ve r, environmental issueswill
always be an intrinsic part of manufacturing, especially since
a w a renessof these impacts has increased among communities
near mills and customers alike. Fo rt u n a t e l y, there are many
waysto reduce these impacts.
The concept of pollution preven t i o nformsthe foundation of
the Paper Task Fo rc es recommendations on pulp and paper
manufacturing. Po l l u t i o n - p re vention approachesuse re so u rc e s
m o re efficientl y and thus reduce pollution at the source as
opposed to e n d - o f - t h e - p i p e p o l l u t i o n - co n t ro l a p p ro a c h e s.
Asthischapter will show, it isin paper users interest to send
c l e a r, long-term signalsof their pre f e rencefor paper productsmade
using pollution-pre vention approaches. Over thelast two ye a r s
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
PUL P AND PAPER
M A N U F A C T U R I N G
Th i s c h a p t e r a n d t h e P a p e r Ta s k Fo r c e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o n p u l p
a n d p a p e r m a n u f a c t u r i n g a r e i n t e n d e d t o :
En h a n c e t h e a w a r e n e s s a n d k n o w l e d g e o f p u r c h a s e r s a n d u s e r s
o f p a p e r , b y p r o v i d i n g c l e a r i n f o r m a t i o n o n s e v e r a l p u l p a n d p a p e r
m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t a l p e r f o r m a n c e .
Fo r m u l a t e a n u m b e r o f s i m p l e a c t i o n s t h a t p u r c h a s e r s c a n t a k e
t o p u r c h a s e p a p e r m a d e w i t h e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y p r e f e r a b l e m a n u f a c -
t u r i n g p r o c e s s e s .
P r o v i d e s p e c i f i c g u i d a n c e t h a t p u r c h a s e r s c a n u s e t o i n c o r p o -
r a t e a n a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l p e r f o r m a n c e o f p u l p a n d
p a p e r m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s e s a s a n e x p l i c i t p u r c h a s i n g c r i t e -
r i o n , a l o n g w i t h m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l c r i t e r i a s u c h a s a v a i l a b i l i t y, c o s t
a n d p r o d u c t p e r f o r m a n c e .
170
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
paper manufacturers have built up cash re so u rcesasa result of
recent high paper pricesand arepreparing for their next round of
i n vestments. The time isright for purchasersto usethe market to
send asignal about their long-term environmental pre f e re n c e s.
Ov er vi ew of t he Chapt er
The presentation in thischapter buildsin sequence through six
major sections:
An overview of thepulp and paper manufacturingprocess. For
readersnot familiar with pulp and paper manufacturing, this
section definesthebasic conceptsand technical termsthat are
used in the recommendations. The section beginsby describ-
ing the raw materialsand other inputsused in pulp and paper
manufacturing, such as wood, water, chemicals and energy.
The section next explainshow these inputsare transformed
into productsin the pulp and paper manufacturing process.
Since manufacturing is not 100% efficient, wastes are also
generated in manufacturing. Ap p roachesto reducing or man-
aging these wastes through pollution prevention and pollu-
tion control are described in the last partsof thissection.
All major virgin and re c ycled-fiber pulping and paper
manufacturi ng technol ogi es used in No rt h Ameri ca are
described in thissection. Bleached kraft pulp, which isused
to makewhite paper products, isdescribed in somewhat more
detail than other technologies. Bleached kraft pulp makesup
approximately 46% of virgin pulp production in the United
States. It isused in the highest-value paper productsand raises
some unique environmental issuesascompared to other pulp
manufacturing technologies.
The environmental and economiccontext for therecommenda-
tions. Thissection providesthe environmental and economic
rationale for using pollution-pre vention approachesin manu-
facturing. We also explain how pre f e rencesexpressed by paper
users influence the strategy and timing of paper suppliers
investmentsin manufacturing.
The reco mmen d a t i o n s, with additional environmental and
economic rationale and discussion of the availability of differ-
ent typesof paper products. The eight recommendationsfall
into two categories:
Minimum-impact mills thegoal of which isto minimizenat-
ural re so u rce consumption (wood, water, energy) and mini-
m i ze thequantity and maximizethequality of releasesto air,
water and land thro u g h :
a. a vision and commitment to theminimum-impact mill
b. an environmental management system
c. manufacturing technologies
Product reformulation by changing thetypes of pulps used
in paper products
Implementation options, which provide paper purchaserswith
several techniquesfor applying the descriptive information in
the recommendationsto their purchasing decisions.
Answersto frequentlyasked questionsabout environmental and
economic issuesin pulp and paper manufacturing.
Appendicesthat contain additional data and analysis in sup-
port of the Task Forcesrecommendationsand presentations
in the chapter.
II. OVERVIEW OF PULP AND PAPER
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
While purchasers are familiar with the specifications and per-
formance requirements of the papers they buy, they are often
lessfamiliar with how paper ismade. Thisoverview providesa
brief description of the papermaking process and defines key
termsthat are used in the recommendations.
The papermaking processconsists of three basic steps that
transform cellulose fibers in wood, recovered waste paper and
other plantsinto paper:
First, the raw material ispulped to produce usable fibers
Second, in the case of many white paper products, the pulp is
bleached or brightened
Third, the pulp ismade into paper
The basic steps of the pulp and papermaking process are
illustrated in Figure 1.
Paper hasalwaysbeen made from cellulose, an abundant nat-
ural fiber obtained from plants. In early papermaking pro c e sse s,
171
the plant containing the fiber was cut into small pieces and
mashed in water to isolate the fibers. The resulting slurry was
then poured into a wire mesh mold; excess water was pressed
out and the sheet of paper was dried. Although these funda-
mental stepsremain at the essence of papermaking operations,
the scale and complexity of pulping and papermaking processes
h a vechanged dramatically in the last century. The vast majority
of paper producers now use wood as the source of cel lulose
fiber, which requires the additional application of energy and
chemicals in the pulping stage to obtain usable fiber. So m e
paper productsalso use coatings, fillersand other additivesto
meet specific performance re q u i rements, such as a smooth
printing surface.
Raw Mat er i al s and Ot her Input s
The papermaking processrequiresfour major inputs: a source
of fiber, chemicals, energy and water.
1. F i b e r S o u r c e s
Wood is a composite material consisting of flexible cellulose
fibers bonded together and made rigid by a complex organic
g l u e called lignin. Slightly lessthan half of the wood in the tre e
is actually made up of the cellulose fibers that are desired for
making paper. The remainder of the tree islignin, wood sugars
and other compounds. Separating the wood fibers from the
lignin isthe task of chemical pulping processes, described below.
Softwood treescontain more lignin than hardwoods.
2
Soft-
wood fibersalso are longer and coarser than hardwood fibers.
Softwood fibersgive paper itsstrength to withstand stretching
and tearing, while hardwood fibersprovide a smooth surface.
3
The greater amount of lignin present in softwoodsmeansthat
more chemicalsand energy must be applied to separate lignin
from fiber in the kraft pulping process, asdescribed below.
A wide array of non-wood plantsalso serve asa raw material
for paper, especially in countries that lack forests. No n - w o o d
fiberscan be grouped into annual crops, such asflax, kenaf and
hemp, and agricultural residues, such asrye, and wheat straw,
and fiber from sugar cane (bagasse). Annual crops are often
g rown specifically for paper production, whi le agricultural
residuesare by-productsof cropsgrown for other uses.
Re c ove red fiber comesfrom used paper itemsobtained fro m
re c ycling collection programs (see Chapter 3). Pa p e r - re c yc l i n g
p rofessionalsre c o g n i zenumerousgradesand sub-gradesof re c ov-
e red paper, such asold newspapers, old corrugated containersand
so rted office paper.
4
Many of thepro p e rtiesof specific gradesof
re c ove red paper that makethem desirableor undesirable in spe-
cific re c ycled paper productsare determined by the processused
in manufacturing the virgin pulp and paper when it was first
made. For example, thestrong brown fibersof acorrugated box
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
172
Fi gur e 1
a re well suited to beused again in thesameproduct, but areve ry
unlikely to be used in newspapersor magazines.
The pro p e rties of re c ove red paper used in re c yc l i n g - b a se d
manufacturing processesare also determined by the presence of
contaminantsadded to the paper or picked up in the separation
of recovered paper from solid waste or in the recycling collec-
tion process. These di fferent contaminants can incl ude, for
example, different typesof ink, wax and clay coatings, non-fiber
filler materials used in the paper, adhesives, tape, staples and
piecesof plastic, metal and dirt.
2 . C h e m i c a l s
Manufacturing pulp and paper from wood isa chemical-inten-
sive process. Kraft and sulfite pulping, described in more detail
below, cook wood chipsin a chemical solution to dissolve the
lignin that bindsthe fiberstogether.
5
The cleaning and process-
ing of recovered paper fiber usesa solution of caustic soda
6
to
separate the fibers, as do some mechanical pulping pro c e sse s.
Mills also use combinati ons of chlorine- and ox y g e n - b a se d
chemicalsto bleach or brighten the pulp. Numerouscoatings,
fillers and other additives are added to the pulp during the
papermaking processto facilitate manufacturing and meet the
functional requirementsof different typesof paper.
7
3 . En e r g y
Pulp and paper millsuse a combination of electricity and steam
throughout the papermaking process. Millsconsume about 31
million Btusof energy to produce aton of paper or paperboard .
To put thisenergy consumption in perspective, occupantsof an
average suburban U.S. home consume thismuch energy in two
months.
8
The source of this energy dependson the type of pulping
process. Chemical pulping processeshave special recovery sys-
temsthat allow them to convert wood waste from the pulping
p rocessinto electricity and steam. Mechanical pulping pro c e sse s
(described below) that conve rt more of thewood into pulp have
lesswood waste to burn, and there f o remust purchase electricity
or fossil fuelsto meet their energy needs.
The purchased energy used by pulp and paper mills can
come from a variety of sources, such as hyd roelectric powe r,
natural gas, coal or oil. The mill itself may have systemsfor gen-
erating energy from all of these sources, or may purc h a se
electricity from utilities.
4 . Wa t e r
Water is the basic processmedium of pulp and paper
manufacturing; it carries the fibers through each
manufacturing step and chemical treatment, and
separatesspent pulping chemicalsand the com-
plex mixture of organic residuesfrom the pulp.
Papermaki ng processes use si gni f i cant
amountsof water. Average water use ranges
f rom about 11,600 to 22,000 gallons per
ton of product depending on the processes
used and the productsmade at the mill.
9
Pul p and Paper Manuf ac t ur i ng
Pulp manufacturing consistsof one or two basic steps,
depending on whether the final product re q u i res white
p u l p. T h e re are two general classesof processes. In mech a n-
ical pulping, mechanical energy isused to physically separate
the fibersfrom the wood. In chemical pulping, a combination of
chemicals, heat and pre ssu re breaks down the lignin in the
T Y P EO FP U L P T H O U S A N D S OF P E R C E N TAGE OF
S H O RT TO N S TOTAL PRODUCTI ON
Kraft pulp total 54,150 79%
bleached and semi- bleached 31,287 46%
hardwood 16,526 24%
softwood 14,761 22%
unbleached 22,863 34%
Papergrade sulfite 1,423 2%
Semichemical 4,408 6%
Mechanical pulp total 7,168 11%
stone and refiner groundwood 3,281 5%
thermomechanical 3,887 6%
Dissolving and special alpha 1,227 2%
Total, all grades 68,126
Source: Preliminary capacity estimates for 1995. American Forest & Paper Association, 1995 Statistics, Paperboard and Wood Pulp, Sept., 1995, p. 35.
Tabl e 1
U n i t e d S t a t e s C a p a c i t y t o P r o d u c e Wo o d P u l p
( Ex c l u d i n g C o n s t r u c t i o n G r a d e s )
173
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
wood so that it can be washed away from the cellulose
fibers. For white paper products, the pulp undergoes
additional chemical treatment, colloquially known as
bl eachi ng, t o re m ove addi ti onal l i gni n and/ or
brighten the pulp. The processi ng of re c ove re d
(used) paper first separates the paper fibers from
each other and then re m ovescontaminants float-
ing in the pulp slurry.
Table 1 illustrates the estimated pro d u c t i o n
capaci ty of different types of virgin pul p
manuf act uri ng processes in t he Un i t e d
Statesin 1995. Chemical pulp produced by the
kraft process accounts for 79% of total produc-
tion capacity, and bleached and semi-bleached pulp
accountsfor 46% of total production capacity.
1. M e c h a n i c a l P u l p P r o d u c t i o n
T h e re are several types of mechanical pulping pro c e sse s.
In stonegro u n d w o o d p rocesses, wood is pressed against a
grindstone in the presence of water and the fibersare sepa-
rated from the wood, hence the term g ro u n d w o o d pulp.
Pressu r i zed gro u n d w o o d p rocesses are simil ar, but operate at
higher pre ssu re to produce a stronger pulp. In t h ermo mech a n i-
cal pulping(TMP), steam is applied to wood chips, which are
then pressed between two large, rotating disks, known as ref i n-
er s. As shown in Fi g u re 2, these steps physically separate the
wood into fibers. These mechanical pulping methodstypically
c o n ve rt 90-95% of the wood used in the process into pulp.
( Fi g u re 2 and other figuresdescribing pulp and paper manu-
facturing processes are si mplified in order to convey major
points. Mo rerealistic and complex diagrams can be found in
technical re f e rence books.
10
)
The ch emi t h ermomechanical pulping(CTMP) p rocessexposes
wood chipsto steam and chemicalsbefore separating the fibers.
The resulting pulps are stronger than other mechanical pulps
and re q u i re less electrical energy to produce. CTMP can be
bleached to produce bleached chemithermomechanical pulps
(BCTMP) with yieldsof 87-90%.
11
Mechanical pulps are also known ash i gh - yi el dpulpsbecause
they conve rt almost all of the wood used in the process to
p a p e r. T h e re f o re, ascompared to chemical pulping pro c e sse s,
f ewer trees are re q u i red to produce a ton of pulp. Be c a u se
mechanical processes use most of the tree, the pulps contain
lignin, which may causethe paper to ye l l ow when exposed to
sunl ight. Thisis what happenswhen a newspaper is left out-
doorsfor a few days. The naturally low lignin content of cer-
tain hardwood speciesallowsthe production of high-brightness
mechanical pulps, such ashardwood BCTMP, and reduces this
change in brightness and color.
1 2
The short, sti ff fibers produced in mechani cal pulpi ng
p rocessesprovide a smooth printing surfaceand greater opac-
i t y, as compared to chemical pulps. They also are comparative l y
i n e x p e n si ve to produce, but have about half the strength of
kraft pulps. Mechanical pulps are there f o re generally unsuit-
able for applications where strength isimportant, which typi-
cal l y means packagi ng. Mechani cal pul ps are used i n
n ewsprint, magazines and other applications that re q u i re opac-
ity at low basis weight and aresometimes blended with soft-
wood kraft pulp in these uses.
174
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
Fi gur e 2
P r o d u c t i o n o f M e c h a n i c a l P u l p
2 . C h e m i c a l P u l p P r o d u c t i o n
Two chemical pulping processes, kraft and sulfitepulping, isolate
cellulosefibersby dissolving thelignin in the wood. Almost all the
chemical pulp in theUnited Statesisproduced by the kraft process.
In the kraft process, asillustrated in Fi g u re 3, wood chipsare
cooked with chemicalsand heat in a large vessel called a d i gest er.
Once the lignin has been dissolved and the wood chips have
been conve rted to pulp, thepulp iswashed to separate it fro m
theblack liquor, a mix of spent pulping chemicals, degraded
lignin by - p roductsand extractive compounds. The unbleached
kraft pulp at thispoint isdark brown. Itslong, strong fibersare
used in gro c e ry bagsand corrugated shipping containers. Ab o u t
95% of the lignin isre m oved from thewood fibersin the pulp-
ing process. To make whitepaper, the unbleached kraft pulp
must undergo additional processing to re m ove the re m a i n i n g
lignin and brighten the pulp.
The chemical re c ove ry process i s an i ntegral part of the
kraft pulping process. In this process, water is re m oved fro m
the black liquor in a series of evaporators. The concentrated
black liquor isthen sent to a ve ry large, special furnace call ed
the recovery boiler. The organic wood residue i n the black
liquor has a significant energy content and isburned near the
top of the re c ove ry boiler to produce steam for mill opera-
tions. At the base of the re c ove ry boiler, the used pul ping
chemicalsaccumulate in a molten, lava-like smelt. After fur-
ther chemi cal treatment and processi ng at the mi ll , these
chemicals are reused in the pulping process. T h rough thi s
internal re c ycli ng process, most chemical re c ove ry systems
re c over about 99% of the pulpi ng chemi cals.
1 3
Mo re ove r,
modern kraft pulp mills are generally sel f-sufficient in their
use of energy due to their ability to burn wood by - p ro d u c t s.
The water from the evaporators isusually clean enough to be
used in other partsof the mill.
The sulfite process, an older process, accountsfor lessthan
2% of U.S. pulp production. Sulfite millsuse different chemi-
calsto remove the lignin from the wood fibers. First, sulfurous
acid (H
2
SO
3
) chemically modifies the lignin;
1 4
then exposure
to alkali
15
makesthe lignin soluble in water. The sulfite process
producesdifferent typesof lignin by-productsthan doesthe
Fi gur e 3
B l e a c h e d K r a f t P u l p P r o d u c t i o n : P u l p i n g
175
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
kraft process. Some sulfite mills sell these lignin by - p ro d u c t s
rather than re c over thechemicals. Thesulfite processproducesa
weaker pulp than the kraft process and can use wood fro m
fewer tree species.
3 . R e c o v e r e d Fi b e r P u l p i n g a n d C l e a n i n g
Fi g u re 4 p rovides a simplified diagram of a re c ove red paper
cleaning and processing system. Thefirst step in all conve n t i o n a l
re c ycling-based pulping operationsisto separatethe fibersin the
paper sheet from each other. Thisisdone in ah yd ra p u l p er, a large
vessel filled with re c ove red paper and water with a rotor at the
bottom, like a giant blender. Ink, dirt, plastic and other contam-
inantsare also detached from thepaper fibersin thisstep. Su b-
sequently the mill applies a variety of mechanical pro c e ssi n g
stepsto separate the fibers from thecontaminantsin the pulp
sl u r ry. Achieving a near-complete re m oval of contaminants is
most critical for d ei n k i n gsystemsused to make pulp for printing
and writing paper, tissueand new sp r i n t .
1 6
Mechanical separation equipment includes coarse and fine
screens, centrifugal cleaners, and dispersion or kneading units
that break apart ink particles. Deinking processes use special
systemsaided by soapsor surfactantsto wash or float ink and
other particlesaway from the fiber. A minority of deinking sys-
temsalso use chemicals that cause ink particlesfrom photocopy
machines and laser-jet computer printers to agglomerate into
clumpsso they can be screened out.
4 . B l e a c h i n g
a. Mechanical Pulps
For most typesof paper produced by the groundwood and T M P
p rocesses, non-chlorine-based chemicals, such ashyd rogen per-
oxide, brighten thepulp to producepulpsof 60-70 GE bright-
ness. Ha rdwood BCTMP pulpscan achieve levelsof 85-87 GE
brightness. 90 GE brightness is considered a high-brightness
p u l p. Asa point of comparison, newsprint is60-65 GE bright-
ness, and standard photocopy paper gradesare 83-86 brightness.
Pulp isproduced at high brightnesslevels, because1-2 pointsof
brightnessarelost in the papermaking process. See the Ex p l a n a-
tion of Key Termsand Ab b reviationsfor an explanation of how
brightnessismeasured. For further discussion, see the Answe r s
to Frequently Asked Questionsat the end of thischapter.
176
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
Fi gur e 4
R e c o v e r e d F i b e r D e i n k i n g P r o c e s s
b. Kraft Pulps
In the bleachi ng process for chemical pulps, more selective
chemi cal s re m ove t he remai ni ng l i gni n i n the pul p and
bri ghten the brown, unbleached pulp to a white pulp. As
sh own in Fi g u re 5, millsgenerally employ three to five bleach-
ing stagesand wash the pulp between each stage to dissolve the
degraded lignin and separate it from the fibers. The first two
bleaching stages generally re m ove the remaining lignin whil e
the final stages brighten the pulp.
Millshave traditionally used elemental chlorinewith a small
amount of chlorine dioxide, which are strong oxidants, to bre a k
d own the remaining lignin in the unbleached kraft pulp. In
response to thediscove ry of dioxin dow n st ream from pulp mills
in 1985, most bleached pulp millshave reduced, and some have
eliminated, elemental chlorine from the bleaching process, usu-
ally by substituting chlorinedioxide. Bleaching processes that
substitute chlorinedioxidefor all of theelemental chlorine in the
bleaching processarecalled elemental chlorine-free(ECF) pro cesses.
Lignin isa complex organic compound that must bechemi-
cally broken down to separate the fibers. Degrading lignin using
chlorine and chlorine dioxide createshundredsof different types
of chlorinated and non-chlorinated organic compounds. In the
second stage of thebleaching sequence, following the application
of chlorine dioxide, thepulp isexposed to asolution of caustic
(sodium hyd roxide) to dissolve thedegraded lignin in water so
that it can be washed out of the pulp. The degraded lignin by -
p roductsare a major source of organic waste in the effluent fro m
the pulp mill. These first two bleaching stagesaccount for 85-
90% of the color and organic material in the effluent from the
bleach plant.
1 7
In the final bleaching stages, chlorine dioxide or
h yd rogen peroxide arecurrently used to brighten the pulp.
c. SulfitePulps
The unbleached pulp manufactured in the sulfite process is a
c reamy beige color, instead of the dark brown of unbleached
kraft pulp. Thismeansthat sulfite pulpscan be bleached to a
high brightness without the use of chlorine compounds. T h e
handful of sulfite paper mills operating in the United St a t e s
h a ve t radi ti onal l y used el emental chl ori ne and sodi um
hypochlorite asbleaching agents. These millsare now shifting
to totallychlorine-free(TC F ) bleaching processesthat use hyd ro -
177
Fi gur e 5
B l e a c h e d K r a f t P u l p P r o d u c t i o n : B l e a c h i n g
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
gen peroxi de i n order to compl y with regulati ons and
reduce their generation of chloroform, dioxinsand other
chlorinated organic compounds.
d. Recovered Fiber Pulps
At least 63% of recovered fiber pulpsconsumed by
paper millsin the United Statesare used in appli-
cations that do not re q u i re them to be bright-
ened, such ascontainerboard or 100% recycled
p a p e r b o a rd packaging.
1 8
Deinked pulps used
in newsprint, tissue and printing and writing
papers re q u i re less brightening than virgin
bl eached kraft pul ps because they have
already been processed (bleached) once.
In the past, some deinking mills have used ele-
mental chlorine, sodium hypochloriteor chlorine
d i oxide to strip dyesfrom used colored paper and to
brighten thepulp. Thecurrent stateof theart in deink-
ing isTCF pulp brightening,
1 9
which isused in the large
majority of deinking facilitiesnow operating in the Un i t e d
St a t e s.
2 0
Like mechanical pulp mills, deinking mills that
p rocess old newspapers and magazines brighten these pulps
using hyd rogen peroxide and other non-chlorine compounds.
5 . P a p e r m a k i n g
Figure 6 illustratesthe stepsin the papermaking process. Asit
enters the papermaking process, the pulp is diluted to about
99% water and 1% fiber. On the paper machine, the pulp is
first sprayed onto a fast-moving, continuous mesh screen. A
fiber mat is formed as gravity and vacuum pumps drain the
water away from the pulp. The fiber mat passesthrough a series
of rollersin the presssection where more water issqueezed out,
f o l l owed by a series of steam-heated cylinders that eva p o r a t e
most of the remaining water. As water is re m oved, chemical
bonds form between the fi bers, creating the paper sheet.
Depending on the grade of paper being made, such machines
can produce a roll of paper up to 30 feet wide and asfast as50
milesper hour. There are many variationson thisbasic type of
papermaking technology.
Rel eases t o t he Env i r onment
No manufacturing processconve rtsall of itsinputsinto final
p roducts. T h e re isalwayssome waste. Thewastefrom pulp and
paper manufacturing includesreleasesto air, land and water, as
well as waste heat. In 1991, thepulp and paper industry dis-
charged 2.25 billion tonsof waste to the enviro n m e n t .
2 1
T h i s
waste included about 2.5 million tons of air emissions fro m
e n e r g y - related and processsourc e s
2 2
and about 13.5 million tons
of solid waste
2 3
, leaving 2.23 billion tons of wastew a t e r. T h u s
over 99% of thewaste, measured by weight, waswastew a t e r.
A number of measuresprovide information about the con-
sumption of natural resourcesand releasesto the environment.
Definitionsof some of the indicatorsdiscussed throughout the
chapter follow:
Measuresof Natural ResourceConsumption
Pulp yield measuresthe amount of wood consumed to pro-
duce a ton of pulp. Pulping processeswith lower yieldscon-
sume more wood to produce a ton of pulp. The unit of
measure isa percentage.
Fresh water use m e a su res the amount of fresh water con-
sumed during the production of a ton of final product. The
unit of measure isgallonsper ton of final product.
178
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
Fi gur e 6
P a p e r M a c h i n e
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
Total energy consumption measures the energy demand of
the process equipment to produce a ton of pulp or paper.
Instal lation of energy-saving technologies and identifying
p rocess modifications that may save energy will reduce the
total energy consumption. The unit of measure ismillionsof
Btusper ton of final product.
Pu rchased energy consumption m e a su resthe amount of pur-
chased electricity and fuel that millsuse to run theequipment
and to generate processsteam. Cogeneration and more effi-
cient combustion of lignin and other wood waste decreases
the purchased energy consumption of the mill. The unit of
measure ismillionsof Btusper ton of final product.
Measuresof Releasesto Air
Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) resultsfrom the complete combustion
of the carbon in organic materials. Combustion of biomass
(wood waste) and fossil fuelsgeneratescarbon dioxide. Car-
bon dioxide isa greenhouse gasthat isassociated with global
climate change.
24
The unit of measure is pounds per ton of
final product.
Chloroform, a hazardousair pollutant, isclassified asa prob-
able human carcinogen. The unit of measure is pounds per
air-dried ton of final product.
Ha z a rdous air pollutants (HAPs ) a re a group of 189 sub-
stances identified in the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments
because of their toxicity. The unit of measure ispoundsper
ton of final product.
Pa rt i c u l a t e s a re smal l particles that are dispersed into the
a t m o sp h e re during combustion. The ash content of a fuel
determi nes the parti culate generation upon combustion.
Kraft re c ove ry boi lers generate parti culate emissi ons of
sodium sulfate and sodium carbonate. The unit of measure is
poundsper ton of final product.
Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides emissionsresult from the
burning of fuel in boilers and serveasa measure of the energy
efficiency of the mill and of the control devices that mills
have installed to reduce these emissions. The unit of measure
ispoundsper ton of final product.
Total reduced sulfur compounds (TRS) cause the unique
kraft mill odor. Reducing the release of these compoundscan
improve the quality of life in the local community. The unit
of measure ispoundsper ton of final product.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) a re a broad class of
organic gases, such avapors from solvent and gasoline. T h e
c o n t rol of VOC emissions is important because these com-
poundsreact with nitrogen oxides(NO
X
) to form ozonein the
a t m o sp h e re, the major component of photochemical smog.
2 5
Theunit of measureispoundsper ton of final pro d u c t .
Measuresof Releasesto Water
Adsorbable organic halogens (AOX ) m e a su resthequantity of
chlorinated organic compounds in mill effluent and is an
indirect indicator of the quantity of elemental chlorine pre-
sent in the bl each plant and the amount of lignin in the
unbleached pulp before it enters the bleach plant. Be c a u se
research to date has not linked AOX with specific environ-
mental impacts, the Paper Task Force recommendsthat AOX
be used asa measure of a millsprocess. The unit of measure
iskilogramsper metric ton of air-dried pulp.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) m e a su resthe amount of
oxygen that microorganismsconsume to degrade the organic
material in the effluent. Discharging effluent with high levels
of BOD can result in the reduction of dissolved oxygen in
m i l l s receiving waters, which may adversely affect fish and
other organisms. The unit of measure isusually kilogramsper
metric ton of final product.
Bleach plant effluent flow m e a su resthe quantity of bleach
plant filtratesthat the mill cannot recirculate to the chemical
re c ove ry system. This indicator provides direct information
about a millsposition on theminimum-impact mill technol-
ogy pathway. For example, millsthat recirculate the filtrates
from the first bleaching and extraction stageshave about 70-
90% lessbleach plant effluent than do millswith traditional
bleaching processes. The unit of measure isgallonsper ton of
air-dried pulp.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) measures the amount of
oxidizable organic matter in the mills effluent. It providesa
measure of the performance of the spill prevention and con-
t rol programs as well as the quantity of organic waste dis-
charged from t he bl each pl ant. The uni t of measure i s
179
kilogramsper metric ton of air-dried pulp.
Color m e a su res the amount of light that can penetrate the
effluent. In certain situations, color can adversely affect the
growth of algae and plantsin mills receiving waters. It also
provides information about the quantity of degraded lignin
by-productsin the effluent because these substancestend to
behighly colored. Along with odor, thedark effluent isone of
theobviousattributesof kraft pulp mills. The unit of measure
is either color units per metric ton of final product or kilo-
gramsper metric ton of final product.
Dioxins are a group of persistent, toxic substances, including
furans, that are produced in trace amountswhen unbleached
pulp isexposed to elemental chlorine. Theunit of measurefor
bleach plant filtratesispicogramsof dioxin per liter of water
(partsper quadrillion).
Effluent flow m e a su res the amount of water that is tre a t e d
and discharged to a mills receiving waters. It is an indire c t
measure of fresh water consumption. The unit of measure is
gallonsper ton of final product.
Total suspended solids (TSS) measure the amount of bark,
wood fiber, dirt, grit and other debristhat may be present in
mill effluent. TSScan cause a range of effectsfrom increasing
thewater turbidity to physically covering and smothering sta-
tionery or immobile bottom-dwelling plantsand animalsin
freshwater, estuarine or marine ecosystems. The unit of mea-
sure iskilogramsper air-dried metric ton of final product.
1. R e l e a s e s t o A i r
Pulp and paper millsgenerate air emissionsfrom energy-related
and processsources. En e r g y - related air emissionsresult from the
combustion of wood and fossil fuelsand include sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen oxides, particulatesand carbon dioxide. The quantity
of these emissionsdependson the mix of fuelsused to generate
the energy at the mil l. Based on the fuel mi x of the U.S.
national grid, millsthat purchase electricity will have relatively
high emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, part i c u l a t e s
and carbon dioxide from fossil fuels. Thefuel mix for individual
mills, however, variesby region. Millsin the Pacific Northwest,
for example, might use hyd ro p ower and thus have ve ry low
energy-related air emissions.
26
Millsusing electricity generated
f rom natural gashavelower energy-related emissionsthan those
using electricity generated from oil or coal.
Millsalso releaseair pollutantsfrom processsources, including
the pulping, bleaching and, at chemical pulp mills, chemical
re c ove ry systems. Ha z a rdous air pollutants(HAPs) and vo l a t i l e
organic compounds(VOCs) account for most of the air emissions
f rom processsources. Kraft pulp millsalso releasetotal re d u c e d
sulfur compounds(TRS), the source of theunique kraft mill odor.
2 . R e l e a s e s t o L a n d
Mills generate three types of solid waste: sludge from waste-
water treatment plants, ash from boilersand miscellaneous solid
waste, which includes wood waste, waste from the chemical
re c ove ry system, non-re c yclable paper, rejects from re c yc l i n g
p rocessesand general mill refuse. Mechanical and chemical pulp
millsgenerate the same amount of total solid waste.
In some cases, re c ycling-based paper mills produce more
solid waste than do virgin fiber mills. Thi s residue consists
almost entirely of inorganic fill ers, coatings and short paper
fibersthat are washed out of the recovered paper in the fiber-
cleaning process. Printing and writing paper millstend to gen-
erate the most sludge, while paperboard millsproduce the least.
3 . R e l e a s e s t o Wa t e r
Waterborne wastesare often afocusof environmental concern for
a number of reasons. Water-based discharges havethe gre a t e st
potential to introducecontaminantsdirectly into theenviro n m e n t
and thefood chain. Water usealso correlateswith energy use, since
it takesenergy to pump, heat, evaporate and treat processwater.
The effluent from pulp mills containsa complex mixtureof
organic compounds. Effluent from mechanical pulp millsgener-
ally containslessorganic waste than that of chemical pulp mills
becausemost of theorganic material stayswith the pulp. Re c ov-
e red paper processing systemscan contain significant quantitiesof
organic wastein their effluent. Thismaterial consistsprimarily of
st a rchesand other compoundsthat arecontained in the re c ove re d
paper that the mill uses. Kraft pulp mill effluent containsamix-
t u re of degraded lignin compounds and wood extractive s.
Bleached kraft pulp mill effluent may also contain chlorinated
organic compounds, depending on theamount of chlorine com-
poundsused in the bleaching pro c e ss.
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
180
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
Millsuse several analytical teststo learn more about thismix
of organic substances. These testsinclude biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD), color, chemi cal oxygen demand (COD),
adsorbable organic halogens(AOX) and dioxins.
Pol l ut i on- Cont r ol Tec hnol ogi es
Pollution-control technologiesremove specific pollutantsfrom
mills air emissions, solid waste or effluent. Brief descriptionsof
widely used control technologiesfollow.
1. A i r E m i s s i o n s
There are three control technologiesthat remove specific sub-
stancesfrom the air emissionsof pulp and paper mills. Electro-
stat i c preci pi t ators physi cal l y re m ove fi ne part i c u l a t e s.
Sc rubberschemically transform gaseous sulfur dioxide, chlorine
and chlorine dioxide so that they stay in the scru b b e rs chemical
solution. Millsroute combustible gases, including total re d u c e d
sulfur compounds, to the chemical recovery system or to power
boilers, where they are burned asfuel.
2 . S o l i d w a s t e D i s p o s a l
Millssend morethan 70% of their solid waste to landfills, most
of which arecompany-owned. Some millsincineratewood waste
and wastewater sludge, while othersaretesting beneficial usesfor
w a st ewater sludgesuch asland application and landfill cove r i n g .
Residue from recycled-paper based millsisusually landfilled
in a secure, lined facility. The amount of residue generated by a
mill ispartly a function of the quantity of contaminantsin the
incoming recovered paper. The design of processes within the
mill, howe ve r, can improve the potential for reusing the mill
residue. Some manufacturersof 100% recycled paperboard, for
example, use the fibrousresidue from their processin the mid-
dle layersof their multi-ply sheet. Many recycled paper manu-
facturersare trying to find waysto separate the materialsin mill
residue into productsthat can be beneficially reused.
3 . E f f l u e n t Tr e a t m e n t
The wastewater from all but one mi ll in the Uni ted St a t e s
undergoes two stages of treatment before it isdischarged. Pr i-
m a ry treatment re m oves suspended matter i n the effluent.
These wastes, which consist mainly of bark particl es, fiber
debris, filler and coating materials,
2 7
l e a ve the system assludge.
Secondary treatment systemsuse microorganismsto convert
the dissolved organic waste in the effluent into a more harmless
form. These systemsgenerally remove 90-95% of the BOD in
the effluent. Although primarily designed to remove BOD, sec-
ondary treatment also reducesthe loading of COD and AOX.
Effluent discharged from a we l l - run secondary treatment sys-
tem isnot acutely toxic to aquatic organisms.
Se c o n d a ry treatment systems also generate sludge, which
consistsmainly of the organic remainsof the bacteria. Dioxins
and other compounds that do not dissolve in water are often
transferred to the sludge during secondary treatment.
Pol l ut i on- Pr event i on Tec hnol ogi es f or
Pul p and Paper Manuf ac t ur i ng
In contrast to pollution-control approaches, pollution-preven-
tion approachesminimize releasesof waste to the environment
through technology changes, processcontrol, raw material sub-
stitution, product reformulation and improved training, main-
tenance and housekeeping.
The pulp and paper industry hasa tradition of using pollu-
tion-prevention approaches. The development of the recovery
boiler and associated chemical re c ove ry systems, for example,
i m p roved the economics of the kraft pul pi ng process and
hel ped make it the dominant pulping process in the world.
These systemsalso reduced dischargesof chemicalsto the envi-
ronment, because they allow the pulping chemicalsto be recir-
culated and reused within the mill.
The types of pul p that mi l l s produce det ermi ne t hei r
a p p roach to pollution pre vention. These approaches differ for
mechanical and unbl eached kraft pulp mi lls and bl eached
kraft pulp mills.
1. M e c h a n i c a l a n d U n b l e a c h e d K r a f t P u l p M i l l s
Po l l u t i o n - p re venti on approaches for mechani cal and
unbleached kraft millsprimarily focuson improving the opera-
tionsof the mill, such asspill prevention and water conserva-
tion. In c remental improvementsin existing mechanical pulping
181
processes, for example, may lead to reduced energy consump-
tion. Unbleached kraft pulp mills can improve the quality of
their effluent by improving spill control and upgrading pulp
washing to send more of the spent pulping liquor back to the
chemical recovery system.
2 . R e c o v e r e d - Fi b e r P r o c e s s i n g Te c h n o l o g i e s
Pollution-prevention approachesfor recovered-fiber processing
millsare similar to those for mechanical pulp mills. Both tech-
nologies use primari ly mechani cal energy to separate and
processfibers, and neither tend to have large suppliesof wood
by-productsavailable to burn to create energy. The efficient use
of energy istherefore an environmental and economic priority
for these mills.
A few millsthat make re c ycled paperboard, linerboard or cor-
rugating medium have virtually closed water systems. The only
significant lossof water in thesemillsisthrough evaporation on
the paper machines. Se veral mills that deink re c ove red office
paper have designed their processes to use water from paper
machines, and thusconsumeno fresh water.
3 . B l e a c h e d K r a f t P u l p M i l l s
Po l l u t i o n - p re vention approaches for bleached kraft pulp mills
include improvementsin mill operationsand manufacturing tech-
nologies. To d a y, paper manufacturersareusing pollution-pre ve n-
tion approachesto reduce the quantity and improve the quality of
effluent from the bleach plant and to reduceenergy consumption.
a. Imp roved Pulping Processes Extended Delignification and
Oxygen Delignification
Extended delignificationand oxygen delignificationremove more
lignin from the wood before the unbleached pulp enters the
bleach plant. T h e re f o re, fewer bleaching chemicalsarere q u i re d ,
less organic waste is generated in the bleaching process, less
waste treatment is necessary and discharges per ton of pulp
manufactured are lower. Energy use also islower because addi -
tional organic material re m oved from the pulp can be burned in
the re c ove ry boiler instead of being discharged, and because
more heated processwater isrecirculated within the mill.
To extend del i gni fi cati on i n the pulpi ng process, new
digesterscan be installed or existing digesterscan be modified to
Fi gur e 7
O z o n e EC F
Tr a d i t i o n a l EC F
182
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
i n c rease the length of time that wood chips are cooked. T h i s
removesmore lignin without compromising the strength of the
pulp. The addition of certain chemicalssuch asanthraquinone
in the pulping stage can have a similar effect.
Oxygen delignification systems employ oxygen to re m ove
additional lignin after the wood chipshave been cooked in the
digester but before thepulp entersthe bleach plant. The filtrates
f rom thepulp washersfollowing the oxygen delignification step
are routed to the chemical recovery system.
It is important to note that all mills worldwide curre n t l y
using TCF or ozone-ECF bleaching technologies, which are
described in more detail below, also employ extended delignifi-
cati on, oxygen deli gni fi cati on or both. The one chlori de-
re m oval t echnol ogy now bei ng tested i n a mi l l -scal e
demonstration is designed for mills with an ECF process that
also usesoxygen delignification. Theremoval of additional lignin
prior to thebleachingprocessisan essential foundation for thecost-
effectiveoperation of thesetechnologies. Without the removal of
additional lignin using extended delignification or oxygen delig-
nification prior to bleaching, too much material ispresent for
thecost-effectiveuseof the oxygen-based bleaching compounds
or chloride removal processes.
b. Imp roved Bleaching Pro c esses- Substitution of Chlorine
Dioxidefor Elemental Chlorine
Some bleached kraft pulp mills are improving the quality of
their effluent by replacing el emental chlorine with chlorine
dioxide. The substitution of chlorine dioxide for 100% of the
elemental chlorine used in the bleaching processisone form of
elemental chlorine-free (ECF) bl eachi ng. We refer to thi s
p rocess as t raditional ECF bleaching throughout the chapter.
(Chlorine dioxide can also replace chlorine at less than 100%
substitution). Thisimproved bleaching processreducesthe for-
mation of many chlorinated organic compounds during the
bleaching process. However, the quantity of effluent from the
mill isnot reduced. Further progressin reducing the quantity
and improving the quality of the effluent ultimately dependson
installing an improved pulping processor one of the technolo-
gies described below. Other technologies that reduce effluent
quantity may become available in the future.
Mills also operate ECF bleaching processes with improve d
pulping processes, such as oxygen del i gni fi cati on and/ or
extended delignification. We refer to these pulp manufacturing
processesasenhanced ECF processesthroughout the chapter.
c. Low-Effluent Processes OzoneECF, Totally Chlorine-free
Bleachingand ChlorideRemoval Processes
A key impact of using chlorine and/or chlorine dioxide in the
bleaching processisthat chloridesin the bleach plant filtrates
(the process water re m oved from the pulp in each washing
stage) make the filtratestoo corrosive to be sent to the chemical
re c ove ry system. If steam from a corrosion-caused pinhole crack
in the pipesat the top of the recovery boiler reachesthe smelt,
the re c ove ry boiler can explode.
2 8
T h e re f o re, wastewater fro m
the bleach plant that contains chlorinated compounds is not
sent through the chemical recovery system, but is treated and
discharged to the receiving waters.
Replacing chlorinecompoundsin the bleaching processwith
oxygen-based compounds reduces the corro si veness of the
wastewater from each stage of the bleaching process in which
the substitution ismade. Thisallowsbleach plant filtratesto be
sent back through the mil ls chemi cal re c ove ry system and
reused instead of being treated and discharged. One way to
remove chloridesisto substitute ozone for chlorine or chlorine
dioxide in the first stage of the bleaching sequence, thusallow-
ing the filtratesfrom the first bleaching and extraction stagesto
be recirculated to the recovery boiler.
In the last stage of ozone-based ECF bleaching systems, chlo-
rine dioxide isused to brighten the pulp. Thisisa low-effluent
p rocess because only the last bleaching stage uses fresh water
that is di scharged to the treatment plant; the ozone stage
removesmost of the remaining lignin. Figure 7 comparesthe
path of bleach plant filtratesin a low-effluent ozone ECF and a
traditional ECF process.
Totally chl orine-free (TCF) bleaching processes go one step
f u rther than ozone ECF processesto replace all chlorine com-
poundsin the bleaching processwith oxygen-based chemicals
such as ozone or hyd rogen peroxide. TCF processescurre n t l y
offer the best opportunity to re c i rculate the filtratesfrom the
e n t i re bl each plant because they have eli mi nated chl ori ne
183
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
compounds from al l bleaching stages; howe ve r, few mills
c u r rently operate TCF processesin a low-effluent mode.
C o m m e rci al -scale TCF processes are re l a t i vel y new.
Mill sinstalling these processestypically discharge the
filtrates when they first install the processes, and
plan to move to low-effluent processesover time.
Add-on technologies that re m ove the chlorides
f rom the mills process water using additional eva p o-
rati ng and chloride-re m oval equipment are in earlier
stages of development. Rather than substituteb l e a c h i n g
compoundslike ozone for chlorine dioxide, these pro c e sse s
do not reduce the use of chlorine dioxide, but seek to remove
chlorides from wastewater with additional processing steps.
Unlike the ozone ECF or TCF processes, the chloride removal
p rocesses generate an additional waste product that must be
disposed. A mill-scale demonstration of a processtechnology to
remove chloridesfrom the processwater of a mill with oxygen
delignification and ECF bleaching began in September 1995.
d. Environmental Performance
Installing pollution-pre vention technologies at bleached kraft
pulp millsreducesthe releasesto the environment and potential
environmental impactsfrom the millseffluent. Because hard-
woods have lower lignin contents, the estimates of AOX and
COD for hardwood bleach plant filtrateswith traditional ECF
bleaching will be similar to those of softwood bleach plant fil-
trateswith enhanced ECF.
We present a schematic diagram of the flowsof waterborne
waste for three classes of bleached kraft pulp manufacturing
technologiesin Figure 8.
Asthediagram shows, in traditional ECF bleaching pro c e sse s,
all of the remaining lignin in the unbleached pulp isre m oved in
the bleaching process and leaves themill in the effluent. Mi l l s
that employ enhanced ECF and low-effluent technologiesre c i r-
culate morefiltrates that contain wood waste to thechemical
re c ove ry system, and less organic waste leaves the mill in the
effluent. With enhanced ECF processes, for example, about 50%
of the remaining lignin isre m oved during the oxygen delignifi-
cation or extended delignification step. We present additional
information about the environmental and economic perf o r-
mance of theseprocesstechnologiesin Recommendation 3, as
well asa broader discussion of the economic and enviro n m e n t a l
context for these issuesin thenext section of thischapter.
4 . B l e a c h e d S u l f i t e P u l p i n g P r o c e s s e s
Bleached sulfite millsthat use chlorine compoundsface similar
challengesasdo bleached kraft mills. Most bleached sulfitemills
that havereplaced elemental chlorine in their bleach plantshave
i nstal l ed TCF bl eachi ng pro c e sse s.
2 9
As discussed i n t he
ove rv i ew of pulp and paper manufacturing, sulfite mills con-
sume lesschemicalsto produce bright pulp, so these millscan
achieve similar functional performance economically with TCF
processes. Sulfite millswith chemical recovery systemsare also
working on recirculating bleach plant effluent to the chemical
184
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
Fi gur e 8
F l o w s o f Wa t e r b o r n e Wa s t e f o r B l e a c h e d
K r a f t P u l p M a n u f a c t u r i n g P r o c e s s e s
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
recovery system. One Swedish sulfite mill currently operatesits
bleach plant in an effluent-free mode.
30
5 . Te c h n o l o g i e s i n R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
Pulp and paper manufacturers, their equipment and chemical
suppliers, and re se a rch institutions have active re se a rch pro-
gramsin new pulping, bleaching, bleach-filtrate recovery tech-
nol ogi es and chemi cal -re c ove ry syst ems. Agenda 2020, a
re se a rch agenda developed by the American Fo rest & Pa p e r
Association, providesadditional detail on some of the specific
areasof research.
31
New pulping processesinclude the addition
of polysulfide to digesters to improve delignification. New
bleaching agents include enzymes, peracids, activated ox y g e n
and novel metallic compounds. Laboratory research continues
on bl each-plant filtrate re c ove ry as re se a rchers explore other
waysto separate the water from the organic and inorganic waste
in the bleach plant filtrates.
32
Manufacturersare also investigat-
ing metallurgy in re c ove ry boilersthat would allow for incre a se d
combustion of chlorinated waste products.
Ac t i ve re se a rch and commercial ization are underway in a
number of areas for re c ycling-based manufacturing systems.
These incl ude technologies, for example, that use additional
mechanical and chemical steps to re m ove contaminants; re l a-
tively small, modular deinking systemsthat can be installed as
one complete unit; and meansof separating and/or beneficially
reusing different elementsin mill solid-waste residuals.
Env i r onment al Management Sy st ems
En v i ronmental management systems(EMS) arealso an impor-
tant part of the pollution-pre vention approach. Millswith sound
e n v i ronmental management get the best performance out of their
existing manufacturing processes and minimizethe impactsof
p rocessupsets, equipment failure and other accidents. At amini-
mum, implementing environmental management systemsshould
make it easier for millsto comply with environmental lawsand
regulations. Ma n u f a c t u rers may also design these systems to
encourage innovation that takesthem beyond compliance.
For pulp and paper manufacturers, effective environmental
management systemsinclude spill prevention and control, pre-
ve n t i ve maintenance, emergency pre p a redness and re sp o n se ,
and energy-efficiency programs. These programs reduce both
the likelihood of serious accidents and their potential impact
on mill personnel, the local community and the environment.
Spillsof spent pulping liquor increase thewasteload that must
behandled by theeffluent-treatment facility and thusmay lead to
i n c reased amountsof organic waste in mill wastew a t e r. Millscan
install additional storagetanksto contain the spillsuntil thespent
liquor isreturned to the chemical-re c ove ry system, and can train
their staff to pre vent or minimizespills. Im p roved washing and
closed screen roomsfurther reducethe quantity of spent pulping
liquor that issent to the treatment facility.
Preventive-maintenance programsidentify and repair equip-
ment before it fails. These programs avoid equipment or system
f a i l u re that can lead to large rel eases to the environment or
other emergenciesthat affect mill personnel or the community
nearby. Emergency preparednessand response programsensure
that the mill and the community can respond to an accidental
release of hazardouschemicalsat the mill.
To some extent, a mills manufacturing technologies deter-
mine itsenergy consumption. However, millscan take advan-
tage of energy-saving technologies that range from installing
more efficient electric motorsto replacing old digesters. Tech-
nologiesexist that increase heat recovery in mechanical pulping
and in papermaking processes. Research continues to develop
p rocessesthat reduce the energy consumption of paper machine
dryers, recovery boilersand evaporators.
Training and internal auditing programsare also import a n t
componentsof an environmental management program. Tr a i n i n g
p rograms ensure that employeesunderstand theimportance of
these practicesand how to implement them. Internal auditsallow
suppliersto assesstheperformanceof the environmental manage-
ment system. The International StandardsOrganization (ISO)
hasrecognized the importance of environmental management
systems. Asa result, a committee hasbeen working on an inter-
national standard, ISO 14001, that will define the key elements
of an effective system for all manufacturers. These elements
include:
33
A vision defined in an environmental policy
Objectivesand targetsfor environmental performance
185
Programsto achieve those targets
Waysto monitor and measure the systemseffectiveness
Waysto correct problems
Periodic review of the system to improve it and overall envi -
ronmental performance
ISO haselevated ISO 14001 to draft international status, a
step away from a final standard. Once the standard has been
accepted, manufacturersmay ask independent auditorsto cer-
tify that they have installed an environmental management sys-
tem that meetsthe standard. ThusISO 14001 focuseson the
management process, not on its content and performance. Each
m a n u f a c t u rer determinesitsown goals, objectivesand pro g r a m s
to achieve continuousenvironmental improvement.
III.>ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC
CONTEXT FOR THE RECOMMENDATIONS
Env i r onment al Cont ex t
In response to environmental regulations in the 1970s, pulp
and paper millsin the United Statesinstalled pollution-control
technologies to re m ove specific pollutants from their air and
water rel eases. Since 1970, the pulp and paper industry has
reduced overall air emissions of sulfur dioxide by 30%, total
reduced sulfur compounds by 90% and the loadings of bio-
chemical oxygen demand and total suspended solidsin the final
effluent by 75-80%. Water conservation programshavere d u c e d
overall mill water consumption by about 70% since 1970.
3 4
Between 1970 and 1993, total production of pulp and paper
hasincreased by 67%.
35
The industry responded to the discov-
ery of dioxin in itswastewater by implementing a combination
of processand technology changes. According to the AF&PA,
thiseffort hasreduced dioxin levelsfrom all bleached chemical
pulp millsby 92% since 1988.
Pollution pre vention is a more conserva t i ve approach to
e n v i ronmental protection than pollution control. We do not
know everything about the effluent from pulp and paper mills,
nor can we measure all of itspotential effectson the environ-
ment. Scientists are continuing to find new substances in the
complex mixture of organic material that isdischarged in pulp
mill effluent. For example, wood containsminute amountsof
powerful chemical substances that aid in the growth of a tree
and protect it from pests. The pulping process concentrates
these substancesasmillsconvert about 4.5 tonsof treesinto 1
ton of bleached kraft pulp at a scale of 1,000 to 2,000 tonsof
pulp per day. As l ong as mills discharge effluent, these sub-
stancesare likely to be released into mills receiving waters.
36
As of Fe b ru a ry 1994, sci entists had identifi ed 415 com-
poundsin bleached kraft pulp mill effluent.
37
These represent a
fracti on of the total number of compounds pre se n t .
3 8
It i s
unlikely that we will ever have a complete understanding of the
t oxic effects of these compounds individually, let alone their
effectsasa mixture. For example, of the 70,000 chemicalscur-
rently sold on the market, adequate toxicological data are avail-
able for about 10 to 20%.
39
Field studies of the environmental effects of the effluent,
whi l e i mportant, may not provi de a compl ete pi cture of
impacts. These biological and ecological studies are expensive
and complex, and they are often highly limited in their ability
to show specific cause-and-effect relationships.
40
Certain prob-
lemsmay be discovered yearsafter a classof pollutantshasbuilt
up in the environment. Biological assays are usually able to
detect acuteor chronic effectsfrom pulp and paper mill effluent
(for example, the death or impaired growth of certain speciesof
fish, inve rtebrates or plants). Howe ve r, they may not be capable
of detecting longer-term changes, such as gradual changes in
the number or typesof the plantsand invertebratesthat live on
the bottomsof riversthat support the entire ecosystem.
The discove ry of dioxin in the effluent of bleached kraft pulp
millsin 1985, for example, wasnot anticipated by studiesper-
formed in labs and at mill sites. Thisdiscove ry generated a gre a t
deal of public attention and led paper manufacturersto rapidly
invest a total of $2 billion in an effort to reduce dischargesof
d i oxin to below levelsthat aredetectable with standard lab tests.
Pollution-prevention approachescan help reduce the probabil-
ity of thistype of unwanted surprise in the future.
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
186
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
Ec onomi c Cont ext
Since 1970, the U.S. pulp and paper industry hasinvested over
$10 billion in pollution-control technologies. Asof 1994 it was
investing more than $1 billion per year in capital costsfor addi-
tional systems. Annualized total costsfor environmental pro t e c-
tion range from $10 to $50 per ton of production, depending
on the type and size of the mill.
41
The reduction of releasesto
the environment through end-of-the-pipe treatment has led
many to think that improved environmental performance isat
odds with improved economic performance. Po l l u t i o n - t re a t-
ment systemsusually increase capital and operating costswith-
out improving the productive output of the mill.
The difference between pollution prevention and pollution
c o n t rol hasan analogue in the comparison of total quality man-
agement programswith quality control based on inspection for
defectsin finished products. Before firmsdesigned quality into
their productsand processes, defectswere seen asan inevitable
by-product of the manufacturing process, not asa sign of inef-
ficient product and processdesign.
42
By designing manufactur-
ing processesthat have targetsof zero defects, companieshave
improved the quality of their products and their profitability.
Improved product quality increased salesand lowered the costs
associated with undesired outcomes after products had been
sold, such ascustomer complaintsand repairs.
By using polluti on-pre venti on approaches, suppliers can
design envi ronmental i mprovement i nt o manufact uri ng
processes. Michael Porter, an expert on competitive strategy at
the Harvard BusinessSchool, observesthat [l]ike defects, pol -
lution often revealsflawsin the product design or production
process. Effortsto eliminate pollution can therefore follow the
same basi c princi ples widely used in quality programs: Use
inputsmore efficiently, eliminate the need for hazardous, hard-
to-handle materialsand eliminate unneeded activities.
43
A recent study has documented the economic benefits of
installing technologiesor modifying processesthat use re so u rc e s
more efficiently. Chad Nerht, of the University of Texasat Dal-
las, studied 50 bleached kraft pulp and paper manufacturersin
six countries. He found that the longer a firm had invested in
extended delignification and ECF and TCF bleaching tech-
nologies, the better its economic performance. Those compa-
niesthat invested both earlier and more substantially had higher
income growth, even taking into consideration national differ-
encesin regulations, capacity utilization and general growth in
the economy, salesand wages.
44
T i m i n g
Shifting from a focuson pollution control to pollution preven-
tion takestime, money and a more holistic approach to manag-
ing the environmental issues associated with pul p and paper
manufacturing. Mills operate large pieces of equipment that
have long, useful lives. The need to fully utilize thisequipment
reducespaper manufacture r s flexibility in investing in new pulp
manufacturing technol ogies. For example, the investment in
additional chlorine dioxide capacity re q u i red for traditional
ECF processesmay make millsreluctant to invest in oxygen or
extended delignification, technologiesthat would reduce future
chlorine dioxide needs.
Po l l u t i o n - p re vention investments also compete for capital
fundsalong with other projectsthat will improve thecompanys
p ro f i t a b i l i t y. Mo re ove r, making investments in technologies
that do not turn out to be competitive over their life-span can
be very costly.
If individual millsmake technology investmentsin order to
meet special requestsfrom purchasersand their manufacturing
costs increase in the process, they will seek to charge a pricepre-
mium for their products. The price premium allowsthe mill to
maintain comparable profit margins for di fferent pro d u c t s.
Whether such pricepremiumswill bere a l i zed dependson ove r-
all market conditions and on the number of competing mills
making a specific product. If purchasing specificationsshift for
a large part of the market, millswill have to respond with new
technologiesin order to remain competitive. If only one or two
millsproduce a specific product, increased costsare more likely
to be passed on to purchasers.
Paper companiesroutinely consider how much capital they
should invest to reduce operating costs. Asdiscussed in Chapter
1, the trend of thelast 20 yearsistow a rd increased capital inten-
sity in pulp and paper manufacturing, leading to lower operat-
187
ing costsand lower total costs. Both internal and external fac-
torsaffect the timing and investment in new pulp manufactur-
ing technologiesat pulp and paper mills.
Paper manufacturersgenerally weigh several factorsin their
capital-allocation decisions.
The companyphilosophyt ow a rd enviro n m e n t a l
p e rformance may havethe largest effect on cap-
i tal -al locati on deci si ons. Some pul p and
paper manufacturers stri ve to int egrate
sh o rt- and long-term environmental goals
along with cost, productivity and quality in
e ve ry investment decision. For example, a
company wi th a poli cy of i ncreasing i ts
margin of environmental safety with each
i n vestment might expand the capacity of a
recovery boiler aspart of a required renovation
project to accommodate the additional load from
an improved pulping process. Without thispolicy, the
company might rebuild a recovery boiler at a bleached kraft
mill but not add any new capacity.
In vesting additional capital to reduceoperating costsprov i d e s
the largest economic benefitswhen millsneed additional pulp
ca p a ci t y. In t hi s case, the cost savi ngs t hat resul t fro m
installing pollution-pre vention technologies offset the addi-
tional capital expenditure.
When a mill needsto replaceworn-out equipment, the company
will invest capital in order to continue operating. The com-
pany philosophy and opportunities to expand capacity play
an important role in the choice of new equipment.
Site-specific equipment or spacelimitationswill increase the
capital costs to install pollution-pre vention technologies.
Capacity limitson key equipment, such asa re c ove ry boiler at
a bleached kraft pulp mill, increase the capital coststo install
improved pulping or low-effluent bleaching processes. Mills
also may have unique equipment arrangementsthat increase
the capital coststo install these processes.
Shiftsin customer demand and new environmental regu l a t i o n s
a re two ex t ern a l factors that influence pulp and paper com-
pany capital investment decisions. For example, both of these
external factorshave influenced the industryscommitment to
eliminate elemental chlorinefrom bleached kraft pulp mills.
Most millsexperiencea combination of the factorsdescribed
a b ove; asa result, thetiming and the range of capital coststo install
p o l l u t i o n - p re vention technologieswill differ for individual mills.
Millsthat produce more pulp than paper will probably add
a paper machine before they modify the pulp mill.
Millsthat have average to low capital coststo install pollu-
tion-prevention technologieswill do so to take advantage of
lower operating costs.
Millswith higher capital costswill wait until the combina-
tion of factorsimprovesthe economicsof thisinvestment.
Appendix B presents a cost model and a range of scenarios
to install poll ution-pre vention technologies at bleached kraft
pulp mil ls.
The large number of bleached kraft pulp millsoperating in
the United Statesmeansthat there are probably pulp millsthat
fit into each of these groups. With 87 bleached kraft pulp mills
with 162 fiber lines
4 5
operating nationwide in 1995, in any
given five-year period a number of these lineswill be undergo-
ing major re n ovationsor expansions. Replacement of individual
piecesof equipment, minor renovationsand the elimination of
bottleneckswill proceed at an even greater rate. For example, a
1993 survey of re c ove ry boilersfound that over 70% we re more
than 25 yearsold. These recovery boilerswill have to be rebuilt
or replaced in the next decade.
46
The Rol e f or Pur c has er s
Over time, expressionsof preferencesby paper purchaserswill
influence investment decisionsand the availability of environ-
mentally preferable paper products in different market condi-
tions. Companies plan their next round of investments when
they are earning high cash flows, during theup-sideof the paper
pricing cycle. Annual capital expenditures usually peak about
three yearslater, because it takestime to plan the projects.
Integrating pollution-pre vention strategiesinto pulp and paper
manufacturing will re q u i rea highly disciplined capital planning
p rocess that integrates a long-term vision for enviro n m e n t a l
p ro g ress with improvements in quality, productivity and lowe r
manufacturing costs. The minimum-impact mill, a vision of
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
188
Th e p a p e r m a n u f a c t u r e r s
p h i l o s o p h y t o w a r d e n v i -
r o n m e n t a l p e r f o r m a n c e
m a y h a v e t h e l a r g e s t
e f f e c t o n c a p i t a l -
a l l o c a t i o n d e c i s i o n s .
e n v i ronmental pro g ress, is akey part of the re c o m m e n d a t i o n s
that foll ow. The Task Fo rc es recommendations, as expre sse d
t h rough decisions made by individual paper purchasers, will
encouragesuppliersto maintain thisinvestment discipline.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PURCHASING
PAPER MADE WITH ENVIRONMENTALLY
PREFERABLE PROCESSES
The Paper Task Forcesrecommendationsbuild upon technolo-
giesthat provide pollution-prevention benefitsand are an inte-
gral part of many pulp and paper mills.
Asdiscussed throughout thischapter, pollution pre vention is
not new to paper manufacturing. Some paper manufacture r s
h a ve supported pollution-pre vention approachesasproviding an
extramargin of environmental safety or asreducing the pro b a-
bility of undesired environmental surprises. Othershave empha-
si zed the competitive advantagethat comesfrom more efficient
useof re so u rces, lower costsfor complying with enviro n m e n t a l
regulationsand theability to compete more effectively in envi-
ronmentally sensitive marketssuch asEu rope. Thesepaper sup-
pliersalso makethe point that sustainable manufacturing based
on pollution-pre vention technologieswill help maintain public
acceptanceof re so u rc e - i n t e n si vebusinesses likepaper manufac-
turing over thelong term. All of these outcomesare in the inter-
est of paper buyersand usersaswell asmanufacture r s.
Rec ommendat i ons
Minimum-impact Mills
Recommendation 1. Purchasersshould givepreferenceto paper
manufactured by supplierswho havea vision of and a commit-
ment to minimum-impact mills thegoal of which isto mini-
mizenatural resourceconsumption (wood, water, energy) and
minimizethequantity and maximizethequality of releasesto
a i r, water and land. Theminimum-impact mill isa holistic
manufacturingconcept that encompassesenvironmental man-
agement systems, compliancewith environmental lawsand reg-
ulationsand manufacturingtechnologies.
Ra t i o n a l e: Sustainable pulp and paper manufacturing re q u i re s
a holistic view of the manufacturing process. This concept
beginswith a vision and commitment to a long-term goal that
should guideall decisionsabout the direction of both the mill
operations and the selection of manufacturing technologies.
In vesting in manufacturing processes that pre vent pollution
and practicing good environmental management go hand-in-
hand. A poorly run mill may not be ableto reap the enviro n-
ment al benefi t s that resul t from i nst al l i ng adva n c e d
p o l l u t i o n - p re vention technologies. Outdated manufacturing
technologies, howe ve r, will limit the ability of awe l l - run mill
to achieve continuousenvironmental improvement.
Adopting the long-term goal of operating mi nimum-
impact millsallowssuppliersto develop measurable and cost-
e f f e c t i ve investment strategies that provide enviro n m e n t a l
benefits and improve economic competitiveness. Pulp and
paper millsroutinely make investmentsin individual piecesof
equipment and periodically undergo more costly renovations
and expansions. The strategic application of the minimum-
impact mill concept will allow manufacturers to integrate
decisionsthat affect manufacturing costs, productivity, qual-
ity and environmental impacts.
Availability/timing: The minimum-impact mill isa dynamic
and long-term goal that will require an evolution of technol-
ogy in some cases. Many factorswill affect the specific tech-
nology pathway and the rate at which individual mills will
progresstoward thisgoal. These factorsinclude the products
m a n u f a c t u red at the mill, the types of wood that are ava i l-
able, the millslocation, the age and configuration of equip-
ment, operator expertise, the availability of capital and the
stagesa mill hasreached in itscapital investment cycle. Some
mil ls, for example, will install the most advanced curre n t
technologies with a relatively low capital investment within
the next five years.
Recommendation 2. Purchasersshould givepreferenceto paper
p roductsmanufactured by supplierswho demonstratea com-
mitment to implementing sound environmental management
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
189
of their mills. Suppliersshould demonstrateprogressin thefol-
lowingareas:
Imp roved spill-prevention and control systemsbased on the
installation of availabletechnologies
Preventivemaintenanceprograms
Emergency preparednessand responseprograms
Imp roving theenergy efficiencyof mill operationsthrough the
installation of energy-conservation technologies
On-goingtrainingfor mill staff in processcontrol and their
rolein improvingenvironmental performance
In t ernal auditingpro c ed u resthat includequalitativeand
quantitativemeasuresof performance
Pu rchasersshould consider their suppliers compliancerec o rd s
asoneindicator of an effectiveenvironmental management sys-
t em.
Rationalefor spill prevention and control pro gra ms: Spills of
spent pulping liquor increase the waste load that must be
handled by the effluent-treatment facility. Maximizing the
recovery of the spent pulping liquor also reducesthe amount
of pulping chemicals that must be purchased and incre a se s
the amount of steam generated by the recovery boiler when
the organic waste isburned for energy.
Rationalefor preven t i vemaintenancepro gra ms: Pre ve n t i ve
maintenance programsidentify and repair equipment before
it fails. These programs avoid equipment or system failure s
that can lead to large releases to the environment or other
emergencies that affect mil l personnel or the community
n e a r by. Pre ve n t i ve maintenance programs also reduce eco-
nomic lossesdue to lost production, premature replacement
of equipment and catastrophic incidents.
Rationalefor emergency prep a rednessand responsepro gra ms:
These programsprepare mill staff and the local community
for infrequent events that may have serious enviro n m e n t a l
consequences, such asa recovery boiler or digester explosion
or a large release of bleaching chemicals. Quick and effective
responses to these events will mitigate their impact on the
local communitiesand the environment.
Rationalefor energyefficiency: Energy-efficient millsreleaselowe r
190
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
Descriptions of these technologies along with information on their environmental and economic performance
is presented below.
Fi gur e 9
B l e a c h e d K r a f t P u l p Te c h n o l o g y P a t h w a y s
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
l e velsof air pollutantsassociated with the combustion pro c e ss
and have lower energy costs. In c reasing theefficient useof pur-
chased electricity and fossil fuels reduces theenviro n m e n t a l
impacts associated with electricity generation and with the
extraction of fossil fuels. Reducing the total energy consumption
of themill reducesitscarbon dioxide releases. Carbon dioxide, a
g reenhousegas, isassociated with global climatechange.
Rationalefor increased tra i n i n g:Without well-trained staff, amill
with thelatest processtechnology and operating pro c e d u rescan-
not achieveoptimum environmental or economic perf o r m a n c e .
By increasing theawareness of the potential impact of mill
p rocesseson the environment, suppliersempower their staff to
i m p rovethe efficiency of the millsoperations.
Rationalefor internal auditingsystems: Internal auditing sys-
temsare a central component of an environmental manage-
ment system, because they measure its performance. Audits
allow millsto quantify improvementsover time and to com-
pare their performance with other mills.
Ava i l a b i l i t y/ t i mi n g: Many pulp and paper manufacturers have
implemented environmental management systems and oth-
ersare doing so in anticipation of the ISO 14001 standards,
which are discussed earlier in this chapter. Technologies to
improve spill prevention and control are available and can be
installed in the near term. Op p o rtunitiesto install energy-sav-
ing technologies arise over time as mills upgrade or re p l a c e
old equipment. Many suppliersalready have extensive train-
ing programsin these areas.
Recommendation 3: Purchasersshould givepreferenceto paper
manufactured by supplierswho demonstratecontinuousenvi-
ronmental improvement tow a rd minimum-impact mills by
installingpollution-prevention technologies.
Ra t i o n a l e: The manufacturing technologiesinstalled at a pulp
or paper mill will eventually limit its environmental perf o r-
mance. Most millswill have to install new processtechnologies
over their pro d u c t i ve life spansin order to achieve continuous
p ro g resstow a rd the minimum-impact mill. A clear definition
of the goalsof theminimum-impact mill will guide technology
selection over time. The array of availablemanufacturing tech-
nologiesdiffersfor each pulp manufacturing process. De sc r i p-
tionsof major technologiesfor mechanical, unbleached kraft,
re c ycled fiber and bleached kraft pulp millsfollow.
Mechanical pulp mills: Although reducing the re l a t i vely low
releases to the environment is desirable, reducing the re l a-
tively high energy consumption of the pulping processisthe
primary long-term challenge for mechanical pulp mills.
Unbleached kraft pulp mills: Pro g ress tow a rd the minimum-
impact unbleached kraft mill will build upon the mills ability
to re c over the organic waste in the effluent in the re c ove ry
boiler. Well-run millsrecover 99% of thiswaste. Incremental
i m p rovement will result from improved spill control and
washing. Unbleached kraft pulp millswill also modify exist-
ing processesto reuse more processwater within the mill.
Recovered fiber pulp mills: Most releases to the environment
from recovered fiber pulp millsare comparatively low. Some
mills may be able to make progress in reducing their water
consumption. Priorities include increasing the efficiency of
purchased energy use and handling rejectswithin the mill to
faci li tate the generation of usable by - p roducts instead of
sludge that hasto be landfilled.
Bleached kraft pulp mills: Po l l u t i o n - p re vention technologies
for bleached kraft mills modify the pulping and bleaching
processesto improve the quality of their releasesto the envi-
ronment and to enable the process water from the bleach
plant to be re c i rculated to the chemical re c ove ry system,
where the used chemicalsare recovered and the organic waste
isburned for energy in the recovery boiler. The processwater
isthen reused within the mill.
Fi g u re 9 illustratespollution-pre vention technology pathways
that focuson currently available and experimental technolo-
gies for bleached kraft pulp mills. Economic and enviro n-
mental issues and the availability of paper products made
using these different technologies are discussed below. Four
key ideasthat purchasersshould consider asthey evaluate the
technologiesat bleached kraft millsare also highlighted.
Economic Assessment of Bleached Kraft Pulp Ma n u f a c t u r i n g
Technologies
Two key conclusionscan be drawn from the Task Forceseco-
nomic analysisof bleached kraft pulp manufacturing technolo-
gies. First, purchaserscurrently do not pay different pricesfor
191
paper manufactured using traditional pulping and bleaching,
traditional ECF, enhanced ECF or ozone ECF technologies.
This consistency in market pricing should continue into the
future. Market price premiumsfor TCF paper probably result
from a short-term imbalance of supply and demand. The lim-
ited availability that resultsfrom small production runsat non-
integrated mills rather than higher pulp manufacturing costs
may cause higher prices.
Second, there is no reason to expect price premiums for
paper productsmanufactured at millsthat install ozone ECF or
TCF technologiesin the future. For existing millswithout site-
specific limitations, the differencesin total manufacturing costs
among the array of available technologiesare generally small or
non-existent. (For a general discussion of price premiums, see
Chapter 3.) Installing these technologies is, in fact, likely to
reduce manufacturing costsfor new millsor for millsthat are
conducting major renovationsor expansions. These topicsare
analyzed further in Appendix B.
En v i ronmental Assessment of Bleached Kraft Pulp
ManufacturingTec h n o l o gi es
The seriesof chartsin Figure 10 comparesthe performance of
six different combinationsof kraft pulping and bleaching tech-
nologies for softwood pulps across seven environmental para-
met ers: BOD, COD, col or, AOX, bl each pl ant energy
consumption, chloroform air emissionsand bleach plant efflu-
ent flow. Additional data on these and other parameters that
can be used to evaluate manufacturing technologies are pre-
sented in AppendicesA and C. The parametersin Figure 10are
m e a su red at thebleach plant. Aspreviously described, re d u c t i o n s
to the actual releases to the environment will be achieved by
p o l l u t i o n - c o n t rol systems. The figures show that substituting
chlorine dioxidefor elemental chlorine reducesthevalue of sev-
eral parameters. Additional reductionsaccrue asmore adva n c e d
pulping and bleaching technologiesare used.
Major conclusions from the environmental comparison of
these technologiesare summarized below.
Traditional Pulpingand Bl ea c h i n g: Millswith traditional pulp-
ing processes and with bleaching processes that contain some
elemental chlorine.
Environmental Advantages: Energy consumption isabout 75%
of that for a mill with a traditional ECF sequence.
Environmental Disadvantages: Millsthat use traditional pulping
and bleaching processes have the highest releases of BOD,
COD, color and AOX of the processesconsidered in thissec-
ti on. Di oxin level s in the final effluent are often above the
detectable limit of 10 partsper quadrillion (10 ppq). Air emis-
sionsof chloroform are also highest.
1. Thesubstitution of chlorinedioxidefor elemental chlorinein the
first stageof thebleachingprocessreducesthedischargeof chlori-
nated organiccompounds.
Traditional ECF: Millswith traditional pulping processesthat
have substituted 100% chlorine dioxide for elemental chlorine
in the first bleaching stage.
Environmental Advantages: An ECF bleaching processprovides
improvement in effluent quality (AOX) and in air emissionsof
c h l o roform in comparison to a bleaching process with tradi-
tional pulping and bleaching. The dioxin level in the final efflu-
ent isbelow a detection limit of 10 partsper quadrillion (ppq),
but furansare occasionally found above thisdetection limit in
the bleach plant filtrates, which are more concentrated than the
final effluent.
En v i ronmental Disadva n t a ges:The traditional ECF processcon-
sumesthe most total and purchased energy of the available and
proven technologies. Dioxinsare also sometimesfound in the
pulp mill sludge above the limit of detection of 1 part per tril-
lion. Millswith traditional ECF processeswould currently have
to install oxygen delignification and/or extended delignification
to achieve additional improvement.
2. Theinstallation of oxygen delignification and extended cooking,
two availableand proven cost-effectivemanufacturingtechnologies
that maximizelignin removal in thepulpingprocess, formsa foun-
dation for further progresstoward theminimum-impact mill.
Enhanced ECF: Millsthat have installed oxygen delignification
and/or extended deligni fication processes along with 100%
chlorine dioxide substitution bleaching.
En v i ronmental Ad va n t a ges: Thequantity of bleach plant efflu-
ent from a mill with an enhanced ECF processistypically half
that of a mill with a traditional ECF process. Reducing the
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
192
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
li gnin content of the pulp before the first bl eaching stage
reduces the amount of bleaching chemicals used and re su l t s
i n lower total and purchased energy consumption and an
i m p rovement in the effluent quality compared to traditional
E C F. The dioxin level in the final effluent isbelow a detection
limit of 10 parts per quadrillion (ppq), but furans are occa-
sionall y found above this detection limit in the bleach plant
filtrates, which are more concentrated than the final effluent.
Environmental Disadvantages: Increased reuse of process water
may result in higher hazardous air pollutant emissions fro m
processsources.
3. Millsthat recirculatethefiltratesfromthefirst bleachingand
ex t raction stagesof thebleach plant makeadditional pro gress
t ow a rd theminimum-impact mill. Theselow-effluent processesrep-
resent themost advanced current technologies.
OzoneECF: Mills that have substituted ozone for chlorine
dioxide in the first stage of an enhanced ECF process.
Environmental Advantages: Millswith enhanced ECF processes
that replace chlorine dioxide with ozone in the first bleaching
stagecan reduce the volume of bleach plant effluent by 70-90%
re l a t i veto traditional ECF processesby re c i rculating the filtrates
from the first bleaching and extraction stages to the chemical
re c ove ry system. Low-effluent ozone ECF and TCF pro c e sse s
have the lowest energy consumption in the bleach plant of the
a vai l abl e technol ogi es. I nst al l i ng l ow-effl uent pro c e sse s
improvesthe effluent quality in comparison to that of a tradi-
ti onal ECF process. Di oxi ns (incl udi ng furans) are not
detectable at a limit of 10 ppq in the bleach plant filtratesand
may not be generated.
Environmental Disadvantages: Increased reuse of process water
may result in higher hazardous air pollutant emissions. Metal
concentrationsincrease asprocesswater isreused, and can affect
the process. Cu r rently mills with ozone processes discharge
some of the filtrate from the ozone stage to control the concen-
tration of metals. As mills continue to reduce the volume of
bleach plant effluent, metals may be disposed of with sol id
waste from the chemical recovery system.
Totallychlorine-free(TC F ) : Millsthat have replaced elemental
chlorineand chlorinedioxidewith ozoneand/or hyd rogen perox-
ide. Im p roved pulping processes, such asoxygen delignification
and/or extended delignification precedeTCF bleaching pro c e sse s.
En v i ronmental Ad va n t a ges: Mi l ls wi th TCF processes can
a c h i e ve similar reductions in bleach plant effluent volume as
millswith ozone ECF processes, if they recirculate the filtrates
from the first bleaching and extraction stages to the chemical
recovery system. Millswith low-effluent TCF processesachieve
similar reductions in BOD, COD and color, and AOX levels
are at background levels. Dioxinsare not expected to be gener-
ated during TCF bleaching processesbecause no source of
elemental chlorine is present. Low-effluent ozo n e
ECF and TCF processeshave the lowest energy
consumption in the bleach plant of the avail-
able technologies.
En v i ronmental Disadva n t a ges: In c re a se d
reuse of processwater may result in higher
h a z a rdous air pol lutant emissions. Me t a l
concentrations increase as process water is
reused, and can affect theprocess. Estimates
of increased wood re q u i rements for TC F
p rocesses range from 0%-11%
4 7
in compari-
son t o t he wood re q u i rements for an ECF
processwith traditional pulping.
Enhanced ECF with chlorideremoval: An experimental
l ow-effluent processthat modifiesa mill with an enhanced ECF
p rocess to allow it to re c i rculate bleach plant filtrates in the
chemical re c ove ry system. The mill install s equi pment to
re m ove thechloridethat the bleach plant filtrate brings into the
chemical re c ove ry system. A mill-scale demonstration of this
add-on technology began in September 1995 and is expected to
be completed in June 1997. If the demonstration issuccessful,
then the mill will continue normal operations with the new
technology in place.
En v i ronmental Ad va n t a ges: Enhanced ECF with chloride re m ova l
isexpected to achievesimilar reductionsin bleach plant effluent
volume and improvements in effluent quality comparable to
thosethat result from low-effluent ozoneECF processes. To t a l
and purchased energy consumption are projected to be lowe r
than that of a traditional ECF process. Total energy consumption
isexpected to be slightly higher than that for an enhanced ECF
p rocess; howe ve r, thepurchased energy consumption isexpected
193
M i l l s t h a t r e c i r c u l a t e
t h e f i l t r a t e s f r o m t h e
f i r s t b l e a c h i n g a n d
e x t r a c t i o n s t a g e s o f t h e
b l e a c h p l a n t m a k e a d d i -
t i o n a l p r o g r e s s t o w a r d
t h e m i n i m u m - i m p a c t m i l l .
Th e s e l o w - e f f l u e n t
p r o c e s s e s r e p r e s e n t
t h e m o s t a d v a n c e d
c u r r e n t t e c h n o l o g i e s .
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
194
Fi gur e 10
Es t i m a t e s o f En v i r o n m e n t a l a n d P r o c e s s I n d i c a t o r s f o r
B l e a c h e d K r a f t P u l p M a n u f a c t u r i n g Te c h n o l o g i e s
195
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
to be somewhat lower than that of an enhanced ECF pro c e ss
becauseof the energy savingsthat result from the steam generated
f rom the re c ove ry of additional organic material.
En v i ronmental Disadva n t a ges: In c reased water reuse may
resul t i n hi gher hazardous ai r pol l ut ant emissi ons fro m
p rocess sources. The combusti on of chl ori nated organic
compoundsin the re c ove ry boiler may result in air emissions
of dioxins. The mill-scale demonstration will monitor the air
emissions to investigate these potential re l e a se s.
4. Futuretechnologiesmayemergethat makeadditional progress
toward theminimum-impact mill.
Thepace of re se a rch and development of new technologieshas
quickened dramatically in thelast five years, giving manufacture r s
m o reoptionsto consider. Agenda2020, are se a rch agendapro p o se d
by theAmerican Fo rest & Paper Association, providesan indica-
tion of thetrendsin re se a rch on future technological advances.
Fi g u re 9 depicts two groups of experimental technol ogy
pathways. Chloride removal technologies are currently under-
going a mill-scale demonstration. Other potential future tech-
nologies are being tested at the laboratory and the pilot plant
scale. As described in previous sections, these technologies
include novel bleaching agentsand other processmodifications.
These new technologiesare in different phasesof development,
and it is difficult to predict when they will become commer-
cially available. Purchasersshould recognize that new technolo-
giesin pulp and paper manufacturing do not providebenefitsto
theenvironment until they are actually running at a commerc i a l
scale. In the paper industry, technologiesusually require a min-
imum of five to ten yearsof laboratory and pilot plant testing
before they reach mill-scale demonstration. Technologiessuch
as oxygen delignification and ozone bleaching took about 20
yearsfrom initial laboratory demonstration to successful com-
mercial application, for example.
Availability:
Figure 11 showsthe production of different typesof bleached
kraft pulpsin the United Statesin 1994. Paper productsmanu-
f a c t u red using 100% chlorine dioxide substitution alone and
with different combinations of extended delignification and
oxygen delignification makeup approximately 25% of that pro-
Fi gur e 11
Es t i m a t e s o f 19 9 4 B l e a c h e d
K r a f t P u l p P r o d u c t i o n
196
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
duction. Paper made using traditional and enhanced ECF pulp-
ing and bleaching processesare expected to increase.
T h i rty-four percent of bleached kraft pulp produced in the
United Statesin 1994 wasmanufactured using extended deligni-
fication, oxygen delignification or both but still using some ele-
mental chlorine. Most, if not all, of theseproducersare poised to
eliminate elemental chlorinefrom their processes. Asa result of
thischange, close to half of all bleached kraft pulp in the Un i t e d
Stateswould be manufactured using enhanced ECF processes.
For manufacturersusing traditional ECF processes, curre n t l y
about 8% of production, sunk investmentsin chlorine dioxide
generati on capacity wil l tend t o wei gh agai nst i nstal l ing
extended or oxygen delignification. Installing these improve d
pulping technologies would idle some of the chlorine dioxide
generating capacity.
Ozone ECF and TCF pulps currently are not widely ava i l-
able, but thiswill change over time. In 1994, one U.S. mill pro-
duced about 300,000 metric tons of bleached softwood kraft
pulp using a low-effluent ECF processwith ozone bleaching. In
1996, another two U.S. millswill produce bleached kraft hard-
wood pulp with an ECF processusing ozonebleaching. In 1994,
one U.S. mill produced about 200,000 metric tonsof bleached
softwood kraft pulp using a low-effluent TCF process. Se ve r a l
Scandinavian bleached kraft pulp millsoperate low-effluent TC F
p rocesses. The available quantity of TCF bleached kraft pulp will
i n c reaseby asmuch as900,000 metric tonsin 1997 when two
n ew Scandinavian bleached kraft millsbegin operation, includ-
ing one mill with a virtually closed water system.
Product Ref o rmulation by Changing the Types of Pu l p s
Used in Paper Products
Recommendation 4. Pu rchasersof paper packaging, such as cor-
rugated boxes and foldingcartons, should seek to purc h a se
paper productsmadeof unbleached kraft paperboard rather
than bleached kraft paperboard in caseswherethepackaging
meetsfunctional and economic requirements.
Ra t i o n a l e: Because themanufacturing processhasfewer steps,
unbleached kraft pulp production has lower energy con-
sumption and environmental releasesthan doesthe produc-
tion of bleached kraft pulps. Fi g u re C-1 and Table C-1 i n
Appendix C present a more detailed comparison of the envi-
ronmental performance of coated bleached and unbleached
kraft paperboard. Unbleached kraft pulp also useswood more
efficiently than bleached kraft pulp and isgenerally stronger.
Case studies of companies that have made these packaging
shiftshave shown that consumer acceptance and overall per-
formance needscan readily be met.
Availability/timing: Coated unbleached kraft for folding car-
tonsisavailable today. Unbleached linerboard isoften substi-
tuted for whi te-lined boxes. Switching to these materials
allowsthe purchaser to achieve environmental benefitsin the
near term and will generally reduce costs.
Recommendation 5. Pu rchasersof coated printing and writ-
ing papers should ex p ress their pref erence for paper that
i n c reases thesubstitution of mechanical pulp for bleached
kraft pulp in cases wherethepaper meetsfunctional and eco-
nomic req u i remen t s.
Ra t i o n a l e. All coated printing and writing paperscontain soft-
wood bleached kraft pulp to avoid paper breaks during the
printing process. Coated groundwood paperstypically contain
an equal mix of softwood bleached kraft and gro u n d w o o d
pulps. En v i ronmentally preferable coated papersmaximize the
g roundwood content, but do not increase the number of
b reaks per roll of paper. Mechanical pulping processes have
l ower releases to the environment and use wood re so u rc e s
m o reefficiently than do bleached kraft pulping processes. Pro-
ducing aton of mechanical pulp re q u i resabout half thewood
of ableached kraft process. Mechanical pulping processesdo,
h owe ve r, consume more purchased el ectrici ty than do
bleached kraft pulping processes. The resulting emissionsof
air pollutantssuch assulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxidesand par-
ticulatesdepend on the fuelsused by the utilitiesto generate
thiselectricity. Fi g u re C-2 and Table C-2 in Appendix C pre-
sent a moredetailed comparison of theenvironmental perf o r-
manceof coated freesheet and lightweight coated papers.
Im p rovements in the pulping and papermaking pro c e ss
h a ve resul ted in the manufacture of coated gro u n d w o o d
papersthat have brightnesssimilar to some coated freesheet
grades. In some applications, coated groundwood paperscan
meet functional re q u i rements at lower basis weights and at
197
lower cost than coated freesheet papers.
Availability/timing: The availability of No. 4 coated ground-
wood paperscontinuesto grow. These papershave 77 to 80
GE brightnessand other propertiessimilar to the equivalent
f reesheet grade. Coated groundwood papers that will com-
pete with No. 3 freesheet gradesmay become available in the
near future. These papers generally have lower prices than
coated freesheet paper with equivalent brightness.
Recommendation 6. Purchasersof printingand writingpapers
should ex p ress their pref erence for paper that substitutes
bleached kraft for bleached sulfitepulps in caseswherethepaper
meetsfunctional and economic requirements.
Rationale: On average, sulfite pulp millsin the United States
have higher air and water emissionsthan bleached kraft pulp
mills per ton of production. The size of releases, howe ve r,
sh ow more variability than do releases from bleached kraft
mills, because sulfite millsuse different pulping chemicalsand
technologiesthat depend on the mix of final products. Thus
the performance of an individual sulfite mill may be similar
to that of akraft mill producing thesame product. Because of
thisva r i a b i l i t y, purchaserswho buy paper that containssulfite
pulp should evaluate the performance of the mill producing
the paper. Figure C-3 and Table C-3 in Appendix C present
a more detailed comparison of the environmental perf o r-
mance of business papers that contain bl eached kraft and
bleached sulfite pulps.
Unbleached sulfite pulps are significantly brighter than
unbleached kraft pulps. Sulfite pulpsrequire lower quantities
of bleaching chemicalsand can achieve very high brightness
l e vels as a result. High brightness, howe ve r, is appro p r i a t e
only for highly specific uses. Sulfite pulps also are easier to
bleach with TCF processes. While TCF bleaching will elimi -
natedischargesof chlorinated organic compounds, purc h a se r s
should consider the overall environmental performance of
millsthat produce paper that contain sulfite pulps.
Ava i l a b i l i t y/ t i mi n g: Most grades of printi ng and writi ng
papers are produced with bleached kraft pulps; as a re su l t ,
substitutesfor sulfite pulpsare widely available.
Recommendation 7. Pu rchasers of coated and uncoated
f reesheet paper should consider paper productsthat contain
bleached chemithermomechanical pulp (BCTMP) asa partial
substitutefor hardwood kraft pulp in caseswherethepaper is
availableand meetsfunctional and economic requirements.
Ra t i o n a l e: BCTMP is the end product of a re l a t i vely new
pulping process that offers paper manufacturers who need
additional bleached pulp a high quality, lower-cost option
that also hasenvironmental advantages. The market price of
BCTMP i s about 12.5% l ower t han t hat of nort h e r n
bl eached hardwood kraft market pul p i n mi d-1995.
4 8
BCTMP costs less because the capital costs to install a new
state-of-the-art mill are about half those of a new kraft mill
per daily ton of capacity. BCTMP millsalso can increase the
amount of fiber available to papermakers. Their low water
use, smaller efficient scale and low wood use compared to
bleached kraft pulp millsallow these millsto be sited in loca-
tionswhere most kraft pulp millscannot operate.
BCTMP processesgenerate low releasesto the enviro n m e n t
and use wood re so u rces efficiently compared to bl eached
kraft pulp. However, BCTMP processesconsume more pur-
chased energy. Thus, substituting BCTMP tradesfossil fuels
or hydropower for biomassfuels. Figure C-4 in Appendix C
illustrates the effect on energy consumption and releases to
the envi ronment of i ncorporat i ng 20% BCTMP i nto
uncoated businesspaper.
The impact on the re c yclability of printing and writing
papers that incorporate BCTMP depends on the grade of
p a p e r. The re c yclability of coated papersisnot affected by the
addition of BCTMP, because old magazines, the grade of
recovered paper that includescoated papers, already contains
mechanically pulped fibers. The current recycling infrastruc-
ture can handle the gradual introduction of BCTMP in spe-
cialty uncoated papers produced by non-integrated mills.
Bales of re c ove red paper with large quantities of BCTMP
fiber will probably have lessvalue than recovered paper with
bleached kraft fibers.
Availability/timing: Canadian millsproduced about 2 million
metric tons of BCTMP in 1994. They sell it primarily to
Eu ropean and Asian mills, where it is incorporated into a
range of paper products. Paper millsin the northern Un i t e d
Stateswith below - a verageenergy costshave the most opport u-
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
198
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
nity to use BCTMP, asthe wood most suitable to BCTMP
p rocesses is grown there. These mills are also closer to the
Canadian pulp mills that currently produce BCTMP; thus
t r a n sp o rtation costsshould belower for millsthat buy mark e t
p u l p. With theincrease in hardwood bleached kraft pulp costs,
some non-integrated paper mills in the United States have
incorporated BCTMP into their paper. Traditional classifica-
tionsof f re e sh e e t paper gradesin the United Stateshave lim-
ited the substitution of BCTMP for hardwood bleached kraft
pulp to lessthan 10% of thefiber weight. Pu rchasing specifi-
cations based on gro u n d w o o d / f reesheet classifications may
need to be re c o n si d e red. Adjustments in thepaper-re c yc l i n g
system may also be necessary.
Recommendation 8. Purchasersshould beopen to considering
paper productsthat contain non-wood agricultural residuefiber
in caseswheretheproductsareavailableand meet functional
and economic requirements.
Ra t i o n a l e: Op p o rtunities to incorporate non-wood agricul-
tural residue fiber into paper productsmay arise asa result of
a combination of a millsgeographic location, specific prod-
uct formulation and timing. Using agricultural residues in
paper offers a beneficial use for what would otherwise be a
waste product and does not entail additional use of land to
provide fiber for use in paper.
In contrast, currently avail able re se a rch suggests that,
where there isa choice, it would be environmentally prefer-
able to grow treesrather than annual cropsfor paper. These
studiesindicated that annual cropsdo not appear to offer a
yield of fiber per acre per year significantly greater than that
of fast-growing trees from plantations when one compare s
fibers with similar performance pro p e rties. In many cases,
annual cropsalso may re q u i re higher and more frequent doses
of fertilizer and pesticidesto produce a ton of fiber than do
t ree plantations and do not provide addi tional benefi ts,
including habitat for wildlife and water-quality protection.
Modern papermaking with non-wood fibers, howe ve r, is
in itsinfancy, and definitive information on the issuesraised
a b ove is lacking. Non-wood fibersmay also re q u i re smaller
quantitiesof chemicalsand consume lessenergy in chemical
and mechanical pulp manufacturing processes. With addi-
tional re se a rch, new processesand technologiesmay bedeve l-
oped that enhancethe environmental benefitsof using annual
cropsasa source of fiber for papermaking, at least for specific
paper gradesof paper in specific regionsof the United States.
Ava i l a b i l i t y/ t i mi n g: A program in the Pacific No rt h west to
incorporate 7-10% rye straw into corrugating medium has
been underway for several years. Other potential usesof non-
wood fibers are in earlier stages of development. The Ta sk
Fo rc es re se a rch suggests that non-wood pulps will have to
ove rcome several economic barriers before they are widely
used in paper productsin the United St a t e s.
V. IMPLEMENTATION OPTIONS
The Paper Task Force hasidentified a range of action stepsand
guidance that purchaserscan use to implement the recommen-
dationson pulp and paper manufacturing. The first topic cov-
ered in thissection is:
Action steps options that purchasers can use to incre a se
their purchasesof paper manufactured using enviro n m e n t a l l y
preferable production processes
The remaining topicsprovide guidance for purchasersto use
asthey work with their suppliersto implement the recommen-
dation concerning:
Minimum-impact mills a holistic manufacturing concept
provided by paper suppliersthat encompasses:
a vision and a definition of the minimum-impact mill
environmental management systems
manufacturing technology and R&D programs
Product reformulationby changing the typesof pulpsused in
paper products
All purchasers can select action steps that incorporate the
Task Forcesrecommendationson pulp and paper manufactur-
ing into their purchasing process. Pu rc h a se r s ability to commu-
ni cate t hei r i nterest i n buyi ng paper manufactured using
e n v i ronmentally preferable manufacturing processes depends
on their position in the supply chain.
Usersof large quantitiesof paper who buy directly from inte-
199
grated paper millscan obtain information directly from their
suppliers.
Purchaserswho buy from paper merchantsand office prod-
ucts stores can ask them to obtain informati on from the
paper manufacturer.
Purchaserswho buy paper from non-integrated manufactur-
ers can ask the paper manufacturer to obtain information
about the purchased pulpsin their products.
Ac t i on St eps
1. Ed u c a t e y o u r s e l f a b o u t y o u r p a p e r u s e a n d y o u r
s u p p l i e r s .
Identify the key functional requirements of the paper based
on its end uses. Informed purchasers can select paper based
on itsperformance rather than by grade or classification. For
example, amagazine publisher caresabout the opacity, bright-
ness, gloss, runability and printability of the paper. Aslong as
the paper satisfies these re q u i rements, the specific grade of
paper islessimportant.
Read publicly available information about your suppliers.
Many paper manufacturers pre p a re annual enviro n m e n t a l
reports. These reportsoften provide descriptionsof environ-
mental management programsand compliance records. The
m o reuseful re p o rtsgive quantitativemeasuresof mills energy
use and releasesto the environment. They explain what this
data meansand how it ischanging over time. These reports
can also discussareasfor improvement and future plans.
Corporate annual re p o rts and quarterl y financial state-
mentsalso contain useful information such asdescriptionsof
maj or mil l moderni zations and other large inve st m e n t s.
Qu a rterly financial statements often have information on a
c o m p a n ys compl i ance re c o rd, because compani es are
re q u i red to re p o rt significant violations and fines to their
shareholders. Be aware that standardsand enforcement levels
vary from state to state.
2 . H a v e a d i a l o g u e w i t h y o u r s u p p l i e r .
By including a discussion of environmental performance in a
dialogue with suppliers, purchasersmake their suppliersaware
of the importance of this issue to them. The guidance below
providesspecific information that purchaserscan ask for in dis-
cussionswith their suppliersto broaden their understanding of
their suppl iers commitment to continuous enviro n m e n t a l
improvement and of the progressthey have made to date.
3 . D e v e l o p a s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r a s p e c i f i c p a p e r
p r o d u c t .
Pu rchasersmay wish to specify thetypesof pulpsor amanufac-
turing processused in thepaper they buy. These purchaserswould
then buy paper from thesuppliersthat meet the specification.
4 . R e w a r d s u p p l i e r s w i t h a d d i t i o n a l b u s i n e s s .
Based on your evaluation and your suppliersability to provide
the paper productsyou want, purchasersmay wish to purchase
m o re paper from suppliers that meet their needs. Pu rc h a se r s
who take thisstep send a strong signal to the market about their
interest in improved environmental performance.
5 . D e v e l o p a s t r a t e g i c a l l i a n c e w i t h a s u p p l i e r .
De veloping a strategic alliance deepens the relationship with
p re f e r red suppliers. Pu rchasersgenerally buy larger quantitiesof
paper within these alliances. Purchasersand suppliersalso work
together to achieve mutual long-term goals.
6 . Wo r k w i t h y o u r s u p p l i e r s t o e s t a b l i s h g o a l s a n d
m i l e s t o n e s f o r c h a n g i n g t h e p a p e r y o u p u r c h a s e .
Pu rchaserscan work with suppliersto increase the percentageof
their paper purchasesthat are made with specific processtech-
nologiesover time, for example. Purchasersand suppliersmay
w o rk together to reformulatea product by changing the typesof
pulpscontained in that product.
Mi ni mum- Impac t Mi l l s
In evaluating your suppliers approach to the minimum-impact
mill, obtain information from the suppliers on the follow i n g
components:
the vision and commitment to the minimum-impact mill
the environmental management systems
manufacturing technologiesand research programs
Refer to Recommendations1-3 for more information re g a rd-
ing these components. Use the quality and thoroughness of a
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
200
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
suppliersanswersto the questionsbelow to assessthe quality of
their programs.
1. V i s i o n a n d C o m m i t m e n t t o t h e M i n i m u m - I m p a c t M i l l
A company-wide definition of the minimum-impact mill and
a goal to progresstoward it
Plansto make processmodificationsor other pollution-pre-
vention measuresto make progresstoward thisgoal
How mills integrate the definition of the minimum-impact
mill into their investment strategy, both for major new pro-
jects and for the replacement or re n ovation of individual
piecesof equipment over time
Examples of investments in specific manufacturing tech-
nologi es or systems that are consistent with achi evi ng
progresstoward the minimum-impact mill
How suppliersmeasure environmental progressat their mills
2 . En v i r o n m e n t a l M a n a g e m e n t S y s t e m s
Major featuresof theenvironmental management system (EMS)
How millsmeasure the performance of the EMS
Examples of how the EMS has improved enviro n m e n t a l
performance
Instances of significant non-compliance (a specific legal
term) reported in the last 3 years
Plans to avoid these significant non-compliance events in
the future
The role of the EMSin improving suppliers compliance
record
Future plansand past track record in going beyond regula-
tory compliance
Once ISO 14001 isapproved, would your suppliersconsider
obtaining certification for their mills?
3 . P u l p a n d P a p e r M a n u f a c t u r i n g Te c h n o l o g i e s a n d
R e s e a r c h P r o g r a m s
An assessment of manufacturing technologies provides the
most direct information about suppliers pro g ress tow a rd the
minimum-impact mill. Su p p l i e r s re se a rch and deve l o p m e n t
p rograms indicate their commitment to continuous enviro n-
ment al i mprovement and t hei r l i kel i hood of i nstal l i ng
a d vanced pollution-pre vention technologiesin advance of the
a verage manufacture r.
Obtain the following information on pollution-pre ve n t i o n
approachesto improve the manufacturing technologiesfor the
paper you purchase that containseach of the following pulps:
Mechanical pulps:
Reductionsin the water and energy consumption
Unbleached pulps:
Reductionsin water consumption
Reductions in the di scharge of spent pul pi ng
liquor from spillsand washing
Recycled content pulps:
Reductionsin water and energy consump-
tion
The bleaching processfor deinked fiber
Methods to reduce t he l andfi l li ng of
processresidue (sludge)
Bleached kraft pulps:
Thepulping and bleaching processesused to
p roducethe typeof paper you purchase. [Eva l u-
atetheir answer based on thediagram of technol-
ogy pathways(Fi g u re 9) ]
Plansfor new manufacturing technology investments
Do these processtechnologiesreduce natural resource con-
sumption and releasesto the environment?
If a supplier plansto install potential future technologies
What istheir current level of development?
When do they expect to i nstall these technologies at
paper mills?
Obtain the following information on research and develop-
ment programs:
In-house re se a rch programs and/or support for re se a rch on
a d vanced poll ution-pre vention technologies at schools of
pulp and paper science
Percentage of salesthat fundsthese programs
How have re se a rch programstranslated into the deve l o p m e n t
and installation of specific manufacturing technologies at
suppliers mills?
201
An a s s e s s m e n t o f m a n u f a c t u r -
i n g t e c h n o l o g i e s p r o v i d e s t h e
m o s t d i r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t
s u p p l i e r s p r o g r e s s t o w a r d
t h e m i n i m u m - i m p a c t m i l l .
Envi r onment al Per f or manc e Indi c at or s
Most businessesthat seek to improve the quality of their pro d-
uctsor servicesuse quantitativemeasuresto assesstheir pro g re ss.
ThePaper Task Fo rce hasdeveloped two setsof measuresthat
can beused to assess environmental pro g resstow a rd the mini-
mum-impact mill. The first set of indicatorscan be used to eva l-
uateonesupplierspro gressover time. The second set can be used
to co mp a retechnologiesused bydifferent suppliersto manufacture
bleached kraft and sulfitepulp. These indicatorsare defined in
the chaptersove rv i ew of pulp and paper manufacturing.
Using these indicatorswill not be a simple task initially, and
will re q u i rea dialoguewith your suppliers. At first, paper pur-
chaserswho havedirect relationshipswith paper manufacture r s
will be most ableto usethese indicators. Asmore purchasersuse
thisapproach, it will become easier and more automatic.
Purchasersthat buy paper from specific millsmay prefer to
receive these data on a mill-by-mill basis. Purchasersneed data
f rom individual mills to assess compliance re c o rds. Su p p l i e r s
should be able to provide thisinformation, because millsreport
these data to local and state regulators. Other purchasersmay
prefer to see these data on a more aggregated basis, at the divi-
si o n
4 9
or company level, for example. Aggregating these data
may also avoid a suppliersconcern about releasing proprietary
information. Non-integrated manufacturers should be able to
p rovideestimatesof environmental releasesthat incorporate fac-
torsfor the market pulp they buy.
50
1. I n d i c a t o r s o f G e n e r a l E n v i r o n m e n t a l P e r f o r m a n c e
Thisset of indicatorsprovidesquantitative information about
energy consumption and releases to the environment of regu-
lated substances. Several inter-related factorsaffect the valuesof
these indicators:
The manufacturing technology at a mill
The type of pollution-control equipment
The operation of the pollution-control equipment
Local environmental conditions
En v i ronmental permits (which are based on local enviro n-
mental conditionsand thuscan vary among different states).
Local environmental conditionsinclude the size of the river
that the mill dischargesinto, the presence of other industrial
facilitiesthat also discharge into therive r, or the number of peo-
ple or sensitive ecosystemsnear the mill.
A list of theindicators, and how to collect and use them follow s.
Indicatorsof General Environmental Performance
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Unit of Measure = kg/metric ton of final product
Color
Unit of Measure = kg/metric ton of final product
Fresh Water Use
Unit of Measure = gallons/ton of final product
Sulfur Dioxide(SO
2
)
Unit of Measure = pounds/ton of final product
Nitrogen Oxides(NOx)
Unit of Measure = pounds/ton of final product
Total Reduced Sulfur Compounds(TRS)
Unit of Measure = pounds/ton of final product
Total EnergyConsumption
Unit of Measure = millionsof Btus/ton of final product
Purchased EnergyConsumption
Unit of Measure = millionsof Btus/ton of final product
Collectingthedata:
From suppliers, obtain state permit re q u i rements, supplier
emissions data and statistical process variability for the per-
formance indicatorsabove. Millshavethesedata because they
monitor these indicatorson a regular basis.
The monthlyaveragedescribesthe level of performance.
The statistical variabilityof thedata describesthe effective-
ness of process control systems and the enviro n m e n t a l
management system.
Information can be requested for a specific mill or on a
more aggregated level for a division or company.
Fi g u re D-1 in Appendix D containsan exampleof a form deve l-
oped by aTask Fo rcemember for itspurchasersto collect thesedata.
Usingthedata:
C o m p a re the suppl ier-re p o rted data to the state permi t
requirementsto determine the following:
Isthesupplier in compliance with environmental re g u l a t i o n s?
Doesthe suppliersenvironmental performance go beyond
compliance?
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
202
Pu rchasers should be aware that mills operate substantially
below their permit limitson a routine basis.
C o m p a re dataover several yearsto determinewhether thesup-
plier demonstratescontinuousenvironmental improve m e n t .
Discuss suppliers track re c o rd to understand the basis for
their environmental performance. Ask about:
the technologiesand other processchangesthe mill hasmade
in thepast to achieve their current level of perf o r m a n c e
future plansto improve environmental performance
if improvements have been made in the past, discuss the
c u r rent opportunities and limitations to achieving addi-
tional improvement
h ow the performance i ndicators measure the suppliers
progressand timing toward the long-term goal of the min-
imum-impact mill
2 . P e r f o r m a n c e I n d i c a t o r s f o r B l e a c h e d K r a f t a n d
S u l f i t e P u l p i n g Te c h n o l o g i e s
Thisset of performance indicatorsappliesto millsthat produce
bleached kraft and sulfite pulp. Purchaserscan use these indica-
torsto comparethe performance of pollution-prevention tech-
nologies and operations at different mills, because the size of
the indicatorsdependson the technologiesinstalled at the mill.
A list of theindicators, and how to collect and use them follow s.
Indicatorsfor Bleached Kraft and SulfitePulpingTechnologies
Bleach Plant Effluent Flow
Unit of Measure = gallons/ton of final product
AdsorbableOrganicHalogens(AOX)
Unit of Measure = kg/metric ton of final product
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Unit of Measure = kg/metric ton of final product
Dioxins
Unit of Measure = picograms/liter of water (partsper
quadrillion)
Collectingthedata:
From suppliers, obtain supplier emissionsdata and statistical
p rocess variabil ity for the performance i ndicators above .
Some statesmay include these parametersin their operating
permits.
The monthlyaveragedescribesthe level of performance.
The statistical variabilityof thedatadescribesthe effective-
nessof processcontrol systemsand theenvironmental man-
agement system.
Information can berequested for a specificmill or on amore
aggregated level for a division or company.
Fi g u re D-2 in Appendix D contains an example of a form
developed by a Task Force member for itspurchasersto collect
these data.
Usingthesedata:
Compare the data reported by different manufacturersof the
same product to assessthe environmental performance of the
pollution-prevention technologiesinstalled by each supplier.
C o m p a re data over time to determine whether a supplier
demonstratescontinuousenvironmental improvement.
Discuss these comparisons with suppliers to understand the
basisfor their environmental performance. Ask about:
the technologies and other process changes the mill has
made to achieve this level of performance (For guidance,
refer to the technology pathwaysin Figure 9.)
future plansto improve the level of performance
if improvements have been made in the past, discuss the
c u r rent opportunities and limitations to achieving addi-
tional improvement
h ow the performance i ndicators measure the suppliers
progressand timing toward the long-term goal of the min-
imum-impact mill
Figure 10 illustratestrendsin the size of these indicatorsfor the
bleach plant filtratesfrom a softwood bleached kraft pulp mill
that usesa range of manufacturing technologies.
Pr oduc t Ref or mul at i on Bas ed on Changes i n
Pul ps Used i n Spec i f i c Paper Pr oduc t s
Many opportunitiesexist to substitute environmentally pre f e r-
ablepulps in paper products. Making these substitutions also
may result in some cost savingsfor the purc h a se r. Pu rchasersmust
first evaluate their paper use to take advantage of these opport u-
nities. To identify possiblepulp substitutions, purchasersneed to
learn what typesof pulp are used in a given paper product, and
203
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
h ow the potential substitutesaffect key functional re q u i re-
ments. Table 2 listsmajor paper and paperboard grades,
along with information about potential pulp substitutes.
VI. ANSWERS TO FREQUENTLY
ASKED QUESTIONS
1. Wh y s h o u l d p u r c h a s e r s b e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e
e n v i r o n m e n t a l p e r f o r m a n c e o f a s u p p l i e r b e y o n d
m e e t i n g f e d e r a l , s t a t e a n d l o c a l r e g u l a t i o n s ?
Being in compliancewith environmental regulationsisan impor-
tant starting point but that may not beenough to help asupplier
a c h i e ve the long-term goal of sustainable pulp and paper manu-
facturing or gain the additional environmental and economic
a d vantagesof pollution-pre vention approachesin manufacturing.
Pulp and paper manufacturersalready are making their pro-
duction processesmore sustainable by using pollution-preven-
tion approaches. Some paper manufacturers view pollution as
waste that results from an inefficient manufacturing pro c e ss.
Some have supported pollution-prevention approachesaspro-
viding an extra margin of environmental safety, as a way to
reduce the probability of undesired environmental surprises, or
asameansof meeting future regulationsand social expectations
over the long lifespan of manufacturing equipment.
There are economic advantagesto the pollution-prevention
approach, aswell. Some paper manufacturershave emphasized
thecompetitiveadvantage that comesfrom moreefficient useof
resources, lower costsfor complying with environmental regu-
lationsand the ability to compete more effectively in environ-
mentally sensitive marketssuch asEurope.
By focusing on the process, companieshave developed inno-
vative technologiesand practicesthat have reduced releasesto
the environment and saved money. Companieswith strong pol-
lution-reduction programsare moving forward for non-regula-
tory reasons. Weve gotten hooked on emissionsreductions,
saysDu Po n tsvice president for safety, health and enviro n m e n t .
The lowest cost operators of the twenty-first century will be
those with the least amount of environmental waste.
51
2 . Wi l l i m p l e m e n t i n g p o l l u t i o n - p r e v e n t i o n a p p r o a c h e s
t h a t r e d u c e p u l p m i l l r e l e a s e s t o w a t e r r e s u l t i n
l a r g e r r e l e a s e s t o a i r o r l a n d ?
Pollution-prevention approachesminimize releasesof waste to
the environment through technology changes, processcontrol,
204
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
PAPER GRADE U S E S P OTENTIAL REFORMULAT I O N AVA I L A B I L I T Y / C O M M E N T S
(PULPS USED) OR SUBSTITUTION
Specialty Uncoated Text and cover paper Substitute bleached kraft W i d e ly av a i l able except at
F r e e s h e e t for books, l e t t e r h e a d , for sulfite- based pap e r v e ry high brightness levels
(Bleached kraft pulp, s t at i o n e ry, business
some sulfite pulp) c a r d s , short printing runs Substitute up to 30% BCTMP BCTMP market pulp is currently
( e . g . ,i n v i t at i o n s ) ,e t c . for hardwood bleached kraft pulp manufactured in Canada.
N o n - i n t e gr ated suppliers are
most likely to use it because
BCTMP is less expensive than
bleached kraft pulp
C o ated Freesheet C at a l o g s ,h i g h e r- end Substitute higher brightness Av a i l able; brightness levels
(Bleached kraft pulp) m ag a z i n e s , direct mail p apers containing mechanical pulp are increasing to match some
i n s e r t s , annual reports, types of coated freesheet
commercial printing
Mottled W h i t e / C o r r u g ated boxes Unbleached linerboard W i d e ly av a i l able
Solid Bleached
L i n e r b o a r d
(Bleached kraft pulp)
Solid Bleached Folding cartons and C o ated unbleached kraft Av a i l ability is gr o w i n g
S u l f ate Pap e r b o a r d other packagi n g p ap e r b o a r d
(Bleached kraft pulp)
Tabl e 2
P o t e n t i a l R e f o r m u l a t i o n o f P r o d u c t s
U s i n g En v i r o n m e n t a l l y P r e f e r a b l e P u l p s
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
raw material substitution, and product reformulation aswell as
t h rough improved training, maintenance and housekeeping.
These approachesseek to reduce pollution by avoiding itsfor-
mati on i n the first place; there f o re, pol luti on-pre ve n t i o n
approachesdo not include technologiesor practicesthat trans-
fer pollution acrossmedia. Sometimes, howe ve r, achieving a sig-
ni fi cant reducti on i n rel eases t o water may resul t i n a
c o m p a r a t i vely small increase in air emissionsor solid waste. Po l-
lution-prevention approachesreduce the total releasesand risk
to human health and the environment.
3 . Wh a t i s e l e m e n t a l c h l o r i n e - f r e e
( E C F ) b l e a c h i n g ?
El emental chlorine-free (ECF) bleaching processes substitute
chlorine dioxide for elemental chlorine in the bleaching process.
Under some conditions, the use of chlorine dioxide in place
of chlorine may not completely eliminate the presence of chlo-
rine in the bleaching process, howe ve r. Chlorine can beformed
in some older chlorine dioxide generating equipment, or can
be created in chemical reactionsinvolving chlorine dioxide in
the bleach plant.
4 . A r e t h e r e d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f EC F
b l e a c h i n g p r o c e s s e s ?
The Task Fo rce has identified three different processes: tradi-
tional ECF, enhanced ECF and low-effluent ECF processes.
Millswith traditional ECF processesreplace elemental chlo-
rine with chlorine dioxide. Your suppliers may refer to this
processasECF bleaching.
Millswith enhanced ECF processesuse oxygen delignification
and/or extended delignification to re m ove more lignin during
the pulping processbefore bleaching the pulp with an ECF
process.
Mi ll s wi th l ow-effluent ECF p rocesses have modified an
enhanced ECF processto send additional organic waste gen-
erated in the bleach plant back to the chemical recovery sys-
tem. In a low-effluent o zoneECF p rocess, ozone re p l a c e s
chlorine dioxide in the first bleaching stage of an enhanced
ECF process. A second approach uses an enhanced ECF
processbut installsadditional technologiesin other partsof
the mill to remove chlorides from the bleach plant filtrates.
One such technology is undergoing a mill-scale demonstra-
tion in North Carolina.
5 . Wh y s h o u l d p u r c h a s e r s l o o k f o r p a p e r t h a t
c o n t a i n s b l e a c h e d k r a f t p u l p m a d e w i t h EC F
b l e a c h i n g p r o c e s s e s ?
Eliminating elemental chlorine from the bleach plant
reduces the envi ronmental impacts associ ated
wi t h the di scharge of hi ghl y-chl ori nat ed
organic compounds, such asdioxins.
By installing improved pulping pro c e sse s,
such asoxygen delignification or extended
delignification, millscan remove asmuch
lignin as possi ble from the unbleached
pulp, and thusreduce their chemical use
and releasesto the environment.
L ow-effluent processesreduce these re l e a se s
f u rther and thusprovideadditional pro g ressto
thelong-term goal of theminimum-impact mill.
6 . I s t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l p e r f o r m a n c e o f t o t a l l y
c h l o r i n e - f r e e ( T C F ) b l e a c h i n g p r o c e s s e s b e t t e r t h a n
t h a t o f EC F b l e a c h i n g p r o c e s s e s ?
T h e re is currently no simple answer to this question. It also
depends on which pulping process one considers. When con-
sidering TCF sulfitepulps and E C F k ra f t pul ps, purc h a se r s
should consider all releasesto the environment rather than the
dischargeof chlorinated organic compoundsalone. On ave r a g e ,
millsthat produce TCF sulfite pulpswill have higher releasesto
air and water than do mills that produce ECF bleached kraft
pulps. Howe ve r, purchasersevaluating paper productsthat con-
tain TCF sulfite pulpsshould compare the environmental per-
formance indicators of these mills with the indicators fro m
bleached kraft mills. The environmental performance of indi-
vidual sulfite mills varies more than does that of individual
bleached kraft pulp mills.
To date, most of the studiesthat compare the environmental
effects of ECF and TCF effluentsfrom bleached kraft millshave
been performed at millsthat have oxygen delignification and/or
extended delignification. Thesestudieshave shown that the dif-
ference in the environmental impactsof the effluent from these
processesissmall; and the resultsof the studieshave conflicted.
205
Th e l o w e s t c o s t o p e r a -
t o r s o f t h e 2 1s t c e n t u r y
w i l l b e t h o s e w i t h t h e
l e a s t a m o u n t o f e n v i r o n -
m e n t a l w a s t e .
Mo re re se a rch needsto bedone to understand thesediffere n c e s.
Based on current re se a rch, TCF processes may providethe
most efficient route to minimum bleach plant effluent flow by
a voiding the generation of chlorides throughout thebleaching
p rocess. Thesetechnologiesaredescribed in theove rv i ew of Pu l p
and Paper Manufacturing. (Seethe next question for additional
i n f o r m a t i o n . )
7 . I f d i o x i n s a r e n o l o n g e r d e t e c t e d i n m i l l e f f l u e n t ,
t h e n h a s n t t h e i n d u s t r y t a k e n c a r e o f t h e p r o b l e m ?
The Science Ad v i so ry Board of the EPA recommends that
dioxinsbe classified asa probable human carcinogen. Dioxin is
also suspected of causing a range of neurological, reproductive
and immune system disorders at ve ry low levels of exposure .
The current concentration of these persistent compounds in
human tissues is approaching levels where one might start to
see effectsin certain human populations.
52
Asa result of these
concerns, current efforts focus on identifying and eliminating
all sourcesof dioxins.
Di oxins we re first discove red in bleached kraft and sulfite
pulp manufacturing in 1985. Since then, the pulp and paper
i n d u st ry re p o rts that it has reduced total emissions by 92%.
Much of thisprogresshascome from replacing elemental chlo-
rine with chlorine dioxide.
Millswith ECF processes generally do not have detectable
levelsof dioxinsin the final mill effluent. The fact that dioxins
are not detected in mill effluent, however, doesnot mean that
d i oxinsare never generated during the bleaching process. It sim-
ply means that the current tests are not sensitive enough to
determine whether any dioxinsare present. The only way mills
can ensure that no dioxinsare generated during the bleaching
processisto eliminate the use of all chlorine compounds.
While eliminating all chlorine compoundsfrom the bleach
plant will pre vent the generation of dioxins, dioxins are only
one classof chemicalsfound in the releasesfrom millsthat pro-
duce bleached pulps. The Task Fo rce recommends the mini-
mum-impact mill approach because it encompasses a broader
set of environmental issues that includes the elimination of
d i oxins. The next question examines why purchasers shoul d
consider these broader environmental concerns.
8 . I f d i o x i n s a r e n o l o n g e r d e t e c t e d i n m i l l e f f l u e n t ,
w h y d o m i l l s n e e d t o c o n t i n u e t o r e d u c e t h e q u a n t i t y
a n d i m p r o v e t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e i r e f f l u e n t ?
While scientistshave made great progressin understanding the
effectsof mill effluent on the environment, they still face con-
siderable challengesto identifying all of the potential concerns.
Scientistscontinue to find new substancesin the complex mix-
ture of organic material that isdischarged in pulp mill effluent.
It is unlikely that we will ever have a complete understanding of
the toxic effectsof the compoundsin the effluent individually,
let alone their effectsasa mixture.
Field studies of the environmental effects of the effluent,
whi l e i mportant, may not provi de a compl ete pi cture of
impacts. These biological and ecological studies are expensive
and complex, and they often are highly limited in their ability
to show specific cause-and-effect relationships.
Pollution-prevention approachesminimize the possibility of
unwanted surprisesby avoiding the release of these materials.
9 . I s p u r c h a s i n g p a p e r w i t h l o w e r b r i g h t n e s s l e v e l s
b e t t e r f o r t h e e n v i r o n m e n t ?
L owering brightnesstargetsby up to 10 pointsisnot likely to pro-
videenvironmental benefitsif the pulpsused in thepaper stay the
same. Millsusere l a t i vely small amountsof chemicalsto achieve
thefinal pulp brightness, and somemills cannot economically
reducethe brightnessof the pulp or paper that they pro d u c e .
Lowering brightnessstandardsdoesbenefit the environment
when it allowsa papermaker to change the typesof pulpsused
in the paper product. For example, lowering the brightness
requirement of a coated publication paper from 83 to 78 GE
brightness allows the publisher to use a high-quality coated
groundwood paper in place of a coated freesheet. Maximizing
the groundwood content in publication paperstakesadvantage
of thefact that mechanical pulping processes have lower re l e a se s
to the environment and use wood re so u rces more efficiently
than do bleached kraft pulping processes. In addition, coated
g roundwood paper general l y cost s l ess than does coated
freesheet of equivalent quality.
Relaxing brightnessrequirementsmay also allow purchasers
of packaging to switch from bleached to unbleached or re c yc l e d
kraft paperboard. Purchaserswho make thisswitch will buy an
e n v i ronmentally preferable paper product and will reduce costs.
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
206
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
Using paper with ve ry high brightness levels will limit the
opportunitiesto incorporate pulpsmade with environmentally
preferable manufacturing processes.
10 . Wi l l a d d i n g m e c h a n i c a l p u l p s l i k e b l e a c h e d
c h e m i t h e r m o m e c h a n i c a l p u l p ( B C TM P ) t o b u s i n e s s
p a p e r s a f f e c t t h e i r r e c y c l a b i l i t y ?
Adding BCTMP to businesspaperswill affect the recyclability
of the paper, but the re c ycling collection infrastru c t u re can
adapt to itspresence in paper products. In some cases, a bale of
re c ove red paper with a large percentage of paper containing
BCTMP (scrap from a printer, for example), would have a
lower market value than a bale containing only kraft fibers.
BCTMP fibersthemselveshave greater re c yclability because
mechanically pulped fiberssurv i ve morere c ycling cyclesthan do
chemically pulped fibers. Because modern deinking mills use
h yd rogen peroxide and other non-chlorine bleaching agentsthat
brighten the pulp, incorporating BCTMP into office papers
should not affect thequality of the resulting deinked pulp.
Millsthat make tissue and newsprint from recovered paper
a l ready use re c ove red mechani cal fiber, so the presence of
BCTMP in the coated papers used in magazines and catalogs
would not require change in the recycling infrastructure.
For manufacturersof deinked white pulp used in printing
and writing paper, BCTMP will enter the re c ycling system grad-
ually in the future, asnon-integrated manufacturers of high-
value printing and writing papers add this lower cost pulp to
their paper. Deinking millsalready allow a small percentage of
g roundwood in the re c ove red paper they purchase. These factors
should allow the marketsfor re c ove red paper to adjust to the use
of BCTMP in printing and writing papersin theUnited St a t e s.
11. I s p a p e r t h a t c o n t a i n s f i b e r m a d e f r o m n o n - w o o d
a n n u a l c r o p s e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y p r e f e r a b l e ?
Of thenon-wood fiber sources, theTask Fo rce identified some
e n v i ronmental benefitsassociated with using agricultural re si d u e s,
such asryeor wheat straw, in paper products. Incorporating pulps
madefrom agricultural residuesoffersan additional local sourceof
fiber for mills, and reducestheenvironmental impactsassociated
with disposing of thisagricultural waste. Farmersformerly burned
theseresidues, creating significant air pollution, until recent laws
p rohibited thispracticein many re g i o n s.
The situation appears to be somewhat different for annual
c rops, such askenaf. W h e re climatic and soil conditionsallow
one to choosebetween growing annual cropsand trees, curre n t
re se a rch suggeststhat treeson thisland would be preferable fro m
an environmental perspective. These studies indicate that the
fiber yieldsof non-wood plantsdo not appear to be significantly
g reater than those of fast-growing hardwood and softwood tre e s
g rown under intensive management regimeswhen onecompare s
theyield of fiberswith similar performance pro p e rties. Annual
c rops re q u i re higher and more frequent doses of fert i l i zer and
pesticidesto produce a ton of fiber than do tree plantations, and
they do not provideadditional benefits including habitat for
wildlife and water quality pro t e c t i o n .
Farmerswho add an annual crop for paper to their crop ro t a-
tionsmay see somebenefitsin reduced pesticideuseand improve d
soil stru c t u re. Howe ve r, farmersmust weigh thesebenefitsagainst
theincreased transportation coststo thepulp mill that may re su l t
f rom amoredispersed cultivation of the annual crops.
Generally, modern papermaking with non-wood fibersisin
itsinfancy, and definitiveinformation on the issuesraised above
islacking. Non-wood fibersmay also require smaller quantities
of chemicalsand consume lessenergy in chemical and mechan-
ical pulp manufacturing processes. With additional re se a rc h ,
new processesand technologiesmay be developed that enhance
the environmental benefitsof using annual cropsasa source of
fiber for papermaking, at least for specific grades of paper in
specific regionsof the United States. Purchasersshould be open
to considering papersmade with fiber from annual cropswhere
clear environmental benefitscan be demonstrated.
12 . I s i t l i k e l y t h a t m a j o r t e c h n o l o g i e s a r e b e i n g
d e v e l o p e d t h a t w i l l f u n d a m e n t a l l y c h a n g e p u l p i n g ,
b l e a c h i n g o r c h e m i c a l r e c o v e r y s y s t e m s , b u t t h a t
t h e s e t e c h n o l o g i e s a r e n o t w i d e l y k n o w n ?
To date, because of the high cost of research and development,
major technologieshave been developed by paper manufactur-
ersin concert with equipment suppliers. These major technolo-
gies generally areknown and can be purchased by any company
in the industry. It is unlikely that a paper supplier is u si n ga
major technology that providessubstantial environmental ben-
efitsthat isnot known to othersin the industry.
207
Bl each pl ant Bi ochemi cal Col or Adsor babl e Organi c Chemi cal Oxygen
ef f l uent f l ow
53
Oxygen Demand Hal ogens (AOX) Demand (COD)
(BOD)
(gallons per ton (kilograms per air- dried (kilograms per air- dried (kilograms per air- dried (kilograms per air- dried
of air- dried pulp) metric ton of pulp) metric ton of pulp) metric ton of pulp) metric ton of pulp)
Tradi t i onal pul pi ng
and bl eachi ng 12,000 10.9 - 15.5*
54
86.5 - 127*
54
1.8 - 2.2
55
65
56
(50% chlorine dioxide
substitution in the
first bleaching stage) 54 54 57 57
Tradi t i onal ECF 12,000 14.5 - 15.1*
55
71.5 - 113*
55
1.5
58
65
58
Enhanced ECF 5,000 - 7,500 6.0 - 11
57
40 - 72
57
0.40 - 1.1
58
25 - 45
59
Low ef f l uent 1,300 - 3,800 4.4
60
3.1
60
0.1
60
11
60
ozone ECF
Low ef f l uent TCF 1,300 - 3,800 2.9
61
4.2
61
background l evel s
61
8.9
61
Enhanced ECF wi t h 1,300 - 3,800 2.0
62
2.0
62
0.1
62
8 - 11
63
chl ori de removal
VII.APPENDICES
Appendi x A. Ranges f or Dat a on
Envi r onment al Par amet er s
Table A-1 containsrangesof several parametersfor the bleach
plant filtratesfrom softwood bleached kraft pulp millswith dif-
ferent manufacturing processes.
Appendi x B. Cost Model f or Bl eac hed
Kr af t Pul p Manuf ac t ur i ng Tec hnol ogi es
This appendix presents additional information on the cost
model developed for installing pollution-prevention technolo-
giesat bleached kraft pulp mills. White Paper No. 7 providesa
full discussion of thismodel. The model hastwo parts:
Capital cost scenariosbased on mill-specific factors
A detailed estimate of capital and operating costsfor thre e
model millsbased on a mid-range capital cost scenario
C a p i t a l C o s t S c e n a r i o s
A seriesof capital cost scenariosfor bleached kraft pulp millsin
d i f f e rent configurations follows. These scenarios re p resent the
highest to lowest coststo install currently available pollution- pre-
vention technologies, such asoxygen delignification, at bleached
kraft pulp mills.
Millsthat producemorepulp than theyuseand havelimited
recoveryboiler capacity, space, equipment, or other limitations
The next major investment at these millsgenerally balances
pulp and final product production by adding another paper
machine at the mill.
Existingmillswith limited recoveryboiler capacity
Installing enhanced ECF or low-effluent processesre q u i resa
major upgrade to the re c ove ry boiler and might re q u i re a
replacement. Re c ove ry capacity limitationscan add from $20
to $75 million to the capital costsof these technology options.
Existingmillswith spaceor equipment limitations
These millshave available recovery boiler capacity, but must
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
208
Tabl e A- 1
R a n g e s o f Ef f l u e n t P a r a m e t e r s f o r t h e B l e a c h P l a n t F i l t r a t e s
f r o m S o f t w o o d B l e a c h e d K r a f t P u l p M i l l s
* Not st at i st i cal l y di f f erent
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
install additional equipment to operate an enhanced ECF or
low effluent process. These limitationsare highly site-specific
and depend on the age and configuration of the mill. A mill
may need to replace inefficient unbleached pulp washing sys-
tems rather than upgrade them. Space limitations may also
require a new building for the oxygen delignification system.
Millswith incremental recoveryboiler capacityavailableand no
site-specificor equipment limitations
The Paper Task Force cost model in White Paper No. 7 used
thisscenario asa base case. Assuggested by thislist, individ-
ual mills may face costs that are higher or lower than those
a n a l y zed in themodel. Howe ve r, the model does provide a
good basis for the comparison of different technologies and
the sensitivity of coststo other internal or external factors.
Themill must install new equipment to upgradeto a traditional
ECF process
In some cases, in order to eliminate elemental chlorine from
the bleach plant under a traditional ECF approach, the mill
must install new equipment. Thisnew equipment can make
the traditional ECF approach more expensive than enhanced
ECF pulping and bleaching. For example, a mill may have to
install new chlorine dioxide generatorsin order to eliminate
itsuse of elemental chlorine, rather than upgrading itsexist-
i ng generators. Thus, the basi s for the compari son has
changed, because of the age and configuration of the mills
bleaching system.
Installingenhanced ECF or low-effluent processesallowsa mill to
increasecapacitybydebottleneckingother processes
Installing oxygen delignification and low-effluent pro c e sse s
may allow a mill to obtain a small capacity increase(on the
o rder of 5% - 10%) without increasing the sizeof the effluent
t reatment, air emission controls or other systems at themill.
The re venue earned by increasing the production of pulp or
paper improvesthe economics. For example, if a1000 metric
ton per day market pulp mill can increaseits capacity by 50
tonsper day, the mill saves$20,000 per day (assuming a$400
d i f f e rencein internal pulp production costs and the price of
m a rket pulp. )
Increasecapacityduringa major modernization at a mill
Recovery boilers, digesters, bleach linesand other large com-
ponentsof a bleached kraft pulp mill need to be replaced or
re n ovated eve ry 15 to 20 years. Installing technologies that
reduce chlorine dioxide use and the organic loading in the
effluent allow the company to avoid investmentsin additional
chlorinedioxide generators and larger air emissions contro l
and effluent treatment systems.
Mills faced with a major investment in equipment often
i n c rease capacity (1) to get additional re venue to offset the
$300 to $500 million capital investment and (2) to increase
their production of low cost, high quality pulp. In some cases,
modernizations include paper machines to use this pulp; in
other cases, companiesreduce production at higher cost mills
to lower manufacturing costssystemwide.
Buildinga greenfield (completelynew) mill
Millsinstall a combination of technologiesthat result in the
lowest capital and operating costs. Low-effluent ozone ECF
and TCF systemshave the best economicsbecause they have
the lowest operating costsand avoid the investment in chlo-
rine dioxide generatorsand large effluent treatment systems.
D e t a i l e d C o s t M o d e l
The Task Force developed capital and operating cost estimates
to install pollution-pre vention technologies at existing mills
with traditional pulping and 50% chlorine dioxide substitution
for elemental chlorine in the first bleaching stage. The pollu-
tionprevention technologiesincluded:
traditional ECF
ECF with oxygen delignification or extended delignification
(enhanced ECF)
low-effluent ozone ECF, both medium (MC) and (HC) high
consistency
low-effluent ozone TCF
enhanced ECF with chloride removal
We considered the coststo install these technologiesat three
model bleached kraft millswhich varied by capacity and wood
speciesused.
Mi l l 1 produces 1000 ai r-dri ed metri c tons per day
(ADMT/D) of softwood bleached kraft pulp
Mi l l 2 produces 500 ai r-dri ed metri c tons per day
(ADMT/D) of softwood bleached kraft pulp
209
Mi l l 3 produces 500 ai r-dri ed met ri c t ons per day
(ADMT/D) of hardwood bleached kraft pulp
Table B-1 p resents the capital , operating and incre m e n t a l
costsassociated with installing a range of pollution-prevention
technologiesat the existing model mills. All costsare presented
on an after-tax basis using the standard federal corporate tax
rate of 34%. Capital costswere annualized using an equipment
life of 15 yearsand a cost of capital and debt of 10%. The annu-
alized capital costsalso include the tax savingsthat result from
straight-linedepreciation of the capital costs. Operating costs
include chemical costs, power costs and additional technical
and maintenance support for new equipment.
Thiscost model indicatesthat the traditional ECF processes
have the highest operating costsfor all three model mills, while
enhanced ECF and ozone TCF processeshave the lowest oper-
ating costs. The difference in the total costs associated with
installing any of the pollution-pre vention technologies at the
base case millsisabout $15 per air-dried metric ton of pulp.
Appendi x C. Envi r onment al Compar i s on f or
Di f f er ent Paper Pr oduc t s
Thisappendix presents additional information on the enviro n-
mental comparisonsof paper productsthat contain different pulps.
Wepresent comparisonsof energy consumption and releasesto air,
water and land for theproductsdiscussed in Recommendations4 -
7. The paper productsdiscussed in thisappendix are :
Coated paperboard : Sol i d bl eached sul fat e and coated
unbleached kraft paperboard (Recommendation 4, W h i t e
Paper 10C)
Coated publication papers: Coated freesheet and lightwe i g h t
coated groundwood pulps(Recommendation 5, White Paper
No. 10A)
Businesspapers: Bleached kraft and sulfite pulps(Recommen-
dation 6, White Paper No. 12)
Businesspapers: Bleached kraft pulp and bleached kraft pulp
with 20% bleached chemithermomechanical pulp (BCTMP)
(Recommendation 7, White Paper No. 12)
Theenergy consumption data includesthe energy consumed
to produce the bleaching chemicals along wi th the energy
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
210
Tabl e B- 1
A n n u a l i z e d A f t e r - Ta x P e r - To n To t a l C o s t s
Capi t al cost s Annual i zed Incr ement al Tot al cost
capi t al cost s oper at i ng cost s year 1
Technol ogy opt i on (millions of dollars) ($/ ADMT) ($/ ADMT) ($/ ADMT)
Mi l l 1 (1000 ADMT/ D sof t wood)
Base case $0.0 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00
Traditional ECF $28.9 $8.97 $8.72 $17.69
Enhanced ECF $35.8 $11.13 ($2.38) $8.76
MC Ozone ECF $40.8 $12.67 ($1.30) $11.37
HC Ozone ECF $50.8 $15.80 ($1.74) $14.06
MC Ozone TCF $42.8 $13.29 $8.08 $21.37
HC Ozone TCF $52.8 $16.40 ($2.23) $14.17
Enhanced ECF + chloride removal $55.8 $17.35 $3.56 $20.91
Mi l l 2 (500 ADMT/ D sof t wood)
Base case $0.0 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00
Traditional ECF $18.0 $12.36 $8.72 $21.08
Enhanced ECF $25.1 $17.25 ($1.97) $15.08
MC Ozone ECF $29.3 $20.10 ($0.71) $19.40
HC Ozone ECF $35.0 $24.04 ($1.06) $22.98
MC Ozone TCF $30.6 $21.01 $8.71 $29.72
HC Ozone TCF $36.3 $24.95 ($1.51) $23.43
Enhanced ECF + chloride removal $38.3 $26.31 $3.97 $30.28
Mi l l 3 (500 ADMT/ D hardwood
Base case $0.0 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00
Traditional ECF $16.8 $11.50 $6.41 $20.22
Enhanced ECF $25.1 $17.25 $1.75 $19.00
MC Ozone ECF $29.3 $20.10 $3.50 $23.60
HC Ozone ECF $35.0 $24.04 $5.74 $29.79
HC Ozone TCF $36.3 $24.95 $3.99 $28.63
Enhanced ECF + chloride removal $38.3 $26.31 $7.69 $34.00
Tax rate 34%
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
required in the paper manufacturing process. In the charts, we
use a weighted averageof three bleached kraft pulping pro c e sse s
i n the calcul ati on of the environmental parameters. T h e
weighted average isbased on the 1994 U.S. production of the
following typesof bleached kraft pulp:
Traditional pulping and bleaching 50% chlorine dioxide and
50% elemental chlorine in the first bleaching stage (50% D)
Traditional ECF (100% D)
Enhanced ECF using oxygen delignification (O + 100% D)
C o a t e d P a p e r b o a r d
Coated paperboard generally contains84%-85% fiber, 9%-10%
coating and 6% moisture. Fi g u re C-1 and Table C-1 p resent the
a verage and ranges of energy consumption and enviro n m e n t a l
parametersfor solid bleached sulfate(SBS) paperboard that con-
tains bleached kraft pulp and coated unbleached kraft (CUK)
p a p e r b o a rd that containsunbleached kraft pulp.
With the exception of emissionsof hazardousair pollutants,
the energy consumption and environmental releasesgenerated
during the production of SBSare higher than those of CUK.
The higher hazardousair pollutant emissionsgenerated during
CUK production are thought to result from a carryover of
organic material from the pulping process. These resultsillus-
trate the change in environmental performance that re su l t s
from bleaching kraft pulp.
C o a t e d P u b l i c a t i o n P a p e r s
Coated printing and writing papers generally contain about
30% coating by weight. Coated freesheet (CFS) paper contains
a p p roximately 64% bl eached kraft hardwood and softwood
pulps; lightweight coated groundwood (LWC) papers usually
contai n a 50:50 mix of bleached softwood kraft pulp and
groundwood pulp. Figure C-2 and Table C-2 present the aver-
age and the ranges, re sp e c t i ve l y, for energy consumption and
releasesto the environment generated during the production of
these gradesof paper.
Fi g u re C-2 il l ustrat es the effect of hi gh-yi el d pul ping
processeson energy consumption and releasesto the environ-
ment. The purchased energy ishigher for thelightweight coated
g roundwood paper because little wood waste isavailable asfuel.
Emissionsof sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxidesand carbon diox i d e
f rom burning fossil fuels generally depend on the amount of
p u rchased electricity, which is high for groundwood pulping
processes. Process-related air emissionsand releasesto water are
lower for LWC than they are for coated freesheet, because the
higher-yi eld groundwood process conve rts more wood into
pulp than doesthe kraft process.
B u s i n e s s P a p e r s w i t h B l e a c h e d K r a f t a n d S u l f i t e P u l p s
Uncoated businesspapersmade with an alkaline processgener-
ally contain 78% bleached pulp, 16% calcium carbonate filler
and 6% water. Figure C-3 and Table C-3 present a comparison
of the energy consumption and releases to the enviro n m e n t
generated by businesspapersthat contain bleached kraft pulp
and bleached sulfite pulps.
Bleached sulfite pulping processes consume less total and
p u rchased energy than do bleached kraft pulping pro c e sse s
becausesmaller quantitiesof chemicalsare used to bleach sulfite
pulps. In thiscase, the sulfite isbleached with a combination of
elemental chlorine and sodium hypochlorite, a process that is
c u r rently used by several sulfitemillsin the U.S. Releasesof par-
ticulatesand carbon dioxide reflect the lower energy consump-
tion of the sulfite process.
Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissionsgenerated dur-
ing the production of paper that contains sulfite pulp are gen-
erally higher than those generated during the production of
paper that contains bleached kraft pulp. Some sulfite mills
release thesepollutantsfrom processsources. With the exc e p-
tion of total suspended solids, releases to water are higher, on
a verage, for paper that contains sulfite pulp. Table C-3 p re-
sents the ranges for businesspaper that contains bleached kraft
and bleached sulfite pulps. The ranges for the sulfite paper are
generally larger than are those for the kraft paper. Sulfite mills
choose from a wider range of pulping chemicals and pro c e ss
condi ti ons than do bl eached kraft pulp mi l l s. Thus, the
rel eases t o the environment from sul fi te mi l l s wi l l va ry
depending on the manufacturing process and on the pro d u c t s
made at the mill.
B u s i n e s s P a p e r s w i t h B l e a c h e d K r a f t P u l p a n d B C T M P
In thiscase, we comparea businesspaper that containsbleached
kraft pulp with one in which BCTMP replaces 20% of the
211
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
212
hardwood bleached kraft pulp. High-brightnessBCTMP adds
bulk, stiffness and opacity to paper, without compro m i si n g
functional performance. Uncoated businesspaper with 20-30%
hardwood BCTMP has similar functional performance to the
bl eached kraft product. Fi g u re C-4 and Tabl e C-3 present a
comparison of the energy consumption and releasesto the envi-
ronment generated by business papers that contain bleached
kraft pulp and bleached kraft pulp with 20% BCTMP.
Fi g u re C-4 illustrates that substituting 20% BCTMP for
h a rdwood bleached kraft pulp resultsin changes in energy con-
sumption and rel eases to the environment that are similar to
those seen i n the compari son of coated papers above. Pu r-
chased energy, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and carbon diox-
ide from fossil fuelsincrease when BCTMP replaceshard w o o d
kraft. Pro c e ss- related air emissions, effluent flow and releasesto
water decline.
The rel eases associ ated wi t h t he BCTMP process also
depend on the age of the mill and the fuels used to pro d u c e
el ect ri ci t y for t he pul pi ng process. Two new Canadi an
BCTMP market pulp millsoperate in an effluent-free mode.
These millsalso use hyd ro p ower to generate electricity. T h u s,
e n e r g y - related air emissions for paper that contains BCTMP
f rom these millswould be smaller than those shown in Fi g u re
C - 4. Using hyd ro p owe r, howe ve r, resultsin other impactson
the envi ronment. The releases of sulfur dioxi de, ni tro g e n
oxides, particulates and carbon dioxide in all four comparisons
assume that the mill purchases electricity from a utility that
usesthe national fuel mix of the United States. Thisfuel mix
containsmostly oil and coal.
Appendi x D. Exampl es of Eval uat i on For ms f or
Envi r onment al Per f or manc e Indi c at or s
A Task Force member hasdesigned formsfor itspurchasersto
use to collect data on the environmental performance indica-
tors. Figures D-1 and D-2 contain these formsfor the indica-
torsof general environmental performanceand theperf o r m a n c e
indicatorsfor bleached kraft and sulfite mills, respectively.
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
213
Fi gur e C- 1
Av e r a g e En v i r o n m e n t a l P a r a m e t e r s f o r C o a t e d P a p e r b o a r d
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
214
Ener gy Usage
(mi l l i ons of Bt us per ai r- dr i ed t on
of pr oduct )
Total 37.8 -39.3 40.0 -41.6 35.4 -37.0 37.6 -39.2 26.6 -28.2
Purchased 13.6 -21.2 15.8 -23.4 9.6 -17.2 13.1 -20.7 10.0 -15.8
E N E R G Y- R E L ATED AIR EMISSIONS
(pounds per air-dri ed ton of pro d u c t )
Sulfur dioxide(SO
2
) 23.3 -31.5 26.1 -34.3 18.8 -27.0 22.8 -31.0 16.8 -23.2
Nitrogenoxides (NO
x
) 13.2 -16.0 14.6 -17.4 11.1 -13.9 13.0 -15.8 9.1 -11.3
Particulates 10.4 -12.2 11.5 -13.1 9.4 -11.3 10.4 -12.1 7.7 -7.8
Carbondioxide(CO
2
) - total 9,600 -11,200 9,800 -11,500 9,400 -11,100 9,400 -11,200 7,400 -8,000
Carbondioxide(CO
2
) - fossil fuel 2,300 -3,700 2,600 -4,000 1,600 -3,000 2,200 -3,600 1,900 -2,900
PROCESS- RELATED AIR EMISSIONS
(pounds per air-dr ied ton of pro d u c t )
Hazardous air pollutants (HAP) 2.4 2.0 2.3 - 2.9 2.4 3.0
Volatileorganic compounds (VOC) 5.7 5.7 5.4 - 5.8 5.7 4.8
Total reducedsulfur (TRS) 0.37 0.37 0.36 0.37 0.35
EFFLUENT QUANTITY
(gal l ons per ai r- dr i ed t on
of f i nal pr oduct )
Meaneffluent flow 22,000 22,000 14,700 20,500 11,300
EFFLUENT QUALITY
(ki l ogr ams per ai r- dr i ed met r i c t on
of f i nal pr oduct )
Biochemical oxygendemand(BOD) 0.3 - 6.7 0.3 - 6.7 0.3 - 6.7 0.3 - 6.7 0.2 - 2.8
Total suspendedsolids (TSS) 0.2 - 9.8 0.2 - 9.8 0.2 - 9.8 0.2 - 9.8 0.7 - 6.1
Chemical oxygendemand(COD) 15.8 - 79.5 15.8 - 79.5 15.8 - 79.5 15.8 - 79.5 5.1 - 24.2
SOLID WASTE
(ki l ogr ams per ai r- dr i ed met r i c t on
of f i nal pr oduct )
Total wastegeneration 191 191 191 191 91
Tabl e C- 1
En v i r o n m e n t a l P a r a m e t e r s f o r C o a t e d P a p e r b o a r d
50% D 100% D 0+ 100% D AVERAGE
COATED
UNBLEACHED KRAFT
SOLID BLEACHED SULFATE
E N V I R O N M E N TAL PA R A M E T E R S
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
215
Fi gur e C- 2
A v e r a g e En v i r o n m e n t a l P a r a m e t e r s f o r C o a t e d P u b l i c a t i o n P a p e r s
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
216
Ener gy Usage
(mi l l i ons of Bt us/ per ai r- dr i ed t on
of pr oduct )
Total 32.8 - 34.3 34.6 - 36.1 31.0 - 32.5 32.8 - 34.3 30.2 - 31.0
Purchased 14.6 - 20.6 16.4 - 22.5 11.4 - 17.4 14.4 - 20.4 19.9 - 23.0
E N E R G Y- R E L ATED AIR EMISSIONS
(pounds per ai r-dr i ed t on of pro d u c t )
Sulfur dioxide(SO
2
) 23.0 - 29.6 25.3 - 31.9 19.4 - 26.0 22.6 - 29.1 27.5 - 30.8
Nitrogenoxides (NO
x
) 12.3 - 14.6 13.5 - 15.8 10.7 - 12.9 12.2 - 14.4 14.3 - 15.5
Particulates 10.3 11.1 9.6 10.3 10.4
Carbondioxide(CO
2
) - total 8,700 - 9,300 9,000 - 9,600 8,700 - 9,300 8,700 - 9,300 6,900 - 7,200
Carbondioxide(CO
2
) - fossil fuel 2,500 - 3,600 2,800 - 3,900 1,900 - 3,100 2,400 - 3,500 3,200 - 3,800
PROCESS- RELATED AIR EMISSIONS
(pounds per ai r-dr ied t on of pro d u c t )
Hazardous air pollutants (HAP) 1.8 1.5 1.7 - 2.2 1.8 1.1
Volatileorganic compounds (VOC) 4.6 4.6 4.3 - 4.7 4.7 3.7
Total reducedsulfur (TRS) 0.28 0.28 0.27 0.28 0.14
EFFLUENT QUANTITY
(gal l ons per ai r-dr i ed t on
of f i nal pr oduct )
Meaneffluent flow 22,000 22,000 14,700 20,500 16,500
EFFLUENT QUALITY
(ki l ogr ams per ai r-dr i ed met r i c t on
of f i nal pr oduct )
Biochemical oxygendemand(BOD) 0.3 - 6.7 0.3 - 6.7 0.3 - 6.7 0.3 - 6.7 0.2 - 5.1
Total suspendedsolids (TSS) 0.2 - 9.8 0.2 - 9.8 0.2 - 9.8 0.2 - 9.8 0.4 - 8.2
Chemical oxygendemand(COD) 15.8 - 79.5 15.8 - 79.5 15.8 - 79.5 15.8 - 79.5 9.6 - 56.3
Adsorbableorganic halogens (AOX) 1.5 - 1.8 0.6 0.1 - 0.2 1.1 - 1.3 0.6 - 0.7
SOLID WASTE
(ki l ogr ams per ai r dr i ed met r i c t on
of f i nal pr oduct )
Total wastegeneration 200* 200* 200* 200* 190*
Note:
* Not statisticallydifferent
Tabl e C- 2
En v i r o n m e n t a l P a r a m e t e r s f o r C o a t e d P u b l i c a t i o n P a p e r s
50% D 100% D 0+ 100% D AVERAGE
LIGHTWEIGHT
COATED GROUNDWOOD
COATED FREE SHEET
E N V I R O N M E N TAL PA R A M E T E R S
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
217
Fi gur e C- 3
A v e r a g e En v i r o n m e n t a l P a r a m e t e r s f o r B u s i n e s s P a p e r s
w i t h B l e a c h e d K r a f t a n d B l e a c h e d S u l f i t e P u l p s
Ener gy Usage
(mi l li ons of Bt u per air-dri ed to
of pro d u c t )
Total 36.2 - 37.7 38.2 -39.7 34.1 -35.5 36.0 -37.5 31.4 31.4 - 36.4
Purchased 14.1 - 21.0 16.1 -23.1 10.4 -17.3 13.6 -20.6 12.1 16.9 - 22.5
E N E R G Y- R E L ATED AIR EMISSIONS
(pounds per ai r dri ed t on of pro d u c t )
Sulfur dioxide(SO
2
) 23.4 -30.9 25.9 - 33.4 19.2 - 26.7 22.9 -30.4 20.9 - 72.6 24.9 - 31.0
Nitrogenoxides (NO
x
) 13.1 - 15.6 14.4 - 16.9 11.1 -13.7 12.9 -37.4 11.4 - 37.4 13.9 - 16.0
Particulates 11.7 12.6 11.0 11.7 10.5 11.4 - 11.5
Carbondioxide(CO
2
) - total 9,700 - 10,500 10,100 - 10,900 9,700 -10,500 9,800 - 10,600 9,200 9,000 -9,600
Carbondioxide(CO
2
) - fossil fuel 2,300 -3,700 2,600 - 3,900 1,600 -2,900 2,200 -3,500 2,000 2,700 -3,700
PROCESS- RELATED AIR EMISSIONS
(pounds per ai r-dr ied t on of pro d u c t )
Hazardous air pollutants (HAP) 2.0 1.7 2.6 2.1 11.3 1.7
Volatileorganic compounds (VOC) 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.4 8.0 4.8
Total reducedsulfur (TRS) 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.3
EFFLUENT QUANTITY
(gal l ons per ai r- dr i ed t on
of f i nal pr oduct )
Meaneffluent flow 22,000 22,000 14,700 20,500 45,500 18,300
EFFLUENT QUALITY
(ki l ogr ams per ai r- dr i ed met r i c t on
of f i nal pr oduct )
Biochemical oxygendemand(BOD) 0.3 - 6.7 0.3 - 6.7 0.3 - 6.7 0.3 - 6.7 0.3-6.7 2.8
Total suspendedsolids (TSS) 0.2 - 9.8* 0.2 - 9.8* 0.2 - 9.8* 0.2 - 9.8* 0.4-10.7* 4.2
Chemical oxygendemand(COD) 15.8 - 79.5 15.8 - 79.5 15.8 - 79.5 15.8 - 79.5 63.7-200 36.0
Adsorbableorganic halogens (AOX) 1.6 - 1.8 0.6 0.1 - 0.2 1.1 - 1.3 0 - 5.2 0.9 - 1.0
SOLID WASTE
(ki l ogr ams per ai r- dr i ed met r i c t on
of f i nal pr oduct )
Total wastegeneration 191* 191* 191* 191* 177* 181*
Note:
* Not statisticallydifferent
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
218
Tabl e C- 3
En v i r o n m e n t a l P a r a m e t e r s f o r B u s i n e s s P a p e r s
50% D 100% D 0 + 100% D AV E R A G E
B L E A C H E D
SULFITE PULP
BLEACHED KRAFT PULP
E N V I R O N M E N TAL PA R A M E T E R S
BLEACHED KRAFT PULP
WITH 20% BCTMP
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
219
Fi gur e C- 4
Av e r a g e En v i r o n m e n t a l P a r a m e t e r s f o r B u s i n e s s P a p e r s
w i t h B l e a c h e d K r a f t P u l p a n d B C T M P
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
220
Tabl e D- 1
I n d i c a t o r s o f G e n e r a l En v i r o n m e n t a l P e r f o r m a n c e
H O W T O OB TA I N D ATA :
From supplier, obtain state permit requirements, supplier emissionsdata, and statistical processvariability for the
parametersbelow. Millshave thisdata, asthey monitor these parameterson an on-going basis.
H O W T O U S E D ATA :
Compare supplier reported data to state permit requirementsto determine the following:
1. Issupplier in compliance with environmental regulations?
2. Doessuppliersenvironmental performance go beyond compliance?
Compare on-going annual data to determine whether supplier isdemonstrating continuousenvironmental improvement.
(Improvementsthat havebeen madein thepast should beconsidered, aswell ascurrent information, and plansfor thefuture.)
Discusswith supplier the following:
1. The technologiesand other processchangesthe mill hasmade to achieve thislevel of performance.
2. Their future plansto improve upon current level of performance and the desired impact.
Val ues f or t hese i ndi cat or s r ef l ect :
manuf act ur i ng t echnol ogy used by mi l l t ype
and ef f ect i veness of pol l ut i on- cont r ol
equi pment
Bi ochemi cal Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Unit of measure =kg/metric ton of product
Col or
Unit of measure =kg/metric ton of product
Fresh Wat er Use
Unit of measure =gallons/ton of product
Sul f ur Di oxi de (SO
2
)
Unit of measure =pounds/ton of final product.
Ni t rogen Oxi des (NO
X
)
Unit of measure =pounds/ton of final product
Tot al Reduced Sul f ur Compounds (TRS)
Unit of measure =pounds/ton of final product
Tot al Energy Consumpt i on
Unit of measure =millions of Btus/ton of final product
Purchased Energy Consumpt i on
Unit of measure =millions of Btus/ton of final product
1994 Suppl i er
Annual Mont hl y
Aver age
1994 Suppl i er
Pr ocess
Var i abi l i t y
(Per cent age)
Suppl i er
St at e
Per mi t Level s
1996 Suppl i er
Annual Mont hl y
Aver age
1995 Suppl i er
Process
Var i abi l i t y
(Per cent age)
1995 Suppl i er
Annual Mont hl y
Aver age
1996 Suppl i er
Process
Var i abi l i t y
(Per cent age)
All datashould beprovided on aper ton of product manufactured basis.
Themonthly averageprovidesinformation about themillslevel of performance. Asmillsimplement pollution-prevention technologies, themagnitudeof theperformanceindicatorsshould decrease.
Thevariability providessomeinformation about themillsability to control themanufacturingprocess. Improved processcontrol, maintenanceand housekeepingshould reducethevariability of theseindicatorsover time.
Information can beprovided on aspecificmill basisor on an aggregatedbasisat thedivision or companylevel.
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
221
Tabl e D- 2
P e r f o r m a n c e I n d i c a t o r s f o r B l e a c h e d K r a f t a n d S u l f i t e P u l p s
H O W T O O B TA I N D ATA :
From supplier, obtain state permit requirements, supplier emissionsdata, and statistical processvariability
for the parametersbelow. Millshave thisdata, asthey monitor these parameterson an on-going basis.
H O W T O U S E D ATA :
Discusswith supplier the following:
1. The bleaching technologiesemployed to achieve thislevel of performance. (For guidance, refer to
technology pathway presented in Recommendation 3.)
2. Their future plansto improve on their current level of performance.
Compare the data reported by all manufacturersof the same product category to compare the
environmental performance of the pollution-prevention technologiesinstalled by each supplier.
Compare on-going annual data to determine whether supplier isdemonstrating continuousenvironmental improvement.
(Improvementsthat havebeen madein thepast should beconsidered, aswell ascurrent information, and plansfor thefuture.)
Val ues f or t hese i ndi cat or s r ef l ect :
The per f or mance of pol l ut i on- pr event i on
t echnol ogi es and operat i ons empl oyed by a
mi l l , (t he magni t ude of t he i ndi cat or s depends
on t he t echnol ogi es i nst al l ed at t he mi l l ).
Where a mi l l i s al ong t he t echnol ogy pat hway
pr esent ed i n Recommendat i on 3.
Bl each Pl ant Ef f l uent Fl ow
Unit of measure =gallons/ton of air-dried pulp
Adsorbabl e Organi c Hal ogens (AOX)
Unit of measure =kg/metric ton of air-dried pulp
Chemi cal Oxygen Demand (COD)
Unit of measure =kg/metric ton of air-dried pulp
Di oxi ns (i n bl each pl ant f i l t rat es)
Unit of measure=picograms/liter of water (partsper quadrillion)
1994 Suppl i er
Process
Var i abi l i t y
(Per cent age)
1995 Suppl i er
Annual Mont hl y
Average
1994 Suppl i er
Annual Mont hl y
Average
1996 Suppl i er
Pr ocess
Var i abi l i t y
(Per cent age)
1996 Suppl i er
Annual Mont hl y
Average
1995 Suppl i er
Pr ocess
Var i abi l i t y
(Per cent age)
All datashould beprovided on aper ton of product manufactured basis.
Themonthly averageprovidesinformation about themillslevel of performance. Asmillsimplement pollution-prevention technologies, themagnitudeof theperformanceindicatorsshould decrease.
Thevariability providessomeinformation about themillsability to control themanufacturingprocess. Improved processcontrol, maintenanceand housekeepingshould reducethevariability
of theseindicatorsover time.
Information can beprovided on aspecificmill basisor on an aggregatedbasisat thedivision or companylevel.
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
222
ENDNOTES
1
National Re n ewable Energy Laboratory, Tech n o l o gy Pa rt n er-
ships: EnhancingtheCompetitiveness, Efficiency and En v i ro n-
mental Qualityof American Industry. Report produced for the
Department of Energy, report number DOE/GO-10095-170,
April 1995, p. 35.
2
Ha rdwoods contain about 45% cellulose and 20% lignin.
They yield a short fiber pulp that providesa smooth printing
su rface and opacity to a sheet of paper. Softwoods contain
about 42% cellulose and 28% lignin.
3
Ga ry Smook, Handbook for Pulp & Paper Tech n o l o gi st s, 2nd ed. ,
Vancouver, BC: AngusWilde Publications, 1992, chapter 2.
4
The different gradesof re c ove red paper are defined in the In st i-
tute of Scrap Re c ycling Industries, In cs., S crap Sp eci f i ca t i o n s
Ci rcular 1994; Guidelinesfor Paper Stock: PS-94; Do mest i c
Tra n sa ct i o n s, Washington, DC: Paper Stock IndustriesChapter
Institute (1994), pp. 33-34. See Paper Task Force White Paper
No. 2 for more information.
5
These two chemical pulping processes combine sulfur and a
metal alkaline base. For the kraft process, the base issodium
h yd roxi de: for papergrade sul fi te processes i t i s cal ci um,
ammonium, magnesium or sodium hydroxide.
6
Sodium hydroxide.
7
Chemicalsused to facilitatethe manufacturing processinclude
sizing to facilitate the drainage of water from the pulp on the
paper machine, biocidesto suppressthe growth of fungi and
bacteria in the warm, wet paper mill environment, and starc h e s
to help bind fiberstogether in the paper sheet.
8
Sp e c i f i c a l l y, a 2,200-square-foot home. National Re n ew a b l e
Energy Laboratory, TechnologyPartnerships, p. 15.
9
U. S. EPA, Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limi-
tationsGuidelinesand Standardsfor thePulp, Paper and Paper-
b o a rd Point SourceCa t ego ry, Washington, DC: U.S. EPA re p o rt
No. EPA-821-R-93-019, October 1993, 6-48 - 6-49.
10
See, for example, Gary Smook, Handbook for Pulp & Paper
Technologists, 2nd ed.
11
P. Sharman and G. Harris, High Yield Pu l p i n g Mill Pro d u ct
News, September-October 1994, p. 31.
12
R. W. Johnson, CTMP in Fine Papers: On-Machine Surface
Treatmentsfor Improved BrightnessStability Tappi Journal,
74:5 (1991), p. 210.
13
U.S. EPA, Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limi-
tationsGuidelines, p. 8-7.
14
Gary Smook, Handbook for Pulp & Paper Technologists, 2nd
Ed., p. 69.
15
Sulfite mills can use four different types of alkali: calcium
h yd roxide, ammonium hyd roxide, sodium hyd roxide and
magnesium hydroxide. Calcium based sulfite processes have
the lowest chemical costsbecause lime and sulfur are readily
available; however, there isno chemical recovery processfor
the used pul pi ng chemical s. Mi lls wi th a cal ci um-based
p rocess often sell the lignin by - p roducts, and, thus, find a
beneficial usefor thiswaste. Of the 14 papergrade sulfitemills
operating in the United States, 5 useammonium hyd roxide, 5
usemagnesium hyd roxide and 4 use calcium hyd roxide. Ga ry
Hickman and Llewellyn Ma t t h ews, Bleached Sulfite Mi l l
Effluent and AOX Treatment, TA P PI proceedings: 1995
In t ernational En v i ronmental Conference, Atlanta: TA P PI Pre ss,
1995, p. 475; 1995 L o ck w o o d - Po stsDirect o ry of Pulp and
Paper Manufacturersand Allied Trades, San Francisco: Miller
Freeman, Inc., 1994.
16
One manufacturer of mottled white linerboard also uses a
deinking system to obtain white pulp; an additional liner-
board mill isinstalling thistechnology in 1995.
17
National Council of the Paper In d u st ry for Air and St re a m
Improvement (NCASI), Effectsof Chlorine Dioxide Substi-
tution on Bleach Plant Effluent BOD and Color, Technical
Bulletin No. 630, March 1992, p. 3.
18
Estimate based on U.S. mill consumption of old corrugated
c o n t a i n e r s and m i xed paper re c ove red paper categories.
Pre l i m i n a ry 1994 data; American Fo rest & Paper Association,
Pa p er, Pa p er b o a rd and Wood Pulp, 1995 St a t i st i cs, Wa sh i n g-
ton, DC: AF&PA, September 1995, p. 57.
19
Using hydrogen peroxide or FAScompounds.
20
White Paper No. 9, Economic of Manufacturing Virgin and
Recycled Paper, providesmore information on the percent-
age of deinked pulp made with TCF processing.
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
223
21
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, TechnologyPartner-
ships, p. 61.
22
Ibid., pp.38, 61.
23
NCASI, Solid Waste Management and Disposal Practicesin
the U.S. Paper Industry, Technical Bulletin No. 641, Septem-
ber 1992.
24
J.T. Houghton et. al. (eds.), Climate Change 1994: Radiative
Forcing of Climate Change and An Evaluation of the IPCC
IS92 Emissions Scenarios, Cambridge, England: publ ished
for theIn t e r g overnmental Panel on Climate Changeby Cam-
bridge University Press, 1995, chapter 1.
25
U.S. EPA, Regu l a t o ryImpact Assessment of Proposed Ef f l u en t
Guidelinesand NESHAP for thePulp, Paper and Paperboard
Industry, Washington, DC: U.S. EPA Report number EPA-
821-R93-020, November 1993, p. 7-8.
26
Hyd roelectric powe r, created by damming rivers, hasenviro n-
mental effectsother than those associated with combustion
processes.
27
Allan Sp r i n g e r, Industrial Pollution Control: Pulp and Pa p er
Industry, 2nd ed., Atlanta: TAPPI Press, 1993, p. 346.
28
The recovery boiler isa $75 million piece of equipment with
complex operations. Ac ross the total U.S. paper industry,
major boiler explosionsoccur on average about once a year.
29
Ga ry Hickman, and Llewellyn Ma t t h ews, Bleached Su l f i t e
Mill Effluent and AOXTreatment, TAPPI Proceedings1995
In t ernational En v i ronmental Conferen ce, Atlanta: TA P PI Pre ss,
1995, p. 469 - 481.
30
MoDosDmsj mill hasoperated without any bleach plant
effluent since 1991. Carl-Johan Alfthan, Pollution Re d u c-
t i o n - Targets, Ac h i e vements and the Pu b l i c , T h i rd Gl o b a l
C o n f erenceon theEn v i ro n men t, London England, 26-28,
March 1995, p.113
31
American Fo rest & Paper Association, SustainableEn v i ro n-
mental Pathwaysfor thePulp & Paper In d u st ry: Development of
Agenda 2020, September 1995.
32
B.J. Fuhr et al., Research Developmentsfor Zero Effluent
Kraft Bleach Plants, TAPPI Proceedings: 1995 International
En v i ronmental Conferen ce( Atlanta: TA P PI Press, 1995) pp.
149 - 158; NilsJohannson, F. M. Clark, and D.E. Fletcher,
NewTechnology Development for the Closed Cycle Bleach
Plant, Proceedingsof the1995 In t ernational No n - C h l o r i n e
BleachingConference, Amelia Island, FL, March 1995.
33
Tom Tibor and Ira Feldman, ISO 14000 Standards, Paper-
maker, 58:10 (1995), p. 43.
34
John E. Pi n k e rton, Defining Pollution Pre vention, Ta p p i
Journal, 77:4 (1994), p. 12.
35
AF&PA Statisticsof Pulp Paper & Paperboard, 1994, pp. 26,
29.
36
Asdiscussed in WhitePaper No. 5, current re se a rch effortsare
examining the effects of these chemicals on wild fish and
other aquatic organisms. For example, Canadian scientists
b e l i e ve that the organic substancesin thespent pulping liquor
from pulp millsmay impair the reproductive systemsof wild
fish downstream from pulp mills. These scientistshave seen
these effects dow n st ream from mills that produce bleached
and unbleached kraft pulp. Fish downstream from millswith
se c o n d a ry effluent treatment also have the same pro b l e m s.
[Hodson, et al., Canada and Sweden ContrastingRegulations
for ChlorineDischargefromPulp and Paper In d u st r i es, En v i-
ronment Canada, 8 July, 1994 draft. K.R. Munkittrick, and
G.J. Van Der Kraak, Receiving Water En v i ronmental Ef f e c t s
Associated with Dischargesfrom Ontario Pulp Mills, Pulp &
Paper Canada, 95:59 (1994).]
37
Bruce McKague, University of Toronto, personal communi-
cation, 17 February, 1994.
38
Canadian En v i ronmental Protection Act PrioritySubstancesLi st
Assessment Rep o rt No. 2: EffluentsfromPulp MillsUsi n g
Bleaching( En v i ronment Canada and Health and We l f a re
Canada, 1991), p. viii.
39
NTP Invites Chemical Nominations, Environmental Health
Perspectives, 102:11 (1994), p. 917.
40
Scientistspoint to several factorsthat may limit the ability of
ecosystem studi es to show cause-and-effect re l a t i o n sh i p s
between pollutantsand different species. Robert J. Naiman,
et.al., Fresh Water Ecosystems and Their Management: A
National In i t i a t i ve, S ci en ce, 270, 27 October 1995, p. 5 8 5 .
For example, effects from changes in temperature, nutrient
levelsand other factorsmay obscure the effect of exposure to
toxic substances. Many fish species of interest migrate hun-
dredsof milesunlessdamsor other barrierslimit their move-
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
224
ment. M.M. Gagnon, D. Bu ssi e res, J.J. Dodson, and P. V.
Hodson, White Sucker (CatostomusCommersoni) Grow t h
and Sexual Maturation in Pulp Mill-Contaminated and Ref-
erence Rivers, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 14:
326 (1995).
41
John E. Pinkerton, Defining pollution prevention, p. 12.
42
Michael Porter and Claasvan der Linde, Green and Com-
p e t i t i ve: Ending the Stalemate, Ha rva rd BusinessRev i ew,
September-October 1995, p.122.
43
Ibid.
44
Chad Nerht, Spend Mo re to Sh ow Rivals a Clean Pair of
Heels, Pulp & Paper International, 37:6 (1995), pp. 81-82.
45
American Papermaker staff re p o rt, Tried and True: No rt h
American experienceswith ECF pulp production have been
successful, Papermaker, 58:6 (1995), p.37.
46
Ken Patrick et al., Closing the Loop: The Effluent-free Pulp
and Paper Mill, Pulp & Paper, March 1994, p. S24.
4 7
Fleming and Sloan use literature sources in their analysis to
d e velop their estimate of increased wood use of 9%-11% that
resultswhen millsproduce TCF pulpswith extended deligni-
fication. Bruce Fleming and Tod Sloan, Low Kappa Cook-
ing, TCF Bleaching Affect Pulp Yield, Fiber St rength, Pulp &
Pa p er, 68:13 (1995), pp. 95-96. St e ven Moldenius, technical
d i rector of Sdra Cell, re p o rted that the change in wood
re q u i rement waswithin the normal variability of their pro c e ss,
so they saw no change. S. Moldenius, Panel Discussion on
Pulp Quality and Economics of ECF vs. TCF Bl e a c h i n g ,
1995 Internati onal Non-Chlorine Bleaching Confere n c e ,
Amelia Island, FL, Ma rch 7, 1995.
48
Re so u rc Information Systems, Inc., RI SI Long-Term Pu l p
and Paper Re v i ew, Be d f o rd, MA RISI, July 1995, p. 328-329.
49
Data coll ected at the division level shoul d reflect specific
products. For printing and writing papers, for example, logi-
cal categorieswould include coated and uncoated papersand
freesheet and mechanical pulps.
50
Major global market pulp suppliersstate that thisispossible
and isbeing requested with increasing frequency.
51
Faye Rice, HandsOff the EPA! Did We Really Say That?
Fortune(September 18, 1995), p. 18.
52
Genevieve Matanoski, Morton Lippmann, Joan Daisey, Sci-
ence Advisory Boards review of the Draft Dioxin Exposure
and Health EffectsReassessment Do c u m e n t s, Letter to Caro l
Browner, EPA-SAB-EC-95-021, September 29, 1995.
53
Dick Erickson, Closing Up the Bleach Plant: Striving for a
Minimum-Impact Mill, Paper presented at the 1995 Chem-
ical Week Conference, New Orleans, LA, 11 April 1995.
54
NCASI, Effectsof Chlorine Dioxide Substitution on Bleach
Plant Effluent BOD and Color, Technical Rep o rt No. 630,
Ma rch 1992, pp. 18, 21; Ted Y. Tsai, Jean J. Re n a rd, and
Richard B. Phillips, Formation of Polychlorinated Phenolic
Compounds During High Chlorine Di oxide Su b st i t u t i o n
Bleaching Pa rt I: Laboratory In vestigation, Tappi Jo u rn a l,
77:8 (1994), p. 154.
55
Alan E. Stinchfield and Michael G. Woods, Mill Experience
with Reduction of Chlorinated Organic Compounds fro m
Bleached Kraft MillsUsing Complete Substitution of Chlo-
rine Di oxi de for Chlori ne in the Fi rst Bleaching St a g e ,
NCASI Technical Wo rkshop on Effectsof Al t ern a t i vePu l p i n g
and BleachingProcesseson Production and Bi o t reatability of
Chlorinated Or ga n i cs, Washington, DC, 17 Fe b ru a ry 1994, p.
5; John Morgan, Mill Experience with 100% ClO
2
Substi-
tution Bleaching, 1993 Non-Chlorine Bleaching Confer-
ence, Hiltonhead, SC, p. 5. Estimate of AOX from the bleach
plant isbased on the final effluent AOX number from this
source and using treatment efficiency of 22% asreported by
Stinchfield and Woods.
56
Wel ls E. Nutt, et. al ., De velopi ng an Ozone Bl e a c h i n g
Process, Tappi Journal, 76:3(1993), p. 117.
57
Jean Re n a rd, technical meeting with the Paper Task Fo rc e ,
Newark, NJ, 1 September 1994.
58
I bi d.; Rudol ph Thut, Pe rformance of We ye r h a e u se r
Bleached Kraft Millswith Extended and/or Oxygen Deligni -
fication and 100% Chlorine Dioxide Substitution, NCASI
Technical Wo rkshop on Effectsof Al t ern a t i vePulping and
BleachingProcesseson Production and Biotreatabilityof Chlori-
nated Organics, Washington, DC, 17 February 1994, p. 3.
59
Dick Erickson, Closing Up the Bleach Plant; Jean Renard,
technical meeting with the Paper Task Force, Newark, NJ, 1
September 1994.
60
WellsNutt, president, Union Camp TechnologiesInc., letter
P U L P A N D P A P E R M A N U F A C T U R I N G
to Harry Capell, 12 July 1995, p. 6.
61
Betsy Bicknell, Douglas Spengel, and Thomas Ho l d w o rt h ,
Comparison of Pollutant Loadings from ECF, TCF and
Ozone/ Chlorine Di oxide Bleaching, 1995 In t ern a t i o n a l
Non-ChlorineBleachingConference, p. 16.
62
G. Mapleset al., BFR: A New ProcessToward Bleach Plant
C l o su re, Paperspresented at the1994 In t ernational Pu l p
BleachingConference, Vancouver, BC, 13-16 June 1994, pp.
253 - 262.
63
Estimate based on discussion in G. Maples et. al., BFR: A
New ProcessToward Bleach Plant Closure.
225