Creating an Inclusive School, 2nd Edition

Edited by Richard A. Villa and Jacqueline S. Thousand

Table of Contents
Chapter 1. What Is an Inclusive School?
by Mary A. Falvey and Christine C. Givner
There is only one child in the world and that child's name is ALL children.
Carl Sandburg
An Inclusive Classroom in Action
What does an inclusive school look and sound like The following scenario describes a ty!ical day in freshman
language arts class for "# students attending an ordinary$ yet e%traordinary$ high school in a large urban school
district.
The students in &r. 'ice's third !eriod have (ust finished )reading* the final cha!ter of To Kill a Mocin!bird by
+ar!er Lee ,-./01. Some students have listened to the book on ta!e because of their literacy levels$ while other
students were given ,or created for themselves1 gra!hic organi2ers to hel! them organi2e key ideas. The
students have been working on .th grade California literacy standards while reading the book. Although these
students are diverse in their learning styles and abilities$ all are challenged in meaningful ways that relate to the
.th grade standards. &r. 'ice has (ust assigned a culminating task that asks the students to creatively de!ict
how the characters in To Kill a Mocin!bird demonstrated courage and conviction. +e also has distributed a
rubric describing how the assignments will be evaluated.
Several students in &r. 'ice's class 3ualify for s!ecial education4 five 3ualify for gifted and talented services. 5n
collaboration with &r. 'ice$ the coordinator of the gifted and talented su!!ort services$ &s. Stremel$ has
contracted with each of those five students about how they will not only meet but also e%ceed the assignment
rubric. &r. 'ice and &s. Stremel are available at any time to assist and guide the five students as they com!lete
their modified assignments and to hel! other students with their assignments. &s. &ikel$ &r. 'ice's s!ecial
education su!!ort teacher$ is also in the classroom and is available to hel! students eligible for s!ecial education
and anyone else who seeks assistance.
6es7s$ one of &r. 'ice's third !eriod students$ 3ualifies for s!ecial education services because of a learning
disability. +e reads well below grade level but has e%cellent verbal and visual8s!atial skills. 9or the assignment$
6es7s is !artnered with :mily$ who has high reading and writing skills but struggles with verbal skills. The two
students use their com!lementary strengths to !ut together a (oint !resentation on how the To Kill a
Mocin!bird characters demonstrated courage and conviction.
;eorge$ a student with autism$ and <uon receive guidance in designing their !resentation. ;eorge will show
!ictures of the characters with brief written descri!tions that he and <uon have com!osed. Lonny$ a socially
talented senior$ is com!leting his community service re3uirements by su!!orting ;eorge and the other students
in this third !eriod class.
Casandra$ who has multi!le disabilities$ uses an electric wheel=chair to get around and an electronic
communication aid to convey her thoughts and res!onses. Casandra's !artner is 6immy$ a classmate who
3ualifies for gifted and talented services. 6immy surfs the Web for information related to the to!ic and then
decides with Casandra what to include in their !resentation. Casandra and 6immy enter their content into
Casandra's electronic communication device$ which has a voice out!ut that will be activated to deliver their
!resentation in class.
Two students are :nglish=language learners. >ne student s!eaks Cantonese$ and the other s!eaks S!anish.
:ach is !artnered with a bilingual classmate. The two !airs of students !re!are bilingual !resentations in their
languages? one !air in Cantonese and :nglish and the other !air in S!anish and :nglish. All visual aids are also
!resented in both languages.
The com!osition of &r. 'ice's class reflects the diversity in most classrooms in the @nited States. At one time$
many students in such a class would have been labeled and forced into se!arate classes$ thereby limiting their
e%!osure to one another$ the essential curriculum$ and varied instructional !rocedures and !ersonnel. Some
students would have been moved to a gifted and talented !rogram. 6es7s$ Casandra$ and ;eorge would have
been classified as disabled and !laced in a segregated s!ecial education !rogram. The students s!eaking
languages other than :nglish would have been !laced in a se!arate bilingual or :nglish=as=a=second=language
!rogram$ where they would have limited e%!osure to :nglish=s!eaking !eers.
Some !eo!le argue that the social (ustice occurring in &r. 'ice's classinclusive educationis not the
res!onsibility of schools. +owever$ if inclusive education is not the schools' res!onsibility$ then whose is it >ur
country's systems and institutions teach by e%am!le what a country$ state$ or community values? either inclusion$
or segregation and e%clusion. 5nclusive education demands that schools create and !rovide whatever is
necessary to ensure that all students have access to meaningful learning. 5t does not re3uire students to !ossess
any !articular set of skills or abilities as a !rere3uisite to belonging.
Inclusive Education: Legal e!inition
The legal mandate driving inclusive education in the @nited States is Aublic Law ,A.L.1 .B=-B#$ now the
5ndividuals with Cisabilities :ducation Act ,5C:A1. Although the s!ecific terms inclusion and inclusive
education cannot be found in A.L. .B=-B#$ the definition of least restrictive environ"ent ,L':1 is a key element of
the law. 5t !rovided the initial legal im!etus for creating inclusive education. The law states that
to the ma%imum e%tent a!!ro!riate$ handica!!ed children$ including those children in !ublic and !rivate
institutions or other care facilities$ are educated with children who are not handica!!ed$ and that s!ecial classes$
se!arate schooling$ or other removal of handica!!ed children from the regular educational environment occurs
only when the nature or severity of the handica! is such that education in regular classes with the use of
su!!lementary aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily. ,A.L. .B=-B#$ D -B-# EFG EHG1
The critical language used in the law is )with the use of su!!lementary aids and services.* 5n -.IF$ when A.L. .B=
-B# was !assed$ the !rofessional education literature was devoid of any information on and strategies for using
su!!lementary aids and services to effectively include students with disabilities. +owever$ since that time$ the
use of such aids and services to include all students has been fre3uently identified and described in the literature.
,Some recent e%am!les include 9alvey$ -../4 9isher$ Sa%$ J Aum!ian$ -...4 6anney J Snell$ #0004 Kennedy J
9isher$ #00-4 Thousand$ Lilla$ J Mevin$ #00#4 Lilla J Thousand$ #000.1 As a result$ the L': mandate has been a
leading force in the design and im!lementation of inclusive education.
Since the !romulgation of 5C:A ,A.L. .B=-B#1 the federal court decisions have built on one another to clarify the
following?
School districts must consider !lacement in general education for all students with disabilities$
regardless of the degree of the disability.
Academic and social benefits of !lacement in general education must be taken into consideration.
Such consideration must be more than a token gesture.
Alacement in the L': is not )dum!ing* but rather !lacing students with disabilities in general education
settings with the necessary su!!orts$ services$ and su!!lementary aids.
The standard for denying inclusive education to a student with disabilities is very high.
Inclusive Education: "ragmatic e!inition
What is inclusion$ or inclusive education To begin to answer that 3uestion$ we asked thousands of children$
adolescents$ and adults to identify an event in their lives that caused them to feel included and one that caused
them to feel e%cluded. We also asked the sub(ects to describe how they felt during and following the two
e%!eriences. 9igure -.- !rovides a sam!ling of the feelings that !eo!le have re!orted e%!eriencing when they
felt included or e%cluded.
#igure 1.1. $esponses to the %uestions, &'o( did )ou !eel (hen )ou (ere ...*
E+CL,E? I-CL,E?
angry
resentful
hurt
frustrate
d
lonely
different
confuse
d
isolated
inferior
worthles
s
invisible
substan
dard
unwante
d
untruste
d
unacce!
ted
closed
ashame
d
!roud
secure
s!ecial
comfortabl
e
recogni2ed
confident
ha!!y
e%cited
trusted
cared
about
liked
acce!ted
a!!reciate
d
reinforced
loved
grateful
normal
o!en
!ositive
nurtured
im!ortant
res!onsibl
e
grown u!
:%amining such reactions is a critical element in a book about educating all students. 9igure -.- makes the
!owerful !oint that no one wants to be e%cluded. 5nclusive education is about embracing everyone and making a
commitment to !rovide each student in the community$ each citi2en in a democracy$ with the inalienable right to
belong. 5nclusion assumes that living and learning together benefits everyone$ not (ust children who are labeled
as having a difference ,e.g.$ those who are gifted$ are non=:nglish !roficient$ or have a disability1.
5n summary$ inclusion is a belief system$ not (ust a set of strategies. &r. 'ice's language arts class is not (ust
about accommodations and su!!orts4 it is about an attitude and a dis!osition that a school intentionally teaches
by e%am!le. >nce ado!ted by a school or school district$ an inclusive vision drives all decisions and actions by
those who subscribe to it. Aeo!le no longer ask$ )Why inclusion* They ask$ )+ow do we successfully include all
students*
Inclusive Education Implications
5nclusion$ as 9igure -.- illustrates$ is the o!!osite of segregation and isolation. Segregated education creates a
!ermanent underclass of students and conveys a strong message to those students that they do not measure u!$
fit in$ or belong. Segregationist thinking assumes that the right to belong is an earned rather than an
unconditional human right. Morman Kunc ,#0001 s!eaks of the casualties of e%clusion$ or )conditional
acce!tance.* +e suggests that many of the current !roblems facing children and youth at risk ,e.g.$ gangs$
suicide$ and dro!!ing out of school1 are the casualties of an infle%ible$ insensitive system of education that
systematically ,although !erha!s unintentionally1 destroys the self=esteem and self=worth of students who do not
)fit the mold.* 5n a seminal work that describes the !light of youth at risk from a Mative American !ers!ective$
Hrendtro$ Hrokenleg$ and Lan Hockern ,#00#1 describe belon!in! as one of the four central values that create a
child's Circle o# Coura!e. The right to belong is every !erson's birthright. ;iven the increasing numbers of at=risk
students in @.S. schools and the centrality of the need to belong$ schools must !rovide a way to reclaim youth
labeled at risk$ disabled$ homeless$ gay or lesbian$ and so forth.
The growing diversity of the student !o!ulation in @.S. schools is a to!ic of great debate and concern.
Cifferences among students may include language$ culture$ religion$ gender$ varied abilities$ se%ual !reference$
socioeconomic status$ and geogra!hic setting. The differences are often s!oken about as a !roblem rather than
an o!!ortunity for learning what rich variety e%ists in others' lives and how we can be included$ valued$
res!ected$ and welcomed for who we are in a naturally diverse world. 5n -..#$ ;rant Wiggins wrote the following
about the value of diversity?
We will not successfully restructure schools to be effective until we sto! seeing diversity in students as a
$roble". >ur challenge is not one of getting )s!ecial* students to better ad(ust to the usual schoolwork$ the usual
teacher !ace$ or the usual tests. The challenge of schooling remains what it has been since the modern era
began two centuries ago? ensuring that all students receive their entitlement. They have the ri!ht to thought=
!rovoking and enabling schoolwork$ so that they might use their minds well and discover the (oy therein to
willingly !ush themselves farther. They have the ri!ht to instruction that obligates the teacher$ like the doctor$ to
change tactics when !rogress fails to occur. They have the ri!ht to assessment that !rovides students and
teachers with insight into real=world standards$ useable feedback$ the o!!ortunity to self=assess$ and the chance
to have dialogue with$ or even to challenge$ the assessoralso a ri!ht in a democratic culture. @ntil such a time$
we will have no insight into human !otential. @ntil the challenge is met$ schools will continue to reward the lucky
or the already=e3ui!!ed and weed out the !oor !erformers. ,!!. %vN%vi1
Inclusive Education: School $estructuring
The call for restructuring of American education to establish meaningful educational standards ,i.e.$ student
outcomes1 and to hold schools accountable for accom!lishing those outcomes with every student re3uires great
individual and collective commitment and effort. All restructuring efforts in schools re3uire$ at the minimum$ a
belief that
:ach student can and will learn and succeed.
Civersity enriches us all$ and students at risk can overcome the risk for failure through involvement in a
thoughtful and caring community of learners.
:ach student has uni3ue contributions to offer to other learners.
:ach student has strengths and needs.
Services and su!!orts should not be relegated to one setting ,e.g.$ s!ecial classes or schools1.
:ffective learning results from the collaborative efforts of everyone working to ensure each student's
success.
Systems change initiatives in s!ecial education are !aralleling systems change efforts in general education. Such
initiatives for change are often referred to as school restructuring. 9undamental 3uestions regarding the most
effective strategies for teaching all students are being raised$ and numerous innovative and highly effective
strategies are being designed and im!lemented. School restructuring efforts are described in greater detail in
Cha!ters BN/ and are summari2ed below?
+eterogeneous and coo!erative grou! arrangements of students are used because they are more
effective for learning ,6ohnson J 6ohnson$ #00#4 >akes$ -.OF4 >akes J Li!ton$ #00"4 Sa!on=Shevin$ -..B1.
Students are !rovided with individuali2ed a!!roaches to curriculum$ assessment ,e.g.$ nonbiased
assessment !rocedures$ multi!le a!!roaches to intelligencesee Carr J +arris$ #00-4 +ock$ #0001$ and
instruction because of high e%!ectations held for all students ,Castellano$ #00"1.
Staff$ students$ !arents$ and community members collaborate in the design and delivery of effective
education for all students ,Thousand$ Lilla$ J Mevin$ #00#4 Lilla J Thousand$ #0001.
Teachers and other !rofessionals are giving students the o!!ortunity to learn to think and be creative$
and not (ust to re!eat information that they have memori2ed ,Kohn$ -...4 Len2 J Schumaker$ -...4 Schumm$
-...4 Tomlinson$ -...1.
School staff members are facilitating students' social skills as students interact$ relate to one another$
and develo! relationshi!s and friendshi!s ,Cel!it$ -..F4 Moddings$ -..#1.
As the characteristics of the school restructuring movement take hold in more and more schools$ inclusion of
students with disabilities does not become a se!arate and distinct action4 instead$ it occurs simultaneously and
naturally. The characteristics of both the school restructuring movement and the building of inclusive schools are
the same? all students must e%!erience 3uality education that meets their s!ecific educational needs in the
conte%t of !olitical and social (ustice.
Summar)
We have offered a number of ways to define inclusive schools. We do not subscribe to any one definition.
+owever$ we believe that we must create$ cherish$ and nurture schools that include and effectively educate all
students.
5nclusion benefits not only students with disabilities$ but also all students$ educators$ !arents$ and community
members. :%!erience tells us that as communities and schools embrace the true meaning of inclusion$ they
become better able to change a segregated s!ecial education system into an inclusive service delivery system
and to change a society and world intolerant and fearful of difference into one that embraces and celebrates
natural diversity with meaningful$ student=centered learning.
:ven after inclusion is o!erationally defined$ it remains an elusive term. Aart of the confusion arises from
assum!tions associated with inclusionthat it is a !rogram or that it is a research=devised strategy. The
underlying assum!tion$ however$ is that inclusion is a way of lifea way of living togetherthat is based on a
belief that each individual is valued and belongs.
Hrendtro$ L. K.$ Hrokenleg$ &.$ J Lan Hockern$ S. L. ,#00#1. Reclai"in! youth at ris% &ur ho$e #or the
#uture ,'ev. ed.1. Hloomington$ 5M? Mational :ducational Service.
Carr$ 6. 9.$ J +arris$ C. :. ,#00-1. Succeedin! 'ith standards% (inin! curriculu") assess"ent) and action
$lannin!. Ale%andria$ LA? Association for Su!ervision and Curriculum Cevelo!ment.
Castellano$ 6. ,#00"1. S$ecial $o$ulations in !i#ted education% *orin! 'ith diverse !i#ted learners.
Hoston? Allyn and Hacon.
Cel!it$ L. ,-..F1. &ther $eo$le+s children% Cultural con#lict in the classroo". Mew Pork? Mew Aress.
9alvey$ &. ,:d.1.,-..F1. ,nclusive and hetero!eneous schoolin!% Assess"ent) curriculu") and instruction.
Haltimore? Aaul +. Hrookes.
9isher$ C.$ Sa%$ C.$ J Aum!ian$ 5. ,:ds.1. ,-...1. ,nclusive hi!h schools% (earnin! #ro" conte"$orary
classroo"s. Haltimore? Aaul +. Hrookes.
+ock$ &. ,#0001. Standards$ assessment$ and 5ndividuali2ed :ducation Arograms. 5n '. A. Lilla J 6. S.
Thousand ,:ds.1$ Restructurin! #or carin! and e##ective education% -iecin! the $u..le to!ether,#nd ed.$
!!. #0ON#B-1. Haltimore? Aaul +. Hrookes.
5ndividuals with Cisabilities :ducation Act ,5C:A1 Amendments of -..I$ A.L. -0F=--I$ #0 @.S.C. DD
-B00 et seq.
6anney$ '.$ J Snell$ &. :. ,#0001. Modi#yin! school'or. Haltimore? Aaul +. Hrookes.
6ohnson$ C. W.$ J 6ohnson$ '. ,#00#1. Coo!erative community$ constructive conflict$ and civic values. 5n
6. S. Thousand$ '. A. Lilla$ J A. 5. Mevin ,:ds.1$ Creativity and collaborative learnin!% The $ractical !uide
to e"$o'erin! students) teachers) and #a"ilies ,#nd ed.$ !!. -O-N-./1. Haltimore? Aaul +. Hrookes.
Kennedy$ C. +.$ J 9isher$ C. ,#00-1. ,nclusive "iddle schools. Haltimore? Aaul +. Hrookes.
Kohn$ A. ,-...1. The schools our children deserve% Movin! beyond traditional classroo"s and /tou!her
standards.0 Hoston? +oughton &ifflin.
Kunc$ M. ,#0001. 'ediscovering the right to belong. 5n '. A. Lilla J 6. S. Thousand ,:ds.1$Restructurin! #or
carin! and e##ective education% -iecin! the $u..le to!ether ,#nd ed. !!. IIN.#1. Haltimore? Aaul +.
Hrookes.
Lee$ +. ,-./01. To ill a "ocin!bird. Ahiladel!hia? Li!!incott.
Moddings$ M. ,-..#1. The challen!e to care in schools% An alternative a$$roach to education. Mew Pork?
Teachers College Aress.
>akes$ 6. ,-.OF1. Kee$in! trac% 1o' schools structure inequality. Mew +aven$ CT? Pale @niversity Aress.
>akes$ 6.$ J Li!ton$ &. ,#00"1. Teachin! to chan!e the 'orld ,#nd ed.1. Hoston? &c;raw=+ill.
Sa!on=Shevin$ &. ,-..B1. -layin! #avorites% Gi#ted education and the disru$tion o# co""unity. Albany$
MP? State @niversity of Mew Pork Aress.
Schumaker$ 6. J Len2$ K.$ ,-...1. Ada$tin! lan!ua!e arts) social studies) and science "aterials #or the
inclusive classroo". 'eston$ LA? Council for :%ce!tional Children.
Schumm$ 6. S. ,-...1. Ada$tin! readin! and "ath "aterials #or the inclusive classroo". 'eston$ LA?
Council for :%ce!tional Children.
Thousand$ 6. S.$ Lilla$ '. A.$ J Mevin$ A. 5. ,:ds.1. ,#00#1. Creativity and collaborative learnin!% The
$ractical !uide to e"$o'erin! students) teachers) and #a"ilies ,#nd ed.1. Haltimore? Aaul +. Hrookes.
Tomlinson$ C. A. ,-...1. The di##erentiated classroo"% Res$ondin! to the needs o# all learners.
Ale%andria$ LA? Association for Su!ervision and Curriculum Cevelo!ment.
Lilla$ '. A.$ J Thousand$ 6. S. ,#0001. 'estructuring !ublic school systems? Strategies for organi2ational
change and !rogress. 5n '. A. Lilla J 6. S. Thousand ,:ds.1$ Restructurin! #or carin! and e##ective
education% -iecin! the $u..le to!ether ,#nd ed.$ !!. IN"I1. Haltimore? Aaul +. Hrookes.
Wiggins$ ;. ,-..#1. 9oreward. 5n '. A. Lilla$ 6. S. Thousand$ W. Stainback$ J S. Stainback
,:ds.1$Restructurin! #or carin! and e##ective education% An ad"inistrative !uide to creatin! hetero!eneous
schools ,!!. %vN%vi1. Haltimore? Aaul +. Hrookes.