Special Paper 416

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

OF AMERICA
Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes
and Palustrine Carbonates
edited by
Ana Mara Alonso-Zarza
Departamento Petrologa y Geoqumica
Facultad de Ciencias Geolgicas
Universidad Complutense de Madrid
28040 Madrid
Spain
Lawrence H. Tanner
Department of Biological Sciences
Le Moyne College
Syracuse, New York 13214
USA
3300 Penrose Place, P.O. Box 9140 Boulder, Colorado 80301-9140, USA
2006
Special Paper 416
ii
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Paleoenvironmental record and applications of calcretes and palustrine carbonates / edited by
Ana Mara Alonso-Zarza, Lawrence H. Tanner.
p. cm.--(Special paper; 416)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-10 0813724163 (pbk.)
ISBN-13 9780813724164 (pbk.)
1. Calcretes. 2. Rocks, Carbonate. 3. Paleopedology. I. Alonso-Zarza, Ana Mara, 1962-.
II. Tanner, Lawrence H. III. Special papers (Geological Society of America) ; 416.
QE471.15.C27.P35 2007
552/.58--dc22 2006041338
Cover: View of laterally continuous pedogenic calcretes in the Upper Triassic (Norian) Owl Rock
Formation (Chinle Group), northern Arizona. Photo by L.H. Tanner. Back cover: Recent vertical
calcrete formed by the penetration of tree roots on Miocene deposits of the Madrid Basin,
Guadalajara, Spain. Photo by A.M. Alonso-Zarza.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
iii
Preface .........................................................................................................................................................v
Ancient Landscapes, Climate and Sequence Boundaries
1. Calcic pedocomplexesRegional sequence boundary indicators in Tertiary deposits
of the Great Plains and western United States ...................................................................................1
D.L. Hanneman and C.J. Wideman
2. A Late Triassic soil catena: Landscape and climate controls on paleosol morphology and
chemistry across the Carnian-age IschigualastoVilla Union basin, northwestern Argentina .....17
N.J. Tabor, I.P. Montaez, K.A. Kelso, B. Currie, T. Shipman, and C. Colombi
3. Investigating paleosol completeness and preservation in mid-Paleozoic alluvial paleosols:
A case study in paleosol taphonomy from the Lower Old Red Sandstone .......................................43
S.B. Marriott and V.P. Wright
4. Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group, Four Corners region, southwestern
United States: Climatic implications .................................................................................................53
L.H. Tanner and S.G. Lucas
5. Estimates of atmospheric CO
2
levels during the mid-Turonian derived from stable isotope
composition of paleosol calcite from Israel ......................................................................................75
A. Sandler
6. Pedogenic carbonate distribution within glacial till in Taylor Valley, Southern
Victoria Land, Antarctica ..................................................................................................................89
K.K. Foley, W.B. Lyons, J.E. Barrett, and R.A. Virginia
Sedimentary Environments and Facies
7. Calcretes, oncolites, and lacustrine limestones in Upper Oligocene alluvial fans of
the Montgat area (Catalan Coastal Ranges, Spain) .......................................................................105
D. Parcerisa, D. Gmez-Gras, and J.D. Martn-Martn
8. The role of clastic sediment inux in the formation of calcrete and palustrine facies:
A response to paleographic and climatic conditions in the southeastern Tertiary Duero basin
(northern Spain) ..............................................................................................................................119
I. Armenteros and P. Huerta
9. The Upper Triassic crenogenic limestones in Upper Silesia (southern Poland) and their
paleoenvironmental context ............................................................................................................133
J. Szulc, M. Gradzi nski, A. Lewandowska, and C. Heunisch
iv Contents
10. A recent analogue for palustrine carbonate environments: The Quaternary deposits
of Las Tablas de Daimiel wetlands, Ciudad Real, Spain ................................................................153
A.M. Alonso-Zarza, M. Dorado-Valio, A. Valdeolmillos-Rodrguez, and M. Blanca Ruiz-Zapata
11. Depositional conditions of carbonate-dominated palustrine sedimentation around the K-T
boundary (Facis Rognacien, northeastern Pyrenean foreland, southwestern France) ..............169
D. Marty and C.A. Meyer
12. Reworked Microcodium calcarenites interbedded in pelagic sedimentary rocks (Paleocene,
Subbetic, southern Spain): Paleoenvironmental reconstruction ...................................................189
J.M. Molina, J.A. Vera, and R. Aguado
Dating of Calcretes: Applications
13. Calcite cement stratigraphy of a nonpedogenic calcrete in the Triassic New Haven Arkose
(Newark Supergroup) ......................................................................................................................203
E.T. Rasbury, E.H. Gierlowski-Kordesch, J.M. Cole, C. Sookdeo, G. Spataro, and J. Nienstedt
14. Calcrete features and age estimates from U/Th dating: Implications for the analysis of
Quaternary erosion rates in the northern limb of the Sierra Nevada range (Betic Cordillera,
southeast Spain) ...............................................................................................................................223
J.M. Azan, P. Tuccimei, A. Azor, I.M. Snchez-Almazo, A.M. Alonso-Zarza, M. Soligo,
and J.V. Prez-Pea
v
Preface
The study of ancient soils continues at an accelerating pace as more geologists recognize the value of
these ancient land surfaces as archives of important paleotopographic, paleoenvironmental, and paleoclimatic
information. Indeed, a survey of one database yields over 600 citations containing the keyword paleosol
for just the rst half of this decade, compared to only one-fourth this number from the rst half of the 1990s!
Not all of these publications presented detailed descriptions and interpretations of paleosols, certainly, but
many were broader studies that incorporated the description of ancient soil surfaces into examinations of
tectonics, basin evolution, sedimentary processes, or climate change. Clearly, the variety of paleosols and
their potential applications to geological problems is enormous. Given the breadth of this subject, we chose
to focus this volume on the topic of calcretes and the closely related subject, palustrine carbonates.
Calcretes are perhaps the most commonly described of paleosols, owing to their ready preservation
in the rock record and relative ease of recognition. The term calcrete, synonymous with caliche, is widely
applied, although it is neither the name of a soil order nor of a soil horizon. In a broad sense, calcretes are,
as proposed by Watts (1980, p. 663; after Goudie, 1973), terrestrial materials composed dominantly, but
not exclusively, of CaCO
3
, which occurs in states ranging from nodular and powdery to highly indurated,
and result mainly from the displacive and/or replacive introduction of vadose carbonate into greater or
lesser quantities of soil, rock, or sediment within a soil prole. This denition was restricted to calcretes
of pedogenic origin, however Wright and Tucker (1991) later expanded the term calcrete to include, as
initially recommended by Netterberg (1980), the effects of shallow groundwater. This broader sense sug-
gests the importance of the interaction between sediments undergoing active pedogenesis and shallow
groundwaters.
Palustrine carbonates exhibit many similarities with calcretes. As described by Freytet (1984, p. 231),
a palustrine limestone must show the characteristics of the primary lacustrine deposit (organisms, sedi-
mentary features) and characteristics due to later transformations (organisms, root traces, desiccation, pedo-
genic remobilizations). Palustrine carbonates are common in alluvial sequences, often in association with
calcretes, but their widespread recognition has been attained more slowly. Indeed, much of the research on
alluvial carbonates has focused exclusively on either palustrine carbonates or calcretes, when in fact there is
often a spatial transition from one to the other, revealing an interplay between pedogenic, sedimentary, and
diagenetic processes.
Indisputably, these deposits contain information that is signicant to the interpretation of the sedimen-
tary record and the evolution of the landscape in both recent and ancient settings (Alonso-Zarza, 2003).
These terrestrial carbonates are widely distributed on oodplains and in the distal reaches of alluvial basins.
Their presence and characteristics can be used as indicators of aggradation, subsidence or changing accom-
modation rates, and therefore as indicators of different tectonic regimes. Although calcretes and palustrine
carbonates are both commonly associated with semiarid climates, more detailed climatic information can
be obtained from the depths of the carbonate-bearing horizons within paleosol proles and from the oxygen
isotope signature of the carbonate. The carbon-isotope composition, on the other hand, has been used quite
successfully to track changes in atmospheric pCO
2
through the Phanerozoic. Vegetation is important to the
formation of many of these types of carbonates, and data on the prevailing vegetation may be obtained some-
times from the analysis of the micro- and macrofabric of the carbonate.
This volume was inspired by a technical session on the topic of calcretes and palustrine carbonates
(chaired by us) that was held at the 32nd International Geological Congress in Florence in August 2004. Six
of the contributions presented here were rst delivered at this meeting, and the volume grew with additional
vi Preface
contributions that provided both a broad overview of calcretes and palustrine carbonates and the state of the
art of their application. The papers presented here cover a wide array of environmental settings and ages
of deposits where calcretes and palustrine occur. Moreover, the papers included in this monograph discuss
a number of interesting applications, including: a possible modern analogue for palustrine carbonates, the
interplay between palustrine, pedogenic and diagenetic processes, the utility of radio-isotopic dating of pedo-
genic carbonates and its application to understanding the evolution of recent landscapes, the reconstruction
of a diagenetic sequence, and the climatic and geomorphic controls on calcrete formation. The papers have
been arranged in three groups.
Papers that apply calcretes and palustrine carbonates to the reconstruction of ancient landscapes, climate
and sequence boundaries comprise the rst group. Hanneman and Wideman illustrate the utility of calcic
pedocomplexes in delineating regional unconformities that are large-scale sequence boundaries. Their study,
focused on the Tertiary of the Great Plains, shows that these pedocomplexes have distinct physical proper-
ties that allow their identication in seismic sections and well logs. Tabor and co-authors demonstrate that
the distribution of the uvial channel sandstones and the characteristics of the paleosols are both controlled
by geomorphic evolution during deposition of the Triassic Ischigualasto Formation in northwest Argentina.
The preservational bias in paleosol formation is described in the contribution by Marriott and Wright. These
authors analyzed mid-Paleozoic paleosols from the Lower Old Red Sandstone and show that reactivated,
truncated cumulate horizons provide a means of assessing the dynamics of oodplains, including those from
before the advent of rooted vascular plants in the mid-Paleozoic. The fourth paper, by Tanner and Lucas,
relates the potential climatic control on the morphology of Upper Triassic paleosols in the Chinle Group of
the southwestern United States. Temporal changes in the types of paleosols and the maturity of calcretes
suggest a gradual aridication across the Colorado Plateau during the Late Triassic. Sandler uses the isotopic
composition of Mid-Turonian paleosol carbonate to estimate the atmospheric pCO
2
level for this interval.
His results, which indicate high mid-Turonian pCO
2
, correspond with the high temperatures that prevailed at
that time. The last paper of this group, by Foley and co-authors, demonstrates that the relatively low carbon-
ate concentrations in Antarctic polar desert soils can be attributed to the shallow active layer, low rates of
weathering, and the extreme aridity of the landscape. Moreover, the differences in CaCO
3
concentrations in
these soils correlate with landscape position with respect to elevation and distance from the coast.
Six papers dealing with the sedimentary environments and facies of calcretes and palustrine carbonates
comprise the second group. These papers provide an overview of the interrelationships between calcretes
and palustrine carbonates in terrestrial environments, focusing on their similarities and on problems in their
interpretations. Notably, some papers discuss the lack of a recent analogue for ancient palustrine carbon-
ates. In the rst contribution to this group, Parcerisa and co-authors analyze the geochemistry of calcretes,
oncolites and lacustrine limestones formed during the Upper Oligocene in two coalescent alluvial fans. They
nd that the trace element and isotopic composition of the limestones were controlled mainly by the uvial
regime and the lithology and altitude of the catchment areas in the sedimentary basin. Armenteros and Huerta
studied calcretes and associated palustrine of the southeastern Tertiary Duero basin. The characteristics of
both carbonate facies indicate their accumulation in semiarid climates with scarce clastic sediment supply,
and that meter-scale cyclicity of the carbonate and siliciclastic sediments was controlled mostly by climate.
The interrelationship between spring, uvial, palustrine, and pedogenic facies is discussed by Szulc and col-
laborators in their study of the Upper Triassic freshwater carbonates from the Upper Silesian basin. These
carbonates were deposited within a shallow swampy depression, fed by springs of deep-circulating ground-
water. Alonso-Zarza and co-authors focused their study on a recent core in Las Tablas de Daimiel, Spain, one
of the few freshwater wetlands preserved in southern Europe. Their studies of the core, including mineral-
ogy, petrography, stables isotopes and pollen analyses indicates that these sediments are similar of those of
ancient palustrine sequences, suggesting that Las Tablas is a suitable recent analogue for freshwater palus-
trine sequences. Marty and Meyer analyze in detail a palustrine sequence (Facis Rognacien) encompassing
the K-T boundary in southwestern France. The facies association indicates a seasonal, palustrine wetland
system, with ephemeral ponds surrounded by vegetated areas of freshwater marshes under subarid to inter-
mediate climates. The last paper of this group, by Molina and co-authors, describes an unusual occurrence
of various types of calcarenites containing reworked Microcodium prisms. Their study of Paleocene marine
deposits from southern Spain indicates that the Microcodium was reworked from exposed inland areas, thus
providing evidence of emersion and clarifying the palebathymetry of the adjacent pelagic deposits.
Preface vii
The nal section contains two papers on different types of calcretes to which radio-isotopic dating
techniques have been applied. Rasbury and co-authors describe the importance of cement stratigraphy to
the application of U-Pb dating of calcite in Triassic calcretes from the New Haven Arkose, and demonstrate
further that this analysis is a useful tool for distinguishing between pedogenic versus nonpedogenic calcrete.
U-Th dating of calcretes is used to constrain the evolution of the Quaternary Ranges in the Betic Cordillera
by Azan and co-authors. These authors describe how rapid incision by the rivers, and subsequent capture
of the Guadix by the Guadalquivir River is constrained by initial dissection of a calcrete layer dated at 42
ka. This age is used to calculate the incision and erosion rates, demonstrating once again that calcretes play
a major role in the evolution of landscape in many arid and semiarid regions.
This collection of papers in its nal form would not have been possible without the work of the review-
ers who dedicated their time to careful reviews and revisions. We were truly lucky to have the help of the fol-
lowing colleagues: J. Andrews, C. Arenas, B. Barclay, J. Bockheim, G. Bowen, Ll. Cabrera, J. Casanova, E.
Cheney, C. De Wet, S. Dunagan, M.A. Garca del Cura, P. Ghosh, R. Goldstein, A.D. Harvey, M. Joeckel, A.
Kosir, J. Lpez, G. Marion, A. Martn-Algarra, P. McCarthy, D. Nash, R. Palma, T. Peryt, N. Platt, G. Retal-
lack, D. Royer, Y. Snchez-Moya, P.G. Silva, A.R. Soria, R. Swennen, M. Talbot, S.K. Tandon, A. Trav, D.
Valero-Garcs, D. Varrone, and J. Wilkinson. Our sincere thanks also go to our departments: Departamento
de Petrologa y Geoqumica de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid and the Department of Biological
Sciences of Le Moyne College. We also have a special remembrance for F. Calvet, one of the pioneers in
the studies of calcretes in Spain who passed away a few years ago. His ideas are tangibly present throughout
this volume.
We hope the reader nds this collection of papers both stimulating and informative. This collection will,
ideally, constitute a base for understanding how calcretes and palustrine carbonates form an integral part of
ancient and recent landscapes and contribute to the broader knowledge of continental basins and their geo-
morphic features.
REFERENCES CITED
Alonso-Zarza, A.M., 2003, Palaeoenvironmental signicance of palustrine carbonates and calcretes in the geological record: Earth-
Science Reviews, v. 60, p. 261298, doi: 10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00106-X.
Freytet, P., 1984, Les sdiments lacustres carbonats et leurs transformations par mersion et pdognse: Importance de leur identi-
cation pour les reconstitutions palogographiques: Bulletin Centres Rechercher Exploration-Production Elf-Aquitaine, v. 8,
no. 1, p. 223246.
Goudie, A.S., 1973, Duricrusts in Tropical and Subtropical Landscapes: Clarendon, Oxford, 174 p.
Netterberg, F., 1980, Geology of southern African calcretes: 1. Terminology, description, macrofeatures and classication: Transac-
tions of the Geological Society of South Africa, v. 83, p. 255283.
Watts, N.L., 1980, Quaternary pedogenic calcretes from the Kalahari (southern Africa): mineralogy, genesis and diagenesis: Sedi-
mentology, v. 27, p. 661686.
Wright, V.P., and Tucker, M.E., 1991, Calcretes: an introduction, in Wright, V.P., and Tucker, M.E., eds., Calcretes: IAS Reprint
series 2, Oxford, Blackwell Scientic Publications, p. 122.
Ana M. Alonso-Zarza
Lawrence H. Tanner
1
Hanneman, D.L., and Wideman, C.J., 2006, Calcic pedocomplexesRegional sequence boundary indicators in Tertiary deposits of the Great Plains and western
United States, in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and Palustrine Carbonates: Geological
Society of America Special Paper 416, p. 115, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(01). For permission to copy, contact [email protected]. 2006 Geological Society
of America. All rights reserved.
Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006
Calcic pedocomplexesRegional sequence boundary indicators in
Tertiary deposits of the Great Plains and western United States
Debra L. Hanneman
Whitehall Geogroup, Inc., Whitehall, Montana 59759, USA
Charles J. Wideman
Professor Emeritus, Montana Tech of the University of Montana, Butte, Montana 59701, USA
ABSTRACT
Calcic pedocomplexes are associated with regional unconformities in the Great
Plains and western United States that have approximate ages of 30 Ma, 20 Ma, and
4 Ma. In southwestern Montana, the calcic pedocomplexes are readily identiable
on the surface, and a pedocomplex typically contains several partial soil proles. In
the most complete scenario, an individual prole may contain an argillic or argil-
lic/calcareous (Bt or Btk) horizon, a K horizon, and a C horizon. Often, however, the
Bt(k) horizon is truncated or can be entirely absent from an individual prole. The K
horizon contains an upper laminated zone that is underlain by an indurated carbon-
ate sheet. Carbonate nodules and chalky micritic matrix materials underlie the sheet
carbonate. The calcic paleosols display carbonate morphology ranging from stage IV
to stage VI.
The calcic pedocomplexes also possess distinct physical properties that aid in
subsurface identication. The combined density and velocity differences between
paleosols and nonpedogenic strata result in bright reections on seismic sections and
distinct well-log signatures.
Although the calcic pedocomplexes and regional unconformity associations were
rst described within Tertiary strata of southwestern Montana, the same associa-
tions exist in numerous localities in the Great Plains and in other parts of the western
United States. The extensive occurrence of the calcic paleosols and regional uncon-
formity associations throughout this large area underscores their utility as a regional
correlation tool. Moreover, the delineation of regional unconformities that are large-
scale sequence boundaries by pedocomplexes has broad implications for continental
sequence stratigraphy.
Keywords: calcic, paleosol, sequence, Tertiary, pedocomplex.
RESUMEN
En las Great Plains y oeste de Estados Unidos, los complejos edcos clcicos
estn asociados con las discontinuidades regionales cuyas edades aproximadas son:
30 Ma, 20 Ma, y 4 Ma. En el suroeste de Montana, estos edafocomplejos clcicos se
observan fcilmente en aoramientos de supercie y contienen varios perles edcos
2 Hanneman and Wideman
sols in the Cenomanian Dunvegan Formation of British Colum-
bia to dene sequence boundaries. Weissmann et al. (2002)
marked sequence boundaries in Quaternary Kings River alluvial
fan strata near Fresno, California, by laterally extensive, mod-
erately mature paleosols and incised valley bases. Demko et al.
(2004) used laterally continuous, mature paleosols to delineate
regional unconformities within the Jurassic Morrison Formation
of the U.S. Western Interior.
Specically for calcic paleosols, Gulbranson (2004) noted
that calcretes within the Chinle Formation of the southwestern
United States signify unconformities and delineate a terres-
trial sequence stratigraphy for members of the Chinle Forma-
tion. Tandon and Gibling (1997) observed pedogenic nodular
and underlying groundwater calcretes at sequence boundaries
in Upper Carboniferous cyclothems in the Sydney Basin of
Atlantic Canada.
The purpose of this paper is to initially describe the calcic
pedocomplexes in Tertiary basin ll of southwestern Montana.
Because the calcic pedocomplexes do delineate regional uncon-
formities, we will then detail their use as sequence boundary indi-
cators in continental strata. The utility of using calcic pedocom-
plexes as sequence boundary markers will be further enhanced
by documenting their existence within Tertiary strata of the Great
Plains and western United States.
CALCIC PEDOCOMPLEXES
Calcic paleosol pedocomplexes typically occur within the
Tertiary basin ll of many valleys in southwestern Montana
incompletos. En los casos en los que estos complejos edcos estn ms completos, un
perl individual puede contener un horizonte arglico (Bt) o arglico/calcreo (Bt[k]),
un horizonte K, y un horizonte C. Sin embargo, a menudo el horizonte Bt(k) est
truncado o puede estar ausente totalmente en un perl determinado. El horizonte K
tiene una zona superior laminada que se sita por encima de una capa carbontica
endurecida. Por debajo de la capa dura se reconocen ndulos carbonticos y mate-
rial micrtico pulverulento. Los paleosuelos carbonticos tienen estadios morfolgicos
que varan entre IV y VI.
Los complejos edcos clcicos tambin presentan propiedades fsicas que facili-
tan su identicacin en el subsuelo. Las combinacin de las variaciones de densidad y
velocidad en paleosuelos y estratos sin paleosuelos da lugar a reexiones importantes
en los perles ssmicos y a rasgos distintivos en sondeos.
Si bien la asociacin entre complejos pedoclcicos y las discontinuidades region-
ales se describi por primera vez en estratos Terciarios del suroeste de Montana, estas
mismas asociaciones se reconocen tambin en muchas otras zonas de las Great Plains
y en otras partes del oeste de Estados Unidos Norteamericanos. La frecuente presen-
cia de estas asociaciones en una zona tan amplia indica su utilidad como herramienta
de correlacin regional. Adems, la delimitacin de las discontinuidades regionales
que constituyen lmites de secuencias de gran escala, y que estn marcados por estos
complejos edcos, tiene implicaciones importantes para aplicar en la estratigraa
secuencial de cuencas continentales.
Palabras clave: paleosuelos clcicos, secuencias, Terciario, edafocomplejos.
INTRODUCTION
Tertiary continental strata of the Great Plains and western
United States typically contain a multitude of various types of
paleosols. In southwestern Montana, Tertiary paleosols com-
monly contain cambic, argillic, and calcic horizons; oxic hori-
zons occur only within the basal portions of the Tertiary section
(Hanneman, 1989). Of particular interest within these Tertiary
continental deposits are calcic paleosols. Because of a marked
climatic change to drying and cooling conditions within much
of this area from ca. 33 Ma to ca. 4 Ma (Prothero, 1994, 1998;
Wing, 1998; Retallack, 1992, 1998; Retallack et al., 2000), calcic
paleosols commonly occur throughout the age equivalent part of
the Tertiary section.
Calcic paleosols with carbonate morphology stages IV and
V occur within pedocomplexes at particular times within Ter-
tiary basin ll of southwestern Montana. These times equate to
regional unconformities in the northwestern United States that
occurred at ca. 30 Ma, 20 Ma, and 4 Ma (Hanneman and Wide-
man, 1991; Hanneman et al., 1994, 2003). Consequently, these
pedocomplexes mark sequence boundaries within continental
Tertiary strata in southwestern Montana (Hanneman and Wide-
man, 1991; Hanneman et al., 1994); the sequence boundaries
noted in southwestern Montana have recently been extended into
central Washington (Hanneman et al., 2003) using criteria other
than unconformity-bounding paleosols.
The concept of using paleosols to dene sequence boundar-
ies in nonmarine strata has also recently been applied to other
geologic settings. McCarthy et al. (1999) used interuve paleo-
Calcic pedocomplexes 3
(Fig. 1). The calcic pedocomplexes contain at least two calcic
paleosols that are generally separated by small thicknesses of C
horizon material. We dene calcic paleosols informally as paleo-
sols that have a large amount of secondary carbonate present in
the form of calcic horizons (Machette, 1985). Although calcic
paleosols have been placed into classications such as Aridosols
(Retallack, 1993), Calcisols (Mack et al., 1993), or paleo-Ari-
dosols (Nettleton et al., 2000), we have not yet identied an A
horizon within individual proles of the southwestern Montana
paleosol stacks, and there is typically, at best, only a truncated
part of a B horizon within the proles. Gardner et al. (1992) also
noted the absence of the A and B horizons in Neogene calcic
paleosol stacks of western Nebraska. These authors suggested
that their absence may result from several factors such as: (1)
the horizons generally not being well developed or very thick in
some Aridosols, (2) the upward growth of the calcic horizon may
overprint the A and B horizon, and (3) the A and B horizons are
more prone to erosion than petrocalcic horizons are. In any event,
with the absence of a diagnostic surface horizon in the paleosol
prole, we nd that calcic paleosols is the most appropriate
term for these paleosols.
In former publications, we referred to the vertical congura-
tion of calcic paleosols that we observed in southwestern Mon-
tana as calcic paleosol stacks (Hanneman and Wideman, 1991;
Hanneman et al., 1994, 2003). However, instead of the term
paleosol stack, we now prefer to use the term calcic pedo-
complexes in accordance with the denition for pedocomplex
as proposed to the Paleopedology Commission of International
Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA). The proposed deni-
tion states that a pedocomplex is composed of two or more paleo-
sols that are separated over large areas by a thin deposit of C hori-
zon material, and are overlain and underlain by greater amounts
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Figure 1. Location map for southwestern Montana valleys, with selected valleys identied on a digital relief image of southwestern Montana
(Montana State Library, NRIS data bank, 2001).
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Calcic pedocomplexes 5
of strata that contain weak to no evidence of soil development
(Catt, 1998). Additionally, individual paleosols within a pedo-
complex often are discontinuous, being in places truncated or
cut out by small disconformities and/or amalgamated with other
paleosols (Morrison, 1998, p. 31). The term pedocomplex is
synonymous with other terminology used in paleosol studies,
such as compound and multistory paleosols.
Figure 2 depicts calcic pedocomplexes found in some val-
leys of southwestern Montana. Each pedocomplex (Figs. 2A and
2C) contains at least two calcic paleosols and occurs between
thick sections of nonpedogenically modied strata. And, as pre-
viously noted, individual paleosols (Figs. 2B, 2D, and 2F) may
be discontinuous and/or amalgamated (amalgamated is syn-
onymous with the terms welded and composite; see North
American Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature, 1983;
Morrison, 1998, p. 31) even when traced laterally over short dis-
tances. Nonetheless, the pedocomplex itself may be traced over a
considerable distance.
Surface Calcic Pedocomplex Paleosol Proles
The pedocomplexes characteristically contain several partial
soil proles. An individual prole may include in the most ideal-
ized scenario, in descending order, (1) an argillic (Bt) horizon, (2)
an argillic/calcareous (Btk) horizon, (3) a K horizon, and (4) a C
horizon (Fig. 3A).
An argillic diagnostic subsurface B horizon (Bt) may be
present in an individual soil prole of a pedocomplex. Bt hori-
zons contain blocky structure; illuviated clays form bridges
between grains and coat ped faces. The majority of Bt horizons
in southwestern Montana Tertiary deposits are developed within
tuffaceous mudstone, and thus their color range is very similar to
pedogenically unmodied mudstone beds with very pale brown
(10YR 5/4) to yellow gray (10Y 5/2) colors. In a few sections, Bt
horizons are developed on sandy parent material, and the color
range is more varied, from light reddish brown (5YR 6/3) to light
brown (10YR 7/3). Root traces are common within the Bt hori-
zon. Although the root casts and rhizoconcretions are typically
calcareous, they may be also be composed of silica or sediments.
Where these root structures are calcareous and are numerous, the
horizon is better termed a Btk horizon. Root traces are from 0.1
cm to 2 cm in diameter and range up to 30 cm in length. The
Bt(k) horizon is commonly truncated within the pedocomplex
and can be entirely absent from a soil prole within the pedocom-
plex. However, where the horizon is preserved, it has a maximum
observed thickness of 0.3 m.
The K horizon (Fig. 3B) is the locus of secondary carbon-
ate accumulation within the prole. As originally noted by Gile
et al. (1965, p. 74) the carbonate is present as an essentially
continuous medium. It coats or engulfs, and commonly sepa-
rates and cements skeletal pebbles, sand, and silt grains. This
type of carbonate is a K-fabric, and according to the denition
originally set forth by Gile et al. (1965), a K horizon must have
more than 90% K-fabric. Even though the K horizon has never
been formally accepted as a master horizon into Soil Taxonomy
(Soil Survey Staff, 1975), we nd it extremely helpful for use in
separating the more weakly developed calcic horizons (Bk) from
those horizons with major authigenic carbonate accumulations.
The uppermost part of the K horizon contains laminations
that range in thickness from 0.2 cm to 3 cm. The laminated part
of the K horizon attains a maximum thickness of 0.3 m. A well-
indurated sheet of carbonate occurs below the laminated zone.
Floating skeletal grains, clasts, pisoliths, root casts, and some
laminations are contained within the carbonate sheet (Figs. 3C
and 3D). The hardpans are often fractured and brecciated. Maxi-
mum thickness of the hardpan part of the K horizon is 1 m.
Powdery to indurated carbonate nodules are often present
below the carbonate sheet (Fig. 3E). The nodular zone may also
include micrite matrix material. More commonly, the chalky
micritic matrix horizon underlies the nodular zone. This K hori-
zon prole is similar to the pedogenic calcrete idealized proles
detailed by Esteban and Klappa (1983), Goudie (1983), and sum-
marized by Alonso-Zarza (2003).
Secondary silica, in the form of nodules, stringers, and silici-
ed root traces commonly occurs in association with the K hori-
zons (Fig. 3F). The silica nodules range from 5 to 20 cm along
the long axis; the stringers vary from 1 to 5 cm in thickness. Both
the nodules and stringers are usually located in the K-C horizon
transition zone. The silicied root traces occur throughout the K
to upper C horizon. Contact of the K horizon with the underlying
C horizon is gradational.
As stated already, the paleosol prole described here and
shown in Figure 3 is an idealized prole. Not all features noted
for the prole are typically found in every southwestern Mon-
tana calcic paleosol. The upper surface of the K horizon can be
extremely irregular (Fig. 2B), and the entire paleosol can even
be truncated when traced laterally. Individual paleosols become
welded with other paleosols (Fig. 2D) within some pedocom-
plexes. However, there are usually enough prole characteristics
present in eld exposures to identify calcic paleosols.
Subsurface Calcic Pedocomplexes
Hanneman et al. (1994) documented the identication of cal-
cic paleosol stacks, now termed calcic pedocomplexes herein, in
the subsurface of the Deer Lodge Valley, southwestern Montana
(Fig. 4A). Calcic pedocomplexes with accumulated thickness
in excess of 10 m appeared in the subsurface as a collection of
several relatively thin, high-velocityhigh-density zones within
the basin ll. Zone thickness ranged from 1 to 1.5 m. Density
varied within the zones by as much as 0.6 g/cm
3
, and differed
by as much as 0.9 g/cm
3
from material immediately above these
zones. Velocity differed by as much as 10 ft/ms (3.3 m/ms) from
the overlying material and caused bright reections on seismic
sections. Synthetic seismograms were used to tie well-log and
seismic data (Fig. 4B).
The high-velocityhigh-density zones in the Cenozoic basin
ll were interpreted to be calcic paleosols based on data extracted
6 Hanneman and Wideman
Bt
or
Btk
K
K - C
C
Legend
Blocky Peds
Rootlets
Laminations
Nodules
Silica Stringers
Mudstone
H
o
r
i
z
o
n
s
transi-
tion
A
Floating Grains
B C
D
E
F
K Horizon -
Laminations
K Horizon - Floating Clasts in
Carbonate Sheet
K Horizon - Root Casts
K - C Transition Zone -
Silica Stringers
K Horizon - Chalky/Nodular
Zone
Figure 3. (A) Idealized calcic paleosol prole (detailed locations for features in prole are given in Table 1). (B) Laminations in upper part of K
horizon, lower Madison Valley. (C) Floating skeletal clasts in micrite of indurated sheet portion of K horizon, central Deer Lodge Valley. Lens
cap is 67 mm in diameter. (D) Root casts in indurated sheet portion of K horizon, central Deer Lodge Valley. Film cap is 35 mm in diameter.
(E) Chalky/nodular zone (indicated by arrow) present beneath indurated sheet of K horizon, lower Madison Valley. Quarter for scale. (F) Silica
stringers (indicated by arrows) of the K horizonC horizon transition zone, Jefferson Valley. Hammer is ~0.45 m in length.
from a suite of well logs that included sonic, density, resistivity,
neutron, and lithology logs, and from well-cutting analyses (Fig.
4C). The pedogenic origin of the zones was shown by (1) well-
cutting chips from the high-velocityhigh-density zones that
exhibited pedogenic features associated with calcic paleosols, (2)
paleosol horizonation interpreted from well-log analysis, (3) the
absence of minerals normally associated with lacustrine deposits,
and (4) comparison with surface paleosols (Fig. 4D).
Morphology of Calcic Paleosols
The calcic paleosols within the calcic pedocomplexes of
Tertiary basin ll in southwestern Montana have calcium carbon-
ate morphologies consistent with the stage IV to stage V mor-
phologies as outlined by Machette (1985, p. 5; Table 1 therein).
The stage IV morphology characteristics include laminae up to
1 cm in thickness in the upper part of the K horizon, with some
laminae draped over fracture surfaces. Laminae of stage V are
up to 3 cm in thickness. Fractures in the K horizon are typically
coated with laminae, and pisolites are present. Thickness of the
K horizon ranges from 0.5 to 1.5 m.
Lateral Variation within Paleosol Stacks
Although a calcic pedocomplex can be traced for several
miles within a basin, lateral variation commonly occurs. The
variance may be within individual paleosol proles of the pedo-
complex, in the vertical succession of horizons within a
Calcic pedocomplexes 7
complex, and in the overall thickness of the pedocomplexes
(Fig. 5). Within individual proles, soil descriptive features such
as texture, color, root trace concentration, and horizon bound-
ary distinctness often vary laterally, particularly within the Bt(k)
horizons (Fig. 5A shows K horizon termination; Fig. 5B shows
scoured K horizon top). These changes can be related to local
soil-forming controls, such as topography, parent material tex-
ture, and scour events (McCarthy and Plint, 1998; McCarthy et
al., 1999). Lateral changes that affect soil horizon succession
and overall pedocomplex thickness may be correlated to calcic
prole initial development position and the variable deposition
and/or erosion events associated with calcic prole formation.
Typically, soil prole development begins on stabilized areas
within a basin, such as interuves or distal portions of alluvial
fans (Alonso-Zarza et al., 1998; McCarthy et al., 1999). How-
ever, in order to generate a pedocomplex, episodic sedimentation
0.7
1.0
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K Horizon
C Horizon
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Non-K Horizon
Measured Surface Section
Calcic Pedocomplex
Deer Lodge Valley
MS 1-25
D
Figure 4. Hanneman et al. (1994) used well-log data, seismic data, and well cuttings analyses to dene calcic paleosols and pedocomplexes in the sub-
surface of the Deer Lodge Valley, southwestern Montana. (Figure was modied from Hanneman et al., 2003.) (A) Geologic setting of the Deer Lodge
Valley, southwestern Montana. Location of Montana State Prison (MSP) 1-25 well and seismic line of 1B are also shown. (B) Seismic-reection line
from the Deer Lodge Valley. Synthetic seismogram generated from well-log data of MSP 1-25 is tied to bright reectors that occur on the seismic data at
1.01.1 s (~930980 m in depth). (C) Paleosol prole delineated by resistivity and neutron log data. Argillic paleosol horizons are interpreted to have low
resistivity; K horizons are interpreted where porosity is low on the neutron log. The overlay of these two logs depicts individual proles within the mature
pedocomplex. The K horizons also correspond to the intervals high calcium content on the lithology log. CNLcompensated neutron log; NPHIneu-
tron porosity. (D) Matrix identication depth plot correlated with a surface pedocomplex measured in the northern Deer Lodge Valley. The thickness and
frequency of increased calcite-content zones compare reasonably well with the K horizons of the surface pedocomplex.
8 Hanneman and Wideman
needs to occur. Periodic deposition of sediment over the initial
calcic soil prole provides more space for plant growth, and new
cycles of calcic soil formation are begun. Given time, calcic soils
will form over large parts of a basin, wherever surfaces become
inactive. With episodic sedimentation, calcic pedocomplexes
will eventually build over this larger area.
The result of this soil-forming activity on a basin-wide scale
is that (depending on a variety of factors, such as differential sub-
sidence, climate, hydrology, parent materials) over time, thicker
sections of calcic soils, and soils with somewhat different pro-
les, may exist in different areas. Alonso-Zarza et al. (1998) doc-
umented this pedocomplex variability on Pleistocene alluvial fan
surfaces of the Campo de CartagenaMar Menor Basin, Murcia,
southeast Spain. These authors noted the formation of different
calcrete proles in proximal and distal fan areas. These differ-
ences resulted from the interplay of erosion and deposition on
the fan surfaces. In proximal fan areas, some soil horizons were
stripped from a prole, while on the more stable areas, rework-
ing and brecciation occurred, which would presumably produce
a brecciated horizon. Conversely, in the distal fan areas, episodic
sedimentation initially disrupted calcic soil formation, leading
to another cycle of calcic soil formation. Collectively, these dif-
ferences in the individual soil horizons of the various fan areas
resulted in complex composite proles being thicker in the distal
fan areas than in proximal areas.
CALCIC PEDOCOMPLEXES AS SEQUENCE
BOUNDARY INDICATORS
The calcic pedocomplexes present in the Tertiary basin ll of
southwestern Montana developed over extended periods of time
as evidenced by their advanced carbonate morphology stages.
Soil development ceased for brief intervals because of sediment
inux, but then resumed, adding yet another soil prole to the
pedocomplex. Collectively, the individual paleosol proles con-
tained within a pedocomplex represent signicant breaks within
the Tertiary basin-ll record. Consequently, the calcic pedocom-
plexes mark unconformities that occur between large-scale sedi-
mentary packages.
The age of each unconformity is constrained by paying strict
attention to well-documented fossil vertebrate and radioisotopic
age data taken from units occurring on both sides of the uncon-
formity. The regional unconformities marked by calcic pedocom-
plexes occur at ca. 30 Ma, 20 Ma, and 4 Ma. The magnitude
of each hiatus represented at these regional unconformities in
southwestern Montana is estimated to be ~34 m.y. where all
sequences are present. Because age data are derived not directly
from the bounding surface itself but from strata that occur at
some distance above and below pedocomplexes, there is yet a
degree of uncertainty that exists for exact ages of the sequence
bounding surfaces. Consequently, we are constantly looking for
better age constraints on the regional unconformities.
Montana Unconformity-Bounded Sequences
Five unconformity-bounded sequences were initially delin-
eated within continental Tertiary strata in southwestern Mon-
tana (Hanneman and Wideman, 1991; Hanneman et al., 2003).
The sequences have upper and lower bounding surfaces that are
unconformities of regional extent. We refer to these unconfor-
mity-bounded sequences as large-scale sequences, because they
contain sizeable packages of basin-ll material. The unconfor-
mity-bounded sequences can include several hundred meters of
strata, many different lithologies, and represent several million
years of the geologic record. Calcic pedocomplexes mark the
unconformities that separate four of these unconformity-bounded
K horizon
termination
Glove for scale
Scoured K horizon
A B
Figure 5. Examples of lateral variability that
occurs within calcic pedocomplexes located
in the lower Madison Valley of southwestern
Montana (location of pedocomplex given in
Table 1). (A) K horizon termination in a 20 Ma
calcic pedocomplex. Terminated K horizon is
~0.3 m in thickness. (B) Scoured K horizon
top (laminar zone and a part of the carbonate
sheet). Glove is 24 cm in length.
Calcic pedocomplexes 9
typically contains a maximum of three paleosol proles. The K
horizon in these proles has carbonate morphology equivalent
to stage IV. However, in many locations, sequence 2 is overlain
directly by sequence 4. In these areas, calcic paleosol stacks have
several paleosol proles and K horizons attain a carbonate mor-
phology stage V.
Calcic pedocomplexes at the top of sequence 3 have sev-
eral paleosol proles, and the K horizons in each prole reach a
carbonate morphology stage V. It should be noted that in some
past studies of southwestern Montana Tertiary basin ll, paleo-
sols at this same stratigraphic level have been described as red,
saprolitic, and kaolinite-rich (Thompson et al., 1982, p. 415;
sequences. The regional unconformity-bounded sequences
delimited by calcic paleosol stacks are informally designated as:
sequence 2middle/late Duchesnean to Whitneyan (ca. 3830
Ma), sequence 3Arikareean (ca. 2720 Ma), sequence 4Bar-
stovian to Blancan (ca. 164 Ma), and sequence 5early Quater-
nary (ca. 1.8 Ma) to the present (Fig. 6). Locations for examples
of these calcic pedocomplexes and unconformity associations are
given in Table 1.
There are some differences among the calcic pedocomplexes
that occur on the upper bounding surfaces of sequences 2, 3, and
4 in southwestern Montana. Where sequence 3 directly overlies
sequence 2, pedocomplex development at the top of sequence 2
55
65
45
35
25
15
5
Ma
Southwestern
Montana Washington
Sequence
1
Sequence
5
Sequence
4
Sequence
3
Sequence
2
High
Cascade
Walpapi
Upper
Kittitas
Challis
Puercan
Torrejonian
Tiffanian
Clarkforkian
Wasatchian
Bridgerian
Uintan
Duchesnean
Chadronian
Orellan
Whitneyan
Arikareean
Hemingfordian
Barstovian
Clarendonian
Hemphillian
Blancan
Irvingtonian
Rancholabrean
65
54.8
33.7
23.8
5.3
1.75
0.01
63.5
60.5
56.2
50.4
55.5
47
40
37
33
32
30
11.5
15.9
19
9
4.9
1.75
0.1
65
Lower
Kittitas
Ma Ma
North American
Land Mammal
Ages
Paleocene
Eocene
Oligocene
Miocene
Pliocene
Pleistocene
Holocene
Epoch
Legend
Calcic pedocomplexes
Approximate
time and
duration
of hiatus
Newly
defined
hiatus
4 Ma
20 Ma
30 Ma
Figure 6. Correlation of southwestern Montana sequences with central Washington (CW) sequences. The dashed lines within the CW Kittitas represent the
newly recognized 30 Ma to 27 Ma hiatus. The gray area in between some of the wavy lines represents the estimated magnitude of the hiatus. Age estimates
for the Cenozoic epochs are ones proposed by Berggren et al. (1995). Age estimates for Paleogene North American Land Mammal Ages (NALMA) are
based on those given by Prothero (1995). Age estimates for Neogene NALMA are those delineated by Woodburne and Swisher (1995).
10 Hanneman and Wideman
Fields et al., 1985). Strata at the locations sampled for the oxic
horizon were originally thought to be ca. 2117 Ma. Later map-
ping with more-detailed age control revealed that strata at these
sample localities are much older than previously thought. Conse-
quently, recent work has shown no evidence for an oxic horizon
at this stratigraphic level and that the regional unconformity at ca.
2117 Ma is instead marked by calcic pedocomplexes (McLeod,
1987; Hanneman, 1989; Hanneman and Wideman, 1991; Portner
and Hendrix, 2004).
Calcic pedocomplexes that mark the upper surface of
sequence 4 are similar to those at the top of sequence 3. How-
ever, these pedocomplexes are often absent in the southern areas
of southwestern Montana, where there are no reported uppermost
Tertiary strata and there are scant Quaternary age sediments. It
may well be that much of this part of the section (including the
calcic pedocomplexes) has been stripped from the basins due to
recent uplift of the YellowstoneSnake River Plain area of Idaho,
Wyoming, and Montana.
Washington Unconformity-Bounded Sequences
The Cenozoic unconformity-bounded sequences identi-
ed in Montana extend into central Washington based upon
work originally done by Cheney (1994, 2000). Hanneman et al.
(2003) recognized that there are equivalent interregional uncon-
formity-bounded sequences in this area: Lower Kittitasca.
3630 Ma, Upper Kittitasca. 2722 Ma, Walpapica. 204
Ma, and High Cascadeca. 4 Ma to present (Fig. 6). Although
Cheney (1994, 2000) emphasized the importance of changes
in lithology and provenance in initially delineating the Wash-
ington unconformity-bounded sequences rather than using the
identication of pedocomplexes, the literature reports a caliche
constraining the upper surface of the Walpapi Sequence at the
Hanford Site (Pasco Basin) in south-central Washington. The
caliche is developed on the Miocene-Pliocene Ringold Forma-
tion, and middle to late Pleistocene sediments overly it. The
thickness of the caliche ranges from 0 to 20 m, and the unit is
bounded by irregular surfaces having as much as 25 m of relief.
The number of carbonate layers differs with the thickness of the
deposits. Carbonate morphology of the layers varies from stage
I to stage V. The caliche is interpreted to be pedogenic, although
some modication to the paleosols by groundwater processes
may have occurred (Slate, 1996).
EXTENSION OF SEQUENCE BOUNDARIES
DELINEATED BY CALCIC PEDOCOMPLEXES
INTO THE GREAT PLAINS AND OTHER WESTERN
U.S. AREAS
The unconformity-bounded sequences cited above have
been extended into the western United States and the northern
Great Plains in previous studies by Hanneman and Wideman
TABLE 1. LOCATIONS FOR EXAMPLES OF TERTIARY CALCIC PEDOCOMPLEXES (PC)
AND ASSOCIATED UNCONFORMITIES IN SOUTHWESTERN MONTANA
Approximate age of
unconformity
(Ma)
Valley
location
Section, township
range
NAD 1927, Zone 12, UTM
easting/northing coordinates
U.S. Geological
Survey 7.5
quadrangle
Remarks
4 Jefferson
Biltmore area
SE section 34, T
4 S, R 7 W
387150 m E; 5031420 m N Beaverhead Rock,
Montana
Vertebrate fossils below PC are
Hemphillian; mapped
Quaternary gravels are above
PC.
20 Upper Ruby
Valley
NE section 3, T 9
S, R 5 W
406085 m E; 4992985 m N Belmont Park
Ranch, Montana
Vertebrate fossils below PC are
late Arikareean; vertebrate
fossils above PC are
Barstovian.
20 Central Deer
Lodge
NW section 31, T
3 N, R 9 W
363500 m E; 5142162 m N Conleys Lake,
Montana
Barstovian fossils are above
PC; mapped Arikareean strata
are below PC.
? 20 (Lower
boundary age
unconstrained)
Lower
Madison
Madison
Bluffs area
SW section 34, T
1 N, R 2 E
463440 m E; 5070289 m N Manhattan SW,
Montana
Barstovian vertebrate fossils
are above PC; no age
constraints were found below,
so they could range from
Chadronian to Arikareean in
age (3719 Ma).
30 Jefferson
Golden
Sunlight Mine
SE section 29, T
2 N, R 3 W
422640 m E; 5082290 m N Black Butte,
Montana
Vertebrate fossils below PC are
Chadronian; fragmentary
oreodont fossils above PC
most likely are Arikareean (W.
Coppinger, July 2004,
personal commun.).
30 Jefferson
Renova area
NE section 28, T
1 N, R 4 W
413542 m E; 5073180 m N Whitehall,
Montana
Vertebrate fossils below PC are
Chadronian; thin veneer of
Quaternary loess is above
PC.
Calcic pedocomplexes 11
(1991), Cheney (1994, 2000), and Hanneman et al. (2003). Con-
stenius et al. (2003, see their Fig. 19) expanded on these investi-
gations and documented age-equivalent unconformity-bounded
sequences throughout the Cordilleran orogenic belt that extends
from southern Canada to Mexico. Based upon the interpretation
of extensive structural data, Constenius et al. (2003) showed that
the unconformity-bounded sequences record plate-tectonic inter-
actions and continental deformation.
Because age-equivalent Cenozoic unconformity-bounded
sequences can be extended throughout the Great Plains and west-
ern United States, we expect that where equivalent soil-forming
conditions prevailed, calcic pedocomplexes should delineate
regional unconformities. A recent literature search revealed the
likely identication of the paleosolregional unconformity asso-
ciations. Several occurrences of the calcic paleosolregional
unconformity associations at ca. 30 Ma, 20 Ma, and 4 Ma from
these areas are listed next. It is possible that many other occur-
rences of paleosolregional unconformity associations are pres-
ent in these areas. The locations of the paleosolregional uncon-
formity associations are shown in Figure 7.
Regional Unconformity at ca. 30 Ma
Pinnacles Lookout, Badlands National Park, Southwestern
South Dakota
Pinnacle Series paleosols occur in the top of the Poleside
Member (early Oligocene) of the Brule Formation. The Pinnacle
Series contains calcic paleosols that have prominent horizons of
hard calcareous nodules at shallow depths. Elongate calcare-
ous concretions that are interpreted as rodent burrows are
also abundant in the paleosols. The calcic horizons probably
only correspond to a stage II or at maximum stage III carbonate
NORTH
DAKOTA
SOUTH
DAKOTA
NEBRASKA
KANSAS
OKLAHOMA
TEXAS
MONTANA
WYOMING
COLORADO
NEW MEXICO
ARIZONA
UTAH
IDAHO
WASHINGTON
OREGON
NEVADA
CALIFORNIA
LEGEND
Calcic Pedocomplexes/
Regional Unconformity
Associations
4 Ma
20 Ma
30 Ma
Southern High
Plains with
4 Ma association
Southwestern
Montana - All
Associations
Are Present
0 500
Kilometers N
Figure 7. Locations of calcic pedocomplexes and regional unconformities in the Great Plains and western United States. Details of locations and
age constraints for the calcic paleosol pedocomplexes and regional unconformities are given in text.
12 Hanneman and Wideman
morphology. The Rockyford Ash (which has a radioisotopic
age of close to 29 Ma) of the Sharps Formation unconform-
ably overlies the Poleside Member of the Brule Formation
(Retallack, 1983).
Banner County, Western Nebraska
The top of the upper Eocene to early Oligocene Brule Forma-
tion is locally cemented here with pedogenic nodular caliche.
The Brule is overlain by gravel of the Neogene Ogallala Group
(Gardner et al., 1992).
Medicine Lodge Creek Valley, South-Central Idaho
Nodular limestone armors the top of Medicine Lodge
beds present in the Medicine Lodge Creek Valley, in Clark
County, Idaho, and in sparse locations to the southwest as
far as the southern Lemhi Range (Hodges and Link, 2002).
The nodular limestone is ~2 m thick at the head of the south
fork of Deep Creek, where it lies stratigraphically above a
tuffaceous mudstone unit that has yielded a
40
Ar/
39
Ar age
of 30.23 0.45 Ma. The nodular limestone is most likely
pedogenic in origin (Hodges et al., 2004; M.K.V. Hodges, 2005,
personal commun.).
Regional Unconformity at ca. 20 Ma
South Killdeer Mountains, Southwestern North Dakota
(Medicine Hole Plateau, Dunn County)
The Arikaree Formation contains a ledge-forming bed of
carbonate/sandstone that is ~9 m in maximum thickness. This
unit is known as the burrowed marker unit because it contains
abundant fossil burrows (Forsman, 1986; Murphy et al., 1993).
Delimata (1975) noted that this bed is an exceptional stratigraphic
marker for the South Killdeer Mountains. He described the unit
as containing tuffaceous limestone, nodular limestone, and
banded limestone. Although Delimata interpreted the burrowed
marker unit as a lacustrine deposit, its described features are
more consistent with a pedogenic interpretation for the unit. The
same marker bed may be present at White Butte, North Dakota,
~130 km southwest of the South Killdeer Mountains (Murphy
et al., 1993). Presently, the burrowed marker unit is age con-
strained by: (1) a ssion-track age of 25.1 2.2 Ma taken from
the base of the burrowed marker unit, and (2) the occurrence of
two genera of oreodonts, Merychyus and Merycochoerus, located
~27 m above the stratigraphic position of the ssion-track age.
The range zones of these oreodonts overlap in the latest Arika-
reean to earliest Hemingfordian (Hoganson et al., 1998).
Monroe Canyon, Nebraska
The terminal paleosol at the head of Monroe Canyon,
along the high rim, is ~4.6 m in thickness and is developed on
the Harrison Formation. The paleosol appears to be a silcrete-
calcrete intergrade (Nash and Shaw, 1998), and it contains con-
centrations of rhizoliths and burrows, an upper laminar petrocal-
cic horizon, and a surface cemented as silcrete. Remnants of this
paleosol, the terminal Harrison paleosurface, are on at-topped
hills and buttes from Monroe Canyon west to the Nebraska-
Wyoming state boundary (a distance of ~20 km). The Eagle
Crag Ash, with a ssion-track age of 19.2 0.5 Ma, overlies the
Harrison paleosurface by ~2 m; the Agate Ash, with a
40
K/
40
Ar
age of 21.9 Ma, occurs ~10 m below the Harrison paleosurface
at Agate National Monument, in the Hoffman channel section
(Hunt, 1990; MacFadden and Hunt, 1998).
Regional Unconformity at ca. 4 Ma
Kimball and Banner Counties, Western Nebraska
Pedocomplexes of calcareous paleosols are present in the
uppermost Neogene Ogallala Group, at the top of the Ash Hol-
low Formation, western Nebraska. The pedocomplexes are ~12
m thick, contain up to four paleosols, and each paleosol is ~1
m thick. The uppermost calcic paleosol in a pedocomplex has
reached stage IV carbonate morphology, and the lower paleosols
are between a stage III and IV carbonate morphology (Gardner
et al., 1992).
Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument,
Southwest Idaho
A caliche is developed on Pleistocene-Pliocene gravels
and forms a cap rock in most of the monument and the sur-
rounding area. The caliche averages several meters in thick-
ness, but thins to less than a meter locally. It is a very dense
layer and contains vertical fractures that are often recemented
(Farmer and Riedel, 2003).
Southern High Plains, Texas and New Mexico
The uppermost late Tertiary Ogallala Formation typi-
cally includes a stage V paleosol or up to two stage IV cap-
rock calcic paleosols, and may have a stage VI calcic paleosol
where the Quaternary Blackwater Draw Formation overlies it.
Where the Blackwater Draw Formation is only a thin veneer or
is entirely absent (as is the case in large portions of the western
High Plains), the Ogallala calcic paleosol cap rock is 1.510 m
thick, and has stage VI carbonate morphology. In these areas,
it is probable that the pedogenic carbonate accumulations pres-
ent within numerous buried calcic soils and the surface
calcic soils of full sections of the Blackwater Draw have been
welded onto the uppermost Ogallala calcrete (Gustavson, 1996,
p. 37). It is also possible that in certain areas, the Ogallala cap
rock may range in age from late Miocene to late Quaternary.
Roswell-Carlsbad, Southeastern New Mexico
Stage VI calcic paleosols are developed on the top of the
Ogallala Formation in this area. The age of the calcic paleosol is
thought to be late Pliocene (Bachman, 1976; Machette, 1985).
Morman Mesa, Southeastern Nevada
The Morman Mesa calcic paleosol is ~2.5 m thick and has
stage VI carbonate morphology. It is developed on red quartz sand
Calcic pedocomplexes 13
of the Muddy Creek Formation. The age of the calcic paleosol
is thought to be late Pliocene (Gardner, 1972; Machette, 1985).
Vertebrate fossil remains of medial Hemphillian (late Miocene)
age have been reported for the Muddy Creek Formation in the
Morman Mesa area (Williams et al., 1997).
Vidal Junction, Southern California
A stage VI calcic paleosol is developed on the top of the
Mioceneearly Pliocene Muddy Creek Formation in this area.
The age designated for this calcic paleosol is late Pliocene (Bull,
1974; Machette, 1985).
DISCUSSION
The signicant areas of discussion that follow from our work
on calcic pedocomplexes and their association with regional
unconformities center on the usefulness of calcic pedocomplexes,
or in fact, any type of mature paleosol, as sequence stratigraphic
tools. Even with lateral variation of pedocomplexes, sequence
boundaries can be dened when one combines other techniques
for mapping unconformities. Additionally, although the primary
control on the sequences described herein is tectonic, higher-
resolution work on the pedocomplexes, their adjacent strata, and
better age constraints will help in understanding secondary con-
trols of sequence and pedocomplex formation.
Calcic pedocomplexes and calcic paleosols with stage IV to
stage VI carbonate morphology are associated with regional uncon-
formities of ca. 30 Ma, 20 Ma, and 4 Ma from the Great Plains
through a large part of the western United States. These paleo-
solunconformity associations mark large-scale regional sequence
boundaries and consequently aid in surface and subsurface mapping
of regional sequences. The calcic paleosols are easily identiable
in surface sections and have distinct physical properties that can
be recognized in various types of geophysical data. Where basins
contain several thousand feet of ll, and only have basin margins
sections exposed, the ability to identify calcic pedocomplexes and
use them to separate the subsurface geology into at least large-scale
unconformity-bounded sequences is extremely advantageous in
basin research. Additionally, the widespread extent of the calcic
paleosolsregional unconformities associations enhances their util-
ity as a regional correlation tool.
It is important to note that the regional hiatuses recognized
at ca. 30 Ma, 20 Ma, and 4 Ma are marked by many different
sets of calcic pedocomplexes. Some of these pedocomplexes are
laterally extensive over large areas, such as the Great Plains, but
others formed within discrete depositional basins. Depositional
basins began to form in the Cordilleran foreland fold-and-thrust
belt by ca. 49 Ma (Hanneman, 1989; Hanneman and Wideman,
1991; Constenius, 1996; Constenius et al., 2003; ONeill et al.,
2004). Thus, pedocomplexes that formed in discrete depositional
basins may be physically traced only within a particular basin.
The pedocomplexes that mark these regional hiatuses were
probably developed at similar times in various locations due to
regional tectonic and climatic controls.
Because the regional unconformities dened at ca. 30 Ma,
20 Ma, and 4 Ma can be recognized throughout the Great Plains
and the western United States, other types of mature paleosols
should mark these same unconformities where climatic condi-
tions differed. For example, in the Painted Hills of central Ore-
gon, the 30 Ma regional unconformity separates the upper Big
Basin Member of the John Day Formation from the overlying
Turtle Cove Member of the John Day Formation. Mature iron-
rich paleosols are in the middle Big Basin Member and within the
Big Basin Member, and the last one is located at the contact of
the Big Basin Member and the overlying Turtle Cove Member of
the John Day Formation (Bestland, 1997; Retallack et al., 2000).
Even though a pedocomplex can be traced for up to sev-
eral miles within a basin, lateral variation commonly occurs.
The variance may be within individual paleosol proles of the
pedocomplex, in the vertical succession of horizons within a
pedocomplex, and in the overall thickness of the pedocomplexes.
The lateral variation is most likely related to factors such as the
location of initial pedocomplex development within a basin, or
the complex interplay of erosion and deposition rates (Tandon
and Gibling, 1997; Alonso-Zarza et al., 1998; McCarthy et al.,
1999; Weissmann et al., 2002). Although the lateral variance is
easily recognized on the surface, the resolution of subsurface
data may mask these differences. Where calcic paleosols or ped-
ocomplexes are not present, angular stratal relationships, abrupt
changes in provenance or lithologies, and the bases of incised
valleys can also dene sequence boundaries. These features can
be mapped on the surface, and geometric patterns as indicators of
unconformities can be recognized on seismic data. Collectively,
these data types can be combined with paleosol information to
complete the delineation of a sequence boundary.
The calcic paleosols observed in southwestern Montana at
the 30 Ma boundary are not as well developed (in regard to car-
bonate morphology and number of soil proles within a pedo-
complex) as those that mark the 20 Ma and 4 Ma regional uncon-
formities. This appears to be a consistent feature of those bound-
aries throughout the Great Plains and western United States. The
cause for this may be related somehow to a broad range of cli-
mate and/or tectonic controls, but presently, the actual reason for
this difference in degree of paleosol development is not known.
As stated previously, Constenius et al. (2003) have shown that
the large-scale unconformity-bounded sequences dened in the
northwestern United States by Hanneman and Wideman (1991),
Cheney (1994, 2000), and Hanneman et al. (2003) are tectoni-
cally controlled sequences. However, future high-resolution
work on these sequences will probably lead to an understanding
of other secondary controls on their formation.
The ages of the regional unconformities are given as
approximate ages and are based upon currently available age
constraints derived from radioisotopic age data and verte-
brate faunal assemblages initially established in southwest-
ern Montana. The ages appear to be fairly consistent across
the Great Plains and western United States, but there is some
range to these age designations. Historically, radioisotopic age
14 Hanneman and Wideman
data have been acquired in these geographic areas in order to
place constraints on dening North American Land Mammal
boundaries, the Cenozoic time scale, and the Cenozoic magne-
topolarity time scale. Sparse attention has been paid to rening
age constraints on regional unconformities. With additional
age constraints, it may become apparent that there are timing
differences among the regional unconformities. If the timing
differences exist, they may be correlated to the time sweep on
unconformity-bounded sequences boundaries noted by Con-
stenius et al. (2003) and linked to regional tectonic events, or
they may be indicators of timing differences in regional cli-
matic change.
In relation to the development of calcic pedocomplexes that
mark regional unconformities, we nd it of interest to contem-
plate the many Cenozoic relict calcic soils listed by Machette
(1985, p. 11, Table 2 therein) for regions within the southwest-
ern United States. These calcic soils may be young examples
of the much older Tertiary calcic pedocomplexes. They may
represent the different soils that could become pedocomplexes
in a future geologic record.
SUMMARY
Calcic pedocomplexes with a maximum carbonate morphol-
ogy of stage VI are associated with regional unconformities that
have approximate ages of 30 Ma, 20 Ma, and 4 Ma. The cal-
cic paleosols are easily identiable in surface sections and have
distinct physical properties that can be recognized in various
types of geophysical data in the subsurface. The recognition of
the calcic paleosolunconformity association enables the separa-
tion of Cenozoic basin ll into at least large-scale unconformity-
bounded sequences, which can greatly enhance both surface and
subsurface basin research.
Although the 30 Ma, 20 Ma, and 4 Ma calcic pedocom-
plexesregional unconformity associations were initially
described in southwestern Montana, they can be traced through-
out the Great Plains and western United States. The widespread
extent of the calcic paleosolsregional unconformities associa-
tions enhances their utility as a regional correlation tool. Because
the pedocomplexes delineate regional unconformities that are
also large-scale sequence boundaries, the identication of the
pedocomplexunconformity association has broad implications
for continental sequence stratigraphy.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
17
Tabor, N.J., Montaez, I.P., Kelso, K.A., Currie, B., Shipman, T., and Colombi, C., 2006, A Late Triassic soil catena: Landscape and climate controls on paleo-
sol morphology and chemistry across the Carnian-age IschigualastoVilla Union basin, northwestern Argentina, in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds.,
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10.1130/2006.2416(02). For permission to copy, contact [email protected]. 2006 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.
Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006
A Late Triassic soil catena: Landscape and climate controls
on paleosol morphology and chemistry across the Carnian-age
IschigualastoVilla Union basin, northwestern Argentina
Neil J. Tabor
Department of Geological Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas 75275-0395, USA
Isabel P. Montaez
Kelley A. Kelso
Department of Geology, One Shields Ave., University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
Brian Currie
Department of Geology, Miami University, 114 Shideler Hall, Oxford, Ohio 45056, USA
Todd Shipman
Arizona Geological Survey, 416 West Congress, Suite 100, Tucson, Arizona 85701, USA
Carina Colombi
Instituto y Museo de Ciencias Naturales (CONICET), Espana 400(N) Ciudad San Juan, CP5400, Argentina
ABSTRACT
The thicknesses of stratigraphic sections of the Late Triassic (Carnian) Ischigual-
asto Formation change signicantly, from ~300 to 700 m, along a 15 km transect in the
Ischigualasto Provincial Park, San Juan, NW Argentina. Channel sandstone deposits
dominate the thickest section, whereas pedogenically altered layers dominate the thinnest
stratigraphic section. Eight paleosol types have been recognized in the study area, and they
are unevenly distributed across the basin. In particular, paleosol B horizons are thinner
and redoximorphic soil morphologies dominate in the thickest, whereas B horizons are
thickest and argillic and calcic morphologies dominate in the thinnest stratigraphic sec-
tion. These observations suggest that the geomorphic evolution of the Ischigualasto basin
exerted the primary control on sediment distribution, depositional rate, soil drainage, and
depth of the groundwater table through most of Late Triassic time in the Ischigualasto
basin. In addition,
18
O values of paleosol calcite nodules are similar to modern soil calcites
that form in frigid to cool climates between ~0 C and 10 C.
Considering both lateral and stratigraphic distribution of paleosol morphological
variability, there appears to be three different general modes of climate recorded through-
out deposition of the Ischigualasto Formation: (1) Humid conditions recorded by Argilli-
sols, Gleysols, and Vertisols in the lower quarter of the formation; (2) relatively dry condi-
tions recorded by Calcisols, calcic Argillisols, and calcic Vertisols in the middle half of the
formation; and (3) generally more humid conditions in the upper quarter of the formation
recorded by Argillisols, Gleysols, and Vertisols.
Keywords: paleosols, catena, paleoclimate, Triassic, Argentina.
18 Tabor et al.
INTRODUCTION
Soil morphologies vary across the modern landscape in
response to local and regional variations in depositional envi-
ronment, soil drainage, and geomorphology (Jenny, 1941; Soil
Survey Staff, 1975; Buol et al., 1997; Birkeland, 1999, and many
others). Soil scientists have long recognized that landscape posi-
tion is a primary factor of soil formation, and the term soil cat-
ena is reserved for specic instances where lateral variations
in the development of a suite of contemporaneous soil proles
occur in accord with the position of those soils on the landscape
(Steila, 1976). It is often difcult to document the catenary rela-
tionships of ancient sedimentary basins, because (1) accurate
correlation and demonstration of contemporaneity between out-
crops is often not feasible and (2) an ancient soil catena may be
erased by the terrestrial sedimentary records bias toward pres-
ervation of low-lying areas. Several studies, however, provide
persuasive evidence that variations in paleosol development in
ancient sedimentary basins can reect lateral changes in depo-
sitional rates across the paleolandscape, both of which can be
related to landscape position and the location of the groundwater
table (Allen, 1974; Leeder, 1976; Retallack, 1976, 1977, 1983;
Bown and Kraus, 1981; Kraus, 1987; Besly and Turner, 1983;
Atkinson, 1986; Tabor and Montaez, 2004; McCarthy and Plint,
2003; Demko et al., 2003). Although they are called by different
names (e.g., pedofacies), these basin-scale studies of terrestrial
sedimentary rocks demonstrate that catenary relationships can be
recognized in ancient sedimentary records, even when the con-
temporaneity of individual paleosol horizons cannot be demon-
strated. This recognition is important given the impact that paleo-
sol morphology and composition have on paleoenvironmental
and paleoclimatic reconstructions (e.g., Retallack, 1990; Mack
and James, 1994).
RESUMEN
La Formacin Ischigualasto del Trisico Superior (Carniense) presenta cambios
importantes de espesor (de 300 a 700 m), a lo largo de una transversal de 15 km dentro
del Parque Provincial de Ischigualasto, San Juan, en el noroeste de Argentina. En las
zonas en las que la Formacin es ms potente dominan los canales de areniscas, mien-
tras que en las zonas en las que el espesor de la Formacin es menor dominan los niveles
edcos. Se han reconocido ocho tipos distintos de paleosuelos, que se distribuyen de
forma desigual a lo largo de la cuenca. En particular, los horizontes B de los paleosuelos
son menos potentes y presentan morfologas redoximrcas en las secciones estratigr-
cas de mayor espesor; por el contrario, en las secciones estratigrcas de menor espe-
sor los horizontes B son ms potentes y arglicos y en ellos son frecuentes los rasgos
calcreos. De forma conjunta, la distribucin de los depsitos canalizados de areniscas
y la morfologa de los paleosuelos a lo largo de la Formacin Ischigualasto indican que
la evolucin geomorfolgica de la cuenca fue el principal factor de control sobre la
distribucin de los sedimentos, la tasa de sedimentacin, el drenaje de los suelos y la
profundidad del nivel fretico durante la mayor parte del Trisico.
Palabras clave: paleosuelos, catena, Trisico, paleoclima, Argentina.
In this work, we document the distribution of paleosols
across the Late Triassic (Carnian) Ischigualasto Formation of
the IschigualastoVilla Union basin, northwestern Argentina.
The spatial and temporal distribution of paleosol morphologies
establishes a basis for inferred lateral changes in soil drainage
and depositional rates indicative of a paleosoil catena. In particu-
lar, lateral variations in the stratigraphic distribution of channel
sandstones, pedogenic alteration, redoximorphic features, and
pedogenic calcrete proles appear to provide a sensitive record
of changes in soil drainage during Ischigualasto Formation depo-
sition. Overall, paleosol morphologies indicate that soils were
generally better drained in areas of decreased accommodation,
most likely reecting the effects of a deeper groundwater table
and generally drier conditions in the shallow subsurface away
from the basin depocenter. Enhanced soil drainage and a reduc-
tion in the overall sediment-accumulation rate allowed more
illuvial Ca
2+
to accumulate as pedogenic calcite precipitation
in paleosols developed on the alluvial landscape away from the
basin center.
BACKGROUND
Tectonic Setting, Stratigraphy, and Age
The study area is located along the southern edge of the
IschigualastoVilla Unin basin in northeastern San Juan Prov-
ince, Argentina, and lies within the boundaries of the Ischigual-
asto Provincial Park (Fig. 1). During Mesozoic time, oceanic-
continental plate interactions along the southwestern margin
of Pangea produced a region of extensional deformation cra-
tonward of the proto-Andean magmatic arc (Ramos and Kay,
1991; Lpez-Gamund et al., 1994). Extension focused along the
NW-trending boundary between Paleozoic accreted terranes and
A Late Triassic soil catena 19
Figure 1. Location maps of the Ischigualasto basin. (A) Map of San Juan Province, Argentina. White rectangle shows location of Figure 1C. (B)
Distribution of Triassic basins in southern South America. I.B. marks the position of the IschigualastoVilla Unin basin in NW Argentina.
(C) Geologic map of the southern part of the IschigualastoVilla Unin basin. Ischigualasto Formation measured sections 13 are shown in
Figure 3. Figure was modied from Alcober (1996).
the Precambrian Gondwanan craton (Uliana et al., 1989). The
IschigualastoVilla Unin basin of northwest Argentina is one of
a series of continental-rift basins that developed in the region as a
result of this extension (Fig. 1B) (Uliana and Biddle, 1988).
Rift-related deposition in the Ischigualasto basin began dur-
ing Early Triassic time as normal displacement on the paleo
Valle Frtil fault led to the development of a structural half-gra-
ben (Milana and Alcober, 1994). Deposition in the basin con-
tinued throughout Triassic time and resulted in accumulation of
up to 3.5 km of nonmarine and volcanic strata (Alcober, 1996).
The Triassic System in the basin consists of the Lower Triassic
Talampaya and Tarjados Formations, the Middle Triassic Cha-
ares-Ischichuca and Los Rastros Formations, and the Upper
Triassic Ischigualasto and Los Colorados Formations (Fig. 2)
(Stipancic and Bonaparte, 1979).
Quaternary shortening in the Andean foreland produced
reverse-displacement reactivation of Mesozoic normal faults and
structural inversion of Ischigualasto basin strata (Zapata and All-
mendinger, 1996). The rocks of the Ischigualasto basin are exposed
in the hanging wall of the Valle Frtil and Alto faults, both of which
are interpreted to be reverse-reactivated zones of Triassic normal
faulting (Milana and Alcober, 1994; Zapata and Allmendinger,
1996). The Valle Frtil fault is interpreted as the main basin-bound-
ing normal fault separating Proterozoic-Paleozoic crystalline and
sedimentary rocks of the footwall from the Mesozoic sedimen-
tary rocks of the hanging wall. The paleoAlto fault is interpreted
as a W-NWdipping normal fault (Milana and Alcober, 1994)
that merged with the Valle Fertl fault to the south (Fig. 1).
223.00.4
227.80.3
Chanares
Los Rastros
Ischigualasto
Los Colorados
Formation/Member
Radiometric
Age (Ma)
Stage Period Ma
Norian
Carnian
Ladinian
Anisian
Olenekian
Induan
Figure 2. Time-stratigraphic chart for Triassic rocks of the Ischigualasto
basin including relative position of radiometrically dated horizons. Time
scale was adapted from Gradstein et al. (1995) and Alcober (1996).
20 Tabor et al.
of 227.8 0.3 Ma (Rogers et al., 1993), while plagioclase crys-
tals from a bentonite ~70 m from the top of the formation
yielded a date of 218 1.7 Ma (Shipman, 2004). Collectively,
these data support a Carnian age of deposition based on the
Triassic time scale of Gradstein et al. (2004; Fig. 2).
Paleoclimate
Paleomagnetic evidence from intraformational basalt
ows within the upper Chaares Formation, near the base
of the Ischigualasto Formation, place the basin at 30S dur-
ing the Middle Triassic (Veevers et al., 1994; Valencio et al.,
1975; Lpez-Gamund et al., 1994). Stipancic and Bonaparte
(1972) suggested that sediments in the Ischigualasto basin
were deposited as a single climatic cycle, from relatively dry
and seasonal, to more humid and back again, with tempera-
tures ranging from moderate to hot. Stipancic and Bonapar-
tes (1972) reconstruction primarily relied on lithologic and
ora/faunal evidence in the Agua de la Pea Group. They also
considered the possibility that some of the change in the rock
record could be a result of tectonic inuences and that cli-
mate was relatively uniform. Volkheimer (1969) supported an
interpretation of moderate to hot temperatures mostly based
on paleooral data.
Previous researchers argued that the Ischigualasto Forma-
tion (Fig. 2) was subject to a water-limited, seasonal climate.
Based on the morphology, mineralogy, and light stable iso-
tope geochemistry of pedogenic minerals from a paleo-Verti-
sol, Tabor et al. (2004) suggested that the Lower Ischigualasto
Formation was deposited in a seasonal, humid, and cool cli-
mate. Root sizes of rhizoliths in the Ischigualasto Formation
indicate mean annual precipitation from 500 to 800 mm (Alc-
ober et al., 1997). Bossi (1971) proposed a dominantly uvial
setting that experienced seasonal variations in water availabil-
ity, while Martnez (1994) suggested an arid climate with sea-
sonal precipitation, supported by lithological evidence such as
secondary paleosol carbonate, slickensides, and blocky peds.
Further, Spalletti et al. (1999) presented biozonation in relation
to the chronostratigraphy of the basin that indicated a mixed
forest plant assemblage for the Ischigualasto Formation. The
landscape of the Ischigualasto Formation was sparsely for-
ested with a dominance of herbaceous plants, although some
large trees, represented by Rexoylon, are common in the upper
half of the formation, and Spalletti et al. (1999) interpreted the
deposition of the Ischigualasto Formation to have occurred in
a dry, and moderate to hot, seasonal climate.
METHODS
Three detailed stratigraphic sections were measured
through the Ischigualasto Formation in the eastern part of the
Ischigualasto Provincial Park (Currie et al., 2001). The sec-
tions, each separated by ~78 km, are labeled 1, 2, and 3 from
west to east.
Section 1
OLDER TRIASSIC
Los Colorados Fm
I
s
c
h
i
g
u
a
l
a
s
t
o
F
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
Section 2 Section 3
Unit IV
Unit III
Unit II
Unit I
7 km 8 km
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of changing sedimentary thickness across
the Ischigualasto Formation, position of informal lithostratigraphic
members, and measured sections 1, 2, and 3. See Figure 1 for location.
The focus of this investigation is the Ischigualasto Forma-
tion, which consists of ~300700 m of mudstone, sandstone,
conglomerate, and extrusive basalt (Fig. 3). The basal Ischigual-
asto Formation is dened as the rst occurrence of pebble-cobble
conglomerate-conglomeratic sandstone or smectitic mudstone
overlying the carbonaceous sandstones and mudstones of the Los
Rastros Formation, whereas the upper contact of the Ischigual-
asto Formation is positioned at the top of the nal variegated
mudstone below the dominantly red-colored sandstones and
mudstones of the Los Colorados Formation. The Ischigualasto
Formation appears to have conformable contacts with underly-
ing and overlying formations (Alcober, 1996), and it is inter-
nally divided into four members (Fig. 3). In stratigraphically
ascending order, these members are (1) Unit I, which consists of
~3050 m of tan/gray pebble-cobble conglomerate, conglomer-
atic sandstones, and green/gray smectitic mudstone; (2) Unit II,
which consists of 65125 m of mudstone and sandstone with rare
interbeds of bentonite and basalt; (3) Unit III, which consists of
250470 m of mudstone and sandstone, the lithostratigraphy
of which is dominated by smectitic mudstones in the east and
channel and overbank sandstone deposits in the west portions
of the study area; and (4) Unit IV, which consists of 3565 m
of variegated mudstone and sandstone.
An Upper Triassic age of the Ischigualasto Formation is
based on vertebrate fossils and radiometric ages of altered ash
beds from the unit. Abundant vertebrate fossils from the lower
two-thirds of the formation indicate a Carnian age of deposition
(Rogers et al., 1993; Alcober, 1996). Altered ash beds in the
Ischigualasto Formation have provided additional chronostrati-
graphic control. Sanidine crystals from a bentonite sampled
~80 m above the base of the formation yielded an
40
Ar/
39
Ar date
A Late Triassic soil catena 21
Paleosol tops were identied on the basis of the upper
limit of observed pedogenic features or by the presence of an
erosional contact with an overlying bed, whereas prole bases
were delineated at the lowest occurrence of unaltered parent
material. Field descriptions of paleosols (e.g., thickness, color,
type, and distribution of mottling, soil structure, and mineral-
ogy, size, morphology, and distribution of authigenic miner-
als) were completed following established methods (Tabor and
Montaez, 2004). Paleosol and lithologic colors were identied
from dry samples using Munsell color charts (Munsell Color,
1975). Paleosol classication followed the system dened by
Mack et al. (1993), and the closest estimate of a modern soil
taxonomic equivalent of the paleosol proles is given within
the context of the U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Tax-
onomy (USDA) (Soil Survey Staff, 1975).
For clay mineral identication, suspensions of the <2 m
fraction were split into 3 aliquots that were concentrated by l-
tration and prepared as oriented mounts using the lter mem-
brane peel technique. Each aliquot was treated either with 1 M
KCl, 0.5 M MgCl, or a mixture of 0.5 M MgCl and 1:4 glycerol-
water solution to delineate changes in basal thickness of differ-
ent clay minerals with X-ray diffraction. The 1 M KCl aliquots
were analyzed at room temperature, and reanalyzed after heat-
ing to 550 C for 2 h, to determine clay mineralogy based on
temperature stability (Moore and Reynolds, 1997). Clay min-
eral samples were analyzed at Southern Methodist University
(SMU) with a Rigaku Ultima III X-ray diffractometer using
CuK radiation between 2 and 14 2 at a rate of 1 2 per
minute. Identication of clay mineralogies was made based
upon the methods described in Moore and Reynolds (1997).
Carbonate nodules and tubules were collected near the
base of each carbonate-nodulebearing horizon associated with
paleosol proles. Doubly polished thin sections were analyzed
petrographically to differentiate pedogenic carbonate fabrics
from groundwater and diagenetic calcite cements following
the methods in Deutz et al. (2001) and Moore (2003). Micro-
samples were obtained from pedogenic micrite in carbonate
nodules and tubules; replacement of micrite and microspar or
sparry calcite cements was avoided. Samples were drilled from
thin sections or matching billets with a hand-held dental drill
equipped with faceted 100 m diamond bits. Approximately
50 g of carbonate powder was roasted at 375 C for 3 h to
remove organics. Oxygen isotope analysis was carried out on
a Fisons-Optima infrared gas source mass spectrometer in the
Department of Geology at the University of CaliforniaDavis
and is reported in per mil notation, where

18
1 1000 O
sample
standard
=

R
R
and R =
13
C/
12
C. The standard used to report
18
O values of cal-
cite is the Peedee belemnite (PDB; Craig 1953), and interpreted
meteoric water
18
O values are given relative to the standard
mean ocean water (SMOW; Gonantini, 1978). Replicate analy-
sis of NBS 19 yielded
18
O
PDB
values of 2.07 0.06 (n = 39)
over the period of analysis.
RESULTS
Overview of Relevant Pedogenic Features
Major diagnostic indicators of pedogenesis in Carnian-age
strata of the Ischigualasto Formation are pedogenic horizons, soil
structure, and fossil root traces. Proles are subdivided into hori-
zons on the basis of color, distribution of redoximorphic features,
and translocated or authigenic minerals, and density of rooting
structures, as well as the presence and down-prole change in
paleosol structure and fossil root trace distribution. The presence
of horizons indicates that soil-forming processes operated on a rel-
atively stable substrate for sufcient time to reorganize the parent
material into zones of alteration, accumulation, and removal (e.g.,
Buol et al. 1997; Retallack, 1990; Mack and James, 1994).
The fundamental component of soil structure, the ped, and
its pedogenic coatings, cutans, can be important indicators of the
soil-forming environment and soil drainage conditions (Brewer
1976; Buol et al., 1997; Retallack 1988, 1990). Paleosols from the
Ischigualasto basin exhibit platy, massive, angular, prismatic,
and wedge-shaped peds with carbonate, iron- and/or manganese-
oxide, and clay cutans. The wide range in density, morphology,
and structure of root traces present within paleosols from the study
area delineates both the relative position of the paleowater table
and the paleoenvironmental conditions of plant growth (e.g., Retal-
lack, 1990).
A good indicator of soil moisture regime and drainage is the
presence or absence of gley colors and redoximorphic morpholo-
gies (e.g., Soil Survey Staff, 1975, 1998). Those portions of a soil
prole that contain gley colors (chroma < 2 and value > 4 on the
Munsell color charts) and/or mottling consistent with modern
surface-water gley in modern soil systems (see Retallack, 1990;
Vepraskas, 1994; PiPujol and Buurman, 1994) are referred to as
redoximorphic zones (e.g., Vepraskas, 1994). In modern soils,
redoximorphic features form in seasonally saturated portions
of proles through removal of Fe and Mn from areas of low Eh
(redox depletions) and reprecipitation as Fe- and Mn-oxides (redox
concentrations) in more oxidized areas. Gley matrix colors indi-
cate reduced conditions, which are typical of relatively prolonged
saturation (2550% of the year), whereas yellow-brown to reddish
mottles record seasonal soil drying (Daniels et al., 1971; Duch-
aufour, 1982). Using modern soils as an analogy, redoximorphic
features in paleosols are interpreted to have formed in seasonally
saturated portions of the prole that contained sufcient organic
content to have undergone reducing conditions (PiPujol and Buur-
man, 1994).
Soil Mineralogy
Quartz, feldspars, and micas are the dominant detrital silic-
iclastic minerals in both uvial channel sands and paleosol
22 Tabor et al.
proles based on petrographic and X-ray diffraction analyses
(Moore, 2003; Shipman, 2004). These detrital siliciclastic miner-
als also comprise a signicant fraction of the clay mineralogy in
soils that formed over sedimentary parent materials in the
Ischigualasto Formation (pedotypes AF described in next sec-
tion; see also Moore, 2003). However, two different paleosol
types (pedotypes G and H described in next section) apparently
preserve in situ weathering products of volcanic ash and basalt
and therefore have little or no detrital siliciclastic component.
The mineralogical composition of each pedotype horizon
is given in Table 1 based upon the response of the respective
<2 m size fractions to various chemical and thermal treatments
discussed in the methods section. Figure 4AC presents X-ray
diffractograms of <2 m clay mineral fractions from pedotypes
C, G, and H (see description in next section). The majority of
paleosols is dominated by 2:1 phyllosilicate mineralogies. Expan-
sion of X-ray diffraction peaks near 1215 in Mg-treated sam-
ples to 17.517.9 in Mg + glycerol treated samples corresponds
to d(001) spacing of smectite-group minerals (Fig. 4AC, Table
1), probably montmorillonite (Tabor et al., 2004). The persistence
of an ~10 peak after Mg + glycerol treatment in pedotype D
corresponds to the d(001) of a mica-like mineral (MLM in Table
1), similar to muscovite (Fig. 4A). In addition, the invariant posi-
tion of the peak near 7.2 in pedotype H (Fig. 4C), and its disap-
pearance after heating at 550 C, corresponds to the d(001) peak
of kandite group minerals, probably kaolinite (Tabor et al., 2004).
Note that MLM, which is likely a detrital siliciclastic component
not associated with pedogenic processes (Tabor et al., 2004), is
an important constituent of paleosol proles in the uvial-allu-
vial association, whereas it is an insignicant constituent of
paleosols in the volcanic association (see paleosol associations in
next section).
Paleosol Descriptions, Classications, and Interpretations
Based on the eld inspection of over 500 paleosol proles in
the Ischigualasto Formation, eight major types of paleosols have
been recognized that represent the majority of the observed
morphological variability (e.g., horizonation, structure, fabric,
color, mineralogy; Fig. 5). Table 1 presents detailed morphologi-
cal and mineralogical characteristics of representative proles
from each major paleosol type.
Next, we present generalized descriptions of the charac-
teristics of each of the eight paleosol types. We also discuss
the morphological variability among paleosol types, as well as
their stratigraphic and lateral distribution within the study area,
and classify each paleosol type using the criteria of Mack et al.
(1993) along with the closest estimated soil taxon within the con-
text of the USDA Soil Classication System (Soil Survey Staff,
1975, 1998). Paleosol types are unevenly distributed, both lat-
erally and vertically, through the Ischigualasto Formation strata
(Table 2). In terms of parent material, there are two distinct
paleosol assemblages: a uvial-alluvial association (AF) and a
volcanic association (G and H).
Fluvial-Alluvial Association
Type A Paleosols
Description. Type A paleosols exhibit rooting structures
and partial to complete obliteration of original depositional fea-
tures (Figs. 5 and 6). These paleosols exist as both muddy and
sandy proles 30250 cm thick, with weak, tubular/vermicular
green and red mottles with little to no soil structural develop-
ment or horizonation. Rooting structures, if present, are typi-
cally poorly dened root halos. The clay mineral composition
of the <2 m fraction is dominated by quartz and MLM. These
paleosols are typically associated with the upper surfaces of
channel and crevasse-splay sandstones (Figs. 5 and 6) and
have highly variable lateral continuity throughout the forma-
tion. Type A paleosols are the most common suite of observed
paleosols in the Ischigualasto Formation and occur in all four
members, but are most abundant in Units II and III.
Interpretation. Paleosols with these characteristics are
classied as Protosols (Mack et al., 1993), which also roughly
covers the range of characteristics observed in the USDA Soil
Taxonomy soil order Entisols and some suborders of Inceptisols.
The presence of Protosols in the Ischigualasto Formation indi-
cates that sedimentation within the basin ceased long enough
for colonization by terrestrial ora or conditions for soil forma-
tion were exceedingly unfavorable (Buol et al., 1997). Based
on the close stratigraphic association of type A Protosols with
channel and channel-proximal deposits and a clay mineral frac-
tion that is dominated by detrital components, it is most likely
that the temporal development of these paleosols was limited
due to frequent deposition along stream corridors.
Type B Paleosols
Description. Type B paleosols are smectite and MLM-
rich mudstone and claystone proles 50 to >250 cm thick.
They all have wedge-shaped aggregate structure in lower hori-
zons (Bss horizons) that grade upward to angular blocky or
prismatic horizons (Fig. 5). In addition, these wedge-shaped
aggregates dene large, arcuate bounding surfaces that are
lined with highly oriented and foliated clay-sized material (i.e.,
slickensides). The upper horizons also exhibit sand or mud-
lled clastic dikes that may extend downward through the pro-
les as much as 125 cm. Most of these paleosols have weak
red to gray matrix colors with ne to coarse mottling, redoxi-
morphic coloration, and Fe nodules. These paleosols are most
commonly found in mudstone and claystone deposits within
several meters above or below channel sandstones and cre-
vasse-splay deposits. Several examples of these paleosols have
been traced laterally in excess of 3 km, indicating that this soil
morphology is, in many cases, laterally continuous. However,
other examples of pedotype B, when traced laterally, become
type C paleosols or terminate proximal to channel deposits
(Fig. 7). Type B paleosols increase in relative abundance from
west to east across the study area (from sections 13) and are
most common in Unit III.
A Late Triassic soil catena 23
Interpretation. Paleosols with these characteristics are
classied as Gleyed Vertisols (Mack et al., 1993) or Aquerts
(Soil Survey Staff, 1998). The dominant pedogenic process in
the formation of a Vertisol is homogenization of the prole by
shrinking and swelling of expansible 2:1 phyllosilicate clays
(i.e., smectite) through repeated wetting and drying in climates
with seasonal precipitation and/or uctuation of the underlying
water table (Wilding and Tessier, 1988). Redoximorphic or gley
features in some of the type B paleosols indicate that these pro-
les were susceptible to water-logging for periods sufcient to
produce anoxic conditions and mobilization of iron (Soil Survey
Staff, 1975). Based on the close association of pedotype B paleo-
sols with mudstones situated below, lateral to, and above chan-
nel and levee-splay sand deposits, it is likely that these paleosols
experienced episodic water logging from ooding events proxi-
mal to stream corridors.
Type C Paleosols
Description. These are smectite and MLM-rich mudstone
and claystone proles from 75 to 175 cm thick. Similar to pedo-
type B, these paleosols exhibit wedge-shaped aggregates at depth
grading upward to angular blocky or prismatic structure with
slickensides and clastic dikes (Fig. 6). However, these paleosols
contain nodular carbonate ranging in size from a few millime-
ters to 20 cm in diameter. Nodules typically exhibit a pattern of
decreasing size upward through the prole, with noncalcareous
horizons beneath the interpreted paleosol surfaces. Redoximor-
phic features are not common in type C paleosols, although many
of these paleosols exhibit some rare to common faint color mot-
tling in lower horizons. Similar to type B paleosols, these paleo-
sols are associated with ne-grained overbank deposits. Type C
paleosols are most common in Unit II, but also occur in Unit III.
Several examples of these paleosols have been traced laterally
over distances of 3.5 km. In some instances, the morphological
compositions of individual type C paleosol layers undergo lateral
transitions to type B and type E paleosol proles.
Interpretation. Wedge-shape aggregate structure, slicken-
sides, and carbonate nodules in type C paleosols indicate that
they are calcic Vertisols (Mack et al., 1993) and may possibly
represent the soil suborder Xererts (Soil Survey Staff, 1975).
The signicant features that separate pedotype C from pedotype
B are the presence of calcite nodules and a general absence of
redoximorphic features. These differences have signicant bear-
ing on the pedogenic processes responsible for the formation of
pedotype C. The absence of redoximorphic features in the A and
B horizons of type C paleosols suggests that these horizons were
seldom or never water-logged for signicant periods of time.
Therefore, it is likely that type C paleosols underwent episodic
wetting and drying from seasonal precipitation, rather than
an episodic rise and fall of the water table. Furthermore, the
presence of nodular calcite in these paleosols suggests long peri-
ods of pedogenesis (between 1000 and 10,000 yr) in areas of the
oodplain removed from frequent overbank deposition (Gile et
al., 1981). As such, type C paleosols are interpreted to represent
relatively old clay-rich soils that were spatially removed from
the depositional effects of major rivers and streams. In addition,
these proles likely formed under semiarid or arid climatic con-
ditions characterized by seasonal rainfall.
Type D Paleosols
Description. These are smectite- and kaolinite-rich mud-
stone and claystone proles that range from 75 to 150 cm
thick. Lower horizons are usually characterized by massive to
very coarse angular blocky structure, grading upward to ne to
medium, subangular blocky to angular blocky structure. These
proles are noncalcareous, and subsurface horizons exhibit clay
lms, or argillans (Bt horizon, Figs. 5 and 6; Brewer, 1976),
along ped surfaces and within root molds. In most instances,
the concentration of argillans is so great that it results in appar-
ent down-prole enrichment from the interpreted soil surface of
clay-sized material. Many of the pedotype D paleosols also con-
tain millimeter- to centimeter-size hematite nodules and exhibit
few to many, ne to coarse, faint to prominent color mottlings.
Type D paleosols are most common in mud-rich overbank sedi-
mentary rocks, although a few examples were found above chan-
nel and crevasse-splay sandstones. Type D paleosols are most
abundant in Unit III, sections 1 and 2, but are also common in
Unit IV, section 3.
Interpretation. Type D paleosols are classied as Argillisols
(Mack et al., 1993), suggesting they were likely Alsols (Soil
Survey Staff, 1998). The paleoenvironmental signicance of an
Argillisol lies in the fact that clay lms and argillic horizons form
on generally well-drained and stable landscapes. This is because
the dominant pedogenic process in these soils is translocation
of layer-lattice silicate clays that can only be facilitated through
leaching of carbonates and calcium ions from clay exchange sites
in the soil prole (Franzmeier et al., 1985). Furthermore, these
paleosols will not form in climates with excessive precipitation
that results in ever-wet soil conditions (Soil Survey Staff, 1975).
Birkeland (1984) has shown that formation of Bt horizons may
form between 100 and 1000 yr, but the development of most sub-
surface argillic horizons requires longer than this period of time.
Based on these considerations, type D paleosols represent soils
that were relatively distant from active Ischigualasto uvial chan-
nels and the associated effects of episodic sedimentation above
the actively forming prole. However, Fe nodules in some type
D paleosols may indicate seasonally poorly drained conditions
(Duchaufour, 1982).
Type E Paleosols
Description. Type E paleosols are smectite- and MLM-rich
mudstone proles that range from 50 to 175 cm thick and are
generally red to brown in color (Figs. 5 and 6). Lower horizons
are typically massive or very coarse angular blocky, grading
upward to coarse to medium angular blocky structure. These
paleosols all contain tubular and nodular carbonate concretions
(Bk horizons). Nodules range from a few millimeters to 7.5 cm in
diameter and dene calcareous horizons 10110 cm thick. Where
T
A
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XRD Analyses - Pedotype D, Section 3 Unit #2
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
2
R
e
l
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v
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i
n
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n
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Mg-Treated
Mg + Glycerol Treated
K-Treated, 25C
K-Treated, 550C
17.9
9.7
12.2
10.0
A
XRD Analyses; Pedotype G, Section 3, Unit #3
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
2
R
e
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I
n
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8.9
(2nd Order peak of 17.8)
B
Mg-Treated
Mg + Glycerol Treated
K-Treated, 25C
K-Treated, 550C
XRD Analyses - Pedotype H, Sect. 3, Unit #2
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
2
R
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12.3
14.7
17.5
9.9
7.2
C
Mg-Treated
Mg + Glycerol Treated
K-Treated, 25C
K-Treated, 550C
Figure 4. X-ray diffractograms (XRD) of the <2 m fraction
from (A) pedotype D, (B) pedotype G, and (C) pedotype H. See
text for discussion.
A Late Triassic soil catena 27
required for formation of calcic horizons (Gile et al., 1981).
Type E paleosols are interpreted to have formed as relatively
well-drained and dry soils that were distant from active channels
resulting in limited sedimentation during pedogenesis.
Type F Paleosols
Description. These are smectite-, MLM-, and kaolinite-rich
mudstone and claystone proles that are 50160 cm thick. Lower
horizons are typically massive to coarse angular blocky very ne
sandstones or mudstones that grade upward to ne to medium
angular to subangular blocky mudstones and claystones (Figs.
5 and 6). These proles are red, orange, or brown with few to
no color mottles. Morphological attributes of type F paleosols
are similar to types D and E paleosols, in that these paleosols
are characterized by subsurface horizons that contain both argil-
lans (Bt horizons) and carbonate (Bk, Btk horizons). However,
these paleosols have not been truncated, calcareous horizons
occur beneath noncalcareous surface horizons. Type E paleosols
are limited to mud-rich overbank deposits. Several examples
have been traced along outcrop exposures in excess of 2 km. In
addition, two examples of type E paleosols have been observed
to grade laterally to type C paleosols. Type E paleosols occur in
both Unit II and III, and they are most abundant in the eastern
part of the study area, near section 3.
Interpretation. These paleosols are classied as Calcisols
(Mack et al., 1993) and may have been Inceptisols and/or Ari-
disols (Soil Survey Staff, 1998). The most important pedogenic
process in the formation of type E paleosols is the accumulation
of carbonate minerals. Furthermore, calcic horizons apparently
do not form in modern soils that receive an excessive amount
of mean annual precipitation (>750 mm/yr) (Royer, 1999), and
they represent relatively uninterrupted and stable periods of time
0
50
100
150
200
ABk
Bk
Bk2
Bk3
2C
0
50
100
150
Bc
Bk
Bk2
Bt
0
50
100
150
A
BC
Bk
ABk
0
50
100
150
C
ABss
BCss
2C
3C
4C
0
50
100
150
200
B
Bc
Bw
Bt
2BC
2Bt 2
2C
0
50
100
D
E F
Fluvio-Alluvial
AC
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
2C
AC
AC
0
50
100
150
200
T
T
T
T
T
T
BCss
Cr1
Cr2
Cr3
R
0
50
100
G
H
Volcanics
1 2 3 4 5 1234 5
1234 5
1 2 3 4 5
1234 5
1234 5
123 4 5
1234 5
Figure 5. Eight pedotypes dened for
the Ischigualasto Formation: (A) Pro-
tosol; (B) Gleyed Vertisol; (C) calcic
Vertisol; (D) Argillisol; (E) Calcisol;
(F) calcic Argillisol; (G) Andisol; (H)
Vertisol. Alpha-numeric symbols to
the right of each pedotype correspond
to U.S. Department of Agriculture soil
horizon designations (Soil Survey Staff,
1998). Vertical axis is in centimeters.
Horizontal axis: 1clay, 2mudstone,
3, 4, 5ne, medium, and coarse sand,
respectively. Pedotypes AF comprise
the uvial-alluvial paleosol association,
whereas pedotypes G and H comprise
the volcanics paleosol assemblage.
Pedotypes A and B are typically proxi-
mal to channel sands and crevasse de-
posits. Pedotypes C, D, E, and F occur
in mudstone-dominated intervals distal
from major channel sandstones.
28 Tabor et al.
in all of the type F paleosols, the zone of inferred clay accumu-
lation (Bt horizons) overlies a zone of carbonate accumulation.
In addition, horizons directly beneath the interpreted soil surface
are noncalcareous. Type F paleosols are closely associated with
mud-rich overbank deposits and are observed to be laterally con-
tinuous over distances of 1 km. These paleosols are most com-
mon in Unit II, but are also present in Unit III, sections 1 and 3.
Interpretation. These paleosols are classied as calcic Argil-
lisols (Mack et al., 1993) and may possibly represent the USDA
soil suborder Xeralfs (Soil Survey Staff, 1975, 1998). Similar to
type D paleosols, the dominant pedogenic process for the forma-
tion of type F paleosols is the translocation of layer-lattice silicate
clays that can only be facilitated through soil leaching of carbon-
ates and calcium ions from clay exchange sites in the soil proles
(Franzmeier et al., 1985). Although leaching of calcium carbon-
ate is required for formation of an argillic horizon, pedogenic
carbonate may precipitate in lower horizons of soils with argillic
horizons if leaching is not so great as to remove soluble minerals
from the soil zone (Buol et al., 1997). In fact, accumulation of
carbonate is common in the lower horizons of modern Alsols in
xeric (i.e., winter wet, summer dry) soil moisture regimes (Soil
Survey Staff, 1975). Type F paleosols likely represent soil forma-
tion upon stable portions of the paleolandscape. Furthermore, the
preservation of pedogenic carbonates below argillic horizons
suggests that the depth of leaching was not sufcient to trans-
port base cations to the water table, indicating a fairly deep water
table in these portions of the landscape.
Volcanic Association
Type G Paleosols
Description. These are smectite-rich mudstones and ne
sandstone proles ranging from 30 to 200 cm thick. Lower
horizons and parent material are massive or single-grain struc-
tures consisting of feldspar-rich ash-fall deposits or uvially
reworked volcanogenic sediments grading upward to very weak
medium angular blocky or massive structure (Figs. 5 and 6).
Individual proles exhibit variable coloration, ranging from
white to buff, pink, brown, purple, and red. However, all pro-
les exhibit redder colors upward through the prole. In addi-
tion, rooting structures are typically vertical to subvertical, pink
or red siliceous and iron-oxiderich tubules. These paleosol
proles occur above and within regionally extensive ash-fall
deposits, resulting in a broad lateral continuity that exceeds 4
TABLE 2. DISTRIBUTION OF PALEOSOL TYPES IN THE ISCHIGUALASTO FORMATION
Paleosol types

Member
Rock
thickness
(m)
Channels
(%)* A B C D E F G H
Pedogenic
thickness

(m)
Section 1
Unit IV 63 41 7 2 11.6
Unit III 465 31 25 16 2 19 1 8 106.6
Unit II 121 12 14 4 2 4 5 3 45.8
Unit I 42 49 2 1 3.1
Totals 691 48 15 4 24 6 3 8 167.1
Abundance (%)
#
30 10 19 5 21 5 3 7 6
Section 2
Unit IV 37 28 19 3 1 18.1
Unit III 257 23 11 35 1 15 68.5
Unit II 92 17 5 1 11 3 4 34.1
Unit I 34 25 4 1 2.4
Totals 413 38 35 12 22 4 1 123.1
Abundance (%)
#
24 33 32 11 19 4 1
Section 3
Unit IV 37 8 18 1 4 1 22.5
Unit III 257 30 49 36 8 1 5 5 88.4
Unit II 67 0 9 7 3 1 3 6 2 34.7
Unit I 20 6 1 5 5.2
Totals 381 77 49 11 6 8 11 2 150.8
Abundance (%)
#
21 46 30 7 4 5 7 1
*The % thickness of channel sandstone deposits within each lithostratigraphic member from sections 1, 2, and 3 in the
Ischigualasto Formation.

The number of paleosol types described from sections 1, 2, and 3 for each informal member and total stratigraphic
thickness of the Ischigualasto Formation.

Cumulative thickness of all pedogenically altered layers within each measured section.
#
The abundance of paleosols types, in % thickness of pedogenically altered layers and % thickness of channel sands
through the entire Ischigualasto Formation, in sections 1, 2, and 3.
A Late Triassic soil catena 29
km along some stratigraphic horizons. They are typically asso-
ciated with ne-grained overbank sediments directly above
channel sandstones. These paleosols are limited to sections 1
and 2 of Unit III (Figs. 3 and 6).
Interpretation. These paleosols are interpreted as eutric Pro-
tosols (Mack et al., 1993). It is also possible that type G paleosols
may have been Andisols within the context of the USDA soil clas-
sication (Soil Survey Staff, 1998). However, short-range order
(SRO) minerals, such as allophane and immoglolite, which are
important constituents in the Andisol classication, are absent in
type G paleosols, and therefore they cannot be justiably placed
within the Andisol soil order. The presence of relatively unstable
parent constituents, such as ash and feldspar, indicates that pedo-
genesis was of a relatively short duration.
Type H Paleosols
Description. These smectite- and kaolinite-rich mudstone
and claystone proles formed above Triassic-age vesicular cal-
cium plagioclase basalt ows in the lower one-third of Unit II,
section 3 (Fig. 3). Type H paleosols are characterized by shrink-
swell features in the upper portion, with a thin spheroidally
weathered horizon and weakly mottled horizons beneath grading
downward into unweathered basalt (Figs. 5 and 6). Amygdules in
the unweathered basalt are composed of sparry calcite cements,
whereas calcite is missing from the upper horizon of the prole.
The spheroidally weathered horizon is morphologically divided
into three distinct zones: (1) a central silty gray spheroid with
common sparry calcite-lled vesicles; (2) a middle gray silty-
clay layer with few micritic calcite-lled vesicles and common
green montmorillonite-lled vesicles; and (3) an outer red clay-
rich rind with common green subcentimeter-size montmorillon-
ite nodules (Tabor et al., 2004).
Interpretation. Type H paleosols are interpreted as Verti-
sols (Mack et al., 1993; Soil Survey Staff, 1975, 1998; Tabor et
al., 2004). These paleosol proles exhibit similar morphologic
features and indicate similar pedogenic processes responsible
for soil formation as type B and C paleosols. However, type H
paleosols apparently formed from in situ weathering of parent
basalt, whereas type B and C paleosols formed from siliciclastic
sedimentary parent materials. Tabor et al. (2004) suggested that
type H paleosols formed upon relatively stable landscapes in a
climate characterized by extreme seasonality in precipitation.
Figure 6. Ischigualasto Formation pedo-
types. (A) Series of stacked type A pa-
leosols (Protosols) associated with cre-
vasse-splay deposits, Unit IV, section 1.
(B) Bedding-plane exposure of clastic
dikes in type B paleosol (Gleyed Verti-
sol), Unit III, section 1. (C) Lowermost
dark bands are exposures of pedotypes
F (calcic Argillisol), E (Calcisol), and
C (calcic Vertisol), Unit II, section 3.
(D) Type D paleosol (Argillisol) with
well-developed vertical root halos, Unit
III, ~1 km east of section 1. (E) Vertical
prole through type G paleosol (Verti-
sol) developed on basalt ow, Unit II,
section 3. Alpha-numeric symbols cor-
respond to U.S. Department of Agri-
culture soil horizon designations (Soil
Survey Staff, 1998).
30 Tabor et al.
Paleosol Calcite Petrography and Geochemistry
The petrographic textures and
18
O values of carbonate nod-
ules associated with Ischigualasto Formation paleosols is pre-
sented in Moore (2003). The relative abundance of petrographic
fabrics and morphology of paleosol carbonate samples follow
in the order of abundance: (1) micritic calcite nodules with sub-
spherical macromorphology, followed by (2) whole nodules of
radiaxial calcite bers that accommodate botryoidal cluster-like
macromorphology; and (3) sandy calcite nodules that exhibit
oating detrital grains of quartz and feldspars in a micritic calcite
matrix with lenticular macromorphology (Fig. 8; Appendix 1).
Although not common, calcite spar-lled veins crosscut exam-
ples of all three major sorts of petrographic fabrics. In general,
carbonate nodules contain between 16% and 34% acid-insoluble
residue that is composed of phyllosilicate, quartz, and feldspar
(Moore, 2003).
The typically lenticular macromorphology of the sandy
nodules, in conjunction with their slightly more negative
18
O
values, suggests a groundwater origin (Moore, 2003; see also
Slate, 1996; Budd et al., 2002). Furthermore, micritic calcite
nodules are normally observed in modern, well-drained soils
where illuviation of Ca
2+
ion is an important pedogenic process
(e.g., Deutz et al., 2001), whereas radiaxial calcite has yet to be
described as a product of well-drained pedogenic systems where
percolating meteoric rainwater represents the sole source of H
2
O
in the prole. Therefore, the
18
O values of (1) sandy micritic
and (2) radiaxial brous calcite nodules are eliminated from
further consideration in this work. This selection reects that
micritic calcite should provide the most conservative data set
for paleotemperature estimates within the context of the model
proposed by Dworkin et al. (2005).
Micritic calcite nodules record an average intranodular

18
O
VPDB
variation of 1.1 0.4 (1), with an absolute range of
Dusky
Red
Greenish
Gray
Pedotype
A
C ms f m c
sand
0
50
100
150
200
0
50
100
150
200
Dusky
Red
Greenish
Gray
Crevasse - Splay
Sandstone
EAST
200 m
WEST
4
3
400 m
Pedotype
B
Dusky
Red Bk1
Greenish
Gray Bk2
Greenish BC
Gray
Greenish C1
Gray
Greenish
Gray C3
0
50
100
150
C ms f m c
sand
C ms f m c
sand
Pedotype
E
C ms f m c
sand
Greenish
Gray Bg
Very
Dusky Bk2
Brown
Greenish
Gray BC
Brown Bk
400 m
Pedotype
F
0
50
100
1 2
Paleosol Horizon
1
2 3
4
Crevasse Splay/Levee Deposits
Fluvial Channel
Sandstone
V.E. ~ 7X
A
B
Figure 7. (A) Four laterally equivalent stratigraphic columns of a paleosol from Unit II (~48 m level in section 1). Along this ~1 km transect,
there is a transition from uvial sandstone deposits to weakly developed paleosol types A and B, to more mature types C and E. (B) Generalized
cross section of laterally variable pedotypes showing the relative position of the measured proles shown in A with respect to coeval proximal
overbank channel deposits. Vertical exaggeration ~7.
A Late Triassic soil catena 31
intranodular
18
O variability from 0 to 3.8. The
18
O values
of micritic calcite and their stratigraphic position above the base
of the Ischigualasto Formation for sections 1, 2, and 3 are pre-
sented in Appendix 1. Micritic paleosol calcite in section 1 exhib-
its a stratigraphic range of
18
O values from 5.4 to 13.1.
The maximum range of
18
O values along a single lateral paleo-
sol transect in section 1 is from 5.4 to 11.7 at 118 m
(Fig. 9; Appendix 1). Section 2 exhibits a stratigraphic range of
micrite
18
O values from 8.2 to 13.0, with a maximum
range of
18
O values along a single paleosol transect ranging
from 8.2 to 12.7 at 106 m above the base of the Ischigual-
asto Formation (Fig. 9; Appendix 1). Section 3 exhibits a range of
micrite
18
O values from 9.0 to 14.3, with a maximum
range of
18
O values along a singe paleosol transect ranging from
9.0 to 12.3, 43 m above the base of the Ischigualasto
Formation (Fig. 9; Appendix 1). The large range of
18
O values
along individual paleosol transects suggests the possibility of
variable soil water
18
O values, possibly related to isotopic mod-
ication through in situ evaporation within the soil (e.g., Cerling
and Quade, 1993; Levin et al., 2004; Tabor and Montaez,
2005).
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The spatial and temporal distribution of observed Ischigual-
asto Formation pedotypes, in addition to the distribution of
uvial channel deposits, indicates lateral variations in depo-
sitional rates and soil drainage indicative of the existence of a
paleosoil catena throughout deposition. While these variations
are intimately linked to lateral changes in formation thickness
and related structural controls on basin development, in terms of
Ischigualasto paleosols, they are manifested by lateral variations
in paleosol abundance, B-horizon thickness, redoximorphic fea-
tures, and pedogenic carbonate accumulations.
The most striking characteristic of the Ischigualasto Forma-
tion is a signicant change in sedimentary thickness, from west
to east, across the study area (Fig. 3). Currie et al. (2001) consid-
ered the thickness change to record structural controls on basin
A B
C
Figure 8. Plain, transmitted-light petrographic images of (A) micritic
calcite nodule collected from 118 m above the base of the Ischigual-
asto Formation (Unit II) in section 1, (B) sandy micrite nodule col-
lected from 106 m above the base of the Ischigualasto Formation
(Unit II) in section 2, and (C) radiaxial brous calcite nodule from
118 m above the base of the Ischigualasto Formation (Unit II) in sec-
tion 1. See text for discussion.
32 Tabor et al.
accommodation due to syndepositional faulting in the western
part of the study area. The relative abundance of channel sand-
stones in the thicker sedimentary package in section 1 (Fig. 3)
suggests that major streams preferentially occupied that portion
of the basin because this area apparently provided greater accom-
modation throughout Ischigualasto Formation deposition.
The distribution of Ischigualasto Formation pedotypes in
the eastern part of the basin provides additional insight into the
relationships between basin structure and the history of sedi-
ment accumulation. The stratigraphic distribution of paleosol
types in the study area is presented in Table 2. The cumulative
thickness of pedogenically altered layers corresponds to 24%,
30%, and 40% of the total stratigraphic thickness in sections 1,
2, and 3, respectively (Fig. 10A). This suggests that along with
a dramatic reduction in stratigraphic thickness from west to
east (~300 m), areas in the eastern part of the study area also
experienced longer periods of nondeposition and soil formation.
This interpretation is supported by differences in the overall paleo-
sol morphology across the study area. Generally speaking, longer
periods of nondeposition and soil formation result in more perva-
sively developed or mature soil morphologies (Buol et al., 1997).
For example, Bain et al. (1993) demonstrated that B-horizon thick-
ness appears to progress linearly over the rst ~10,000 yr of soil
formation (Fig. 10B). The mean B-horizon thickness of paleosols
Paleosol Micrite
18
O
VPDB

18
O
VPDB

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4
S
t
r
a
t
i
g
r
a
p
h
i
c

P
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

(
m
)
Section1, Basin Axis
Section2, Basin Flank
Section3, Basin Margin
Figure 9.
18
O values of micritic calcite
from paleosol carbonate nodules in sec-
tions 1, 2, and 3 of the Ischigualasto
Formation. See Appendix 1 for further
information and text for discussion.
Figure 10. (A) Histogram of the stratigraphic thickness represented by pedogenically altered layers in sections 1, 2, and 3. See text for further dis-
cussion. (B) Plot of B-horizon thickness versus age of proles in a soil chronosequence from Scotland (Bain et al., 1993). This graph illustrates
the very good correlation that is observed between B-horizon thickness and duration of pedogenesis and is not meant as a quantitative indicator of
the time represented by paleosol proles in the Ischigualasto Formation. (C) Histogram of the mean B-horizon thickness of paleosols in sections
1, 2, and 3. Note that type A and B and G paleosols are not considered here because these paleosols either do not contain B horizons or represent
cumulative deposition and pedogenesis. Progressively thicker B-horizon thickness from section 1 to 3 suggests longer periods of nondeposition
and pedogenesis toward the eastern part of the study area. See text for discussion. (D) Distribution of paleosol proles with redoximorphic fea-
tures in sections 1, 2, and 3. See text for discussion. (E) Distribution of calcareous paleosol proles, based on percent thickness of pedogenically
altered layers, in sections 1, 2, and 3. See text for discussion.
0
10
20
15
30
25
5
45
40
35
Ischigualasto Fm Pedogenic thickness
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
%

p
a
l
e
o
s
o
l
s
A
24%
30%
40%
B
Mean B-Horizon
Thickness (cm)
20
40
30
60
50
10
90
80
70
n = 45
n = 40
n = 38
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
c
m
0
C
P
r
e
s
e
n
t
N
o
t

P
r
e
s
e
n
t
Redoximorphic Features
20
40
30
60
50
10
90
80
70
0
%

p
a
l
e
o
s
o
l
s
88%
63%
20%
12%
37%
80%
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
D
0
20
40
30
60
50
10
90
80
70
Moisture Deficiency - Paleosol CaCO
3
E
13%
P
r
e
s
e
n
t
N
o
t

P
r
e
s
e
n
t
15%
20%
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
%

p
a
l
e
o
s
o
l
s
87%
85%
80%
34 Tabor et al.
in sections 1, 2, and 3 is 24 cm, 33 cm, and 40 cm, respectively,
indicating that periods of active pedogenesis associated with the
formation of individual soils were of progressively longer duration
from the western to eastern parts of the study area.
On alluvial landscapes, lateral changes in groundwater level
and subsequent soil drainage can dramatically effect soil develop-
ment and morphology (i.e., a soil catena; Steila, 1976; Birkeland,
1999; Buol et al., 1997). Soils that develop adjacent to uvial
channels are commonly poorly drained and experience frequent
uctuations in the level of the groundwater table that can lead to
anoxia and the formation of gley and redoximorphic morpholo-
gies (Birkeland, 1999). In Ischigualasto Formation paleosols,
evidence for gleyed and redoximorphic conditions is preserved
in 88%, 63%, and 20% of the paleosol proles in sections 1, 2,
and 3, respectively (Fig. 10D), indicating a gradient of soil drain-
age conditions from generally very wet, to progressively better
drained soil conditions, from west to east, during Ischigualasto
Formation deposition. Thus, we conclude that the distribution of
paleosol morphologies in the Ischigualasto Formation resulted
not only from changing landscape stability and frequency of
deposition, but also from changing soil drainage conditions
across the paleolandscape.
In spite of strong evidence for a catenary sequence that
focused poorly drained conditions in areas of increased subsid-
ence (toward section 1; Fig. 3), the presence of carbonate-bear-
ing paleosols in all three measured sections suggests that there
was a discrete interval of relatively well-drained conditions and
net soil-moisture deciency across the entire study area during
deposition of Unit II and the lower half of Unit III (Table 2).
Nevertheless, carbonate-bearing paleosols (types C, E, and F)
represent 13%, 15%, and 19% of the total thickness of pedo-
genically altered layers in sections 1, 2, and 3, respectively (Fig.
10E). In addition, a single calcareous paleosol prole (type F)
occurs near the top of section 3 in Unit IV, but there are no car-
bonate-bearing paleosol proles in Unit IV of sections 1 and
2. Therefore, the distribution of calcareous soils seems to be
related to landscape position, which may also be controlled by
soil drainage patterns and the position of the groundwater table.
We consider the distribution of pedogenic carbonate across
the study area to reect differential depths of the groundwater
table beneath the surface of the paleolandscape. As meteoric
precipitation percolates through well-drained soil, it will leach
and translocate Ca
2+
from the upper horizons through the depth
of wetting. This depth is related to many factors, including
permeability and porosity of soil matrix and the amount and
intensity of rainfall (Jenny, 1941; Arkley, 1963). Whatever the
depth of wetting, the soil prole is effectively dry below this
position, and pedogenic carbonate can accumulate because illu-
vial Ca
2+
is forced out of solution, into the solid phase (e.g.,
Jenny, 1941; Arkley, 1963). However, if the depth of wetting
intersects the groundwater table, Ca
2+
will not be retained (e.g.,
Wigley, 1978) and carbonate will not form in the soil (Fig. 11).
Based upon the distribution of major channel sandstones
and redoximorphic conditions, we suggest that there was a
long-term pattern of a very shallow groundwater table in the
western portions of the study area and a relatively deeper
groundwater table in the eastern portion of the study area (Figs.
3 and 11). Under these conditions, the depth of wetting in the
soil would have been more likely to intersect the groundwater
table and Ca
2+
could have been leached out of the soil proles
in sections 1 and 2 (Fig. 11). However, the depth of wetting
was not as likely to intersect the deeper groundwater table in
section 3, and Ca
2+
could have been retained within the soil as
CaCO
3
. Note that argillic horizons will not form until Ca
2+
has
been thoroughly leached from the upper layers of the soil and
translocated to lower horizons or entirely leached from the soil
(Franzmeier et al., 1985). Under shallow groundwater condi-
tions, Ca
2+
would have been more likely to leach out of the soil,
allowing Protosols or Argillisols to form, rather than Calcisols
or calcic Argillisols. Therefore, a shallow groundwater table
may also explain the relative abundance of Argillisols (type D
paleosols) in sections 1 and 2, which represent 21% and 19%
of the total thickness of pedogenically altered layers, and their
rarity (only 4%) in section 3 (Table 2). Collectively, the distri-
bution of channel sands, variations in pedogenic alteration, and
paleosol B-horizon thickness provide persuasive evidence for
the presence of a long-term geomorphic control on sedimenta-
tion, landscape stability, and soil formation in the Late Triassic
Ischigualasto basin.
Implications of Paleosol Nodule Micritic Calcite as a
Monitor of Paleotemperature
The oxygen isotopic composition of a particular soil mineral
is determined by (1) the temperature-dependent isotopic frac-
tionation of that mineral, (2) temperature of crystallization, and
(3) the oxygen isotope composition of liquid H
2
O from which it
crystallizes (e.g., ONeil et al., 1969; Cerling and Quade, 1993;
Yapp, 1993, 2000). The vast majority of liquid water in conti-
nental environments is meteoric in origin (Dansgaard, 1964).
As a result of the controls upon the global meteoric water line,
both temperature of mineral crystallization and the
18
O value of
meteoric water may be parametrically correlated. Therefore, the
oxygen isotopic values of micritic calcite (
18
O
cc
) in Ischigual-
asto Formation paleosol nodules may potentially provide impor-
tant insights into Late Triassic climate.
Dworkin et al. (2005) presented two different equations
to relate the
18
O value of pedogenic calcite to temperature of
crystallization. The rst equation (Equation 1 below) is a third-
order polynomial that relates the observed parametric correla-
tion between meteoric precipitation and mean annual surface
air temperature from the entire International Atomic Energy
Association (IAEA) data set (Rozanski et al., 1993) to pedogenic
calcite via the oxygen isotope fractionation equation between
water and calcite (ONeil et al., 1969: 10
3
(ln ) = 2.78 10
6
/
T
2
2.89). The second equation (Equation 2 below) is derived
from the empirical relationship that was measured between pedo-
genic calcite
18
O values and measured mean annual surface air
A Late Triassic soil catena 35
Ca
2+
Ca
2+
Ca
2+
~15 km
~
2

m
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
Gleyed Protosols, Gleyed Vertisols
Gleyed Vertisols, calcic
Vertisols, Argillisols, calcic
Argillisols
Calcisols, calcic Vertisols,
calcic Argillisols
CaCO
3
Groundwater Table
Figure 11. Schematic cross-section diagram representing the interpreted distribution of paleosol proles and position of the paleowater table
across the Ischigualasto Formation paleolandscape. Based on the abundance of channel sandstones and redoximorphic features, the position of
the groundwater table is interpreted to be relatively shallow in the western region of the study area and relatively deeper in the eastern region.
Leaching of Ca
2+
out of the soil and into the groundwater table would have been more likely in the western region, resulting in formation of less
calcareous soils. See text for discussion.
temperature from soils located in interior continental sites (Cer-
ling and Quade, 1993):
0 = 0.50T
3
+ (
18
O
cc (, SMOW)

+ 152.04) T
2
2.78 10
6
(Dworkin et al., 2005) (1)
and

18
O
cc
(, PDB) = 0.49 (T
[C]
) 12.65
(Dworkin et al., 2005, from Cerling and Quade, 1993). (2)
A plot of Equations 1 and 2 is shown in Figure 12. The analyti-
cal uncertainty of the temperature estimates reported in Dwor-
kin et al. (2005) is ~0.5 C, which reects only the analytical
uncertainty of the
18
O measurement for calcite, and not other
potentially important effects, such as variable rainfall
18
O values
among isothermal sites. Considering an analytical uncertainty of
0.5 C, Equations 1 and 2 provide paleotemperature estimates
that are indistinguishable from one another between ~12 and
20 C, corresponding to
18
O
cc-PDB
values ranging from 2.9 to
6.7. Pedogenic carbonate
18
O values above or below these
values will result in signicantly different temperature estimates
from Equations 1 and 2 (Fig. 12).
Ferguson et al. (1999) noted that a correlation exists between
meteoric precipitation and temperature for IAEA stations with
mean annual temperatures <15 C, but the isotopic difference
between
18
O-enriched coastal maritime precipitation and
18
O-
poor continental interior precipitation for isothermal sites par-
tially confounds the correlation. These workers therefore broke
the IAEA data set into two groups: (1) maritime sites <200 km
from the coasts and (2), and continental sites >200 km inland.
Based upon the results of Ferguson et al. (1999), the following
equations describe the expected correlation between temperature
and the
18
O value of pedogenic calcite that forms in equilibrium
with meteoric water:
Continental Sites
T (2 C) = (
18
O
cc (PDB)
12.78)/0.64
(after Ferguson et al., 1999) (3)
and
Maritime Sites
T (5 C) = (
18
O
cc (PDB)
12.65)/0.59
(after Ferguson et al., 1999). (4)
The reported uncertainties of 2 C and 5 C in these tem-
perature estimates reect the range of precipitation
18
O values
for isothermal sites in continental and maritime sites, respec-
tively, and therefore probably provide a more realistic evalua-
tion of uncertainty associated with Equations 1 and 2 than was
reported in Dworkin et al. (2005). Figure 12 presents plots of
Equations 1 through 4. Comparison of the different correlations
makes clear that Equation 1 is heavily weighted by cool-climate
maritime sites and will likely underestimate paleotemperature for
soil calcites in continental sites. However, Equation 2 and Equa-
tion 3, both of which represent calcite
18
O values within conti-
nental sites, exhibit a close correspondence at relatively low tem-
peratures (<~10 C; see Fig. 12). As mentioned, the Ischigualasto
-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Temperature (C)

1
8
O
(
V
P
D
B
)
Dworkin et al (2005), Eqn (1)
Dworkin et al (2005), Eqn (2)
Ferguson et al (1999), Eqn (3)
Ferguson et al (1999), Eqn (4)
Uncertainty Envelope, Eqn (3)
Continental
Maritime
Figure 12. Plot showing the rela-
tionship of calcite
18
O
VPDB
values
versus temperature (C). The trace
of Equation 1 is the relationship
that is predicted from the global
International Atomic Energy Asso-
ciation (IAEA) data set presented in
Dworkin et al. (2005). The trace of
Equation 2 is the correlation that is
dened by the measured mean annu-
al surface air temperatures and
18
O
values of pedogenic calcite from
modern soils distributed across cen-
tral North America (Dworkin et al.,
2005, based on work in Cerling and
Quade, 1993). The trace of Equa-
tion 3 is the relationship predicted
from IAEA continental sites that are
>200 km inland from the coastlines,
whereas Equation 4 is the relation-
ship predicted from IAEA maritime
sites that are <200 km from the coast
(Ferguson et al., 1999). See text for
discussion.
Figure 13. Stratigraphic position vs. estimated surface air temperature from Equations 2 and 3 based on the measured
18
O
VPDB
value of micritic
paleosol calcite in (A) Section 1, (B) Section 2 and (C) Section 3. See text for discussion.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
-5 -3 -1 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Temperature (C)
S
t
r
a
t
i
g
r
a
p
h
i
c

T
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s

(
m
)
Section 1; Eqn 2
Section 1; Eqn 3
Too Cold for
Liquid H
2
O
Temp. range
based on
goethite D,

18
O (Tabor
et al., 2004)
A
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
-5.0 -3.0 -1.0 1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 13.0 15.0
Temperature (C)
S
t
r
a
t
i
g
r
a
p
h
i
c

T
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s

(
m
)
Section 2; Eqn (2)
Section 2; Eqn (3)
Too Cold for
Liquid H
2
O
Temp. range
based on
goethite D,

18
O (Tabor
et al., 2004)
B
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
-5 -3 -1 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Temperature (C)
S
t
r
a
t
i
g
r
a
p
h
i
c

T
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s

(
m
)
Section 3, Eqn (2)
Section 3, Eqn (3)
Too Cold for
Liquid H
2
O
C
Temp. range
based on
goethite D,

18
O (Tabor
et al., 2004)
38 Tabor et al.
Formation was deposited in a closed continental basin that was
likely far-removed from the effects of maritime precipitation.
Therefore, we consider Equations 2 and 3 to provide the clos-
est approximations of the relationship between temperature and
calcite
18
O values during pedogenesis and paleosol calcite crys-
tallization during Late Triassic time. Equations 1 and 4 will be
disregarded in the following discussion.
The resulting paleotemperature estimates from Equations 2
and 3, which are calculated from the oxygen isotope composition
of micritic calcite in the Ischigualasto Formation (Appendix 1), are
plotted in Figure 13AC with respect to their stratigraphic positions
in sections 13. Paleotemperature estimates range from 1 to 15 C
in section 1, whereas mean estimates from Equations 2 and 3 are 4
3 C (1) and 3 2 C (1), respectively. Paleotemperature esti-
mates range from 3 to 9 C in section 2, whereas mean estimates
from Equations 2 and 3 are 4 3 C and 3 C 2 C, respectively.
Finally, paleotemperature estimates range from 3 C to 7 C in
section 3, whereas mean estimates from Equations 2 and 3 are 2
3 C and 2 2 C, respectively. The reported analytical uncertainty
of the mean estimates reects the 1 standard deviation of
18
O val-
ues for each stratigraphic section. The close correspondence of the
mean temperature estimates in sections 13 suggests that Ischigual-
asto Formation paleosol calcites may preserve records of Late Tri-
assic conditions in the soil-forming environment. However, it is
critically important to note that these paleotemperature estimates
provide equivocal estimates of temperature for any calcite that may
have formed in the presence of evaporatively enriched soil waters
and for nodules affected by postburial, diagenetic modication of
calcite
18
O. Paleotemperature estimates derived from Equations 2
and 3 are appropriate only for calcite that forms in equilibrium (or
very near equilibrium) with water that lies along (or very near to)
the meteoric water line that is dened by cool-climate, continental
sites in modern IAEA data stations (e.g., Ferguson et al., 1999). It
is difcult, probably even impossible, to demonstrate any of these
particular conditions for the micritic calcite samples from paleosol
nodules in the Late Triassic Ischigualasto Formation. In this regard,
it is probably not realistic to discuss the
18
O values of Ischigualasto
Formation paleosol micrites in terms of absolute temperature val-
ues. Rather, it is probably more appropriate to use these estimates as
a general guide to paleoenvironmental conditions (e.g., frigid, cool,
warm, hot, hyperthermic). In this regard, we consider the similarity
of average calcite
18
O values in sections 1, 2, and 3 to correspond
to soil formation in a cold to cool climate (probably between ~0
and 11 C) throughout the interval of soil calcite development in the
Ischigualasto Formation (Units II, III, and IV). A lower limit of 0 C
is assumed here, because it is the practical limit for liquid water that
must be available for chemical reactions, whereas the upper limit
is suggested only by the temperature estimates provided via Equa-
tions 2 and 3. However, an independent paleotemperature estimate
of 8 3 C that is based on the oxygen and hydrogen isotope com-
position of goethite in a type H paleosol (Tabor et al., 2004) from
Unit I, section 3 of the Ischigualasto Formation suggests that an
upper limit of ~10 C in the Late Triassic Ischigualasto Formation
may be taken seriously.
Summary of Inferred Paleoclimate Trend through
Ischigualasto Formation Deposition
Although the lithological composition and paleosol mor-
phology of the Ischigualasto Formation was apparently strongly
controlled by landscape position across the IschigualastoVilla
Union basin, basin-wide changes in the stratigraphic distribu-
tion of paleosol morphologies suggest the possibility of rela-
tively subtle climate changes in this region through Carnian
time. The general absence of calcareous pedotypes (A, B, D, G,
H) suggests that regional conditions were exceedingly unfavor-
able for pedogenic calcite formation during deposition of Unit I,
the upper half of Unit III and Unit IV (Table 2). As mentioned
earlier, unfavorable conditions for pedogenic calcite formation
could be a humid climate that results in deep leaching of the soil
prole, or a very shallow groundwater table, or a combination of
both factors. However, the basinwide occurrence of calcareous
pedotypes (C, E, F) suggests that conditions changed enough to
permit retention of calcite within the soil zone during deposition
of Unit II and the lower half of Unit III (Table 2). Such a change
in paleosol morphology may correspond to a transition to gener-
ally drier conditions that resulted in incomplete leaching of the
soil prole or a very deep groundwater table, or a combination
of both factors. Therefore, the distribution of paleosol morpholo-
gies in the Ischigualasto Formation is suggestive of an environ-
ment that was humid and poorly drained during deposition of
Unit I, followed by relatively drier and better-drained environ-
ments during deposition of Unit II and the lower half of Unit
III, and a return to generally more humid and poorly drained
environments during deposition of the upper half of Unit III and
Unit IV. Based on available data, it is impossible to determine
at this time if the perceived environmental changes are related
to intra- or extrabasinal forces. Nevertheless, existing lithologi-
cal, mineralogical, and chemical data indicate that structural
controls on the basin and landscape position were the primary
forces of landscape evolution in a cold to cool climate during
deposition of the Carnian-age Ischigualasto Formation.
A Late Triassic soil catena 39
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Oscar Alcober (Instituto y Museo de Ciencias
Naturales) for permitting access to the eld sites. This research
was funded by National Science Foundation (NSF) grant EAR-
0447381 to Tabor and EAR-0519394 to Tabor and Montaez.
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APPENDIX 1. STRATIGRAPHIC POSITION, TEXTURE, AND
18
O (VPDB) VALUE OF
CARBONATE NODULES IN THE LATE TRIASSIC ISCHIGUALASTO FORMATION
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
Meters Texture
18
O () Meters Texture
18
O () Meters Texture
18
O ()
60 Micrite 11.4 44 Micrite 9.7 14 Micrite 11.9
60 Micrite 11.1 46 Micrite 11.4 14 Micrite 11.5
60 Micrite 10.3 46 Micrite 10.4 14 Micrite 10.4
73 Micrite 11.1 46 Micrite 10.2 42 Micrite 9.8
75 Micrite 12.0 46 Micrite 10.0 43 Micrite 12.3
79 Micrite 9.6 59 Micrite 10.3 43 Micrite 12.0
79 Micrite 9.1 94 Micrite 12.0 43 Micrite 11.4
79 Micrite 9.1 96 Micrite 11.7 43 Micrite 11.1
81 Micrite 9.7 96 Micrite 11.3 43 Micrite 11.0
81 Micrite 9.5 106 Micrite 12.7 43 Micrite 11.0
95 Micrite 11.1 106 Micrite 12.2 43 Micrite 10.9
95 Micrite 10.9 106 Micrite 12.0 43 Micrite 10.7
118 Micrite 11.5 106 Micrite 11.0 43 Micrite 10.5
118 Micrite 11.2 106 Micrite 11.0 43 Micrite 10.4
118 Micrite 11.1 106 Micrite 10.9 43 Micrite 10.4
118 Micrite 9.3 106 Micrite 10.9 43 Micrite 10.4
118 Micrite 9.4 106 Micrite 10.5 43 Micrite 9.9
118 Micrite 11.7 106 Micrite 9.3 43 Micrite 9.9
118 Micrite 11.6 106 Micrite 8.4 43 Micrite 9.0
118 Micrite 11.6 106 Micrite 8.4 52 Micrite 10.7
118 Micrite 11.3 106 Micrite 8.2 57 Micrite 14.0
118 Micrite 10.9 108 Micrite 11.5 57 Micrite 13.6
118 Micrite 5.4 113 Micrite 10.5 138 Micrite 12.5
118 Micrite 8.9 122 Micrite 11.4 138 Micrite 11.9
118 Micrite 7.8 124 Micrite 11.1 138 Micrite 11.8
118 Micrite 8.9 155 Micrite 14.1 138 Micrite 11.7
146 Micrite 11.7 155 Micrite 13.0 164 Micrite 13.6
158 Micrite 11.0 164 Micrite 11.0
171 Micrite 12.1 210 Micrite 13.8
253 Micrite 12.1 210 Micrite 13.8
273 Micrite 13.1 210 Micrite 13.1
273 Micrite 10.6 213 Micrite 14.3
299 Micrite 10.0 213 Micrite 11.7
299 Micrite 9.2 251 Micrite 11.2
357 Micrite 13.2
357 Micrite 12.2
357 Micrite 11.6
357 Micrite 11.6
357 Micrite 11.1
40 Tabor et al.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
43
Marriott, S.B., and Wright, V.P., 2006, Investigating paleosol completeness and preservation in mid-Paleozoic alluvial paleosols: A case study in paleosol tapho-
nomy from the Lower Old Red Sandstone, in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and Palustrine
Carbonates: Geological Society of America Special Paper 416, p. 4352, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(03). For permission to copy, contact [email protected].
2006 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.
Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006
Investigating paleosol completeness and preservation in
mid-Paleozoic alluvial paleosols: A case study in paleosol taphonomy
from the Lower Old Red Sandstone
Susan B. Marriott
School of Geography and Environmental Management, University of the West of England, Bristol,
Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY, UK
V. Paul Wright
School of Earth, Ocean and Planetary Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3YE, UK, and BG Group,
100 Thames Valley Park Drive, Reading RG6 1PT, UK
ABSTRACT
Preservational bias in paleosol formation is rarely discussed and remains a major issue
in paleopedology. The relatively simple paleosol proles of the Silurian-Devonian Old Red
Sandstone alluvial successions of southwest Wales provide an opportunity to investigate
the completeness of a widespread type of calcic Vertisol. Reactivated, truncated cumulate
horizons provide means of assessing the dynamics of oodplain erosion and accumula-
tion. While these distinctive proles are not especially common, effects of low-magnitude
erosion events were probably masked, affecting only the topmost part of the upper soil
horizon. In the absence of a stabilizing rooted vascular plant cover in premid-Paleozoic
sediments, such mobile upper soil horizons were likely a common feature.
Keywords: calcic Vertisols, Old Red Sandstone, oodplain development, soil development.
RESUMEN
La posibilidad de preservacin de paleosuelos es un hecho raramente discutido, a pesar
de ser un tema importante dentro de la paleoedafologa. Los perles de paleosuelos relativa-
mente sencillos de las sucesiones aluviales del Silrico-Devnico de la Old Red Sandstone en
el suroeste de Gales ofrecen una buena oportunidad para investigar si el registro de algunos
tipos de paleosuelos muy frecuentes, los Vertisuelos clcicos, es completo o no. Los horizon-
tes reactivados, truncados y compuestos de estos paleosuelos nos aportan los medios para
conocer la dinmica de la erosin y acumulacin dentro de la llanura de inundacin. En los
casos en los que estos perles no son muy comunes, los efectos de eventos erosivos de baja
magnitud quedan enmascarados afectando slo a la parte ms alta del horizonte superior
del suelo. En ausencia de una cobertera vegetal de plantas vasculares enraizadas que estabi-
lizaran la supercie, como es el caso de los sedimentos anteriores al Paleozoico medio, estos
horizontes mviles del suelo fueron probablemente un rasgo caracterstico.
Palabras clave: Vertisuelos clcicos, Old Red Sandstone, desarrollo de llanuras de
inundacin, desarrollo de suelos.
44 Marriott and Wright
that most soils are polygenetic due to development along both
progressive and regressive pathways. The progressive element
relates to processes or conditions that promote horizonation,
the incorporation of small increments of sediment added to the
surface (developmental upbuilding) and soil deepening. Regres-
sive pedogenesis involves processes or conditions that lead to
condensed or simple proles with few horizons, soil removal by
erosion or mass wasting, and retardant upbuilding. This condi-
tion occurs when the amount of sediment deposited on the soil
surface is sufcient to impede or retard horizon development.
The dynamic pedogenesis model (Johnson et al., 1990) is par-
ticularly relevant to the evolution of soils on oodplains since the
processes of developmental and retardant upbuilding may be the
most important factors in an environment where the other state
factors of climate, organisms, and parent material (Jenny, 1961)
do not vary substantially over time.
Soil development on oodplains reects the polygenetic
nature of oodplain development with both progressive and
regressive pathways (Johnson et al., 1990). Phillips (1993) sug-
gested a chaos model for complex patterns of soil development
that appears to be particularly relevant in environments where
erosion (regressive) processes occur frequently. It was found
that, on oodplain surfaces, the degree of soil development
reected the age and stability of the geomorphic surface (Phil-
lips 1990).
SOILS IN OLD RED SANDSTONE FLOODPLAIN
SEDIMENTS
The Silurian-Devonian Lower Old Red Sandstone of south-
west Wales and the Welsh Borderlands is a continental basin-ll
sequence that covers an area of at least 20,000 km
2
(Fig. 1). Gen-
erally, it is a sequence of upward-coarsening, marginal marine,
uvial and alluvial fan sediments with some prominent tuff beds
and well-developed calcrete horizons that act as regional markers
(Allen and Williams, 1982; Williams et al., 2004). The lower-
most part of the Lower Old Red Sandstone of the Anglo-Welsh
Basin is a succession of mainly red alluvial sediments compris-
ing relatively thin red or greenish-gray sand bodies (Williams and
Hillier, 2004) separated by thick red to purple mudstone deposits
in a ratio of ~1:4 (Marriott et al., 2005). The overall depositional
system has been interpreted as low-gradient oodplains, perhaps
on distal alluvial or terminal fans in a subhumid to semiarid envi-
ronment (Allen and Williams, 1982; Marriott and Wright, 1993,
2004; Love and Williams, 2000), with very infrequent, short-
lived, marine incursions (Allen, 1973b; Barclay et al., 1994). The
stratigraphy of the Lower Old Red Sandstone of the Anglo-Welsh
Basin was originally described by Dixon (1921), and later revised
by Allen and Williams (1978), who allocated the succession in
southwest Wales to the Milford Haven Group.
Soils developed on oodplains are affected by sediment
transport and deposition, and they are well known in the Old
Red Sandstone, having been described in detail by Allen (1973a,
1974, 1986) and Marriott and Wright (1993). They take the
INTRODUCTION
Paleosols are common in ancient alluvial successions, reect-
ing the relatively low rates of oodplain accretion in relation to
rates of soil development (Marriott and Wright, 1993). Tradition-
ally, paleosols in such deposits have been used to indicate a range
of controls including sedimentation rate and landscape stability.
In this study, we develop earlier work (Marriott and Wright, 1993)
to show how the careful analysis of reactivated soil horizons can
provide insights into the preservational history and completeness
of paleosols and the dynamics of Silurian-Devonian oodplains,
indicating the likelihood that much time is lost at subtle erosion
surfaces. Such erosive processes may have been more prevalent
in premid-Paleozoic soils where the lack of an extensive rooted
plant cover promoted instability and the formation of an active
upper soil level.
FLOODPLAIN DEVELOPMENT
Nanson and Croke (1992) devised a comprehensive model
of oodplain development related to the relationship between
primary geomorphic factors, such as channel cutting and lling,
and secondary geomorphic factors, such as peat accumulation.
These factors are dependent on stream power and sediment load
and will, therefore, result in different environments for oodplain
formation. Over the long term (as in the stratigraphic record),
most oodplains would probably be classied as polyphase
oodplains (Nanson and Croke, 1992) because they are built up
by transformations caused by river channel changes in response
to extrinsic variations (such as climate and base-level change)
that alter ow regime or sediment load (Schumm, 1977). The
changes in channel processes are reected in oodplain devel-
opment, although there is often a hysteresis or changes occur
at a slower rate. The oodplain surface is, therefore, a highly
dynamic environment, and evidence in the sedimentary record of
changes to this environment is often incomplete and complicated
by destructive, erosive episodes (Brakenridge, 1981).
Whether or not soils develop on land surfaces depends on the
surface being relatively stable (Ruhe, 1956; Brakenridge, 1981;
Bull, 1992). Active erosion prevents any soil development at all
and soils will not develop to any degree where there is a high
rate of sediment input. Rates of sedimentation on oodplains are
highly variable (Marriott, 1998), although, since some character-
istic features of soils such as mottling and development of pedo-
genic slickensides can develop relatively rapidly (<100 yr), rates
of accretion of several millimeters per year (Wright and Marri-
ott, 1996) would be required to prevent any soil processes from
occurring. Soils should, then, be present in alluvial sequences
and, because of the polyphase nature of oodplain development,
are likely to record the dynamic nature of the oodplain surface
by having a polygenetic nature themselves.
Johnson and Watson-Stegner (1987) and Johnson et al.
(1990) proposed an evolution model of pedogenesis that investi-
gated dynamic soil development over time. The model suggested
Paleosol completeness and preservation 45
Haverfordwest
Swansea
Abergavenny
Cardiff
FWW
FWE
LL
M
50km
Lower Old Red Sandstone outcrops
Localities mentioned in text
North
L
Figure 1. Lower Old Red Sandstone in the
Anglo-Welsh Basin, UK. Localities men-
tioned in text: FWWFreshwater West;
FWEFreshwater East; MManorbier;
LLLlansteffan; LLydney.
form of calcic Vertisols that show varying stages of calcrete
development in a C
k
horizon (Machette, 1985), and varying
degrees of development of a structural B horizon with pedogenic
slickensides (wedge-shaped peds) (Fig. 2). Though rarely pre-
served, a complete prole would range from 1 to 3 m in thickness
(Tandon and Friend, 1989) and would have three horizons (Mar-
riott and Wright, 1993): an upper (A) horizon, which would prob-
ably have had a surface crust and (deep) desiccation cracks dur-
ing the dry season; a middle structural (B) horizon with curved,
intersecting slickensided surfaces; and a lower horizon (B
k
or C
k
),
which would contain calcrete nodules in various developmental
forms (Machette, 1985).
The Moor Cliffs Formation is the central unit of the Milford
Haven Group, and it crops out extensively on the southwest coast
of Wales (Fig. 1). It varies in thickness from 120 to 365 m and is
dominated by red to purple mudstones with subsidiary, thin sand
bodies and intraformational conglomerates. Many of the mud-
stones have been pedogenically altered and contain prominent
pedogenic slickensides from structural B horizons and varying
stages of calcrete development in B
k
or C
k
horizons. The degree
of development of the calcretes ranges from small (~10 mm diam-
eter), discrete nodules and larger prismatic nodules (~50 mm in
diameter, up to 150 mm long) to laminar petrocalcic horizons,
though these are not common in the Moor Cliffs Formation.
Development of the B
k
or C
k
horizons in the Vertisols on Old
Red Sandstone oodplains is mainly related to residence time
(i.e., the length of time sediment layers remain in pedogenically
active zones before burial or erosion) (Leeder, 1975). Frequency
of oods that resulted in episodes of stripping or aggradation will
therefore result in different residence times and, consequently,
different modes of soil development (Wright and Marriott, 1996).
For example, developmental upbuilding (Johnson and Watson-
Stegner, 1987), i.e., frequent regular additions of small amounts
of sediment to the soil surface, is likely to result in a cumulate
soil prole, where slow aggradation causes gradual overprint-
ing of soil horizons; retardant upbuilding (Johnson and Watson-
Stegner, 1987), or infrequent dumping of a large thickness of
sediment, will give rise to either a composite or compound soil
prole depending on whether the pedogenically active zone is
partially or completely buried (Wright and Marriott, 1996).
Examples of polygenetic paleosols from the Old Red Sand-
stone were described by Marriott and Wright (1993), where it
was envisaged that the occurrence of fanned splays of prismatic
nodules (Fig. 3) resulted from a progressive phase where frequent
increments of small amounts of sediment had resulted in a cumu-
late prole that was subsequently truncated by rapid erosion of
up to 3 m of sediment during a major regressive phase (e.g., a
10,000yrrecurrence interval superood [Marriott and Wright,
2004]). A subsequent progressive phase of slow aggradation then
led to reactivation of the structural B horizon and displacement of
the nodules with movement along the slickensided slip surfaces
(see Fig. 9 of Marriott and Wright, 1993).
46 Marriott and Wright
Many of the units containing fanned, prismatic nodules are
overlain by an intraformational conglomerate that contains gran-
ule- to pebble-grade reworked calcrete and mudstone clasts in a
mudstone matrix (arrowed on Fig. 3) (Allen and Williams, 1979;
Marriott and Wright, 1993, 1996, 2004). More recent study of
Figure 3. Distorted prismatic calcrete
nodules overlain by intraformational
conglomerate (indicated by black ar-
rows) and laminated mudstone with tu-
bules in the Moor Cliffs Formation at
Manorbier. This sequence is at the top of
that shown in Figure 8A (bracketed sec-
tion). The pen for scale is 145 mm long.
Figure 2. Two simple calcic Vertisol
proles from the Raglan Mudstone
Formation at Lydney. Calcic horizon in
center is 0.5 m thick, and the top of the
horizon is picked out by the dashed line.
The slickensided surfaces on structural
B horizons (1.75 m thick in top paleo-
sol) are picked out by reduction. The A
horizon is missing. The whole section
shown is 2.5 m thick.
the Lower Old Red Sandstone sequences at Freshwater West,
Freshwater East, and Llansteffan in South Wales (Fig. 1) has
indicated that, in some cases, the later progressive phase also
resulted in the formation of prismatic peds within the intrafor-
mational conglomerate and subsequent distortion of the peds
Paleosol completeness and preservation 47
A
B
t
on A
B
t
C
k
on B
t
C
k
Cumulate profile Key to figures 4,5 and 6
open cracks
closed cracks
pedogenic slickensides
(wedge-shaped peds)
calcrete concretions or nodules
calcrete clast conglomerate
lowering of surface
burial of surface
erosion surface
extreme distortion
due to lowered surface
and wetting front before
deposition of conglomerate
A
Progressive or pulsed slow erosion
distortion of
conglomerate and
further distortion
of nodular zone
**
conglomerate will
be less distorted
than nodular zone
Ai
Slow erosion and slow burial
isolation below
wetting front
Aii
Slow erosion and rapid burial
**
undeformed
conglomerate
highly deformed
nodular zone
process product
process product
Figure 4. Cumulate soil prole (see also Marriott and Wright, 1993).
Typical thicknesses for the different horizons would be: A, 0.51 m;
B
t
, 0.751 m; C
k
, 0.51 m. The overprinted B
t
on A and C
k
on B
t
ho-
rizons would vary in thickness depending on the amount and rate of
surface aggradation.
Figure 5. Type A model for development of fanned prismatic nodules.
Progressive or pulsed slow erosion is followed by slow burial (Ai) or
by rapid burial (Aii). ** denotes diagnostic features for comparison
between models; remainder of key and scale are as in Figure 4.
Thus, the seasonal wetting front gradually lowers so that older,
buried structural B horizons are gradually reactivated and cause
splaying of the prismatic calcrete nodules in the overprinted
zone. Erosion is likely to cease when the B
k
or C
k
horizon is
with the underlying calcrete nodules. This led us to re-examine
the polygenetic nature of these particular units and to propose
further models for their development.
POLYPHASE DEVELOPMENT OF OLD RED
SANDSTONE FLOODPLAINS
Development of the calcic Vertisols in the Lower Old Red
Sandstone shows both progressive and regressive phases that
indicate different rates of deposition and erosion. These can be
linked to episodes of aggradation and stripping that reveal the
dynamic nature of the depositional environment. The starting
point for the new models is a cumulate prole (as in Marriott
and Wright, 1993) (Fig. 4). This occurs when slow aggrada-
tion on the oodplain surface causes the soil horizons to move
upward progressively, so that the structural B horizon, with
curved, slickensided surfaces (wedge-shaped peds), is over-
printed by the calcrete nodules of the B
k
or C
k
horizon. The
period of aggradation is likely to have occurred over a relatively
long period of time (10
4
to 10
5
yr) so that prismatic calcrete nod-
ules (stage II of Machette, 1985) could develop (Wright and
Marriott, 1996, their Fig. 1b). As the prole aggrades, second-
ary prismatic structure in the structural B horizon is likely to
inuence vertical, prismatic nodule development in the over-
printing B
k
or C
k
horizon.
Model A (Fig. 5) assumes that the progressive phase is then
followed by a series of erosive events that lower the surface by
removing a few millimeters of sediment at a time or in pulses.
48 Marriott and Wright
reached because it represents a less erodible surface. The record
of renewed deposition may then recommence with an intrafor-
mational conglomerate, either as a lag beneath muddy chan-
nel deposits or as part of inclined heterolithic strata (IHS) from
muddy point bar or accretionary bench deposits (see Marriott
and Wright [2004] and Marriott et al. [2005] for a description of
models for the depositional environments). A unit with splayed
nodules (see Figs. 8 and 10 of Marriott and Wright [1993] for
additional examples) is not always overlain by an intraforma-
tional conglomerate, since these conglomerates are more likely
to occur in relation to channel-related deposits (Gmez-Gras
and Alonso-Zarza, 2003).
The next phase may be slow deposition and burial or rapid
burial by a single major deposition event (Fig. 5). During slow
aggradation of the oodplain surface (model Ai) as new soil
horizons form, further distortion of the nodules is likely as wet-
ting and drying cycles take place while this zone lies within
the structural B horizon. Nodules toward the top of the lower
unit may be distorted to a greater degree than nodules lower
down, which may not be affected by reactivation. Because the
intraformational conglomerate has a mud matrix, it is likely to
reect pedogenic processes and the formation of prismatic peds
that may also be distorted when they coincide with the B hori-
zon, though to a lesser degree than the calcrete nodules.
Model Aii illustrates the case of subsequent rapid burial,
where the amount of sediment added is sufcient to prevent
pedogenic processes acting on the buried material (retardant
upbuilding). This is a regressive process (Johnson and Watson-
Stegner, 1987), as, although the surface is aggrading, the result-
ing sequence is a compound soil where proles are separated
by an undistorted intraformational conglomerate. The lower
prole is truncated and contains distorted nodules. In the eld,
it may be difcult to distinguish between models Ai and Aii if
the conglomerate is thin or absent.
Model B (Fig. 6) is similar to that portrayed by Marriott
and Wright (1993, their Fig. 9) and is characterized by a single,
major erosion event that removes surface horizons. In this case,
calcrete nodules in the B
k
or C
k
horizon are not distorted by
progressive lowering. Slow burial following deposition of an
intraformational conglomerate causes reactivation of the slick-
ensided surfaces and distortion of both the calcrete nodules and
the conglomerate as the structural B horizon moves upward.
This model differs from Ai in that the nodules and conglomer-
ate are distorted to a similar degree.
If rapid erosion is followed by rapid burial (model Bii), then
as with model Aii, a compound soil will develop, though it will
differ from that in Aii because the prismatic calcrete nodules
are not deformed (or only very weakly, depending on the thick-
ness of sediment added) (Fig. 7). This is most commonly seen
where truncated proles are overlain by uvial channel facies
that can be mud-dominated.
It must be stressed that distortion of the prismatic nod-
ules is only likely to occur following erosion and subsequent
reactivation of a cumulate prole. In a simple calcic Vertisol,
no distortion
of nodular zone
at this point
B
Rapid erosion : one phase
reactivation of
slickenside surfaces
and distortion
of conglomerate
and nodules as zone
comes within depth
of wetting
Bi
Rapid erosion and slow burial
isolation below
wetting front
minor reactivation
(if any)
Bii
Rapid erosion and rapid burial
**
undeformed
conglomerate
weakly deformed
(or undeformed)
nodular zone
single deep
erosive event
distorted
conglomerate
nodule fans
**
similar distortion of
nodule zone and
conglomerate
process product
process product
Figure 6. Type B model for development of fanned prismatic nod-
ules. Rapid erosion is followed by slow burial (Bi) or by rapid burial
(Bii). ** denotes diagnostic features for comparison between mod-
els; remainder of key and scale are as in Figure 4.
there would not be sufcient host sediment between prismatic
(stage II) calcrete nodules for pedogenic slickensides in the
structural B horizon to overprint the B
k
or C
k
horizon as the
surface was lowered.
Paleosol completeness and preservation 49
LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT IN THE LOWER OLD
RED SANDSTONE
Soil prole development is often used as an indicator of land-
scape development and for reconstructing geomorphic histories,
particularly in Quaternary soils (Brakenridge, 1981). It is not con-
sidered to be a very reliable indicator of surface ages or deposits,
however, due to complex spatial and temporal patterns of soil
development (Phillips, 1993). The ideas outlined herein show
how the degree of soil development preserved in the Old Red
Sandstone paleosols, together with inferences on likely episodes
of aggradation and erosion, can be used to gain an understand-
ing of the dynamic nature and polyphase development of the
paleoenvironment (Fig. 8A).
Recently, Marriott and Wright (2004) and Marriott et al.
(2005) proposed models for paleoenvironmental reconstruction
of the early Lower Old Red Sandstone of the Anglo-Welsh Basin.
The models envisage a multistage, multichannel system where
different parts of the system were active over different time scales.
Calcic Vertisols are important features of the modeled landscapes
since the nature and stage of their development act as indicators
of particular features on the Old Red Sandstone oodplains and
of the frequency and magnitude of erosional and depositional
events (Fig. 8B) (see also Wright and Marriott, 1996).
The overall depositional environment is considered to be
analogous to that of a low-gradient, dryland river system in a
relatively sediment-starved basin possibly on a distal alluvial or
terminal fan margin. The main trunk stream occupies a wide two-
stage channel, with a moderately sinuous low-ow channel and
muddy braidplain that becomes active during relatively frequent
ood events (annual to 1 in 10 return-interval oods) as part of
the proximal oodplain. More distal oodplain areas would only
be affected by longer-return-interval oods (1001000 yr return
interval), and it is likely that catastrophic stripping and major
landform effects would only take place during low-frequency
superood events (10,000+ yr intervals).
Because the Old Red Sandstone paleosols are calcic Verti-
sols, the climate regime is likely to have been subhumid to
semiarid, with a marked seasonality of rainfall. Vegetation in
the Late Silurian to Early Devonian would not have had exten-
sive root systems capable of binding sediment, and plants are
likely to have been conned to areas near to rivers, lakes, and
ponds (Edwards and Richardson, 2004). Thus, the self-mulch-
ing aspect of Vertisols is likely to have provided a ready supply
of sand- and silt-sized soil aggregates that could be entrained
and redeposited during ooding and incorporated in channel
bedload. Additionally, during dry seasons, dust storms are likely
to have acted on the land surface, creating a mosaic of cells
where the soil surface could be deated and aggraded periodi-
cally by intermittent events (Pickup, 1991). In areas where sedi-
ment accumulation occurred relatively frequently, such as near to
the main stream and on the braidplain during ooding, or in
aggradational cells, cumulate soils could develop (Fig. 4), though
only relatively rapidly formed features, such as pedogenic
Figure 7. Weakly distorted prismatic
nodules underlying an undeformed in-
traformational conglomerate from the
Moor Cliffs Formation (Upper Silurian)
of Freshwater East, illustrating type Bii
mode of development.
50 Marriott and Wright
preserved
sequence
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
A
}
Figure 3
KEY
remanent lamination
pedogenic slickensides
(wedge-shaped peds)
stage I calcrete nodules
stage II calcrete nodules
reactivated vertic horizon
with distorted nodules
reactivated vertic horizon
with silt infilled slickensides
calcretized burrows (tubules)
intraformational conglomerate
vertical burrows
desiccation cracks
lowering of surface
a b c d e f g h
Figure 8. (A) Polyphase development of a 6 m section of the Moor Cliffs Formation at Manorbier measured from 18 m above the top of the
Rooks Cave Tuff bed. For discussion on depositional environments, see Marriott and Wright (2004). Bracketed section is illustrated in Figure
3. Episodes: (a) Laminated mudstone with vertical burrows is deposited subaqueously and bioturbated in oodplain ponds. (b) Pond sediment is
exposed, laminations in upper section are destroyed by pedogenesis, and burrows lower in prole act as nuclei for calcrete formation (tubules).
(c) Developmental upbuildingsmall increments of sediment are added by overbank deposition or aeolian input. Cumulate soil prole shows
stage I calcrete, implying frequent aggradational events averaging between 0.1 and 1 mm/yr (see Figure 1 of Wright and Marriott, 1996). (d)
Developmental upbuildingsmall increments of sediment are added by overbank deposition or aeolian input as in episode c. Cumulate soil
prole shows stage II prismatic calcrete nodules, implying slow aggradation averaging between 0.01 and 0.1 mm/yr. (e) Regressive pedogen-
esispulsed or slow erosion occurs (see Fig. 5) down to top of Bk horizon; pedogenic slickensides are reactivated; and surface cracking in dry
season allows ingress of ne sediment between slip surfaces. Stage II prismatic nodules are distorted with the wedge-shaped peds as the surface
is lowered. (f) Renewed progressive pedogenesis occurs with developmental upbuilding as in d, and at a similar rate. The underlying nodular
zone is further distorted as the surface aggrades until the wetting front moves out of this zone. (See Figure 5, as Ai but with no intraformational
conglomerate lag.) (g) Further episodes of regressive pedogenesis occur as in e, but with less-intense rotation of nodules, perhaps suggesting
more rapid lowering of the oodplain surface than in e. (h) Rapid burial as in Figure 5, Aii, with a lag of intraformational conglomerate then sub-
aqueous deposition and bioturbation as in a. Subsequent exposure and progressive pedogenesis lead to a further cumulate prole with tubules,
as in b and c. Only part of the unit is shown here.
slickensides (wedge-shaped peds), will be evident if the mean
rate of sediment input to the soil surface was greater than 1 mm/
yr (Wright and Marriott, 1996). In the example shown in Figure
8A, the frequent aggradational events assumed for episode c may
have taken place in the proximal oodplain or braidplain, whereas
the slow deposition rates envisioned for episodes d and f could
relate to more distal oodplain areas due either to avulsion or
distributary abandonment during prolonged dry periods.
Frequent dust storms may also have produced the progressive
lowering of oodplain surfaces necessary to cause reactivation of
the structural B horizons and further movement along the slicken-
sided surfaces of the wedge-shaped peds. This would cause fanning
Paleosol completeness and preservation 51
dynamic nature of the ancient oodplain surfaces. Four different
models have been presented that show polygenetic soil prole
development related to either slow or rapid erosion followed by
slow or rapid burial of cumulate calcic Vertisols. A particular sec-
tion of the Moor Cliffs Formation has been used to illustrate the
polyphase nature of oodplain development where both progres-
sive and regressive pedogenesis occurred.
It is likely that many premid-Paleozoic soils were also prone
to erosion due to a mobile A horizon rather than an organically
stabilized one, though some may have had microbial or bryo-
phyte cover that would have given the surface some cohesion
and resistance to erosion. In the Lower Old Red Sandstone, the
combination of a lack of deep-rooted vegetation, vertic processes
favoring small ped formation, and a ood-prone hydrologic
regime in a distal alluvial or terminal fan setting led to develop-
ment of soils with particularly unstable upper horizons.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful to Greg Retallack and Bill Barclay for
their helpful comments on an earlier version of this article,
and we particularly wish to thank Paul Revell for drawing the
diagrams.
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6
5
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0
m
e
t
r
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o
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s
e
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i
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
53
Tanner, L.H., and Lucas, S.G., 2006, Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group, Four Corners region, southwestern United States: Climatic impli-
cations, in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and Palustrine Carbonates: Geological Society
of America Special Paper 416, p. 5374, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(04). For permission to copy, contact [email protected]. 2006 Geological Society of
America. All rights reserved.
Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006
Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group, Four
Corners region, southwestern United States: Climatic implications
Lawrence H. Tanner

Department of Biological Sciences, Le Moyne College, 1419 Salt Springs Road, Syracuse, New York 13214, USA
Spencer G. Lucas
New Mexico Museum of Natural History, 1801 Mountain Road N.W., Albuquerque, New Mexico 87104, USA
ABSTRACT
Paleosols are prominent features of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group. The old-
est (Carnian-age) formations of the Chinle Group (Zuni Mountains and Shinarump
Formations) contain kaolinitic paleosols that display gley features but generally lack
calcretes. Paleosols of the (Upper Carnian) Blue Mesa Member of the Petried Forest
Formation are mostly mature Alsols that have distinctive horizonation and com-
monly host stage II to III calcretes. Mudstones of the Jim Camp Wash Bed of the
overlying Sonsela Member host similarly mature paleosols with abundant stage II to
stage IV calcretes. The (Lower Norian) Painted Desert Member of the Petried Forest
Formation is characterized by paleosols that lack well-developed A horizons but dis-
play thick, red B horizons in which pedogenic slickensides, rhizocretions, and stage II
to III calcretes are locally abundant. Immature paleosols hosting stage II to stage III
calcretes characterize the lower part of the (Middle Norian) Owl Rock Formation. The
upper Owl Rock Formation contains stage III to IV calcretes and laterally persistent
limestone ledges that formed as palustrine limestones and groundwater calcretes. The
(Norian-Rhaetian) Rock Point Formation generally lacks pedogenic features in most
of the study area, but the uppermost strata in some locations host multiple pedogenic
horizons that display drab root traces, desiccation cracks, and stage II to III calcretes.
Interformational variations in the types of paleosols and the maturity of calcretes in
Chinle Group strata reect gradual aridication across the Colorado Plateau during
the Late Triassic. This climatic change overprinted variations in basin sedimentation
rate that were potentially controlled by base level and tectonics.
Keywords: Chinle, pedogenic, calcretes, Late Triassic, palustrine.
RESUMEN
La presencia de paleosuelos es uno de los rasgos ms caractersticos del Grupo
Chinle del Trisico Superior. Las formaciones ms antiguas, Zuni Mountains y Shi-
narump, son de edad Carniense, no tienen calcretas y los paleosuelos son caolinticos
con rasgos de gley. Los paleosuelos del Miembro Blue Mesa de la Formacin Petri-
ed Forest son sobre todo Alsoles maduros con horizontes bien diferenciados y con

E-mail: [email protected].
54 Tanner and Lucas
using, in part, variations in paleosol maturity on the alluvial plain;
Therrien and Fastovsky (2000) documented that paleosol hydrol-
ogy varied with distance from the channel in the same formation.
Other studies have cited general characteristics of Chinle Group
paleosols, typically in the context of regional changes in climate
during the Late Triassic, but generally without detailed documen-
tation of specic pedogenic features (Dubiel, 1987, 1994; Dubiel
and Hasiotis, 1994a, 1994b; Hasiotis and Dubiel, 1994; Demko
et al., 1998; Hasiotis et al., 1998). The Chinle Group outcrops
cover a broad area of the Southwestern United States (Fig. 1) and
record deposition during a major portion of the Late Triassic. A
thorough and detailed examination of the lateral and temporal
variations of the Chinle paleosols is not possible within the scope
a single paper. Rather, we survey the spectrum of paleosols pres-
ent in Chinle Group strata, with particular attention to calcretes,
by describing the results of previous studies, as well as providing
new data. From these data (old and new), we attempt to interpret
the general sedimentologic and climatic conditions that existed
during deposition and pedogenesis of Chinle strata.
Calcretes occur in most Chinle formations, yet they have
received only limited attention. Most previous studies have
focused on individual formations at specic locations; examples
include Blodgetts (1988) study of the Norian-Rhaetian Dolores
Formation, in the uppermost Chinle of southwest Colorado, the
examination of Carnian-Norian age paleosols of the Petried For-
est Formation in the Petried Forest National Park (PFNP; Figs.
1 and 2) by Therrien and Fastovsky (2000), and the description
of pedogenic features of the Norian-aged Owl Rock Formation
in the Four Corners region by Tanner (2000). The accumulation
of carbonate in the B horizon is not specic to any single soil
type or climatic region, however, so the conditions of calcrete
calcretas de estadios II a III. Las lutitas de las capas Jim Camp Wash del Miembro
Sonsela suprayacente tambin tienen paleosuelos maduros con frecuentes calcretas de
estadios II a IV. El miembro Painted Desert (Noriense inferior) de la Formacin Petri-
ed Forest se caracteriza por presentar paleosuelos que carecen de horizontes A bien
desarrollados, pero que presentan horizontes B rojos y muy potentes con slickensides
pedognicos, rizocreciones, y calcretas de estadios II a III localmente abundantes.
Los paleosuelos inmaduros que contienen calcretas de estadio II a III caracterizan
la parte inferior de la Formacin Owl Rock (Noriense medio). La parte superior de
dicha formacin contiene calcretas estadio III a IV y lateralmente incluyen lentejones
de calizas, que se han interpretado como depsitos palustres y calcretas freticas.
La formacin Rock Point (Noriense-Rhetiense) no presenta rasgos pedognicos en la
mayor parte del rea estudiada, pero localmente en los estratos superiores hay hori-
zontes pedognicos mltiples que presentan trazas de races, grietas de desecacin y
calcretas estadios IIIII. Las variaciones en el tipo de paleosuelos y en los estadios de
madurez de las calcretas en las distintas formaciones del Grupo Chinle reejan una
aridicacin gradual a lo largo de la Meseta del Colorado durante el Trisico Supe-
rior. Este cambio climtico, control las variaciones en la tasa de sedimentacin en la
cuenca que tambin estuvieron potencialmente controladas por cambios en el nivel de
base y por la tectnica.
Palabras clave: Chinle, pedognico, calcretas, Trisico Superior, palustres.
INTRODUCTION
The utility and temporal resolution of paleoclimate model-
ing has improved dramatically in recent decades, in part through
the increasing use of paleosols and pedogenic features as paleo-
climate archives. Calcrete, the accumulation of CaCO
3
in the
subsurface environment as nodules (glaebules) or cemented
horizons (see review in Wright and Tucker, 1991), has proven
particularly useful because of its high preservation potential, and
common association with soil-forming processes in semiarid to
arid climates. In addition to climate, however, the morphology
and maturity of all paleosols, including those that are calcare-
ous, are controlled by a variety of factors, including sediment
accumulation rate, which controls residence time of sediment in
the soil-forming environment, vegetative cover, subsurface biotic
activity, and host sediment composition (see reviews in Kraus,
1999; Retallack, 2001; Alonso-Zarza, 2003). The controls on
the rate of sediment accumulation, which in general is inversely
related to paleosol maturity, are particularly complex. Although
climate exerts some control over the delivery of sediment to the
receiving basin, tectonic activity greatly inuences sediment
deposition, both through enhancement of sediment production
by source area uplift, and through control of basin conguration
and accommodation space.
Paleosols have long been recognized as prominent features
in Upper Triassic Chinle Group strata, and general features of
many of these paleosols have been described previously. Some
previous studies have focused on specic local occurrences
within an individual formation; for example, Kraus and Middle-
ton (1987) described a history of oodplain incision and aggra-
dation cycles during deposition of the Petried Forest Formation
Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group 55
formation can only be understood within the context of the soils,
or paleosols, in which the calcrete occurs.
GEOLOGIC SETTING
The Chinle basin formed as a continental retro-arc basin on
the western edge of the North American craton during the initial
growth of the Cordilleran magmatic arc in the early Mesozoic
(Dickinson, 1981; Lawton, 1994). This basin extended from
southwestern Texas to northern Wyoming and was the site of ter-
restrial sedimentation from the Late Triassic until the beginning
of the Early Jurassic (Lucas et al., 1997). Strata of the Chinle
Group, ranging in age from Late Carnian to possibly Rhaetian,
are exposed across much of the Colorado Plateau (Fig. 1). The
Four Corners region (the common border of the states of Arizona,
Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah), the focus of this study, was
situated within the basin at near-equatorial latitudes (between
5 and 15N) during Late Triassic time (Scotese, 1994; Molina-
Garza et al., 1995; Kent and Olsen, 1997).
Deposition of the Chinle Group sediments was controlled by
predominantly west- to northwest-owing stream systems cross-
ing broad, low-gradient alluvial plains. In the Four Corners region,
proximal source areas for these sediments were the Mogollon
highlands, located ~500 km to the south and southwest, and to
a lesser extent the Uncompahgre highlands located 200300 km
to the east and northeast (Blakey and Gubitosa, 1983; Marzolf,
1994). Syndepositional arc volcanism contributed an appreciable
amount of volcaniclastic sediment to the basin. Across most of
the Four Corners region, the lowermost Chinle strata were depos-
ited unconformably on Middle Triassic or older strata following
an interval of lowered base level and incision.
STRATIGRAPHY
In the Four Corners region, basal Chinle Group strata rest
unconformably (the Tr-3 unconformity) on strata of the Moen-
kopi Formation. Stewart et al. (1972) used the informal designa-
tion mottled strata to describe alluvial sediments at the base of
Figure 1. Distribution of outcrops of
Chinle Group strata (shaded) in the
Four Corners region (after Stewart et
al., 1972). Locations mentioned in the
text are indicated; PFNPPetried
Forest National Park, LPDCPLittle
Painted Desert County Park.
56 Tanner and Lucas
the Chinle Group that exhibit strong pedogenic mottling. These
strata underlie or are laterally equivalent to the basal strata of
the Shinarump Formation (Lucas et al., 1997). Equivalent strata
in the San Rafael Swell were named the Temple Mountain
Formation by Robeck (1956), and more recently, Heckert and
Lucas (2003) proposed the name Zuni Mountain Formation for
these same strata in west-central and north-central New Mexico
(Lucas et al., 2003). The Shinarump Formation consists of cross-
bedded conglomerates and sandstones of late Carnian age. The
Temple Mountain and Shinarump Formations were deposited in
paleovalleys incised into the underlying Moenkopi Formation
strata (Stewart et al., 1972; Blakey and Gubitosa, 1983; Demko
et al., 1998).
Upper Carnian strata immediately above the Shinarump
Formation are named regionally the Cameron, Bluewater Creek,
and Monitor Butte Formations. Lucas (1993) and Lucas et al.
(1997) demonstrated the stratigraphic equivalence of these for-
mations. The lowermost strata of the Petried Forest Formation
in the Four Corners region are designated the Blue Mesa Mem-
ber (Lucas et al., 1997). These strata, also of late Carnian age,
overlie the CameronBluewater CreekMonitor Butte Forma-
tions. The Blue Mesa Member and the underlying Cameron
Bluewater CreekMonitor Butte and Shinarump Formations
were mapped collectively as the lower bentonitic part of the
Chinle Formation by Stewart et al. (1972). Thickness of these
formations varies from <30 m in southeastern Utah to >450 m in
northwestern New Mexico.
An unconformity (Tr-4) separates the Blue Mesa Member
from the overlying sandstone-dominated Sonsela Member of the
Petried Forest Formation and the equivalent Moss Back Forma-
tion (Lucas, 1993; Heckert and Lucas, 1996; Lucas et al., 1997).
Heckert and Lucas (2002a) interpreted the Sonsela Member as
lling erosional scours in the underlying Blue Mesa Member,
which thins beneath the unconformity to the east. The Painted
Desert Member, of early to middle Norian age, overlies Sonsela
Moss Back strata (Lucas et al., 1997). As mapped by Stewart et
al. (1972), the thickness of the entire Petried Forest Formation
ranges from just over 30 m at its northeastern limit in eastern
Utah, increasing southward to over 400 m at its southeastern
extent in northwestern New Mexico. The overlying Owl Rock
Formation is composed of up to 150 m of strata that crop out in
northern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, and southern Utah
(Stewart et al., 1972; Lucas and Huber, 1994).
Across the Four Corners area, the upper Norian to (possibly)
Rhaetian Rock Point Formation is recognized as the youngest
stratigraphic unit of the Chinle Group (Lucas, 1993; Lucas et al.,
Figure 2. Stratigraphic hierarchy for the
Chinle Group used in this paper (after
Lucas et al., 1997).
Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group 57
1997). The Rock Point Formation, termed the Rock Point Mem-
ber of the Wingate Sandstone by Stewart et al. (1972), includes
strata formerly assigned to the Church Rock Member of the
Chinle Formation (Stewart et al., 1972; Dubiel, 1989; Lucas et
al., 1997). The contact between the Rock Point Formation and
underlying Owl Rock Formation is unconformable (the Tr-5
unconformity). The Rock Point Formation grades vertically to
the eolian-dominated Wingate Formation of Rhaetian to Hettan-
gian age (Harshbarger et al., 1957; Tanner et al., 2002; Molina-
Garza et al., 2003).
PALEOSOLS OF THE CHINLE GROUP
Many descriptions of paleosols have suffered from the lack
of a single system of paleosol description applied by all research-
ers. In part, this is because traditional modern soil classica-
tion (i.e., Soil Conservation Service, 1999) requires knowledge
of such information as vegetative cover and soil moisture that
may not preserved in paleosols. Additionally, postdepositional
processes (erosion, compaction, diagenesis) may obscure some
primary pedogenic features and induce other nonpedogenic fea-
tures (Retallack, 2001). Although the precise interpretation of
paleosols in terms of modern soil classication standards is often
problematic, sufcient information is often retained to allow
classication at the order level (Kraus, 1999; Retallack, 2001).
This study assigns order names to paleosols that are consistent
with modern soil usage unless otherwise noted (Table 1). Where
such assignments are not possible, we use the alternative clas-
sication system specic for paleosols, which abandoned some
traditional soil orders and created new paleosol orders (Mack et
al., 1993). The term calcrete is used here to refer to the displacive
and replacive growth of calcium carbonate in the soil-forming
environment, and includes carbonate of both pedogenic and
groundwater origins (see reviews in Wright and Tucker, 1991;
Tandon and Kumar, 1999; Alonso-Zarza, 2003). The maturity of
nodular calcrete is described using the stage concepts of Gile et
al. (1966) and Machette (1985).
Zuni Mountains Formation (= Mottled Strata)
Lithostratigraphy
Stewart et al. (1972) used the informal designation mottled
strata to describe alluvial sediments (mudstones, sandstones,
and conglomerates) at the base of the Chinle Group that exhibit
strong pedogenic mottling. These strata underlie or are laterally
equivalent to the basal strata of the Shinarump Formation (Lucas
et al., 1997). Equivalent strata in the San Rafael Swell in central
Utah were named the Temple Mountain Formation by Robeck
(1956), and more recently, Heckert and Lucas (2003) proposed
the name Zuni Mountain Formation for these same strata in west-
central and north-central New Mexico. These same authors also
noted that, locally, the Shinarump Formation may be absent, in
which case the Zuni Mountains Formation is overlain by the
Bluewater Creek Formation. At the type location, near Fort
TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF PALEOSOL TYPES AND CALCRETE FEATURES IN STRATA OF THE CHINLE GROUP
Age Stratigraphic unit Depositional environment Paleosols Calcretes
Late NorianRhaetian Rock Point Formation Eolian, ephemeral lake,
minor alluvial
Aridisol/Inceptisol,
Calcisol
Local stage IIIII
Middle Norian Owl Rock Formation Alluvial channel, floodplain,
minor lacustrine and wetland
Calcisol, calcic Alfisol Common stages IIIII,
local stage IV,
groundwater calcretes
Early to middle
Norian
Painted Desert Member, Petrified
Forest Formation
Alluvial channel and
floodplain
Vertisols, Alfisols Stage II common, local
stage III, common
calcrete channel lag
deposits
Carnian-Norian
boundary
Sonsela Member, Petrified Forest
Formation
Alluvial channel and minor
floodplain
Calcic Alfisols Stage II common, local
stage III, common
calcrete channel lag
deposits
Latest Carnian Blue Mesa Member, Petrified
Forest Formation
Alluvial channel and floodplain Alfisols, Vertisols Abundant stage II, some
local stage III
Late Carnian Monitor Butte, Mesa Redondo
and Cameron Formations
Alluvial channel, floodplain,
and minor lacustrine
Vertisols, Alfisols Stage II common locally
Late Carnian Shinarump Formation Alluvial channel and minor
interfluve
Bioturbated with gley
features
Absent
Late Carnian Zuni Mountains and Temple
Mountain Formationsmottled
strata
Interfluve valley fills Spodosols Generally absent/rare
stage III
58 Tanner and Lucas
Wingate, New Mexico, over 20 m of pedogenically modied
strata overlie the Middle Triassic Moenkopi Formation (Heckert
and Lucas, 2003).
Pedogenic Features
Strata of the Zuni Mountains Formation display, as do other
correlative exposures in the region, extensive pedogenic modi-
cation, consisting of some combination of gleying (the presence
of low chroma colors) and bioturbation. Typical features of these
paleosols are crudely prismatic fabric, bluish to yellowish gray
mottling in a dark reddish to orange brown host (Fig. 3), relict
bedding, meniscate burrows, sandy horizons that are cemented
almost entirely by hematite (spodic or Bs horizons), a clay min-
eral assemblage dominated by kaolinite, and penetration of the
beds by near-vertical sandstone cylinders up to 1.5 m long (Tan-
ner, 2003a). Indeed, the most striking characteristics of the Fort
Wingate section are the prominent mottled horizons and penetra-
tion of these horizons by the vertical sandstone-lled casts. Origi-
nally, these latter structures, present in much of the Chinle Group,
were interpreted as lungsh aestivation burrows (Dubiel et al.,
1987); more recently, they have been reinterpreted as craysh
burrows (Hasiotis and Dubiel, 1993a) and the casts of deeply pen-
etrating taproots of monopodial vegetation (Lucas and Hayden,
1989; Tanner, 2003a). Both deep taproots and craysh burrowing
would be possible, perhaps even likely, in regions where meter-
scale, water table uctuations occur regularly. These hydrologic
conditions would have been conducive to water-logged soils for
humid intervals, but periodic, perhaps seasonal, drawdown of the
water table would have been sufcient to allow translocation and
oxidation of iron and manganese and shrinkage of expandable
clays. However, the abundance of kaolinite in the clay mineral
assemblage of this formation (Tanner, 2003a; Tabor et al., 2004)
suggests substantial humidity.
Lower Chinle (undifferentiated) paleosols have been
described previously as Gleysols (sensu Mack et al., 1993)
formed in a humid but seasonal environment (Dubiel and
Hasiotis, 1994b; Hasiotis et al., 1998). Demko et al. (1998) sug-
gested that hydromorphism in lower Chinle paleosols was a con-
sequence of stratigraphic proximity to an aquitard in the under-
lying Moenkopi Formation. Bown and Kraus (1987), Mack et
al. (1993), and Retallack (2001) noted, however, that true hydro-
morphic (gleyed) soils rarely display extensive bioturbation or
evidence of desiccation, and the identication of Gleysols cannot
be based solely on the presence of mottled horizons. Conversely,
pseudogleying, as demonstrated in these lower Chinle paleosols,
indicates that hydromorphic conditions existed only periodically.
The abundance of root casts in these paleosols demonstrates that
the sediment surface was quite well-vegetated. The presence of
hematite-cemented sandstone units in the prole at Fort Wing-
ate documents instead the formation of a well-developed spodic
(Bs) horizon. The sandy host was cemented, principally by
hematite, in a zone in which clays had largely been destroyed by
weathering (Birkeland, 1984). Therefore, we suggest that some
of these paleosols formed as Spodosols, which typically form
beneath forests (Birkeland, 1984; Retallack, 2001). Thus, these
proles may represent composite palosols in the sense that soil
layers buried by subsequent increments of sediment remained in
an extensively thick, active soil-forming environment (Wright
and Marriott, 1996). A climate characterized by abundant but
highly seasonal precipitation is consistent with these features.
Alternatively, individual paleosol horizons may have formed as
time-separated increments within a complex paleosol that was
subjected to an overall pedogenic overprint by later conditions;
e.g., long-term climate change could have imparted an overprint
through downward translocation of clays or oxides formed under
more humid conditions than existed during earlier soil formation.
This also may account for the presence of gley features in hori-
zons displaying evidence of desiccation.
Calcretes are generally absent in lowermost Chinle Group
strata (i.e., Zuni Mountains and Shinarump Formations) in New
Mexico and Arizona, although Tabor et al. (2004) reported a sig-
nicant accumulation of pedogenic carbonate at the base of a
Chinle prole in eastern Utah. These authors described the occur-
rence of a 1.5-m-thick coalesced nodular (Bkm) horizon (stage
III) at the base of a 3.5 m prole, overlain by noncalcareous,
mottled kaolinitic mudstone with a blocky fabric and containing
goethite nodules. Thick Bk horizons, as described by Tabor et
al. (2004), are not typically associated with paleosols containing
gley colors, but as noted by Bown and Kraus (1987), calcareous
nodules may form in hydromorphic paleosols. Indeed, the forma-
tion of a clay pan in the lower B horizon is likely to enhance car-
bonate accumulation and nodule formation. Tabor et al. (2004)
suggested, however, that the prole they described records mul-
tiple episodes of pedogenesis, potentially under varying climatic
conditions. Therefore, this Bkm horizon may be a relict paleosol
Figure 3. Typical pedogenic features of the Zuni Mountains Formation
in section near Fort Wingate, New Mexico (= mottled strata), include
pale greenish-yellow (10 YR 8/2) and light greenish-gray (5 GY 8/1)
mottling in moderate brown (5 YR 3/4) to dark reddish-brown (10 R
3/4) matrix. Hammer head for scale is 17 cm long.
Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group 59
formed in Moenkopi strata and unrelated to the later pedogenesis
concomitant with initial Chinle deposition.
Shinarump Formation
Lithostratigraphy
The Shinarump Formation consists of cross-bedded con-
glomerates and quartz arenite sandstones of late Carnian age
deposited in paleovalleys incised into the underlying Moenkopi
Formation strata (Stewart et al., 1972; Blakey and Gubitosa,
1983; Demko et al., 1998). The quartz arenite sandstones and
extrabasinal conglomerates of the Shinarump Formation attain a
maximum thickness of 76 m in the Four Corners region, although
in many locations, this unit is generally thinner or absent (Fig.
2). The formation records inll of incised paleovalleys by north-
west-owing streams that generally carried a high bedload and
were of low sinuosity (Stewart et al., 1972; Blakey and Gubitosa,
1984).
Pedogenic Features
Paleosols are rare in these sandstone-dominated uvial
channel deposits, but interuve mudstones display extensive
pedogenic mottling and bioturbation, as described by Dubiel
(1994) and Tanner (2003a). The nature of this pedogenic altera-
tion appears as purple, orange, and gray mottles in a sandy mud-
stone exhibiting a prismatic fabric, desiccation cracks, and relict
ripple lamination. Bedding-plane exposures reveal centimeter-
scale concentric banding of purple and yellow zones, potentially
a consequence of iron translocated downward along taproots, the
casts of which are abundant in Shinarump Formation paleosols.
The character of these paleosols is generally similar to that exhib-
ited by the older Zuni Mountains Formation, although the lack of
a spodic horizon makes classication more ambiguous. The gley
features present here are likewise considered pseudogleying and
not indicative of true soil hydromorphism; rather, these features
record substantial uctuations in the position of the water table.
CameronBluewater CreekMonitor Butte Formations
Lithostratigraphy
The laterally equivalent Cameron, Bluewater Creek, and
Monitor Butte Formations, of Upper Carnian age, consist mainly
of gray bentonitic to red mudstones, and laminated to cross-bed-
ded ne-grained sandstones. At Petried Forest National Park,
the Bluewater Creek Formation is made up of mainly interbedded
sandstone, siltstone, and reddish-purple to grayish-red mudstone
(Heckert and Lucas, 2002a). In the Zuni Mountains, however, the
Bluewater Creek Formation consists of three distinct lithofacies
assemblages: reddish-brown, bluish-gray, and grayish-purple
mudstones; ripple-laminated to plane-bedded sandstones; and
interbedded bentonitic mudstone and dark shale (Heckert and
Lucas, 2002b). The mudstones locally contain abundant plant
debris (Ash, 1987, 1989), and thin micritic limestone occurs near
the base of the formation (Heckert and Lucas, 2002b).
Pedogenic Features
Tanner (2003a) noted pedogenic features in the basal strata
of the Cameron Formation near Cameron, Arizona, that are simi-
lar to those observed in the Zuni Mountains and Shinarump For-
mations, e.g., mottling with gley colors, a high kaolinite content,
and pedogenic slickensides. Dubiel (1987) described a similarly
mottled unit in the Monitor Butte Formation of southeastern Utah.
Dubiel and Hasiotis (1994a, 1994b) interpreted such proles in
(undifferentiated) lower Chinle strata as Gleysols (sensu Mack
et al., 1993), although as noted previously, this classication is
not consistent with the strict denition of this paleosol order and
the evidence for a greatly uctuating water table. Following the
usage of Mack et al. (1993), these paleosols might best be con-
sidered gleyed Vertisols.
Paleosols that are stratigraphically higher in the Cameron
and Monitor Butte Formations differ in that they typically con-
sist of simple proles with decimeter-scale light-colored hori-
zons overlying thick (up to 8 m) reddened argillic (Bt) horizons
(Dubiel and Hasiotis, 1994b; Hasiotis et al., 1998). Bluewater
Creek mudstones commonly display pedogenic slickensides and
scattered (stage II) centimeter-scale calcrete nodules with alpha
fabrics (Heckert and Lucas, 2002b). Dubiel and Hasiotis (1994b)
and Hasiotis et al. (1998) labeled these argillic paleosols with
albic horizons as Alsols.
Petried Forest Formation: Blue Mesa Member
Lithostratigraphy
The lowermost strata of the Petried Forest Formation
(PFF), designated the Blue Mesa Member (of late Carnian age),
conformably overlie the CameronBluewater CreekMonitor
Butte Formations in northeastern Arizona and southeastern Utah;
this stratigraphic unit is not present in Colorado (Lucas et al.,
1997). This interval consists of bentonitic mudstones with var-
iegated hues of blue, gray, purple, and red, and interbedded thin
coarse-grained to very ne-grained sandstones, and it attains a
thickness of 100 m or more (Lucas, 1993; Lucas et al., 1997).
Most of the sandstones are compositionally and texturally imma-
ture, with the exception of the Newspaper Rock Bed, a promi-
nent ledge-forming quartz arenite sandstone unit within the Blue
Mesa Member that may be local to the Petried Forest National
Park (Heckert and Lucas, 2002a). The alluvial architecture of the
Blue Mesa Member consists of thick muddy oodplain depos-
its, deeply incised by meter-scale channels. The channels are
lled by very ne-grained sand and mud, commonly displaying
inclined heterolithic strata (Fig. 4A; lateral accretion surfaces),
and are surrounded by well-developed levee complexes with
splay deposits (Kraus and Middleton, 1987; Therrien and Fas-
tovsky, 2000). Intraformational disconformity surfaces record
cycles of valley incision and ll (Kraus and Middleton, 1987).
Kraus and Middleton (1987) proposed that base-level changes
during deposition of lower Chinle strata resulted in part from epi-
sodes of thermotectonically controlled uplift and subsidence in
the Mogollon highlands. The presence of volcanic detritus in the
60 Tanner and Lucas
Chinle, particularly in the Petried Forest Formation, provides
compelling evidence for arc-related magmatism at this time.
Pedogenic Features
The Blue Mesa Member contains thick, well-developed
paleosols with distinctive horizonation (Fig. 4B); these are strik-
ingly well-exposed in the strata in the southern end of the Petri-
ed Forest National Park. Typical are composite proles consist-
ing of stacked, repetitive sequences of thin, light-colored, cross-
bedded to ripple-laminated sandstones and mudstones in beds up
to 8 m thick that are greenish-gray to dark reddish-brown and
mottled gray, purple, and red. Individual proles within com-
posite proles commonly contain a thin, sandy ochric epipedon
(A horizon), typically overlying a well-dened pale albic (E)
horizon. Thick clay-rich B (Bt) horizons (up to 8 m) are reddish
gray to (more commonly) grayish purple, and host pedogenic
slickensides (wedge-shaped peds) and pseudoanticlines, down-
ward-tapering sandstone-lled ssures (desiccation fractures),
sandstone-lled root casts, a variety of arthropod burrow struc-
tures, drab root traces up to 0.1 m long, centimeter-scale reduc-
tion spheroids, and calcrete nodule horizons (Kraus and Middle-
ton, 1987; Hasiotis and Dubiel, 1993b; Therrien and Fastovsky,
2000). Calcrete consists most typically of scattered (stage II) cen-
timeter-scale nodules, which commonly display vertical stacking
(rhizocretions, sensu Blodgett, 1988), mainly in the uppermost
0.5 m of the horizon. Dubiel and Hasiotis (1994b) and Hasiotis et
Figure 4. Features of the Blue Mesa Member, Petried Forest Formation. (A) Channel ll sequence exposed in southern Petried Forest National
Park (the Tepees) displays inclined heterolithic strata set (arrows) ~6 m thick. (B) View of Blue Mesa, in southern Petried Forest National Park,
illustrates contact (at arrow) between Blue Mesa strata and overlying Sonsela Member. Laterally continuous banding in the Blue Mesa strata
results from pedogenesis (translocation of oxides and clays) in individual soil proles formed on an alluvial plain. Ch = lenticular channel-ll
deposit. (C) Bk horizon containing abundant (stage II) calcrete nodules in upper Blue Mesa strata, exposed near Moab, Utah. The rule (for scale)
is 17 cm. (D) Pedogenic features of the uppermost Blue Mesa Member at the contact with the overlying Sonsela Member (So; Rainbow Forest
Bed) at Blue Mesa, Petried Forest National Park. Rtdrab root traces; Nothin calcrete nodule horizon, Pepedogenic slickensides. Hiking
staff (for scale) = 120 cm. The mudstone host darkens downward from pale purple (5 P 6/2) to grayish-purple (5 P 4/2).
Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group 61
Petried Forest Formation: Sonsela Member and Moss
Back Formation
Lithostratigraphy
The overlying sandstone-dominated Sonsela Member of
the Petried Forest Formation and the laterally equivalent Moss
Back Formation consist of up to 50 m of ledge-forming lithar-
enite sandstone and conglomerate, including both intrabasinal
and extrabasinal clasts (Stewart et al., 1972; Lucas et al., 1997).
Heckert and Lucas (2002a) interpreted the Sonsela Member as
lling erosional scours in the underlying Blue Mesa Member,
which thins beneath the unconformity to the east. The lower
contact with the Blue Mesa Member is clearly erosional and has
been interpreted as a regional unconformity (the Tr-4; Lucas et
al., 1997). Arc-related tectonism, suggested as the cause of inci-
sion-inll cycles in the underlying Blue Mesa Member (Kraus
and Middleton, 1987), may explain this unconformity; source
area uplift and an increase in the local depositional gradient may
have caused incision and reworking of the Blue Mesa strata prior
to SonselaMoss Back deposition. In particular, the uppermost
unit of the Sonsela, the Agate Bridge Bed, contains a signicant
extrabasinal component, along with a high load of reworked cal-
crete (type 3 deposit of Gmez-Gras and Alonso-Zarza, 2003).
Alternatively, eustasy might have caused a signicant base-
level drop; a regional unconformity coincident with sea-level
fall occurs in the middle Keuper at about the Carnian-Norian
boundary (Aigner and Bachman, 1992), approximately correla-
tive with the Tr-4 unconformity (Lucas et al., 1997; Heckert and
Lucas, 2002a).
Heckert and Lucas (2002a) examined in detail the stratig-
raphy of the Sonsela Member in the Petried Forest National
Park and proposed that the Sonsela is composed of three subunits
of mappable extent. The lowermost sandstone-dominated unit,
which they designated the Rainbow Forest Bed, consists of up to
6 m of quartzarenite sandstone and conglomerate deposited by
north-northeasterly owing streams (Deacon, 1990), and locally
contains abundant silicied logs of Araucarioxylon. The grada-
tionally overlying Jim Camp Wash Bed consists of up to 30 m of
grayish-purple to pale red bentonitic mudstone and interbedded
sandstone. The uppermost unit, the Agate Bridge Bed, consists
of up to almost 7 m of cross-bedded quartzarenite and sublithar-
enite sandstone and conglomerate. The conglomerate contains a
signicant proportion of intraformational clasts, including mud-
stone rip-ups and calcrete. Heckert and Lucas (2002a) and Lucas
et al. (2003) noted that the Sonsela Member lls scours on the
Blue Mesa erosional surface.
Pedogenic Features
The Jim Camp Wash Bed displays an abundance of pedo-
genic features including distinct horizonation, pedogenic slick-
ensides, decimeter-scale sandstone-lled desiccation cracks,
and abundant calcrete nodules and coalesced calcrete nodule
layers (stage II to III). The sedimentology of the Jim Camp Wash
Bed is similar to that of the underlying Blue Mesa Member in
al. (1998) noted these features and labeled paleosols of the Blue
Mesa Member as Vertisols, where vertic features predominate,
and Alsols, where pale A and/or E horizons overlie reddened or
purple argillic B horizons. Bown and Kraus (1987) noted, how-
ever, that the A horizon may be thin or absent in some Alsols; we
suggest, therefore, that the primary features of these paleosols is
the thick B horizon, even where vertic features are common, and
that they also should be considered Alsols. The purple color that
is characteristic of many Blue Mesa paleosols probably results
from the coarse crystal size of the hematite in the B horizon,
and indicates a high maturity of the proles (Bown and Kraus,
1987). Kraus and Middleton (1987) noted a systematic varia-
tion in pedogenic development correlating with position on the
alluvial plain; the paleosol maturity is signicantly lower in the
incised valley inll deposits than on the surrounding oodplain.
Therrien and Fastovsky (2000) noted localized gleying in Blue
Mesa paleosols, and interpreted it as poor drainage on low areas
of the alluvial plain. Consistent with this observation, Heckert
and Lucas (2002a) noted the local occurrence of sideritic nodules
in Blue Mesa paleosols, demonstrating reducing conditions in the
soil-forming environment. Additionally, we note the presence of
thin (centimeter-scale) localized organic-rich layers in the epipe-
dons at the top of Blue Mesa paleosols in Little Painted Desert
County Park, north of Winslow (Fig. 1). These horizons are too
thin to meet the accepted denition of histic epipedons (O hori-
zon), but they suggest the local formation of Histosols on areas
of the oodplain with impeded drainage. Kraus and Middleton
(1987) described a catenary relationship in which the paleosol
maturity correlates with distance from the channel (Platt and
Keller, 1992; Mack and Madoff, 2005).
Calcretes are common in Blue Mesa paleosols. Therrien
and Fastovsky (2000) described the presence of centimeter-scale
(up to 5 cm in diameter) nodules in most Blue Mesa paleosols.
These calcretes are mainly limited to horizons in which isolated
nodules are abundant (stage II), although more mature (stage III)
calcretes occur locally (Fig. 4C; Heckert and Lucas, 2002a). The
nodules typically display alpha fabrics; they range from 2 to 8 cm
in diameter, have distinct boundaries, are subspherical to irregu-
larly shaped, and commonly display septarian cracking. These
nodules occur widely scattered (stage II), but they are locally
concentrated in discrete horizons (stage II to incipient stage III)
in the middle to upper part of the B horizon of proles, where
they may be associated with pedogenic slickensides; they are
particularly prominent immediately below the Newspaper Rock
Bed and at the top of the Blue Mesa Member beneath the Rain-
bow Forest Bed of the Sonsela Member. Numerous locations
occur in southern Petried Forest National Park where the upper-
most Blue Mesa strata consist of dark bluish-gray mudstone dis-
playing vertic fractures and centimeter-scale calcareous nodules,
in some locations with diffuse boundaries (Fig. 4D). Drab root
traces are locally abundant in the mudstone host. These observa-
tions are consistent with the interpretation that the paleosols rep-
resent mainly Alsols, which typically form on well-vegetated
(forested) surfaces (Bown and Kraus, 1987; Retallack, 2001).
62 Tanner and Lucas
that meter-scale channels are incised into muddy oodplain
deposits on which mature paleosols formed. Jim Camp Wash
paleosols differ from those of the Blue Mesa Member, however,
in their generally redder color and the typically greater maturity
of calcrete.
Excellent Jim Camp Wash Bed paleosol outcrops occur
in southern Petried Forest National Park. Near the Rainbow
Forest Museum, the uppermost Jim Camp Wash Bed consists
of grayish-purple mudstone that hosts abundant pale nodules
ranging in diameter from 0.5 to 3 cm (Fig. 5A). In the upper-
most 40 cm of the mudstone, the nodules form coalesced hori-
zons that are laterally discontinuous, extending a maximum
distance of 50 cm, and botryoidal masses up to 30 cm long.
Near the top of this zone, nodules form vertically stacked bod-
ies, or rhizocretions, up to 20 cm long (Fig. 5B). Smaller nod-
ules commonly exhibit crosscutting burrows. Notably, nodules
are concentrated along arcuate curviplanar surfaces, presum-
ably pedogenic slickensides, that extend laterally up to 1 m
(Fig. 5C). These features have relatively smooth upper surfaces
and are bounded below by a single layer of coalesced nodules
projecting downward. The surfaces dip varying directions and
form pseudoanticlinal intersections. Discrete fragments of
charcoal, recognizable by a silky, brous luster, also occur in
the uppermost 40 cm of the mudstone. The size and abundance
of nodules decrease markedly in the reddened mudstone below
the grayish-purple horizon. Nodules occur to a depth of 50 cm
within this zone. The entire mudstone section is overlain by
sandstone displaying planar cross-beds and conglomerate lags
(Fig. 6). The lag deposits are composed of mudstone rip-ups
and micritic nodules.
The Jim Camp Wash Bed consists of thick oodplain
mudstone sequences overlain by a high bedload stream deposit
containing a lag of reworked calcrete nodules. The previously
described mudstone represents a oodplain paleosol in which
the uppermost horizon (epipedon) has been partially removed
by erosion. The shallow soil was subject to pronounced biotic
(rooting and burrowing) and vertic activity, the latter facili-
tated by the smectitic nature of the soil material. A distinct
Bk horizon forms the uppermost preserved horizon, contain-
ing discrete and coalesced nodular masses of micritic mud-
stone. The vertical orientation of some nodular masses (rhi-
zocretions) indicates a profound inuence of plant roots in the
formation of at least some nodules. Vertic fractures, which can
form rapidly (Birkeland, 1984), comprise arcuate surfaces with
downward-shallowing dips; these served as pathways for the
downward translocation of calcium carbonate, as evidenced
by the formation of laterally continuous horizons of coalesced
nodules along these surfaces. Although this paleosol prole
is truncated, we designate it a calcic Alsol. We note, how-
ever, that the morphology of the calcrete displays signicantly
greater maturity than is generally present in the Blue Mesa
paleosols. This disparity suggests that conditions for carbon-
ate accumulation in the Bk horizon were enhanced during this
depositional interval.
Figure 5. Jim Camp Wash Bed section. (A) The top of the section is
the lower portion of the Agate Bridge Bed and here consists of ~2 m of
mainly planar cross-bedded sandstone with intraformational conglom-
erate (calcrete nodule) lag. The calcrete described in the text occurs
immediately below the base of the sandstone. (B) Calcrete morpholo-
gies include rhizocretions (vertically stacked calcrete nodules; Rh)
with downward-tapering arrangement. (C) Coalescing nodule horizons
(No; stage III) along arcuate surfaces are typically one to two nodules
thick and up to 1 m long.
Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group 63
Petried Forest Formation: Painted Desert Member
Lithostratigraphy
The Painted Desert Member, of early to middle Norian age,
overlies the SonselaMoss Back strata and consists of grayish-
red and reddish-brown mudstones and thin interbedded sand-
stones (Lucas et al., 1997). As mapped by Stewart et al. (1972),
thickness of the entire Petried Forest Formation ranges from
just over 30 m at its northeastern limit in eastern Utah, increas-
ing southward to over 400 m at its southeastern extent in north-
western New Mexico. Like the Blue Mesa Member, the Painted
Desert Member consists of thick mudstone intervals incised
by channels with a ne-grained ll, locally displaying promi-
nent inclined heterolithic strata (Fig. 7A) and levee complexes.
Alternating with these dominantly suspended-load channel lls
are sandstones that are predominantly multistoried and charac-
teristically display tabular to lenticular sets of trough and planar
cross-beds (Espegren, 1985). At Petried Forest National Park,
Heckert and Lucas (2002a) recognized correlatable sandstone
units within the Painted Desert Member. These are, in ascending
order, the Flattops, Lithodendron Wash, and Black Forest Beds.
The last of these has a considerable volcaniclastic content. Riggs
et al. (1994) reported a U-Pb age of 207 2 Ma for zircon from
the Black Forest Beds, and Riggs et al. (2003) later obtained a
maximum age of 213 1.5 Ma, although the authors conceded
a possible age as young as 209 Ma. The Painted Desert Mem-
ber sandstones generally lack extrabasinal clasts, but locally the
Black Forest Bed, and to a lesser extent, the Lithodendron Wash
Bed, contain thick lag deposits of calcrete-dominated intraforma-
tional conglomerate (Fig. 7B; Heckert and Lucas, 2002a).
Pedogenic Features
Painted Desert paleosol proles display A horizons that are
thin to absent and B horizons that are typically several meters
thick, brick red, and locally display pedogenic slickensides, bur-
rows, drab root traces, and rhizoliths. Calcrete nodules with alpha
fabrics are commonly scattered in these thick B horizons (stage
Figure 6. Representative measured section of the truncated paleosol
in the Jim Camp Wash Bed described in the text and shown in Figure
5A. The section is located in southern Petried Forest National Park
along the park road (near the Flattops).
Figure 7. Features of Painted Desert Member deposition. (A) Chan-
nel-ll sequence between the arrows consists of 3 m of (mostly) red
mudstone with (minor) interbedded sandstone displaying inclined het-
erolithic strata. This section is located in the northern Petried Forest
National Park (near Lacey Point). (B) Locally, the Black Forest Bed
consists of up to 3 m of intraformational (primarily calcrete nodules)
conglomerate. This section is located in the northern Petried Forest
National Park (at Lacey Point). Scale (hiking staff) is 120 cm.
64 Tanner and Lucas
II), but more mature calcretes (stage III and rare stage IV) occur
immediately below the high bedload stream deposits. Notably,
the Black Forest Bed contains a gravel conglomerate load that is
up to 2 m thick in places and consists entirely of calcrete nodules
(Fig. 7B).
Excellent exposures of Painted Desert paleosols occur in
northern Petried Forest National Park, particularly in exposures
along Lithodendron Wash. Below the Lithodendron Wash Bed of
Heckert and Lucas (2002a), the reddish-brown mudstone hosts
stage II to stage III calcrete horizons and lenticular bodies of
conglomerate (Fig. 8A), which consist of centimeter-scale cal-
crete nodules and mud chips and pedogenic slickensides. Cal-
crete nodules in stage II horizons are up to 5 cm in diameter; the
nodules commonly exhibit a reduced (drab) interior cut by sparry
calcite veins, or circumgranular cracking (crystallaria; Fig. 8B),
and some nodules are penetrated by thin (1 mm diameter) bur-
rows. Vertical stacking of nodules (rhizocretions) occurs locally
(Fig. 8C). Gray reduction spheres and small drab root traces are
also common in the mudstone host. Similar features are present
in numerous arroyos that cut Painted Desert strata north of Cam-
eron, Arizona, where rare laminar (stage IV, or K) horizons occur
beneath sandstone beds (Fig. 8D).
Dubiel and Hasiotis (1994b) and Hasiotis et al. (1998)
described Painted Desert paleosols as Vertisols, largely on the
basis of abundant pedogenic slickensides and the presence of illu-
viated clay on ped surfaces. This designation may be appropriate
in instances where no other signicant pedogenic features occur,
but weak horizonation is present in much of the mudstone-domi-
nated section. Bown and Kraus (1987) noted that Alsols may
display proles in which the A horizon may be thin or absent,
Figure 8. Painted Desert Member pedogenic features. (A) Lens of calcrete nodule and mud-chip conglomerate occurs at the level of the hiking
staff handle (staff is 120 cm). The sandstone bed just above the staff handle is the Lithodendron Wash Bed. The mudstone below the calcrete
lens has a wedge-shaped ped structure formed by intersecting pedogenic slickensides. (B) Detail of calcrete nodule from lens in (A) illustrating
crosscutting crystallaria (sparry calcite veins; arrow). (C) Bk horizon in uppermost Painted Desert strata consists almost entirely of rhizocretions
(Rh). The rhizocretion indicated by the arrow is 10 cm long. This section is located is located in the northernmost Petried Forest National Park
(Chinle Mesa). (D) Rare laminar (La; stage IV) calcrete horizon in Painted Desert. Irregular and vertically elongate nodule masses are up to 50
cm long. The base of the Bk horizon is gradational and extends to a depth of 1.5 m below the laminar horizon (hammer is 26 cm long). Location
is north of Cameron, Arizona (arroyo near RR 6731).
Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group 65
and the B horizon, which may be thick and brick red in color,
also may be calcareous and display vertic features. Therefore, we
identify those Painted Desert paleosols that are not dominated by
vertic features, and which display weak horizonation, as imma-
ture Alsols.
Owl Rock Formation
Lithostratigraphy
The overlying Owl Rock Formation consists of up to 150 m
of interbedded mudstones, sandstones, and limestones of approxi-
mately middle Norian age. These strata crop out in northern Ari-
zona, northwestern New Mexico, and southern Utah (Stewart et al.,
1972; Lucas and Huber, 1994; Lucas et al., 1997). Dubiel and Good
(1991) noted that the contact between the Owl Rock Formation
and the underlying Painted Desert Member of the Petried Forest
Formation appears disconformable, and is marked in many places by
the presence of a thick intrabasinal conglomerate composed mainly
of reworked calcrete clasts and locally abundant unionid bivalves.
The upper part of the formation is characterized by distinctive
submeter scale beds of ledge-forming limestone. Earlier workers
(Blakey and Gubitosa, 1983; Dubiel, 1989, 1993) described these
as lacustrine limestones and interpreted them as deposits of a large
lacustrine system centered on the Four Corners region. Other work-
ers, however, recognized pervasive pedogenic fabrics in these beds
and suggested that they represent mature (stage III and IV) calcretes
and palustrine carbonates (Lucas and Anderson, 1993; Lucas et al.,
1997; Tanner, 2000).
Pedogenic Features
Previous examination of the Owl Rock Formation, particu-
larly at the type section near Kayenta, Arizona, revealed distinct
differences between the upper and lower strata in the types of
pedogenic features present (Tanner, 2000). Thick mudstone beds
in the lower part of the formation lack distinctive horizonation
but host meter-scale stage II to III calcrete (Bk) horizons that
display alpha and beta fabrics. The upper Owl Rock Formation
hosts limestones that display brecciated to peloidal fabrics, piso-
liths, spar-lled circumgranular cracks, root channels, and rare
calcite pseudomorphs after gypsum. These beds are laterally
gradational with limestones of limited lateral extent that display
rare charophyte debris, oscillation ripple lamination, desiccation
polygons, and burrowing. Tanner (2000) interpreted the brecci-
ated beds as palustrine limestones, formed by deposition of car-
bonates in ponds or wetlands on a sediment-starved oodplain
that was subjected to intense pedogenesis during base-level uc-
tuations (Platt, 1992; Platt and Wright, 1992; Armenteros et al.,
1997; Alonso-Zarza, 2003). Chert is locally abundant in the brec-
ciated limestones, but lacks the fabrics associated with Magadi-
type chert formation and so is interpreted as a secondary replace-
ment feature from groundwater (Schubel and Simonson, 1990;
Bustillo, 2001).
Examination of the formation at numerous localities (e.g.,
the type section near Kayenta, in the Echo Cliffs, at Little Painted
Desert County Park, and near Lukachukai, Arizona) has yielded
additional details on Owl Rock pedogenic features. At the south-
ern end of the Echo Cliffs, the contact with the Petried Forest
Formation is marked by 5 m of plane-bedded intrabasinal con-
glomerate and sandstone (Fig. 9A). The conglomerate is com-
posed mainly of reworked calcrete nodules, with a lesser contri-
bution of mudstone and chert pebbles. Lower Owl Rock calcretes
(stage II to III Bk to Bkm horizons) are up to 5 m thick, with upper
and lower gradational contacts in brown mudstone (Fig. 9B), and
they display both alpha and beta fabrics (Fig. 9C). Alpha fabric
calcretes comprise micritic nodules that have distinct boundaries
and are crosscut by sparry veins. These calcretes are stage II to
IV, and they exhibit obvious lateral gradations between stages
over distances of hundreds of meters. Paleosols with Bk hori-
zons displaying gradational tops probably represent cumulate
paleosols in the sense that continual addition of sediment to the
top of the prole gradually caused an upward shift in the depth
of carbonate accumulation. Lateral gradations between stages of
calcrete development are undoubtedly related to position on the
oodplain (i.e., channel proximity), as described previously for
the Blue Mesa paleosols. The lower Owl Rock paleosols lack
the horizonation and obvious evidence of translocated clays
that typies the paleosols in the underlying formations, making
their classication by traditional (i.e., Soil Conservation Service,
1999) soil orders problematic. The nomenclature of Mack et al.
(1993), however, allows assignment of these paleosols to the
order Calcisol. Some mudstones in the upper Owl Rock, how-
ever, exhibit pronounced horizonation, displaying ochric epipe-
dons and pale albic horizons overlying reddened Bt/Bk horizons
(Fig. 9B). These paleosols are interpreted as calcic Alsols. Mud-
stone beds at various levels in the formation are penetrated by
sandstone-lled cylinders that are up 60 cm long and up to 30 cm
in diameter (Fig. 9D). These have been interpreted previously as
decapod burrows (Dubiel, 1993), but the downward-branching
shapes of many of these features leaves little doubt that at least
some are instead the casts of deep roots, probably the tap roots of
monopodial vegetation.
Many of the ledge-forming calcareous beds in the upper
Owl Rock Formation have abrupt contacts and scoured bases
with tens of centimeters of relief (Figs. 10 and 11A). These beds
commonly overlie mudstone with a platy to prismatic fabric and
millimeter- to centimeter-scale calcrete nodules and rhizocre-
tions. These ledge-forming beds are generally greenish-gray to
mottled pink-green (on fresh surfaces), and they contain piso-
liths, oating siliciclastic grains, root penetration structures, and
locally abundant chert (Figs. 11B and 11C). Many of these ledges
form multistoried bodies and contain mud-chip lag deposits that
are commonly removed by weathering in outcrop. Notably, these
beds generally have a massive fabric and lack the distinctly brec-
ciated texture and extensive root penetration that is typical of the
limestones at the type section (Figs. 11C and 11D; Tanner, 2000;
Alonso-Zarza, 2003). The features we describe here are consis-
tent with an origin as groundwater calcretes; they represent u-
vial channel bodies that were pervasively cemented by calcite in
66 Tanner and Lucas
the shallow subsurface and lack many of the features of subaerial
exposure and desiccation displayed by palustrine limestones
(Wright and Tucker, 1991; Alonso-Zarza, 2003).
Rock Point Formation
Lithostratigraphy
Across the Four Corners area, the upper Norian to (possi-
bly) Rhaetian Rock Point Formation is recognized as the young-
est stratigraphic unit of the Chinle Group (Lucas, 1993; Lucas
et al., 1997). The contact between the Rock Point Formation
and underlying Owl Rock Formation is unconformable (the Tr-
5 unconformity). The Rock Point Formation, termed the Rock
Point Member of the Wingate Sandstone by Stewart et al. (1972),
includes strata formerly assigned to the Church Rock Member of
the Chinle Formation (Stewart et al., 1972; Dubiel, 1989; Lucas
et al., 1997). Strata of this formation consist of up to 300 m of
mainly interbedded brown to red, nonbentonitic mudstones and
laminated to rippled sandstones (Stewart et al., 1972; Dubiel,
1989; Lucas et al., 1997). The Rock Point Formation grades ver-
tically to the eolian-dominated Wingate Formation (Fig. 12A) of
Rhaetian to Hettangian age (Harshbarger et al., 1957; Tanner et
al., 2002; Molina-Garza et al., 2003). Much of the formation con-
sists of sandstone and siltstone sheets that display low-amplitude
(eolian) ripple lamination. Other lithofacies present include tabu-
lar to sheet sandstones with small-scale sets of high-angle trough
cross-beds; erosive-based, wedge-shaped sandstones with planar
cross-beds and trough cross-beds and ripple translatent strata;
and ripple-laminated to massive mudstones. These lithofacies
represent deposition on eolian sand sheets (small-scale dunes
Figure 9. Pedogenic features of the Owl Rock Formation. (A) In the southern Echo Cliffs, the contact between the Owl Rock Formation and the
underlying Petried Forest Formation is marked by a 5 m bed of conglomerate, composed mainly of calcrete nodules and interbedded sandstone
lenses. The base and top of the bed are just below and above the eld of view in this photograph. The handle of the staff (scale is 120 cm) rests
against a conglomerate layer overlying a sandier lens. (B) Overview of the Owl Rock Formation at the south end of the Echo Cliffs. Three Bk
horizons with stage II calcrete are displayed. The lowermost has an abrupt top and gradational base, while the others have gradational tops and
bases. Stratigraphically higher (to the left), Alsol (A) proles with A, E, and B horizons are visible. (C) Rare calcied root-cell structures are
visible in thin sections prepared from stage II calcretes in B. (D) Calcareous sandstone cylinders with a twisting and branching morphology are
common in the Owl Rock Formation (location at south end of Echo Cliffs). End of hammer handle is 4 cm wide.
Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group 67
and ripples), on mudats, in ephemeral lakes, and in ephemeral
streams (Stewart et al., 1972; Blakey and Gubitosa, 1984; Dubiel,
1989; Lucas et al., 1997).
Pedogenic Features
In many locations in the Four Corners, the Rock Point
Formation displays abundant and various burrows and root
traces, but lacks other well-developed pedogenic features. In
northeastern Arizona, for example, near the type section for
the formation, the red sheet sandstones and coarse mudstones
facies that characterize the formation in this area display bed-
ding-parallel burrows and shallow desiccation cracks in some
beds, but lack extensive nodular horizons or vertic features.
In other areas of the Colorado Plateau, however, much more
extensive pedogenesis is evident. Rock Point calcretes are most
mature in upland areas; for example, at Colorado National
Monument (near Grand Junction), coarse mudstones and very
ne-grained sandstones that are age-equivalent to the Rock
Point Formation (Lucas et al., 1997; Tanner, 2003a) rest uncon-
formably on granitic basement and are overlain by sandstones
of the Wingate Formation. The strata near the top of this section
host multiple pedogenic horizons that display drab root traces,
desiccation cracks, and stage II to III calcretes (Tanner, 2003a).
Pedogenic features in correlative strata north of Durango, Colo-
rado, include desiccation cracks and drab root traces, both of
which extend tens of centimeters, crumb and blocky mudstone
fabrics, rhizocretions, and stage II to III calcretes in which beta
fabrics are common (Fig. 12B; Blodgett, 1988; Tanner, 2003a).
Blodgett (1988) interpreted the nodule-bearing horizons in
the sheet sandstones of the Dolores Formation as calcareous
paleosols of the order Aridisol or Inceptisol, lacking epipedons
and argillic horizons. These proles also could be classied as
Calcisols (sensu Mack et al., 1993), an interpretation that can
be applied to the paleosols at Colorado National Monument as
well. Root traces and rhizocretions are evidence that these soils
were vegetated by plants with long monopodial root systems.
Calcrete conglomerate lenses in Rock Point mudstones (Fig.
12C) provide evidence of local erosional reworking of the dep-
ositional surface.
PALEOCLIMATE SYNTHESIS
Colorado Plateau
Pedogenic processes may be controlled to a large extent by
climate, but soil development also depends very much on the
rate of sediment accumulation, as paleosol maturity is inversely
related to sedimentation rate (Bown and Kraus, 1987). Therefore,
any interpretation of the paleoclimatic signicance of pedogenic
features also must examine changes in depositional rate. This,
Figure 10. Measured section of paleosol features in upper
Owl Rock Formation described from location near Little
Painted Desert County Park.
68 Tanner and Lucas
in turn can be forced by such extrinsic factors as tectonics and
eustasy, both of which may affect base level (Possamentier et al.,
1988; Blum and Price, 1998; Possamentier and Allen, 1999). Ini-
tial accumulation of Chinle sediment, during the Carnian stage,
was limited to paleovalley systems incised in the Moenkopi (Tr-
3) surface (Stewart et al., 1972; Blakey and Gubitosa, 1983).
Middle Triassic base-level fall and subsequent Late Triassic
rise matches the eustatic record of Haq et al. (1987), therefore a
eustatic control on alluvial sedimentation is postulated here. The
incised paleovalleys and associated tributaries had paleorelief of
tens of meters, and so deposition of the Zuni Mountains, Shina-
rump, and the lowermost strata of the CameronMonitor Butte
Bluewater Creek Formations was limited to these topographic
lows and was thin to absent between (Stewart et al., 1972; Blakey
and Gubitosa, 1983; Demko et al., 1998).
Previous workers (Dubiel and Hasiotis, 1994a, 1994b;
Hasiotis et al., 1998) have interpreted a humid but seasonal cli-
mate during the late Carnian in the Colorado Plateau region on
the basis of the gleyed (or pseudogleyed) and illuviated paleosols
in the Zuni Mountains and Shinarump Formations. Demko et al.
(1998), however, cautioned that the paleoclimate record of the
basal Chinle is biased by deposition within paleovalleys under-
lain by aquicludes of the Moenkopi Formation, which resulted in
articially high water tables. Indeed, although the prominence of
gley features in these paleosols suggests high humidity, the pres-
ence of pedogenic slickensides and a prismatic fabric in paleo-
sols in these formations indicates that these soils were allowed to
dry completely at times, perhaps seasonally. Numerous authors
have commented on the evidence for a strongly seasonal distri-
bution of precipitation during the Late Triassic resulting from a
monsoonal effect, both from eld studies and from climate mod-
els (Robinson, 1973; Parrish and Peterson, 1988; Crowley et al.,
1989; Dubiel et al., 1991; Parrish, 1993; Crowley, 1994; Wilson
et al., 1994; Pires et al., 2005). This effect presumably was a
Figure 11. Features of upper Owl Rock Formation ledge-forming beds. (A) Sandy limestone beds have irregular (erosional) bases, a multistory
architecture, and exhibit signicant lateral thickness variations. Location is north of Little Painted Desert County Park (north of Winslow, Ari-
zona). (B) The fabric of the beds in A is massive, but with numerous coated grains and pisoliths (Pi) and ne sparry veins that may represent root
tubules (Rt). Lens cap for scale is 55 mm. (C, D) Limestone beds in section at southern end of the Echo Cliffs display pronounced brecciation
fabrics, root channeling (Rc), and extensive chert replacement. Hammer in C is 26 cm; lens cap in D is 55 mm.
Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group 69
consequence of the conguration of the Pangean land mass and
its position straddling the equator. We speculate that Late Triassic
migration and rotation of the continent caused weakening of the
monsoon in northern Pangea, resulting in regional drying.
The prominence of deep tap roots and/or craysh burrows is
also consistent with a strongly uctuating water table. The pres-
ence of spodic horizons and the dominantly kaolinitic composi-
tion of the clays, however (Tanner, 2003a; Tabor et al., 2004),
which are not present in overlying formations, is a clear indica-
tion of humidity and strong weathering and translocation of soil
materials. Modern Spodosols are generally (but not exclusively)
associated with forested regions, typically coniferous, and humid
climates. (Birkeland, 1984; Retallack, 2001). Thus, an overall
humid to subhumid climate is likely during Carnian deposition
of the Zuni Mountains and Shinarump Formations, with high
water tables enforced seasonally by the position of the lower
Chinle strata in paleovalleys and the locally impermeable nature
of the underlying Moenkopi strata. Initial deposition of the Cam-
eronMonitor ButteBluewater Creek Formations took place
under similarly humid but seasonal conditions. The observed
gleying, or psuedogleying, and desiccation are both consistent
with soil development under conditions of strongly uctuating
water tables, suggesting a greatly variable (possibly seasonal)
distribution of precipitation under subhumid climate conditions,
as described for the paleosols in the underlying Zuni Mountains
and Shinarump Formations.
Subsequent accumulation of younger Chinle strata (Cam-
eronMonitor ButteBluewater Creek Formations and the Blue
Mesa Member of the Petried Forest Formation) was widespread
and shows no constraint from underlying paleotopography.
Paleosols of these strata are primarily vertic Alsols that are cal-
cic (stage II to III calcretes) in some locations, gleyed, in others,
varying by location on the alluvial plain. By analogy to modern
soils, this classication implies that the soils formed in wood-
lands and forests in subhumid to semiarid climates (Birkeland,
1984; Buol et al., 1997; Retallack, 2001). As Bown and Kraus
(1987) noted, the presence of gley features does not preclude the
formation of calcrete, which can form rapidly in clay-rich paleo-
sols where translocated clays retard the downward movement of
meteoric waters. The abundance of pedogenic slickensides and
pseudoanticlines in these paleosols further suggests a seasonal,
semiarid climate (Therrien and Fastovsky, 2000). The maturity
(i.e., horizonation) of the Blue Mesa oodplain paleosols is nota-
ble, attesting to a low rate of sediment accumulation. The long
residence time of soil materials permitted the effective translo-
cation of oxides and clays within the proles and the formation
of clearly delineated horizons. The general (but not complete)
absence of spodic and histic horizons in these strata and the non-
kaolinitic composition of the clays signal a decrease in precipita-
tion near the end of the Carnian stage.
Regardless of exact cause, SonselaMoss Back deposition
marks a signicant change in the pattern of alluvial sedimenta-
tion in the Chinle basin as the slowly aggrading, high-suspended-
load, high-sinuosity stream systems were succeeded by mainly
Figure 12. Features of the Rock Point Formation. (A) The section
at Little Round Rock, near the type section at Rock Point, Arizona,
demonstrates the lithologic transition from interbedded sheet sand-
stone and mudstone of the Rock Point Formation (RP) to the eolian
sandstonedominated Wingate Formation (Wi). Approximate contact
is indicated by the arrow. The entire visible section is ~70 m thick. (B)
Rock Point strata near Durango, Colorado, contain stage II calcrete
(stage II) consisting primarily of rhizocretions. Lens cap for scale is 55
mm. (C) Calcrete conglomerate lens in mudstone host, in Rock Point
strata west of Moab, Utah (San Rafael Swell area).
70 Tanner and Lucas
high bedload, low-sinuosity streams. Paleosols in the Jim Camp
Wash Bed, however, are mature Alsols, similar in aspect to
those of the Blue Mesa Member, with the exception of greater
calcrete maturity (up to stage IV). Therefore, climate was likely
more arid (but not greatly so) at the end of the Carnian, during
Sonsela deposition, than during Blue Mesa deposition.
Subsequent deposition of the Painted Desert Member during
the early to middle Norian took place in a ood basin in which
the uvial style varied markedly; deposition by high-suspended
load, high-sinuosity streams was punctuated by episodes of
deposition by high-bedload, low-sinuosity streams. Base-level
changes may be responsible, but the cause of these changes, i.e.,
eustasy, climate, or tectonism, is unknown. Paleosols that formed
on the oodplains of the high-sinuosity channels are generally
vertic Alsols or Vertisols (sensu Mack et al., 1993) that display
only limited translocation of clays and horizonation (Dubiel
and Hasiotis, 1994b; Hasiotis et al., 1998). These paleosols dis-
play less maturity than do the Blue Mesa or Sonsela paleosols,
probably reecting faster rates of sediment accumulation on the
oodplain. Painted Desert calcrete horizons, however, are typi-
cally more mature (stage II and III, and rare stage IV) than in the
Blue Mesa Member, and so likely reect more arid conditions,
as interpreted for the Jim Camp Wash paleosols. Therrien and
Fastovsky (2000) noted that gleying is much less common in the
upper (Painted Desert Member) than in the lower (Blue Mesa
Member) Petried Forest Formation, and that Bk horizons are
much more prominent. Zuber and Parnell (1989) noted that the
clay mineral assemblage in the Painted Desert Member is domi-
nated by mixed-layer illite-smectite, in contrast to the predomi-
nantly smectitic mudstones of the Blue Mesa Member. They
interpreted this composition as the result of pedogenic illitization
of smectitic clays in an alkaline environment in which precipi-
tation was highly seasonal. Retallack (2001), however, viewed
claims of illitization in the soil-forming environment with skepti-
cism; the signicantly less bentonitic composition of the Painted
Desert mudstones may be explained instead by interformational
differences in the original clay mineralogy of the sediment load.
At least locally, initial Owl Rock deposition is marked by
the inlling of lows incised into the underlying Painted Desert
strata by thick sequences of intrabasinal conglomerate, mainly
reworked calcrete. Subsequent Owl Rock depositional settings
are composed of low- to high-sinuosity streams and oodplain
muds, on which calcic Alsols and Calcisols (sensu Mack et
al., 1993) formed. Alluvial deposition alternated with sedimen-
tation in carbonate ponds and marshes that were modied sub-
sequently by pedogenesis. Tanner (2000) interpreted the Owl
Rock sequence as consisting of alternating episodes of oodplain
aggradation and degradation caused by changes in base level;
incision and pedogenesis of highstand mud and carbonate depos-
its occurred during episodes of base-level fall that may have been
climatically induced, similar to the model of climatically forced
sequence boundaries of Tandon and Gibling (1997). Although
the concept of Owl Rock deposition in large lakes has been dis-
missed, episodes of high base level are implied by the presence
of palustrine and minor lacustrine carbonates (Alonso-Zarza,
2003). Palustrine carbonates may form under climates that range
from subhumid to semiarid (Platt and Wright, 1992; Tandon and
Andrews, 2001), with drier conditions indicated by the presence
of pronounced brecciation fabrics and coated grains, as seen in
the Owl Rock Formation. The occurrence of well-developed
(stage III and IV) calcrete horizons and Alsols in the intervening
mudstones is consistent with this interpretation of semiaridity.
A pronounced unconformity (Tr-5) separates the Owl Rock
and the overlying Rock Point Formations. As noted by Tanner
(2003b), Rock Point deposition marked a change in basin con-
guration that appears to reect the rise and migration of a fore-
bulge. Rock Point sediments display only weakly developed Ari-
disols (or Calcisols sensu Mack et al., 1993), probably reecting
a relatively constant inux of sediment. The abundant evidence
of eolian deposition and frequent desiccation, however, indicates
that deposition took place in a semiarid to arid climatic setting.
Dubiel et al. (1991) interpreted the interval of Rock Point deposi-
tion as the driest of the Late Triassic. The abundance of faunal
bioturbation, however, indicates episodes of signicant surface
moisture, potentially a consequence of uctuating water tables,
and, locally, the depositional surface was well-vegetated, as indi-
cated by rhizoliths and beta fabrics. This interpretation is consis-
tent with the dominant sedimentary bedform of eolian sand sheets
in the Rock Point Formation; sand sheets are an interdunal facies
characteristic of wet eolian systems (Lancaster, 1993). Contin-
ued aridication during the Rhaetian and Hettangian is clearly
indicated by the dominance of eolian and playa sedimentation
during deposition of the Moenave and Wingate Formations, as
the Wingate erg formed over the Four Corners area.
In sum, evidence from sedimentary facies and paleosols
indicates that the climate on the Colorado Plateau was drier dur-
ing the Norian-Rhaetian than during the Carnian, conrming the
interpretation of Blakey and Gubitosa (1984). Dubiel et al. (1991)
and Parrish (1993), however, interpreted the same sedimentary
evidence as indicating a moist climate until the very end of the
Triassic (at least through the Norian). Notably, Parrish (1993)
predicted that a strong monsoonal effect would produce abun-
dant moisture in the western equatorial region, which included
the Colorado Plateau. Presumably, weakening of the monsoon
would have resulted in insufcient strength to draw moisture
from the west and aridication of the western equatorial region.
Therefore, we must consider the possibility that a weakening
monsoon at the start of the Norian caused the observed drying in
the Four Corners region.
Global Climate
Overall warm and dry conditions during the Late Triassic
are indicated by the abundance of evaporite and carbonate depos-
its and the restriction of coal formation to high latitudes (Frakes
et al., 1992; Lucas, 1999). Indeed, Colbert (1958) rst proposed
gradual aridication and associated changes in oral patterns
during the Late Triassic to explain tetrapod turnover. The con-
Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group 71
guration of the Pangean continent undoubtedly had a signicant
effect in controlling this climate (Robinson, 1973). Specically,
the arrangement of land areas likely resulted in a dry climate
belt covering a broad region of western and central Pangea at
low to mid-paleolatitudes, a consequence of the shrinkage of the
humid intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) and the weaken-
ing of zonal circulation. This interpretation received considerable
support from early computer modeling exercises (Parrish et al.,
1982; Kutzbach and Gallimore, 1989).
A trend of Late Triassic aridication similar to that of the
Colorado Plateau is indicated by facies changes, evaporite occur-
rences, and paleosols in the Upper Triassic to Lower Jurassic
formations of the Newark Supergroup (Olsen, 1997; Kent and
Olsen, 2000). For example, Norian-age formations contain
more mature calcrete paleosols than do Carnian formations in
the southern basins, as in the Deep River and Taylorsville basins
(Coffey and Textoris, 1996; LeTourneau, 2000; Driese and Mora,
2003). To the north, in the Newark, Hartford, and Fundy basins,
the absence of evaporite-bearing or eolian facies in formations
of Carnian age and their presence in formations of Norian age
demonstrate a similar trend of aridication (see Olsen, 1997, for
review). This climate trend in the Newark Supergroup strata,
however, has been interpreted as a consequence of the latitudi-
nal drift of eastern North America by 5 to 10, which carried
the basins from a moist subtropical to a more northerly arid cli-
mate zone (Olsen, 1997; Kent and Olsen, 2000). Parrish (1993)
postulated that aridication on the Colorado Plateau took place
during the Early Jurassic as a consequence of the weakening of
monsoonal circulation, but we suggest that this aridication took
place earlier, during the Norian, as indicated herein. The weaken-
ing monsoon, potentially controlled by the northerly drift of Lau-
rasia, resulted in strengthening of zonal circulation and allowed
the latitudinal drift of the Colorado Plateau between climate
zones (Parrish, 1993).
Similar trends of Late Triassic aridication are seen in facies
transitions in other locations globally, as in the succession of the
Timezgadouine and Bigoudine Formations in the Argana basin,
Morocco (Olsen, 1997; Hofmann et al., 2000), the facies changes
in the Upper Triassic Mercia Mudstone Group of England (Tal-
bot et al., 1994; Ruffell and Shelton, 1999), and the Keuper of
the Germanic basin (Aigner and Bachmann, 1992). Simms et al.
(1994) observed a Late Triassic change in clay mineral assem-
blages in European sedimentary successions, notably a loss of
kaolinite, similar to that observed on the Colorado Plateau. These
authors attributed the replacement of the pteridosperm ora by a
coniferous, gingko, and fern ora at the Carnian-Norian bound-
ary, to climate change. Not all areas of Pangea became drier dur-
ing the Late Triassic, however. Extensive coal deposits formed in
Australia and China, which became wetter at this time (Fawcett
et al., 1994). The growth of large lakes in the Jameson Land basin
of eastern Greenland during the Late Triassic is interpreted simi-
larly as a consequence of increasing humidity caused by north-
ward drift of the basin to a humid, temperate climate zone (Clem-
mensen et al., 1998).
CONCLUSIONS
Paleosols and pedogenic features preserved in the formations
of the Chinle Group record a trend of gradual aridication during
the Late Triassic. The prominence of gleying in the kaolinitic,
bioturbated paleosols of the mottled strata, Shinarump, and basal
Cameron formations suggests that climate during the late Carnian
was subhumid to humid, and that water tables uctuated season-
ally. High water tables during deposition of these formations may
have resulted from their position within paleovalleys incised into
the underlying Moenkopi Formation strata. Improved soil drain-
age during Cameron and Blue Mesa deposition is interpreted
from the presence of thick argillic proles interpreted as Alsols.
This condition may have resulted either from climatic drying or
from the position of these soils stratigraphically higher above
the Moenkopi Formation. Increasing aridity during early Norian
deposition of the Painted Desert Member is clearly suggested
by the prominence of vertic features and immature (stage II to
III) calcretes. This trend of aridication continued during middle
Norian Owl Rock deposition, as indicated by mature (stage III to
IV) calcretes. The Norian-Rhaetian Rock Point strata lack mature
paleosol proles, but the predominance of eolian and playa facies
in this formation suggests that the trend of increasing aridity con-
tinued through onset of the Wingate erg. This trend may have
been controlled by the position of the Pangean continent, which
led to the weakening of monsoonal ow and the strengthening of
zonal circulation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the Navajo Nation and U.S. Bureau of Land Man-
agement for access to land. Andrew Heckert, Kate Zeigler, Peter
Reser, James DeAngelo, and Bryn Welker provided valuable
assistance in the eld. Additionally, we thank Ana M. Alonso-
Zarza, Jose Lopez, and S.K. Tandon for their thoughtful reviews
and suggestions for improving this manuscript.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
75
Sandler, A., 2006, Estimates of atmospheric CO
2
levels during the mid-Turonian derived from stable isotope composition of paleosol calcite from Israel, in Alonso-Zar-
za, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and Palustrine Carbonates: Geological Society of America Special Paper
416, p. 7588, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(05). For permission to copy, contact [email protected]. 2006 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.
Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006
Estimates of atmospheric CO
2
levels during the mid-Turonian derived
from stable isotope composition of paleosol calcite from Israel
Amir Sandler

Geological Survey of Israel, 30 Malkhe Yisrael St., Jerusalem 95501, Israel

ABSTRACT
The carbon and oxygen isotopic composition of pedogenic calcite from mid-
Turonian paleosols in Israel was analyzed to evaluate paleoenvironmental conditions
and calculate paleoatmospheric pCO
2
. The central area of Israel was a part of a marine
carbonate shelf that emerged during the mid-Turonian stage, as evidenced by karstic
phenomena, uvial sandstone, and soil proles. The paleosols have the characteristics
of equivalent modern calcic Vertisols but are distinguished by the predominance of
palygorskite, which formed as an essential part of the soil processes.
The pedogenic calcite and the underlying and overlying marine limestone beds
have mean
13
C (, Vienna Peedee belemnite [VPDB]) values of 6.15 0.93, 2.82
1.87, 1.33 2.17, respectively, and
18
O values of 5.03 1.24, 6.31 0.87, and 5.81
0.97, respectively. In most sections, the
18
O values of pedogenic calcite are much
heavier than those of the limestone due to evaporation. Since most of the pedogenic
calcite formed at >50 cm depth and did not show diagenetic modication, the
13
C val-
ues were used to calculate pCO
2
according to the Cerling model (as applied by Ekart
et al., 1999). This marks the rst Turonian pCO
2
estimate calculated from pedogenic
calcite. The calculated range for the mid-Turonian is 14502690 ppmv CO
2
. This high
pCO
2
level is similar to or somewhat higher than other estimates for the Cretaceous
and in accord with calculated high Turonian temperatures from many studies.
Keywords: paleosols, carbon isotopes, oxygen isotopes, pedogenic calcite, calcrete,
pCO
2
, Turonian, Israel.
RESUMEN
La zona central de Israel form parte de una plataforma marina carbontica que
emergi durante el Turoniense medio, tal como indican los fenmenos crsticos, las
areniscas uviales y los perles edcos. Los paleosuelos tienen caractersticas simi-
lares a vertisuelos clcicos recientes, y presentan como rasgo distintivo la abundancia
de paligorskita, que se form durante los procesos edcos. El registro continental
indica un aumento progresivo de la aridez. Se analiz la composicin isotpica de
carbono y oxgeno de las calcitas pedognicas de estos paleosuelos del Turoniense
medio con objeto de evaluar las condiciones ambientales y calcular los paleoniveles
de CO
2
atmosfricos.

E-mail: [email protected].
76 Sandler
INTRODUCTION
A Cretaceous thermal and CO
2
maximum has been con-
ceived both by models (e.g., Barron et al., 1995; Poulsen et al.,
2003) and by such proxies as isotopic composition of foramin-
ifera (e.g., Barrera, 1994; Huber et al., 2002) and leaf physiog-
nomy (e.g., Herman and Spicer, 1996; Retallack, 2001). It has
been commonly assumed that climate is regulated largely by
changes in atmospheric CO
2
(Barron et al., 1995; Royer et al.,
2004) in addition to other factors such as ocean crust production
(Kaiho and Saito, 1994) and ocean circulation (Poulsen et al.,
2003). The geochemical model of Berner and Kothavala (2001)
predicted maximum Cretaceous CO
2
in the Jurassic-Cretaceous
transition, whereas Wallmanns (2001) model predicted a maxi-
mum in the Aptian-Albian. Several studies have suggested the
Turonian as the time of maximum Cretaceous temperatures
(Kolodny and Raab, 1988; Coreld et al., 1991; Barrera, 1994;
Frakes, 1999; Wilson et al., 2002), whereas others have sug-
gested low CO
2
concentration and temperatures at the Cenoma-
nian-Turonian boundary and for the early Turonian (Arthur et
al., 1988; Jenkyns et al., 1994; Kuypers et al., 1999).
One method of reconstructing past CO
2
concentrations
uses the carbon isotope composition of pedogenic calcite (Cer-
ling, 1991). The revised model of Cerling (1999) was utilized
by Ekart et al. (1999) to calculate atmospheric CO
2
concentra-
tions from paleosols of various ages and to produce a CO
2
curve
for the Silurian to the present. Their CO
2
estimate for the Cre-
taceous between 120 and 75 Ma was in the range of 12602950
ppmv, whereas the estimated value was signicantly lower
for the latest Cretaceous. Later studies estimated high values
of ~1400 ppmv (Ghosh et al., 2001) for the latest Cretaceous.
However, a continuous paleosol record for that time showed
pronounced short-term variations (Nordt et al., 2003). Recent
estimates of Cretaceous CO
2
levels include 2300 ppmv from
Los valores medios de las calcitas pedognicas y de las calizas marinas infra y
suprayacentes son, respectivamente, 6.15 0.93, 2.82 1.87, 1.33 2.17 (, VPDB)
para el
13
C, y 5.03 1.24, 6.31 0.87, 5.81 0.97, para el
18
O. En la mayora de
las secciones los valores de
18
O de las calcitas pedognicas son ms pesados que los de
las calizas, debido a la evaporacin. Puesto que la mayora de las calcitas pedognicas
se formaron a profundidades superiores a 50 cm y no presentan rasgos de modicacin
diagnetica, sus valores de
13
C se usaron para calcular la pCO
2
de acuerdo con el modelo
de Cerling (Ekart et al., 1999). Esta es aparentemente la primera estimacin realizada
a partir de calcita pedognica para el Turoniense. Los clculos realizados asumen una
baja tasa de respiracin de CO
2
en el suelo (Sz = 4000 ppmV), 25 C como temperatura
del suelo y valores de 2 para el
13
C de los carbonatos ocenicos superciales. Los
datos obtenidos para el Turoniense medio indican valores de 1450 a 2690 ppmv de
pCO
2
. Estos valores elevados son similares o algo ms altos que otras estimaciones
realizadas para el Cretcico y son coherentes con las elevadas temperaturas que se han
calculado en otros estudios para el Turoniense.
Palabras clave: paleosuelos, istopos de carbono y oxgeno, calcita pedognica, cal-
creta, pCO
2
, Turoniense, Israel.
paleosols in Korea (Hauterivian or Aptian-Albian age; Lee,
1999) and 17003200 ppmv from paleosols in Japan (Aptian-
Albian age; Lee and Hisada, 1999). None of the studies, includ-
ing the most comprehensive one of Ekart et al. (1999), included
data from the Turonian. The current study is an attempt to ll
this gap and reconstruct atmospheric CO
2
from carbon isotopic
compositions of mid-Turonian pedogenic calcite from Israel.
This pedogenic calcite formed as glaebules and calcrete in silic-
iclastic paleosols during the emergence of the central part of the
country, which until then had been part of a marine carbonate
shelf at low latitude.
GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND
The location of the study area (Fig. 1) had been part of a sta-
ble sedimentary platform since the Cambrian. During the Early
Cretaceous, clastic material, mainly mature quartzose sandstone
of the Nubian type, accumulated in both shallow-marine and con-
tinental depositional settings. A gradual sea-level rise began in the
Albian and led to the onset of carbonate shelf deposition, accom-
panied by an abundant supply of ne siliciclastics and occasional
sands from the Arabo-Nubian massif to the southeast (Garfunkel,
1988; Lewy, 1990). During the Cenomanian an intrashelf basin
formed in the southern part of present-day Israel, south of the
Ramon area (Fig. 1; Bartov et al., 1972). The drowning of the
shelf in the late Cenomanian led to deposition of mainly marls
in this basin and to nondeposition over most of the shallow shelf
north of the Ramon area. Deposition of limestone resumed in
the early Turonian (Buchbinder et al., 2000) but ceased during
the mid-Turonian, as a sea-level drop combined with a weak tec-
tonic pulse led to arching and emergence of the central part of
the country. The maximum sea-level drop has been estimated by
karst conguration to have been no more than ~30 m (Sandler,
1996). Various paleogeographic reconstructions put this part of
Mid-Turonian pedogenic calcite 77
the country between ~7 to ~15N during the Turonian (e.g., Bar-
ron, 1987; Voigt et al., 1999; Philip et al., 2000).
The exposed at limestone terrain was rst affected by
vadose karst activity, which created vertical shafts down to a
depth of ~20 m. Braided and low-angle meandering rivers
deposited sand in channels and sandy clay in overbank envi-
ronments on top of the karst relief. Soils developed directly on
the exposed limestone and on the uvial sediments (see follow-
ing). Dark limestone debris (black pebbles) was formed early
in coastal marshes and was later eroded and redeposited mixed
with light-color debris on top of soils, suggesting ash oods
due to enhanced climate seasonality. These continental sedi-
ments in-between the shelf carbonates were informally termed
the clastic unit (Sandler and Zilberman, 1985). The emergence
interval in central Israel has been estimated as equal to a span of
time between two ammonite zones (Sandler, 1996) and less than
one ammonite zone (Buchbinder et al., 2000). Assuming a simi-
lar duration for the seven ammonite zones (Robaszynski et al.,
1990) and a 4.2 m.y. duration for the Turonian stage (Gradstein
et al., 1994), the emergence lasted between ~1.2 to <0.6 m.y.
Shallow-marine carbonate sedimentation resumed in the early
late Turonian and continued to late Coniacian time, when deep-
ening led to basinal chalk sedimentation (Lewy, 1990). Marine
sedimentation continued through the late Eocene coincident
with pulses of the Syrian Arc folding, which formed a series
of northeast-southwest anticlines and synclines. The maximum
burial of the mid-Turonian beds in the anticlines is no more than
800 m. A low geothermal gradient, 2025 C/km, similar to that
prevailing today, is thought to have existed since the Turonian,
based on combined ssion-track and vitrinite reection studies
(Kohn et al., 1990).
PALEOSOLS
The mid-Turonian clastic unit in central Israel varies in thick-
ness between ~0.1 and 10 m and consists of shale, sandstone, and
occasionally small-pebble conglomerates. The thinnest sequences
generally are composed of shale, which penetrates down along
dissolution cracks and contains small calcite concretions. These
thin sequences have been interpreted as residual soils developed
from the insoluble residue of the underlying limestone during
intensive karstication with possible later contribution of air-
borne and uvial material. When the climate became more arid,
the original clays were replaced by palygorskite, and pedogenic
glaebules precipitated. The thickest sequences comprise a few
meters of shale with large calcite concretions, or an irregular cal-
cite layer, overlain by variegated massive quartzose sandstone,
which in turn is locally overlain by another shale layer (Fig. 2A).
The sandstone and the shale represent the channel and overbank
sediments of the uvial system. Freshly excavated shale sec-
tions clearly exhibit a blocky fabric of equidimensional primary
peds (24 cm, Fig. 2B), or a columnar fabric, where each col-
umn (5 5 15 cm) consists of several primary peds. The sur-
faces of both columns and peds are coated by shiny white clay
50 km
31
O
30
O
32
33
O
O
D
E
A
D

S
E
A
M
E
D
I
T
E
R
R
A
N
E
A
N

S
E
A
R
A
M
O
N
E

M

E

R

G

E

D









A

R

E
A
JERUSALEM
D

E

A

D



S

E

A



T

R

A

N

S

F

O

R

M
Figure 1. Location map. Sampling sites (dots) on late Albian to
Turonian outcrop map (light-gray pattern) of Israel and the surround-
ing area. Double dashed line bounds the assumed emerged area dur-
ing the mid-Turonian; thin dashed line schematically traces the Dead
Sea transform.
78 Sandler
cutan (argilan), which is a clear indicator of pedogenic origin.
Slickensides are locally observed on the argilans. The calcite
concretions exhibit hierarchical agglomeratic structure sug-
gestive of a pedogenic origin and are considered as glaebules.
In many cases, glaebules coalesce to form a continuous rigid
layer of mature calcrete of stages IV and V (Sandler, 1996). In
all cases, the glaebules are discrete and are embedded in clayey
solum devoid of carbonates.
Two main clay mineral assemblages occur in the clastic unit.
The rst consists of illite-smectite (IS) phases, discrete illite and
kaolinite, whereas palygorskite is hardly present. The second
assemblage consists of palygorskite (70%95%), remnant detrital
clays, and, in some cases, a minor amount of neoformed diocta-
hedral smectite. The rst assemblage is detrital and characterizes,
with some variations, the sandstone of the clastic unit and the
lower limestone below. The second assemblage characterizes the
soils and is authigenic. The clay fraction of the overlying marine
beds contains half, or less, palygorskite, which decreases upward
until disappearing at the top of the Turonian sequence.
Pedogenic microfabrics are observed in thin sections of
both shale and calcite glaebules (Sandler, 1996, 1997). The soil
plasma consists of shiny clay clusters of high birefringence,
reecting a highly optical orientation (Fig. 3A). Different kinds
of bright clay fabrics reect increasingly extensive areas of ori-
ented clay due to internal stresses in the soil, ushing into cracks
and soil voids. Bright clay may form isolated streaks longer
than an individual clay particle, which become more extensive
along soil development, producing a streaky bright clay fabric
(mosepic plasmic fabric). Symmetric linear arrangements occur
when void-linings are closed by internal pressures. A network
of intersecting bright clay fabric in two preferred orientations
(clinobimasepic plasmic fabric) indicates a mature soil (Fig.
3B). The latter and the grain-lining bright clay (skelsepic plas-
mic fabric) are exclusive to soils. New generations of palygor-
skite as argilans and crack lls progressively get lighter in color
and bigger in cluster size (Fig. 3B). In many cases, solum has
developed into a palygorskite crust (palcrete), similar to the
well-known occurrences in the Tertiary basins of central Spain
(e.g., Rodas et al., 1994).
Glaebules and calcrete have typical pedogenic microfab-
rics of circumgranular cracks, coated grains, and clotted fab-
ric. Calcrete calcite has been replaced, at least in part, by
palygorskite plasma, preserving pedogenic characteristics
(Fig. 4AD). In a few locations, silcrete has developed, replac-
ing both calcrete and palygorskite plasma (Sandler, 1996,
1997). Microfabrics of silcrete are presented in Figure 5AC.
Several structures among these three pedogenic lithologies are
better explained as related to roots.
This data and interpretation suggest that during the course
of the continental regime, the climate progressively changed
from semihumid karst forming conditions to semiarid condi-
tions of calcic Vertisol formation and later to palygorskitization
of the soil clay and silcrete replacement of calcrete, apparently
under more arid conditions (Sandler, 1996).
Figure 2. (A) Part of a vertical outcrop of a thick type of compos-
ite paleosol (Nahal Boqer, see Fig. 6A). 1solum of lower paleosol;
2irregular calcrete of lower paleosol; 3massive sandstone sepa-
rating lower and upper paleosol; 4base of upper paleosol. (B) A
close look at the lower paleosol below calcrete, which exhibits blocky
peds coated by whitish palygorskite argilans. Diameter of black lens
cover is 6 cm.
A
B
Figure 3. Examples of the clastic unit paleosol plasma microfabrics. The plasma clay is palygorskite, and the grains are quartz. (A) Hairy cracks
(rootlets?) are lled with brighter and larger clay streaks; polarized light. (B) Clinobimasepic, skelsepic, and omnisepic microfabrics, indicating
high soil maturity; polarized light.
Figure 4. Examples of pedogenic calcite microfabrics: (A) Micritic-microsparitic calcite in a glaebule, which preserves the original polygonal
ped structure of the plasma; plain light. (B) Micritic-microsparitic calcite in a glaebule with hierarchical structure. A few structures are radial
and apparently related to roots; plain light. (C) Micritic-microsparitic calcite in a glaebule with circumgranular cracks; plain light. (D) Micritic-
sparitic calcite in a glaebule with pronounced clotted fabric; plain light.
A B
A B
C D
80 Sandler
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sampling and Sample Processing
The Turonian outcrops sampled for the current study are
located on the Syrian Arc anticlines in central Israel from the
Ramon area in the south to Jerusalem in the north (Fig. 1).
Additional samples were taken from a few meters below the
surface in a quarry and two shallow drill holes. Eight sections
were sampled in detail to include samples of underlying and
overlying marine limestones and pedogenic calcite from the
calcic horizons across various types of the clastic unit. Addi-
tional samples were collected sporadically from other loca-
tions. Marine limestone and pedogenic calcite samples were
washed well with distilled water, oven-dried at 60 C, and
ground to ne powder. Each sample powder was analyzed by
X-ray diffraction for identication of the carbonate minerals.
The only carbonate mineral in all samples analyzed for iso-
topic composition was low-magnesium calcite; minor occur-
rences of quartz and clays were occasionally detected.
Stable Isotope Analysis
The carbon and oxygen isotope analysis of the calcite sam-
ples was performed at the Geological Survey of Israel using
a SIRA II mass-spectrometer. Calibration to Vienna Peedee
Belemnite (VPDB) was done via the NBS-19 standard follow-
ing Coplen (1988). Instrument precision was better than 0.1
for both
13
C and
18
O, and the external reproducibility based
on duplicate measurements of reference standard was 0.05.
All isotopic results are reported as per mil relative to VPDB.
RESULTS
Carbon and Oxygen Isotope Proles along Selected
Sections
Light
13
C and heavy
18
O of the pedogenic calcite rela-
tive to the lower and upper limestone are well recorded in
the isotopic curves of the eight sections. Such a signature is
expected from subaerial calcite in subtropical climates with
Figure 5. Examples of silcrete microfabrics: (A) Microquartz in a po-
rous silcrete layer. The elongated pores (dark gray) apparently follow
original rootlets; polarized light. (B and C) Microquartz in a massive
silcrete layer with clotted fabrics after the calcrete precursor; polarized
and plain light, respectively.
A B
C
Mid-Turonian pedogenic calcite 81
extensive evaporation (e.g., Allan and Matthews, 1982; Cerling
and Quade, 1993). Multiple paleosol sections exhibit a trend of
heavier
18
O values of pedogenic calcite in the upper parts of
the section. Three selected sections are briey described here
and are graphically presented in Figures 6A and 6B.
Nahal Boqer (Fig. 6A)
The clastic unit is ~7 m thick and consists of two soil pro-
les and two uvial beds. The lower paleosol consists of clayey
solum with glaebules and is topped by calcrete (see also Fig.
2). The latter is overlain by lens-shaped uvial sandstone. The
second paleosol consists of shale with numerous calcite glae-
bules in its upper part. It is overlain by a thin conglomerate of
millimeter-scale pebbles cemented by calcite. The conglomer-
ate is overlain by a massive dolomitic marl bed, which super-
cially appears to be a continuation of the continental beds, but
is actually of marine origin.
The carbon isotope curve displays the distinctly lighter
values typical of calcite of continental rather than of marine
origin. The oxygen isotope curve displays the lightest values
in the lowermost and uppermost samples of the marine lime-
stone (three laterally adjacent samples were obtained from the
lowest bed). The heaviest value is from a glaebule from the top
of the second paleosol. The oxygen curve suggests signicant
evaporation at the end of the continental period.
Haluqim AnticlineSouth (Fig. 6B)
The clastic unit here is a paleosol ~4.5 m thick, locally
overlain by a lens of black pebble conglomerate. Black pebbles
are also dispersed in the lower part of the paleosol, whereas
glaebules are dispersed in the middle part. This section may
actually consist of two superimposed paleosols. Small black
and white pebbles are locally embedded also in the upper lime-
stone.
The carbon isotope curve displays the lightest value in
the two glaebules analyzed, whereas the oxygen isotope curve
displays the lightest values in the underlying and overlying
limestone samples. The black pebbles have isotopic values
similar to those of the underlying limestone, from which they
derived.
Shaar HaGay (Fig. 6C)
The clastic unit here is ~0.20.5 m thick and consists of two
layers. The lower one is a few centimeters of whiteish shale con-
taining millimeter-size glaebules. The clay penetrates down into
the weathered limestone. This paleosol is overlain by a sandy
clay layer with weathered limestone debris. This section repre-
sents thin paleosols like those in Nahal Zipporim, Jerusalem, and
Arad road (data in Table 1). The latter section, however, is more
complex and unique because thin calcrete can be recognized
within the underlying limestone.
The carbon isotope curve displays lightest values in the
glaebule and in the limestone debris. The oxygen isotope curve
displays the lightest values in the lowest and highest marine sam-
ples and the heaviest value in the glaebule. The isotopic curves
of these three sections suggest the incorporation of soil solution
within the lower limestone.
Summary of Carbon and Oxygen Isotope Data from All
Locations
Other samples of pedogenic calcite, lower and upper lime-
stone, and black pebbles from some other locations were col-
lected and analyzed. A few samples of ostreid shells from two
locations north and south of the Ramon anticline were analyzed
as well. All data on carbon and oxygen isotopic composition are
presented in Table 1 and Figure 7. The ostreids from a bed con-
temporaneous to the clastic unit are considered as a reference
for marine limestone since their shells are made of low-magne-
sium calcite. Potentially, their living environment was restricted,
which would have resulted in heavier-than-marine oxygen val-
ues. On the other hand, diagenetic, isotopically light calcite could
have been precipitated in shell voids and cracks. The covariance
of carbon and oxygen isotopic values of the six ostreid samples
does suggest some addition of secondary calcite. Accordingly,
the heaviest ostreid values are the best available approximation
of mid-Turonian marine calcite isotopic composition, with
13
C
values of 2.12 and 2.40 and
18
O values of 0.92 and 1.46.
These values are similar to some published data (e.g., Paul et al.,
1999; Veizer et al., 1999), although the
18
O values are some-
what heavier than other published data (e.g., Clarke and Jenkyns,
1999; Stoll and Schrag, 2000).
Mean and standard deviation (1) values for
13
C of the
pedogenic calcite, underlying, and overlying limestone are 6.15
0.93, 2.82 1.87, and 1.33 2.17, respectively, and for
18
O,
they are 5.03 1.24, 6.31 0.87, and 5.81 0.97, respec-
tively. The signicantly light
13
C mean of pedogenic calcite is
in accord with the formation from soil solutions. The underlying
limestone
13
C mean is somewhat lighter than that of the upper
limestone, reecting the downward migration of soil solutions.
The only slightly heavy mean value of
18
O for pedogenic calcite
reects mixtures between highly and slightly evaporated pedo-
genic samples, and between marine and freshwater calcite in the
lower and upper limestone. The lightest mean
18
O value of the
underlying limestone reects: (1) the impact of freshwater dur-
ing karst development and (2) the removal during emergence of
the top of the underlying limestone beds, which were deposited
under restricted marine conditions.
Application of the Cerling Model
Cerling (1991, 1999) developed a diffusion-reaction model
expressed by a set of equations for the calculation of atmo-
spheric CO
2
concentrations (presented as pCO
2
in ppm volume)
from the carbon isotopic composition of pedogenic calcite.
Ekart et al. (1999) used the modied Cerling model to calculate
a Silurian-to-present CO
2
curve from a large set of data using
the following equation:
A
Figure 6. Selected stable isotope curves for carbon (circles) and oxygen (squares) across the mid-Turonian clastic unit. Black symbols stand for
pedogenic calcite; open symbols stand for nonpedogenic calcite. (A) Nahal Boqer, lithology was modied after Sandler (1996); three subsamples
of SA 517 were analyzed. (B) Haluqim anticlinesouth, lithology was modied after Sandler (1996). Sample SA 455 is of a black pebble from
the lens at the top; samples SA 458 and TBF 30 are from lateral variations of the same limestone bed. (C) Shaar HaGay.
B
C
Mid-Turonian pedogenic calcite 83
The values chosen for substitution in the equation are as
follows:
S(Z) is a function of vegetation intensity and soil depth but
approaches a constant value below ~2030 cm depth. Well-drained
and aerated soils have values between 4000 and 7000 ppmv. Ekart
et al. (1999) chose 5000 ppmv for all cases calculated. For the cur-
rent calculation, the value of 4000 was chosen, since the paleosols
studied developed in a semiarid to arid climate.

C S Z
C C
C C
a
s
a s
=

( )
. .

13 13
13 13
1 0044 4 4
, (1)
where C
a
is atmospheric CO
2
, S(Z) is CO
2
(ppmv) contributed
by soil respiration, and
13
C
s
,
13
C

, and
13
C
a
are the isotopic
compositions of soil CO
2
, soil respired CO
2
, and atmospheric
CO
2
, respectively.
TABLE 1. STABLE ISOTOPE CARBON AND OXYGEN DATA () FROM ALL LOCALITIES ARRANGED BY LITHOLOGICAL TYPE
Sample Location Type
18
O
13
C Sample Location Type
18
O
13
C
TBF33 Arad road Upper lst. 5.36 3.51 SA229 Haluqim south Black pebble 6.32 4.21
SA311 Haluqim south Upper lst. 6.16 3.84 SA455 Haluqim south Black pebble 5.30 4.93
SA456 Haluqim south Upper lst. 5.73 4.86 SA213 Hatira anticline Black pebble 5.49 3.97
SA458 Haluqim south Upper lst. 6.00 0.78 SA226 Nahal Neqarot Black pebble 3.16 3.17
TBF30 Haluqim south Upper lst. 4.25 1.36 SA255 Ramla quarry Black pebble 4.54 3.27
TBF31 Haluqim south Upper lst. 7.74 0.19 SA497 Arad road Lower lst. 5.73 0.50
SA302* Hatira anticline Upper lst. 5.81 3.57 SA300 Arad road Lower lst. 8.16 3.48
SA319 Jerusalem north Upper lst. 6.27 2.73 SA496 Arad road Lower lst. 7.54 3.66
TBF 10 Kevuda Hills Upper lst. 3.85 1.09 TBF32 Arad road Lower lst. 5.73 4.27
TBF 5 Kevuda Hills Upper lst. 4.96 1.71 TBF35 Arad road Lower lst. 7.64 3.33
TBF 6 Kevuda Hills Upper lst. 4.75 0.60 SA309 Haluqim south Lower lst. 7.93 3.99
SA529 Nahal Boqer Upper lst. 6.73 1.38 TBF27 Haluqim south Lower lst. 7.97 3.58
SA530 Nahal Boqer Upper lst. 7.28 0.12 TBF28 Haluqim south Lower lst. 6.30 3.38
SA475 Nahal Zipporim Upper lst. 5.92 2.69 SA209 Hatira anticline Lower lst. 6.99 4.04
SA476 Nahal Zipporim Upper lst. 5.59 0.26 SA301 Hatira anticline Lower lst. 7.62 5.03
SA314 Shaar HaGay Upper lst. 4.99 4.05 P 55 Ira Mts. Lower lst. 6.07 4.52
SA315 Shaar HaGay Upper lst. 6.17 0.44 SA219 Jerusalem north Lower lst. 6.39 4.06
SA316 Shaar HaGay Upper lst. 6.50 1.21 SA320 Jerusalem north Lower lst. 7.10 1.57
SA317 Shaar HaGay Upper lst. 5.43 1.15 SA321* Jerusalem north Lower lst. 6.96 1.91
SA318 Shaar HaGay Upper lst. 6.80 4.22 SA 91 Jerusalem south Lower lst. 4.88 6.32
SA235 Arad road Pedogenic 3.08 5.91 TBF 9 Kevuda Hills Lower lst. 5.42 4.46
SA495 Arad road Pedogenic 4.90 6.36 TBF 1 Kevuda Hills Lower lst. 5.46 4.25
SA310a Haluqim south Pedogenic 5.55 5.71 TBF 2 Kevuda Hills Lower lst. 5.44 3.90
SA310b Haluqim south Pedogenic 5.31 5.48 SA517a Nahal Boqer Lower lst. 6.72 0.77
P 15 Haluqim center Pedogenic 4.38 6.08 SA517b Nahal Boqer Lower lst. 6.45 0.74
SA210 Hatira anticline Pedogenic 8.70 7.31 SA517m Nahal Boqer Lower lst. 6.23 0.46
SA212 Hatira anticline Pedogenic 5.58 6.41 SA518 Nahal Boqer Lower lst. 5.68 2.29
SA217 Hatira anticline Pedogenic 7.08 7.07 SA519 Nahal Boqer Lower lst. 5.46 2.43
SA489 Hatira anticline Pedogenic 6.30 6.90 NB4/8 Nahal Boqer DH Lower lst. 5.65 5.92
SA490 Hatira anticline silc. Pedogenic 4.69 5.25 SA469 Nahal Zipporim Lower lst. 7.06 2.29
SA492 Hatira anticline silc. Pedogenic 3.55 4.87 SA470 Nahal Zipporim Lower lst. 6.01 0.25
SA222 Jerusalem north Pedogenic 5.27 7.71 SA471 Nahal Zipporim Lower lst. 4.64 2.16
SA124a Kevuda Hills Pedogenic 5.28 6.12 SA312 Shaar HaGay Lower lst. 5.88 0.65
SA124b Kevuda Hills Pedogenic 5.45 6.29 SA312a Shaar HaGay Lower lst. 5.17 0.66
SA522 Nahal Boqer Pedogenic 5.07 6.28 SA312b Shaar HaGay Lower lst. 4.57 2.85
SA525 Nahal Boqer Pedogenic 5.18 3.61 SA 8 Zavoa anticline Lower lst. 6.62 3.58
SA526 Nahal Boqer Pedogenic 3.16 4.67 SA189a Ramon north Oyster 2.98 0.73
NB2/3 Nahal Boqer DH Pedogenic 3.83 6.58 SA189b* Ramon north Oyster 0.92 2.12
NB4/7a Nahal Boqer DH Pedogenic 5.28 6.10 SA502a Ramon south Oyster 2.68 1.40
NB4/7b Nahal Boqer DH Pedogenic 4.21 7.27 SA502b Ramon south Oyster 2.34 1.76
SA474 Nahal Zipporim Pedogenic 4.19 5.92 SA502c Ramon south Oyster 1.46 2.40
SA254* Ramla quarry Pedogenic 6.19 7.53 SA502m Ramon south Oyster 2.41 1.65
SA313a Shaar HaGay Pedogenic 3.62 5.75
SA313 Shaar HaGay Pedogenic 4.73 5.91
SA46 Zavoa anticline Pedogenic 5.08 6.56
Note: Abbreviations: DHdrill hole; silc.silcrete outcrop; lstlimestone.
*Mean of two independent determinations.
84 Sandler

13
C
s
is calculated from the isotopic composition of pedo-
genic calcite using a fractionation factor (from Romanek et al.,
1992), which is temperature-dependent and is 8.98 for 25 C,
the temperature used here and by Ekart et al. (1999) for all
cases calculated.

13
C

is assumed to be equal to the composition of bulk

organic matter. The latter was not directly measured, but was cal-
culated as 26 from the value of mean surface ocean carbonates,
whereas the atmospheric composition was calculated as 8 (see
explanation in Ekart et al., 1999). The
13
C curve of Veizer et al.
(1999) suggests ~1.5 for Turonian ocean carbonates, but since
the ostreid composition (see above), as well as mid-Turonian data
from several studies (e.g., Stoll and Schrag, 2000; Voigt, 2000)
are higher, the value 2 was chosen. Accordingly, the composi-
tion of atmospheric CO
2
was 6 and that of the organic mat-
ter was 24, a value which is typical for C
3
-dominated modern
soils and for paleosols (Cerling et al., 1989).
The application of this model requires the following condi-
tions to be met: (1) The Cretaceous vegetation must be of the C
3

type (e.g., Robinson et al., 2002). (2) The pedogenic calcite must
not have been subjected to postpedogenic diagenesis, neither
early nor late. (Any diagenetic process would have homogenized
the isotopic composition of a sequence and would not leave such
a pronounced pedogenic signal.) (3) The pedogenic calcite should
be sampled at least 0.3 m below the Bk horizon. This condition
was applicable to the thick paleosols with large glaebules or cal-
crete but not to the thin residual soils with the small glaebules.
However, it was assumed that these soils started to form at the
beginning of the continental regime when the climate was less
arid and calcite precipitation was minor (small glaebules) and
hence were formed at least at 0.5 m depth. Later, the soils were
subjected to erosion and more arid conditions, which caused
palygorskitization. Since the carbon isotope composition of the
small glaebules was similar to that of the large ones, they were
accordingly accounted for in the calculation. (4) All pedogenic
calcite, except the single unique sample from the Arad road sec-
tion, was formed within a siliciclastic solum devoid of any other
carbonate. Pedogenic calcite of Vertisols is not recommended
for calculating pCO
2
, since well-developed Vertisols are highly
dynamic and may mobilize atmospheric CO
2
downward into the
glaebules (Ekart et al., 1999). However, Vertisols have been used
for such calculations by Ekart et al. (1999) and by others (e.g.,
Ghosh et al., 2001; Robinson et al., 2002), since it is often the
only available paleosol with pedogenic carbonates The paleosols
studied here did not show the typical pseudo-anticline structure
of well-developed Vertisols, and, hence, internal movement was
probably not severe. This is evidenced as well by the horizontal
position of the large multigeneration glaebules.
The pCO
2
was calculated from pedogenic
13
C calcite val-
ues at plus and minus one standard deviation from the mean,
which were 5.22 and 7.08, respectively. Substituting
these values into Equation 1 results in a pCO
2
range of 1450
2686 ppmv, which is 5.29.6 times the present (pre-industrial)
value of ~280 ppmv.
Figure 7. Stable isotope plot of carbon versus oxygen
of all data; lst.limestone.
Mid-Turonian pedogenic calcite 85
DISCUSSION
Carbon isotopic composition of pedogenic carbonates is
regarded as the best proxy-based method for estimating pre-Ter-
tiary pCO
2
(Royer et al., 2001), although the values are often
higher than those obtained by geochemical models. The range
of the carbon isotopic composition in the current study is quite
wide and expands 3.5. Such wide ranges have been recorded
in previous studies; standard deviation values, cited by Ekart et
al. (1999), are often greater than 1.5 1. In the current study, the
wide range could have resulted from changing conditions within
the two soil types and from the impact of the gradually chang-
ing climate. However, the thin residual soils, for which the depth
of glaebule formation might seem too shallow for this applica-
tion, have compositions similar to the average of all samples and
very similar to those of overlying soils, when present. On the
other hand, diffusional mixing of atmospheric CO
2
in deserts
can produce up to 2 enrichment in the
13
C of soil carbonate at
50 cm depth (Cerling et al., 1989). Thus, Royer et al. (2001) sug-
gested that when S(Z) is lower than 3000, there is a signicant
contribution of atmospheric CO
2
, and the composition of pedo-
genic calcite should be avoided for pCO
2
calculations. Due to the
progressive aridization, indicated by geological and pedological
evidence, the soil carbonates of heaviest values could have been
formed under arid conditions and low respiration rates. The cal-
culated range of mid-Turonian pCO
2
values of 14502686 ppmv
is similar to the range extrapolated for the Turonian on the curve
of Ekart et al. (1999), and to that on the curve of Retallack (2001),
which was based on fossil plant cuticles. Nevertheless, even if
just the lightest values are used for calculating pCO
2
, the result-
ing concentrations are still ~45 times the present value. The
latter range is still much higher than the values predicted by the
geochemical model of Wallmann (2001), but is within the range
of Berner and Kothavalas (2001) model (Fig. 8). A similar match
Figure 8. Values of Cretaceous atmo-
spheric pCO
2
(R = times the pre-indus-
trial value) comparing estimations based
on pedogenic carbonate, plant cuticles,
and geochemical models. The range of
the current study is between plus and
minus 1 deviation of the mean value
calculated from mid-Turonian paleosol
calcite according to Ekart et al. (1999).
86 Sandler
to geochemical models was recently presented in a study that
calculated low CO
2
values in Barremian (Lower Cretaceous)
paleosol calcite from England (Robinson et al., 2002). It
should be noted that geochemical models average increments
of a few million years each and that paleosol data is actu-
ally absent for the Cenomanian to the Coniacian age interval.
Thus, the mid-Turonian high pCO
2
values could be either a
short-term peak, as demonstrated by Nordt et al. (2003) for
the latest Cretaceous (Fig. 8), or a part of a continuous Mid-
Cretaceous maximum.
Because the positive relation between CO
2
levels and tempera-
ture has been recently questioned (Veizer et al., 2000; Boucot and
Gray, 2001; Shaviv and Veizer, 2003; and see discussion in Royer
et al., 2004), the mid-Turonian high CO
2
levels were compared with
available data on simultaneous temperatures. Direct calculation of
mean annual temperature from the oxygen isotopic composition of
the pedogenic calcite was avoided since the equations established
are valid for middle and high latitudes, but not for low latitudes, as
in the current case (Fricke and ONeil, 1999; Nordt et al., 2003).
Therefore, published sea-surface temperatures (SST) were com-
piled for comparison, because it is possible that they have similar
values to mean annual temperatures that prevailed over adjacent
continental regions (Russell and Paesler, 2003).
One of the rst seawater temperature curves for the Creta-
ceous and the Tertiary was constructed by Kolodny and Raab
(1988), based on oxygen isotopic composition of sh phosphate
from Israel and its surroundings. That curve recorded a maxi-
mum temperature of 33 C in the early Turonian. Similar results
for the Turonian were obtained later by various methods, mainly
from oxygen stable isotopes of foraminifera. Huber et al. (1995)
estimated a SST of ~33 C at southern high latitudes, and Clarke
and Jenkyns (1999) estimated a maximum warming during the
mid-Turonian with low-latitude SST in excess of 33 C. Huber et
al. (2002) suggested that the hottest Cretaceous climate occurred
during the latest Cenomanian through early Campanian when
middle bathyal ocean water temperatures reached 20 C. Norris
et al. (2002) estimated subtropical temperatures to be 3334 C
during the latest Cenomanian, and Wilson et al. (2002) estimated
SSTs of 3236 C for the Turonian tropics. The same SST range
was estimated by Schouten et al. (2003) using archaeal mem-
brane lipids for the late Cenomanianearly Turonian. A synthesis
of various climatic models for the Mid-Cretaceous continen-
tal Saharan region, which is relatively close to the study area,
suggested temperatures may have exceeded 32 C (Russell and
Paesler, 2003). Accordingly, it can be concluded that the mid-
Turonian high pCO
2
values calculated here from paleosol calcite
correspond with the high temperatures that prevailed at that time,
as independently estimated from other proxies.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Sincere thanks are due to Avner Ayalon and Bettina Schil-
man for carrying out the isotope analyses. Batsheva Cohen and
Chana Netzer-Cohen prepared the gures. Prosenjit Ghosh
and an anonymous reviewer are thanked for their constructive
comments. Lawrence Tanner and Ana Maria Alonso Zarza
improved the nal version.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
89
Foley, K.K., Lyons, W.B., Barrett, J.E., and Virginia, R.A., 2006, Pedogenic carbonate distribution within glacial till in Taylor Valley, Southern Victoria Land, Ant-
arctica, in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and Palustrine Carbonates: Geological Society of
America Special Paper 416, p. 89103, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(06). For permission to copy, contact [email protected]. 2006 Geological Society of America.
All rights reserved.
Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006
Pedogenic carbonate distribution within glacial till in Taylor Valley,
Southern Victoria Land, Antarctica
Kelly K. Foley
W. Berry Lyons
Byrd Polar Research Center and the Department of Geological Sciences, The Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio 43210-1002, USA
John E. Barrett
Ross A. Virginia
Environmental Studies Program, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, USA
ABSTRACT
Pedogenic carbonate in the form of calcite (CaCO
3
) accumulates within the
soils of hot and cold arid continental landscapes, but much less is known about the
spatial pattern and amount of carbonates in polar soils. We measured the CaCO
3

distribution in the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica, the largest ice-free expanse
on the continent. Higher CaCO
3
concentrations occur in the moist coastal soils, the
younger till (younger than 50,000 yr), and in lower elevation tills within Taylor Valley
in the McMurdo Dry Valleys area. The average CaCO
3
in the moist coastal soils of
the McMurdo Dry Valleys is 1.06%, 0.39% in intermediate-elevation soils, and only
0.02% in inland highest-elevation soils. In general, the youngest coastal tills contain
the highest amounts of CaCO
3
(2.0%), and the oldest tills from Taylor IV glaciation
contain the least (0.54%). There is a noticeable difference in CaCO
3
concentration
near the elevation of the highest stand of ancient Glacial Lake Washburn (~340 m),
with higher concentrations found in soils previously covered by the lake. This suggests
that a portion of the CaCO
3
in soils below this elevation could be lacustrine derived.
The Fryxell, Hoare, and Bonney basin soils in Taylor Valley have mean inorganic C
concentrations that are much lower than the average world inorganic soil C concen-
tration of 33.2 kg C m
2
. The relatively low carbonate concentrations in Antarctic
polar desert soils can be attributed to the shallow active layer, low rates of weather-
ing, and the extreme aridity of the landscape.
Keywords: arid landscapes, calcite, pedogenic carbonates, McMurdo Dry Valleys,
Taylor Valley, Victoria Land, Antarctica.
RESUMEN
Los carbonatos pedognicos, sobre todo calcita se acumulan muy frecuentemente
en zonas ridas o semiridas. Los McMurdo Dry Valleys de la Antrtida son las may-
ores zonas sin hielo del continente y se denominan desiertos polares. Hemos medido
90 Foley et al.
INTRODUCTION
Carbonate minerals that have been formed in situ (hence-
forth pedogenic carbonate) are common in soils where mean
annual precipitation is <75 cm and evaporation exceeds precipi-
tation (Cerling, 1984). Information concerning the amount and
rate of formation of pedogenic carbonate is important in the over-
all understanding of carbon uxes and reservoirs within the ter-
restrial landscape (Lal et al., 2000; Landi et al., 2003) and in bet-
ter understanding the relationship between carbonate accumula-
tion and atmospheric CO
2
and climate (Marion and Schlesinger,
1994). Although most of the previous research on pedogenic
carbonate formation has been undertaken in more temperate
environmental settings, it has been recognized that carbonate
accumulation also occurs in polar environments (Hallet, 1976;
Sletten, 1988; Fairchild and Spiro, 1990; Marion et al., 1991).
For example, carbonate minerals, primarily calcite (CaCO
3
),
occur in measurable quantities in the soils of the polar deserts of
the Antarctic (Bockheim, 1982; Campbell and Claridge, 1969,
1982; Claridge, 1977; Keys and Williams, 1981; McCraw, 1967).
This early work established that carbonate is widespread within
the polar deserts of the McMurdo region of Victoria Land (Keys
and Williams, 1981), and much of it occurs as encrustations or
coatings of the undersides of large particles, such as pebbles and
cobbles (Claridge, 1977; Nishiyama and Kurasawa, 1975).
Globally, the formation of carbonate minerals in soils can
be an important sink of atmospheric carbon (Lal et al., 2000); how-
ever, desert soils are thought not to be a signicant sink (Capo and
la distribucin de CaCO
3
en estos suelos con objeto de intentar comprender mejor la
distribucin y acumulacin del carbonato en estos suelos. Las concentraciones ms
elevadas de CaCO
3
se dan en los suelos costeros hmedos, dentro del till ms reciente
(<50,000 aos), y en los tills de zonas topogrcas ms bajas en el Valle Taylor, situado
dentro de los McMurdo Dry Valleys. Usando la clasicacin de Marchant y Denton
(1996) de los tres mayores regmenes climticos del McMurdo Dry Valleys, el con-
tenido medio de CaCO
3
en los suelos hmedos costeros (Zona 1) del McMurdo Dry
Valleys es 1.06%; en la zona 2 (suelos de altitudes intermedias) es de 0.39%, y en la
zona 3 (altitudes mayores del interior) es slo del 0.02%. En general, los tills costeros
ms recientes (5480 56
14
C) contienen un 2.0% de CaCO
3
, los tills de la Glaciacin
Ross I (12.423.8 ka) presentan valores de CaCO
3
de 0.68%, en los de la Glaciacin
Taylor II /Bonney (7498 ka) el contenido es 0.92%, en los de la Glaciacin Taylor III
(200210 ka) estos valores son de 0.74% y en los tills ms antiguos de la Glaciacin
Taylor IV (21003700 ka) el contenido medio de CaCO
3
es de 0.54%. Sin embargo,
hay una notable diferencia en la concentracin de CaCO
3
en el suelo a una altitud de
336 m, la situacin ms elevada del antiguo Glacial Lake Washburn (22,8008500
aos B.P.), por debajo de esta altitud las concentraciones son mayores. Por ello, una
parte del CaCO
3
en el suelo por debajo de esta altitud puede ser de origen lacustre. El
promedio mundial de carbonato inorgnico en el suelo es de 33.2 Kg C m
2
, mientras
que los suelos de las cuentas Fryxell, Hoare, y Bonney en el Valle Taylor tienen valores
medios de 0.38, 0.31 y 0.68 Kg C m
2,
respectivamente.
Palabras clave: carbonatos pedognicos, calcita, ambientes ridos, Valle Taylor,
Valles McMurdo Dry, Tierra Victoria, Antrtida.
Chadwick, 1999). Pedogenic carbonate in arid to semiarid soils in
more temperate climates forms calcic horizons through the dissolu-
tion of carbonates in the soil surface and precipitation at depth. Cali-
che, or calcrete identied as Bk and K soil horizons, forms when the
soil carbonate-bicarbonate is in near equilibrium (Lal et al., 2000).
The source of Ca
2+
in the soil may come from rock weathering or
alluvium, or it may be brought in by eolian material or by marine
aerosol (Brass, 1975; Capo and Chadwick, 1999; Jones and Faure,
1978; Landi et al., 2003; Lyons et al., 2002; Naiman et al., 2000;
Quade et al., 1995). The slow development of the pedogenic salts in
the McMurdo Dry Valleys may exist longer in the soil compared to
their more temperate counterparts that contain vegetation, making
the polar desert landscape an important research site in addressing
pedogenic carbonate formation.
One of the major geochemical differences between a
continental-arid ecosystem (e.g., desert) and a continental-humid
ecosystem is the accumulation of water-soluble salts. Although the
vast amount of research related to arid soils has focused on warm
deserts, soils in Antarctic polar deserts also can contain high salt
concentrations (Campbell and Claridge, 1987). The cold desert
soils in Antarctica are similar to other desert soils in that they have
dry surface horizons that can be capped by a desert pavement of
lag, which has a low moisture content and a zone of water-soluble
salt accumulation (Campbell and Claridge, 1969, 1982). These salts
include a combination of chlorides, nitrates, and sulfates (Claridge
and Campbell, 1976; Keys and Williams, 1981). Origins of the
ions that make up the salts in Antarctica soils have been suggested
to include dry and wet deposition of marine aerosols and in situ
Calcium carbonate in Antarctic soils 91
rock weathering (Bao et al., 2000; Claridge and Campbell, 1976;
Keys and Williams, 1981). Although a general description of the
relationship between salt distribution and geographic position in the
McMurdo Dry Valleys has been developed (Keys and Williams,
1981), little is known about the process of formation. For example,
sodium-based salt accumulation varies geographically, where NaCl
occurs closer to the coast, NaNO
3
is more abundant at the higher
elevations closer to the polar plateau, and Na
2
SO
4
is most abun-
dant at intermediate ranges (Bockheim, 1997; Keys and Williams,
1981). Even though the exact process of formation of these sodium
salts is unknown, it has been hypothesized that both salt formation
and salt accumulation occur more readily from precipitation than
from in situ weathering (Claridge and Campbell, 1976). Accumula-
tions of salt can range from <0.1 kg m
2
in young soils (younger
than 50,000 yr) to 100 kg m
2
in the older, drier soils (>10 m.y.) (see
Claridge and Campbell, 1976; Bockheim, 1997).
The formation of carbonate minerals in glacial environments
was reviewed in Fairchild and Spiro (1990). Carbonate minerals
in polar and/or glacial environments are a common occurrence, as
they have been observed in subglacial environments (Hallet, 1976),
soils and oodplains (Marion et al., 1991; McCraw, 1967; Sletten,
1988), permafrost (Clark and Lauriol, 1992), spring discharges
(Omelon et al., 2001), and in ice (Papadimitriou et al., 2004). The
pedogenic carbonates in the McMurdo Dry Valleys are primarily
calcite (Keys and Williams, 1981).
Although the previous studies cited above have provided impor-
tant information on the general distribution of CaCO
3
within these
unusual Antarctic soil environments, there has been little attempt to
explain the distribution of pedogenic carbonate in terms of either
process, landscape age, or landscape position as has been done for
the more soluble salts observed in Antarctic polar desert soils (e.g.,
Bockheim, 1997; Claridge, 1977). The objectives of this research
were to: (1) determine the soil pedogenic inorganic carbonate con-
centrations; (2) determine the distribution relationship to elevation
and distance inland; and (3) determine the distribution relationship
to the soil age within the McMurdo Dry Valleys region of Victoria
Land, Antarctica (~78S, ~161E), especially Taylor Valley.
Location of the McMurdo Dry Valleys
The McMurdo Dry Valleys consist of a series of ice-free val-
leys, which make up the largest ice-free desert on the continent. In
1993, a Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) site was estab-
lished by the National Science Foundation with Taylor Valley as
the major focus region (Fig. 1) (Priscu, 1998). The McMurdo
Dry Valleys (MCM) LTER program is focused on understanding
the structure and function of the ecosystem and how the ecosys-
tem is inuenced by climatic changes.
Geology of the McMurdo Dry Valleys
Most of the Taylor Valley landscape is largely sandy gravel
glacial tills (Claridge and Campbell, 1976), except for bedrock mar-
gins along the valley walls. Exposed bedrock and bedrock under the
sandy gravel are composed of different rock types, which include
Precambrian to Cambrian metasediments such as schists, argillites,
quartzites, and marbles; Paleozoic-age intrusive rocks of granites
and granodiorites; and Jurassic-age Ferrar Dolerite (Haskell et al.,
1965). The outcrops on Taylor Valleys southern boundary are com-
posed of the Ferrar Dolerite of Jurassic age (Haskell et al., 1965).
Also exposed in Taylor Valley are thirty irregularly shaped cones
of scoriaceous olivine basalt from Cenozoic McMurdo volcanism,
located 5501220 m above sea level in Taylor Valley (Haskell et
al., 1965). Tills that make up Marble Point soils, north of Explorers
Cove on the Ross Sea coast (see Fig. 2), are from gneiss, schist, and
marble (Campbell et al., 1998). Lyons et al. (2002) demonstrated
that Sr in the glacial meltwater streams in part originates from the
weathering of many of these rock types, each of which has a rather
distinctive
87
Sr/
86
Sr signature.
Climate of the McMurdo Dry Valleys
The McMurdo Dry Valleys are one of the coldest and dri-
est terrestrial landscapes on the planet, with a mean air tem-
perature of 20 C and snowfall of <100 mm yr
1
(Doran et
al., 2002a). However, each area of the McMurdo Dry Valleys
has its own microclimate. For example, Taylor Valley has wet-
ter, colder, and cloudier conditions near the coast and warmer,
drier conditions inland (Doran et al., 2002a). This climatic
pattern is driven by the easterly winds (summer), which bring
marine aerosols into the valley that are deposited near the
coast, resulting in drier air containing lower marine aerosol
components inland (Doran et al., 2002a; Fountain et al., 1999).
Katabatic winds from the west, which are stronger and drier
than the easterly winds, ow into the valley primarily during
the winter season (Doran et al., 2002b; Fountain et al., 1999).
These winds contribute much eolian, or wind-blown dust, from
higher elevations to Taylor Valley soils (Doran et al., 2002a;
Fountain et al., 1999). Mean annual temperatures range from
16.7 C at Marble Point to 35 C in Beacon Valley (Table 1)
(Doran et al., 2002a; Sugden et al., 1995). Variation in these
microclimates may be one of the most dominant control factors
in formation and occurrence of soil CaCO
3
.
Sample Locations
Sample locations for this study varied with the microcli-
mate, the landscape formation history, elevation, and the age
of the glacial till and/or soil. The majority of samples used in
this study were obtained in Taylor Valley and along the Ross
Sea coast, including Marble Point (Fig. 1). Data from samples
obtained from Wright Valley (7733S, 16145E), Victoria Val-
ley (7720S, 16145E), Pearse Valley (7743S, 16130E), and
two smaller, but higher-elevation valleys, Arena Valley (7750S,
161E) and Beacon Valley (7748S, 16040E), are also pre-
sented. Taylor Valley (Fig. 1) is located at 77307745S and
1620016400E and extends 34 km inland, terminating at the
terminus of the Taylor Glacier, the easternmost extent of the East
92 Foley et al.
Antarctica Ice Sheet (Figs. 1 and 2). The two other large val-
leys, Wright and Victoria, are located north of Taylor Valley. The
smaller valleys are inland of Taylor ValleyPearse Valley is just
north of the Taylor Glacier, and Arena and Beacon Valleys are
located further inland within the central Transantarctic Moun-
tains (Fig. 2).
Landscape Age in the McMurdo Dry Valleys
In order to determine the relationship between CaCO
3
con-
centration and soil age, knowledge of landscape development is
important. Much work has been done to determine recent glacial
chronology and soil age in the McMurdo Dry Valleys region.
Three different glaciations have been documented in Taylor Val-
ley: the Taylor, the Ross Sea, and the Alpine glaciations (Denton
et al., 1989; Hall and Denton, 2000; Hall et al., 2000). Several
eastward advances and retreats of the Taylor Glacier (from the
East Antarctic Ice Sheet) deposited till in western parts of the val-
ley. It has been demonstrated that the Taylor Glacier advanced
during the interglacials, or warmer time periods. The three major
Taylor glaciations have been termed Taylor IV glaciation (2100
3700 ka), Taylor III glaciation (200210 ka), and Taylor IIBon-
ney glaciation (7498 ka). The present-day prole of Taylor Val-
ley was formed during these Taylor glaciations. During the Ross
glaciations, the West Antarctic Ice Sheet blocked the Taylor Val-
ley from the Ross Sea side, which led to the development of a
Figure 1. Taylor Valley, Antarctica, is 34 km long and 12 km wide.
Calcium carbonate in Antarctic soils 93
valley-wide paleolake, Glacial Lake Washburn, during the late
Wisconsin, ca. 22,8008500 yr B.P. (Stuiver et al., 1981). Multi-
ple expansions of the Ross Sea ice sheet onto the shoreline at
Marble Point and Cape Bernacchi occurred; therefore, soil ages
in this area vary with elevation and distance inland. For example,
a raised beach at 18 m containing an A. colbecki (an Antarctic
scallop) shell dates to 5325 yr B.P., and an elephant seal at 13.4
m dates to 4227 yr B.P. (Denton et al., 1989; Hall and Denton,
2000). Figure 3 shows a reconstruction of the till remains from
the Taylor and Ross Sea glaciations. Lastly, Alpine glaciations
affected elevated areas in Taylor Valley. During the interglacial
periods, the alpine glaciers in the Asgard Range expanded from
the north, and the alpine glaciers in the Kukri Hills expanded
from the south (Fig. 2). All three glaciations (Taylor, Ross, and
Alpine) in the McMurdo Dry Valleys deposited tills, from which
soils developed. Hence, soil ages vary from ca. 3700 ka (Taylor
Figure 2. Landsat image of the research area, which includes Taylor Valley (TV), Wright Valley (WV), Victoria Valley (VV), Beacon Valley (BV),
and Arena Valley (AV). Cape Bernacchi and Marble Point are just east of Taylor Valley.
94 Foley et al.
IV glaciation) to ca. 12.4 ka or younger (Ross I glaciation) (Fig.
3). Multiple smaller ancient lakes have expanded and contracted,
mostly corresponding with isotope stages 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, possibly 8,
and 9, throughout late Quaternary time in Taylor Valley (Hendy,
2000). Very large lakes developed in Taylor Valley during times
of low sea levels (isotope stages 2, 6, and possibly 8), when the
Ross Ice Shelf moved north, causing the ice surface to rise steeply.
During times of high sea level (isotope stages 1, 5, 7, and 9),
much smaller lakes occupied Taylor Valley (Hendy, 2000). Lake
formation is a direct result of the rate of melt from glaciers (e.g.,
alpine and the more established glaciers, such as Taylor Glacier)
or local change in the evaporation-precipitation regime. The mul-
tiple lling and draining of lakes in Taylor Valley have left mul-
tiple layers of lacustrine sediment scattered about the oor of the
valley (Hendy, 2000). These lake sediments can contain carbon-
ate minerals produced in part via photosynthesis (Hendy, 2000;
Neumann, 1999).
TABLE 1. MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURES FOR VARIOUS
LOCATIONS WITHIN THE MCMURDO DRY VALLEYS
Location
Temperature
(C)
Marble Point 16.7
Taylor Valley (average) 17.6
New Harbour Camp 19.29
Commonwealth Glacier 17.88
F6 (SE Fryxell Basin) 20.73
Hughes Glacier 17.35
Canada Glacier 17.51
Wormherder Farm (south shore Lake Hoare) 17.6
Lake Bonney camp 17.59
Taylor Glacier 17.59
Lake Brownworth 20.71
Lake Vanda 19.65
Lake Vida 27.06
Beacon Valley

30 to 35
Arena Valley N/A

From Sugden et al. (1995). All others are from Doran et al.
(2002a). Data range from 1986 to 2000.
Figure 3. The glacial till sequence in Taylor Valley. Sample transects are shown as Bonney Riegel (BR), Middle Taylor (MT), Lake Hoare (LH),
Lake Fryxell (LF), North Lower Taylor (NLT), and South Lower Taylor (SLT). Transects represent environmental gradients, including the distance
from Ross Sea, elevation from the valley oor, and distance from the present-day dry valley lake shores. Three transects (BR, LH, and LF) are
associated with major ice-covered lakes in the valley, and the three transects (MT, SLT, and NLT) have no present-day relationship to lacustrine
systems. On the valley walls are present-day glaciers and glacial till from alpine glaciations. (Map is from Burkins et al. [2000] and was recon-
structed from McKelvey and Webb [1972]; Kellogg et al. [1980]; Pastor and Bockheim [1980]; Stuiver et al. [1981]; and Denton et al. [1989].)
Calcium carbonate in Antarctic soils 95
the University of Colorado, Boulder, and 0.5 g of sample was
analyzed on a coulometer (CM5130 acidication module) to
determine the calcium carbonate concentration. The precision
of the measurement was 0.3%. The titration accuracy was bet-
ter than 0.15%, if sufcient sample was used to evolve over
1000 g C.
RESULTS
Surface Distribution
Concentrations of calcium carbonate in Taylor Valley surface
soil samples (06 cm) show a general geographic trendCaCO
3

decreases from the McMurdo Sound coast inland to the Taylor
Glacier (Fig. 5). This trend is similar to what was observed by
Keys and Williams (1981). Soil carbonate maxima occur in two
areas with respect to distance from the Ross Sea (Fig. 5). The rst
maximum is the area along the Ross Sea coast, where carbonate
concentrations range from 0.08% to 9.77% CaCO
3
, with most
of the concentrations between 0.08% and 3.0% CaCO
3
. This
wide range of values is only observed along the Ross Sea coast.
Between the coast and ~20 km inland, the soil carbonate values
are mostly between 0% and 0.67% CaCO
3
, with a few concentra-
tions slightly higher, but below 1.33% CaCO
3
. The second soil
carbonate maximum, with respect to distance from the Ross Sea
coast, is in soils between ~20 km and ~30 km inland. This area is
between the terminus of the Suess Glacier and the Marr Glacier,
from 200 to 800 m elevation in the area of the eastern lobe of
Lake Bonney basin. The area (Fig. 1) contains carbonate concen-
trations between 0% and 4.26% CaCO
3
(with most being <0.33%
Figure 4. Sampling method used in the
2005 eld season. A plastic scoop was
used to transfer ~100 g of sediment into
a small Whirlpack, and a plastic ruler
was used to measure depth of sample
excavated.
METHODS
The soil CaCO
3
data were assembled in three steps: we com-
piled data from past studies (Claridge, 1963), analyzed samples
collected in 20022003 by MCM-LTER eld team members, and
analyzed soils collected in January 2005 by the senior authors.
Sample Collection, Preparation, and Protocol
Samples from Claridge (1963) were collected from depths
ranging from 0 to 6 cm below the surface. These samples
were collected long before the use of global positioning sys-
tems (GPS), and their locations are only generally described.
Samples from the 20022003 MCM-LTER studies were from
surface depths of 05 cm, plus two soil pits, which extended to
25 cm and 30 cm below the surface. Samples from the January
2005 eld season were taken in Taylor Valley from near the
terminus of Taylor Glacier to the Ross Sea coast and northward
to Marble Point, and include three of the nine Beacon Valley
samples. They were collected from surface depths of 03.5 cm
(where soil development was minimal) to depths of 06 cm
below the desert pavement zone (Fig. 4). Locations of both
of these sets of recent samples were recorded via GPS. Sev-
enty-six of the 20022003 samples and eighty-nine of the 2005
samples were prepared by sieving ~5 g of sediment through
a 2.00 mm mesh and a 500 m mesh sieve. About 1 g of the
ne sediment (<500 m) was then isolated and placed in seal-
able clear plastic snack bags. The samples were then double
bagged to minimize contamination. A 0.51.0 g subsample was
sent to Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR) at
96 Foley et al.
CaCO
3
) and has an average of 0.81% CaCO
3
. Soils between 0
and 10 km inland (i.e., the soils between the two maxima) and
soils past the second maximum, >30 km inland, contain much
less carbonate (all having <2.5% CaCO
3
) and have an average of
0.33% CaCO
3.
Soils in the west lobe of Lake Bonney basin, and
further inland, contain minimal amounts of soil carbonate. More-
over, soil carbonate values decrease with increasing distance
from the coast (Fig. 6), excluding the area ~2030 km inland.
In addition to the trend of decreasing CaCO
3
concentration
with distance from the coast, soils in the youngest till near the
coast contain higher amounts of CaCO
3
than any of the older
soils farther inland and at elevation (Fig. 7). Although Claridge
and Campbell (1976) and Bockheim (1982) have shown that
more soluble salts accumulate in greater amounts in older, drier
soils in these valleys, it is now clear that carbonate minerals are
less abundant in the older, drier soil tills than in the younger tills
(Fig. 7). The distribution of carbonate minerals in Taylor Val-
ley is also related to elevation (Fig. 8). Higher concentrations of
CaCO
3
are found below an elevation of 336 m. This elevation
was the highest water level of Glacial Lake Washburn, which
existed between 22,800 and 8500 yr B.P. when the Ross Ice Sheet
blocked the mouth of Taylor Valley (Hendy, 2000).
Pedogenic carbonate is found at much lower concentrations
in the other, higher-elevation valleys of the McMurdo Dry Val-
leys. Analyses of the soils from West Dias (7733S, 16110E)
and East Dias (7733S, 16243E) in the Wright Valley indicate
an absence of carbonate. There also was no measurable CaCO
3

in Lower Victoria (7722S, 16219E). A soil sample from the
Lake Vida region, Victoria Valley, contained only 0.25% CaCO
3

(7723S, 16203E), and a soil sample from Bull Pass had only
0.08% CaCO
3
(7729S, 16149E). Carbonate concentrations
were also low to nonexistent in Pearse (0.42%), Beacon (0.0%
and 0.016%), and Arena Valleys (0.0%).
Figure 5. Distance inland from the Ross Sea coast versus CaCO
3
.
Figure 6. Distance inland versus CaCO
3
averages from the three zones
classied by Marchant and Denton (1996): zone 1, the coastal low-
elevation zone; zone 2, the intermediate zone; and zone 3, the inland
high-elevation zone.
Figure 7. Till age versus CaCO
3
in Taylor Valley. Data are averaged
from number of samples indicated next to each point.
Calcium carbonate in Antarctic soils 97
of pedogenic CaCO
3
occur at depth in soil proles (Van der Hoven
and Quade, 2002). Because of the location on the valley oor, the
CaCO
3
present at depth in these Taylor Valley soils could represent
lacustrine production of CaCO
3
during times of higher lake-level
stands (Higgins et al., 2000) rather than true pedogenic production.
Detailed isotopic analysis of the carbonate minerals would be the
primary method to answer this question.
In 2005 a set of soil samples was collected along a slope
located 1 km inland from New Harbour Camp (i.e., the Ross
Sea coast) on the edge of a medium-sized till mound that stood
15.85 m high (773459.0S, 1632823.5E). This was done to
evaluate the hypothesis that small-scale landscape gradients can
lead to preferential accumulations of CaCO
3
as hypothesized by
McCraw (1967). The till at this location was small-grain pebbles,
and scattered larger rocks and boulders, randomly distributed on
the surface. These pebbles, rocks, and boulders were mostly the
basement rock complex, including few small marble pieces, as
well as some dolerite. The top of the mound contained the largest
clusters of boulders made of basement rock. The mound was sur-
rounded by multiple till mounds of similar size and matrix mate-
rials. Surface soils were sampled between 67 m to 83 m eleva-
tion. CaCO
3
concentrations increased with decreasing elevation
(Table 3). The importance of these results to CaCO
3
formation
will be discussed in the following section.
DISCUSSION
Valley-Scale Variation
Compared to hot arid regions, the CaCO
3
content of the polar
desert of the McMurdo Dry Valleys is quite low. Using the depth
to permafrost (30 cm, 35 cm, and 40 cm for Lake Fryxell, Lake
Hoare, and Lake Bonney basins, respectively) and the mean sur-
face CaCO
3
values, the Fryxell, Hoare, and Bonney basin soils
have inorganic C concentrations of 0.38, 0.31, and 0.68 kg C m
2
,
respectively (Table 2). Using the integrated depth proles from
the soil pits, the average inorganic C in the Hoare basin is 0.69
kg C m
2
, and 0.20 kg C m
2
in the Bonney basin, as there is more
inorganic C with depth in the Hoare basin than in the Bonney
basin. Therefore, the average inorganic C in Taylor Valley soils
is estimated to be ~0.5 kg C m
2
. The world average value in arid
regions is 33.2 kg C m
2
, while Arizona desert soils have 24.5
kg C m
2
(Schlesinger, 1985). These values from Taylor Valley,
Vertical Prole Distributions
During the 20022003 season, soil pits were dug and sampled
by MCM-LTER soil ecologists at sites in the Lake Hoare basin and
in the Lake Bonney basin (Table 2). Neither the Lake Hoare basin
soil pit nor the Lake Bonney basin soil pit indicated a consistent
trend of CaCO
3
distribution with depth. In the Lake Hoare soil pit,
the highest concentrations are at depths of 7.5 cm (<2.8% CaCO
3
),
17.5 cm (<4.3% CaCO
3
), and 27.5 cm (<2.4% CaCO
3
) (Fig. 9A
9B). In the Lake Bonney basin, the depth proles are different, with
peaks at the surface and at 27.5 cm. The soil CaCO
3
concentrations
are much lower in Bonney basin than in the Lake Hoare basin; the
highest concentrations are less than 0.7% in the Lake Bonney soils
(Fig. 9A9B). These data agree with the surface distribution pat-
tern in Taylor Valley previously discussed, where soil carbonate
decreases with increasing distance from the coast. Previous work
in warm desert systems has demonstrated that the highest amounts
Figure 8. Elevation versus CaCO
3
. The solid line shows where the
high-water mark of Glacial Lake Washburn stood, and, therefore the
extent of possible lacustrine-derived soil carbonates.
TABLE 2. CARBON AND CARBONATE DATA FOR SOILS IN TAYLOR VALLEY
Soils location kg C m
2
CaCO
3
(%)
Permafrost depths
(cm)

Soil organic
C

Elevation
Taylor Valley 0.47 0.72
Lake Fryxell basin 0.38 0.71 30 0.31 0.02 107 m
Lake Hoare basin 0.31 0.48 35 0.29 0.03 110 m
Lake Bonney basin 0.68 0.97 40
Lake Hoare soil pit 0.69 1.26
Lake Bonney soil pit 0.20 0.26

From J.E. Barrett (2004, personal commun.).

From Barrett et al. (2005).

98 Foley et al.
however, are skewed because the active layer is less than 50 cm
deep (Table 2). Not unlike other arid regions of the world (Landi
et al., 2003), inorganic C in the form of CaCO
3
makes up a high
percentage of the total C in the surface soils of the Taylor Val-
ley soils, 55% and 53%, respectively, for the Fryxell and Hoare
basins (Table 2).
Marchant and Denton (1996) divided the McMurdo Dry
Valleys region into three distinct climatic zones on the basis of
precipitation, humidity, temperature, and the amount of moisture
from permafrost and glacial melt in the soils. The coastal zone
(zone 1) contains the most moisture, zone 2 is termed an interme-
diate zone, while zone 3 is of the highest elevation and contains
more ancient surfaces with the least moisture. The coastal zone
has subxeric soils, the intermediate region soils are xeric, while
the zone 3 soils have been termed ultraxeric (Bockheim, 1997).
Taylor Valley contains only zones 1 and 2. Easterly winds that
usually ow into the eastern portion of Taylor Valley during the
summer months bring in moist air from the Ross Sea (Bull, 1966;
Doran et al., 2002b; Fountain et al., 1999), whereas the west-
erly katabatic winds that blow into western Taylor Valley off the
polar plateau are extremely arid (Doran et al., 2002b). This wind
pattern is a major contributor to the soil-moisture and relative
humidity within each zone and is a key parameter in the distri-
bution of the terrestrial features, such as soil development. The
Fryxell and Hoare basin soils are not only the youngest in Taylor
Valley, they are also the regions in Taylor Valley with the highest
relative humidity, the lowest average wind speed, and hence the
potential for the highest soil moistures in the valley (Doran et al.,
2002a). Moisture in the coastal soil is from the thawing of perma-
nent ice and semipermanent snow patches, which are widespread
in the coastal region in the summer (Campbell et al., 1998). Zone
2, the intermediate zone, shows some moisture-produced land-
forms such as modern geliuction lobes and debris ows that
occur randomly on the north-facing slopes and/or in protected
areas with higher moisture content (Marchant and Denton, 1996).
Temperature extremes are greater here than at the coast, but when
the snow melts it rapidly evaporates, and little moisture is incor-
porated into the soil matrix (Campbell et al., 1998). Bull (1966)
argued that the relative humidity in zone 1 was about two times
that of zone 2. Zone 3, the most inland and highest-elevation zone
that covers Arena Valley and Beacon Valley and the western area
of Wright Valley and Victoria Valley, contains features that are of
ancient microtopography with no moisture-derived landforms or
melt streams (Marchant and Denton, 1996). Thus, the youngest
soils are also the most likely to be the wettest.
The distribution of CaCO
3
in the soils of the McMurdo
Dry Valleys can clearly be related to both the distance from the
ocean and the landscape position and to the geomorphological
climatic classication of Marchant and Denton (1996). The high-
est CaCO
3
concentrations are in zone 1; there are lower, but in
most cases measurable concentrations in zone 2, and very little
Figure 9. (A) CaCO
3
concentrations in four Lake Hoare soil pits. Error bars represent the standard error for the data in each soil pit. (B) CaCO
3

concentrations in four Lake Bonney soil pits. Error bars represent the standard error for the data in each soil pit.
TABLE 3. CaCO
3
CONCENTRATIONS ON SLOPE OF MOUND
LOCATED ON THE FLOOR OF TAYLOR VALLEY BETWEEN
EXPLORERS COVE AND LAKE FRYXELL
Elevation
(m; with respect to sea level)
Elevation
(m; between sample locations)
CaCO
3
(%)
83 5 0.08
78 5 0.08
73 1 0.25
72 5 0.67
67 0 0.67
Calcium carbonate in Antarctic soils 99
CaCO
3
is present in zone 3 (Fig. 10). This distribution strongly
argues for the requirement of liquid water to be present, at least
for a portion of the austral summer, before CaCO
3
can form in
these polar desert soils.
Since liquid water is initially needed as a medium in CaCO
3

formation, it is important to consider moisture quantities and
distribution in the McMurdo Dry Valleys when identifying
CaCO
3
formation. Marion (1989) demonstrated that the rate
of pedogenic carbonate formation in the Southwestern United
States desert soils is correlated with annual rainfall. In the boreal
region of Canada, the rate of pedogenic carbon accumulation
also increases with increasing annual precipitation (Landi et al.,
2003). In the McMurdo Dry Valleys, annual precipitation is <100
mm, but this is an estimate based on little quantitative informa-
tion (Doran et al., 2002b). The only signicant present-day water
source in the McMurdo Dry Valleys is from the austral summer
melt of the glaciers, which feeds the streams and lakes (Fountain
et al., 1998). Because there is no overland ow in the McMurdo
Dry Valleys and the glacier meltwater is conned to stream chan-
nels only, there is no method for supplying moisture to the soil for
the CaCO
3
formation process. Therefore, much of the pedogenic
CaCO
3
is produced where there was a signicant water source,
either sufcient snow melt (Gooseff et al., 2003) or subsurface
ice melt (Lyons et al., 2006).
Within zone 1, there is a bimodal distribution at 110 km
inland (i.e., the coast) and at 2230 km inland (i.e., between the
region at the snout of the Suess Glacier and the snout of Taylor
Glacier). The higher concentrations found more inland, between
20 and 30 km, are near the face of the Dele (a narrow section
of the valley across from Suess Glacier that separates the upper
valley and lower valley), the south shore of Lake Bonney, and
near Mummy Pond just east of Lake Bonney. These locations
could represent locations of former lacustrine sediment (Hall and
Denton, 2000; Hendy, 2000).
Our data suggest that distance from the coast and eleva-
tion are the major factors in CaCO
3
distribution, whereas till age
itself has little or no relationship to CaCO
3
distribution (Fig. 7).
The strong correlation between soil carbonate concentration in
Taylor Valley and elevation is related to the maximum height of
ancient Glacial Lake Washburn (Fig. 8). Soil carbonate accumu-
lations below this elevation are greater than those above the 336
m elevation mark. However, it is probable that not all the carbon-
ate below this elevation is of paleolacustrine material, as some
is produced by in situ soil processes. The soils sampled above
Lake Washburns maximum height in Taylor Valley are located
on the south shore of Lake Bonney (n = 1), Andrews Ridge (n
= 4), slope of Dele (n = 1), and between the Nussbaum Riegel
and the terminus of the Marr Glacier (n = 11) and have a mean
value of 0.53%. These locations are denitely late Pleistocene to
Holocene pedogenic carbonate, and are not of lacustrine origin.
Accumulation Rates
The annual accumulation rate of CaCO
3
in Taylor Valley soils
can be calculated by dividing the concentration by the age of the
soil (i.e., till). CaCO
3
accumulation for the Fryxell, Hoare, and
Bonney basins is 0.260, 0.034, and 0.071 g m
2
yr
1
, respectively.
These are maximum accumulation rates because we assume that
all the CaCO
3
is pedogenically produced. Using Marions (1989)
empirical relationship between CaCO
3
accumulation and mean
annual precipitation for the U.S. warm desert and a maximum
precipitation rate of 100 mm yr
1
for McMurdo Dry Valleys, the
accumulation of CaCO
3
for McMurdo Dry Valleys soils is 0.95
g m
2
yr
1
. This is a maximum accumulation because the pre-
cipitation input of 10 cm yr
1
is the upper level for the McMurdo
Dry Valleys (Doran et al., 2002b). Landi et al. (2003) recently
determined values between 8 and 14 g m
2
yr
1
for Saskatchewan
soils with a strong positive correlation between CaCO
3
accu-
mulation and precipitation. Schlesinger (1985) obtained values
between 1.0 and 3.5 g m
2
yr
1
for the Mojave Desert, and Marion
and Schlesinger (1994) modeling carbonate deposition in soils
of the southwest desert of the United States, obtained values of
15 g m
2
yr
1
. They argued that most of the CaCO
3
accumula-
tion occurred during cool, wet climate intervals. Therefore, the
Fryxell and Hoare basin soils are accumulating CaCO
3
at a much
lower rate than most arid deserts. These McMurdo Dry Valleys
values are low in part because of the relatively shallow perma-
frost depth in the Taylor Valley soils (Table 3).
Regardless of basin, soils and slopes with northerly aspects
in Taylor Valley are thought to have more moisture than those
with southerly aspects and, therefore calcite (and gypsum)
should accumulate on the moister north-facing slopes (Marchant
and Denton, 1996). However, the data presented here essentially
show no difference between the CaCO
3
concentration on the dry
Figure 10. Distance inland versus CaCO
3
with respect to zones 1, 2, and
3. Figure is the same as Figure 5, but has Marchant and Dentons (1996)
zones highlighted. Nussbaum Riegel datum falls in zone 2, but because
it is of questionable validity, it has been singled out in this graph.
100 Foley et al.
south-facing slopes, 0.62% CaCO
3
(n = 13), versus 0.59% CaCO
3

(n = 54) on the more moist northern slopes.
Small-Scale Variation
On a smaller topographic scale, McCraws (1967) work on
soil moisture regimes demonstrated that moisture ow and grav-
ity dictate the distribution of water-soluble salts such as CaCO
3

in McMurdo Dry Valleys soils, and therefore small-scale topog-
raphy could play a very important role in pedogenic carbonate
formation. To expand on this work, ve soil samples were taken
on the side of a glacial carved till mound ~1 km inland from
New Harbour Camp on the coast of Explorers Cove (Fig. 2).
According to McCraws (1967) conceptual model, there should
be higher CaCO
3
accumulations just below the surface at the top
of the mound, at the crest of the mound where the slope turns
downward, and very high concentrations of CaCO
3
at the toe of
the slope. There should be little or no CaCO
3
on the steep part of
the slope and on the valley oor below the hill. Data shown here
do not follow this distribution pattern. Results show CaCO
3
soil
concentrations increase from the top of the hill to the valley oor
(Fig. 11); presumably moisture and solute transport is driven by
gravity acting as the controlling force.
Sources of Ca
2+
to the Pedogenic Carbonate
A major factor controlling pedogenic carbonate formation is
the amount of readily available Ca
2+
in the soil. Van der Hoven and
Quade (2002) demonstrated through isotopic analyses that in the
desert southwest of the United States there are two Ca
2+
sources
available to form the pedogenic carbonates: a local parent mate-
rial and a dust-deposited source. Potential readily soluble sources of
Ca
2+
in the Taylor Valley soils include marble and kenyite (Claridge,
1963; McCraw, 1967) and the abundance of dust transported into
the valleys through wind action (Wellman, 1964). (Kenyite is an
unusual type of volcanic rock produced on Ross Island and trans-
ferred into Fryxell Basin by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet during
glacial periods). The marble and kenyite only exist in the Ross tills
and hence are in the Fryxell basin and perhaps the Hoare basin (Hall
and Denton, 2000). Therefore, the higher concentrations of CaCO
3

found in the Fryxell basin soils may be due in part to the higher
source potential for Ca
2+
that exists there.
MCM-LTER data collected over the past 11 yr indicate that
streams in the Fryxell and Hoare basins have dissolved Ca
2+
con-
centrations as high as 1.5 mM (Fig. 12). However, the source of
this Ca
2+
may be different in the two basins because the Hoare
basin is dominated by CaCO
3
dissolution, while the weather-
ing of silicate minerals is a much more important source in the
Fryxell basin (Nezat et al., 2001). The longer, glacier-fed south-
shore streams in the Fryxell basin (Fig. 1) are more enriched in
H
4
SiO
4
and depleted in Ca
2+
compared to the shorter, glacier-fed
north-shore streams (Fig. 12). This suggests, but certainly does
not prove, that the weathering of kenyite, especially in the south-
ern Fryxell basin, may be an important source of Ca
2+
. This idea
is supported by previous Sr
2+
isotope work on the Taylor Valley
streams and lakes (Lyons et al., 2002), where the streams entering
Lake Fryxell have the most nonradiogenic waters in the valley.
In addition to the potential till sources, dust being transported
into and through Taylor Valley is relatively enriched in Ca
2+
. We
measured the total major-element geochemistry of both eolian
sediment and loess deposition at two locations in Taylor Valley
using X-ray uorescence (XRF) (Table 4). Comparison of the
elemental ratios of these samples to elemental ratio values from
the upper continental crust (UCC) and Holocene dust collected
from the Taylor Dome ice core (~100 km west of Taylor Val-
ley; Table 4) shows that the Taylor Valley eolian materials have
slightly higher Ca/Sr and Ca/Ba ratios than UCC and very much
lower K/Ca ratios, indicating Ca
2+
enrichment in the dust relative
to the crust. The transport, deposition, and subsequent dissolution
of this dust material have an important impact on the geochemis-
try of the supraglacial as well as proglacial streams (Fortner et al.,
2005) and may play an important role within soil environments
as it could provide an important source of soluble Ca
2+
.
Planned future investigations on the isotopic chemistry of
the pedogenic carbonate as well as on the eolian materials should
help to better constrain the sources of Ca
2+
to the pedogenic car-
bonate. These isotopic data can then be compared to previous
work on the individual rock types that make up the tills (Lyons
et al., 2002). This work is currently ongoing and will help deter-
mine if the carbonate in these soils is truly pedogenic or if it was
produced in paleolacustrine settings.
CONCLUSIONS
CaCO
3
concentrations in soils from this polar desert environ-
ment are much lower than those observed in other regions of the
world. The hyperarid character of this environment undoubtedly
limits the formation of the CaCO
3
in the soils. The distribution
of pedogenic carbonate in the McMurdo Dry Valleys is related
to landscape position with respect to distance from the Ross Sea
coast and, within Taylor Valley, with elevation related to the max-
imum height of Glacial Lake Washburn. The higher concentra-
tions of CaCO
3
in the coastal soils may either be a direct result
of increased moisture from a greater source of soluble Ca
2+
from
the marine source, from the marble and kenyite in the coastal tills
from the Ross Sea glaciation (12.423.8 ka), or a combination of
both. Overall, the highest CaCO
3
concentrations in the soils exist
where the soil moisture content is the highest and the soils are the
youngest, which is near the coast. Among all of the McMurdo
Dry Valleys, the Taylor Valley is the only valley that supports
this type of microclimate for pedogenic carbonate accumulation.
Although there is a CaCO
3
surface distribution pattern in Taylor
Valley, the CaCO
3
distribution with depth in the soils in the Lake
Hoare and the Lake Bonney basins shows no consistent pattern.
The rates of Taylor Valley pedogenic carbonate formation are
at the lower range of what has been observed in warm deserts.
Given the locations of the highest concentrations, it is possible
that a portion of the CaCO
3
present in the lower elevations of
Calcium carbonate in Antarctic soils 101
Taylor Valley is lacustrine, formed during the last highstand of
Glacial Lake Washburn.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported through National Science Founda-
tion (NSF) grants (OPP-9813061) and is a contribution to the
McMurdo Dry ValleysLong-Term Ecological Research (LTER)
Program. Sincere thanks are due to Wendy Freeman Roth and
Suzanne Prestrud Anderson at Institute of Arctic and Alpine
Research (INSTAAR), University of Colorado, for the CaCO
3

analysis. We thank Kathy Welch and April Jacobs for their stream
data analysis and Carolyn Dowling for the X-ray uorescence
(XRF) data of eolian materials. We thank Kate Harris for helping
Figure 11. Hill prole from McCraw (1967) with ve sections separating the soil moisture and CaCO
3
concentration relationship. McCraw
argued that CaCO
3
should be most abundant in sections 1, 2, and 4 as evidenced by the stipled areas in the gure.

Values in parentheses are CaCO
3

values from this work that do not follow McCraws theory for carbonate distribution on a hillside.
TABLE 4. ELEMENTAL RATIOS (WT/WT)
OF EOLIAN MATERIALS IN TAYLOR VALLEY
K/Rb Ca/Sr Ca/Ba K/Ca
Lake Hoare loess

279 99 72 0.39
Taylor Glacier loess 1

250 108 54 0.60

Taylor Glacier loess 2

234 108 63 0.50

Taylor Dome dust

350 120 130 0.450.59

UCC

260 93 44 0.97
Note: Taylor Dome dust and the upper continental crustal (UCC)
average are shown for comparison.

W.B. Lyons and C. Dowling (2004, personal commun.).

Hinkley and Matsumoto (2001).

Wedepohl (1995).
Figure 12. Ca versus Si for the Hoare and Fryxell basin streams. Ca
and Si were analyzed from stream water samples taken near the mouth
of the streams. These are McMurdo Dry Valley Long-Term Ecologi-
cal Research site data from www.mcmlter.org. Data span the period
19932003.
102 Foley et al.
in the collection of the 2005 samples. Special thanks are given
to the staff of the Crary Lab and at Lake Hoare and to PHI for
air support in the Dry Valleys. We thank Ana M. Alonso-Zarza
and Giles Marion, as well as an anonymous reviewer, for their
constructive input to the original manuscript.
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ates: Geological Society of America Special Paper 416, p. 105117, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(07). For permission to copy, contact [email protected]. 2006
Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.
Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006
Calcretes, oncolites, and lacustrine limestones in Upper Oligocene
alluvial fans of the Montgat area (Catalan Coastal Ranges, Spain)
David Parcerisa

Centre de Gosciences, cole des Mines de Paris, 35, rue St. Honor, 77305 Fontainebleau, France
David Gmez-Gras

Departament de Geologia, Facultat de Cincies, Universitat Autnoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
Juan Diego Martn-Martn

Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Villavgen 16, SE-752 36 Uppsala, Sweden
ABSTRACT
The Chattian (Upper Oligocene) deposits of Montgat consist of continental detri-
tal sediments deposited mainly in alluvial fan environments. Stratigraphic and petro-
graphic data allow identication of two lithostratigraphic units: the Tur de Montgat
unit and the Pla de la Concrdia unit. These units are interpreted as two coalescent
alluvial fans deposited synchronously. The catchment areas of these alluvial fans were
located between the Collserola and Montnegre highs and consisted of a Mesozoic cover
overlying a Paleozoic basement.
Intrabasinal limestones interbedded in the two alluvial fan deposits of the Montgat area
have been analyzed geochemically, and three groups are distinguishable. The rst group
is composed of the oncolites of the Tur de Montgat unit, which were formed in ponding
zones in the channel or disconnected pools in a uvial setting where waters remained under
closed conditions. The second group is composed of the lacustrine limestones and the onco-
lites of the Pla de la Concordia unit, which were formed in an open and permanent uvial
setting. The third group is composed of the palustrine limestones and tufa-oncolites of the
Pla de la Concordia unit; these were formed in ephemeral uvial settings concurrent with
development of calcrete soils. The geochemistry of the intrabasinal limestones deposited in
the Chattian alluvial fans of the Montgat area is mainly controlled by the uvial regime
and the lithology and altitude of the catchment areas and the sedimentary basin.
Keywords: calcretes, oncolites, lacustrine limestones, isotopes, Catalan Coastal Ranges.
RESUMEN
El Oligoceno superior (Catiense) de Mongat est constituido por sedimentos
detrticos depositados en un ambiente de abanico aluvial. Los datos estratigrcos y

E-mail: [email protected].

E-mail: [email protected].

E-mail: [email protected].
106 Parcerisa et al.
INTRODUCTION
Isotopic analysis of intrabasinal limestones has been used
by many authors to study sedimentary basins (Brancaccio et al.,
1986; Oberhnsli and Allen, 1987; Casanova and Nury, 1989;
Janaway and Parnell, 1989; Bellanca et al., 1992; Platt, 1992;
Anadn and Utrilla, 1993; Andrews et al., 1993; Zamarreo et
al., 1997; Alonso-Zarza, 1999; Alonso-Zarza and Calvo, 2000).
A review of the interpretation of isotopic data from lacustrine
limestones and oncolites appeared in Talbot (1990); this paper
remarked on the importance of intrabasinal limestones as a
tool for basin analysis. Moreover, geochemical data from intra-
basinal limestones can reveal signicant information about the
main features of the catchment areas. The paleoenvironmental
signicance of palustrine-lacustrine limestones and calcretes
was presented by Alonso-Zarza (2003). This author under-
lined the importance of calcretes as indicators of paleoclimate,
paleovegetation, and paleoconcentration of atmospheric pCO
2

(see also Cerling, 1999).
From a geochemical point of view, the analysis of lacus-
trine limestones and oncolites must be differentiated from the
analysis of calcretes. Both groups can provide different but
important information on the water that circulated through the
sedimentary basin, for example:
1. Lacustrine limestones and oncolites precipitate directly
or are catalyzed by biota (such as cyanobacteria, charo-
phytes, ostracodes, mollusks) in meteoric water derived
from the catchment area and delivered to the sedimen-
tary basin. The main control on the geochemistry of
meteoric water is the initial composition of this water in
the catchment area (Talbot, 1990).
petrogrcos permiten identicar dos unidades litostratigrcas distintas: la Unidad
del Tur de Montgat y la Unidad del Pla de la Concrdia. Estas unidades han sido
interpretadas como dos abanicos aluviales coalescentes que funcionaron sincrnica-
mente en el tiempo. Las reas fuente de estos abanicos aluviales se situaban entre los
altos de Collserola y de Montnegre y estaban constituidas por un basamento Paleo-
zoico y una cobertera Mesozoica.
En estos depsitos abundan los carbonatos intracuencales en forma de oncolitos,
carbonatos lacustres y palustres y calcretas. El anlisis isotpico de los distintos tipos
de carbonatos intracuencales permite agruparlos en tres familias diferentes: (1) Los
oncolitos presentes en los conglomerados de la Unidad del Tur de Montgat se forma-
ron en un contexto uvial en canales estancados o abandonados y sometidos a procesos
de evaporacin; (2) los carbonatos lacustres y los oncolitos de la Unidad del Pla de la
Concrdia se formaron en un contexto uvial abierto y (3) los carbonatos palustres y
los oncolitos-tobas de la Unidad del Pla de la Concrdia se formaron en contextos u-
viales efmeros conjuntamente con el desarrollo de calcretas. As, la geoqumica de los
carbonatos intracuencales formados en los abanicos aluviales del Oligoceno superior
del rea de Montgat est controlada por el rgimen uvial en el que se formaron y por
la litologa y la altitud de sus reas fuente y de la cuenca sedimentaria.
Palabras clave: calcretas, oncolitos, calizas lacustres, istopos, Cordillera Costera
Catalana.
2. In contrast, calcretes are mainly formed from meteoric
water arriving at the sedimentary basin by in situ rain epi-
sodes. Thus, calcretes reect the features of in situ mete-
oric water and its interactions with the soil (lithology, veg-
etation) where calcrete grows (Alonso-Zarza, 2003).
In this paper, we analyze the geochemistry of calcretes, onco-
lites, and lacustrine limestones formed during Chattian times in
two coalescent alluvial fans. The differences in trace-element and
isotopic composition of intrabasinal limestones provide informa-
tion about the main features of the alluvial fans and their respec-
tive catchment areas.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A detailed (1:5000 scale) cartography was carried out in the
Montgat area to determine the extent and geometry of the materi-
als cropping out in the area. Six stratigraphic sections were mea-
sured and correlated to characterize Cenozoic materials, and 65
samples of mudstones, sandstones, limestones, and conglomerate
pebbles were collected to be petrographically analyzed. Elemen-
tal composition of oncolites was determined in three polished,
carbon-coated thin sections using a CAMECA model SX-50
microprobe equipped with four vertically displayed WD X-ray
spectrometers. Operating conditions were an accelerating volt-
age of 20 kV, a beam current of 15 nA, and a spot size of 10 m.
The detection limits were 115 ppm for Mg, 380 ppm for Mn,
200 ppm for Fe, 130 ppm for Na, and 165 ppm for Sr. Several
microdrillings were made in 12 samples of oncolites, calcretes,
and lacustrine limestones. Powdered samples were reacted with
103% phosphoric acid for 10 min in a vacuum at 90 C. The CO
2

was analyzed using a VG-Isotech SIRA IITM mass spectrometer.
Oligocene lacustrine limestones in NE Spain 107
Results were precise to 0.05 for
13
C and 0.09 for
18
O
(precision was determined by multiple analyses of a standard).
Results were corrected using standard procedures (Santrock et
al., 1985) and are expressed in per mil with respect to the Vienna
Peedee belemnite (VPDB) standard.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The structure of the Catalan Coastal Ranges is dominated by
longitudinal, near-vertical basement faults that trend from NE-
SW to ENE-WSW (Roca and Guimer, 1992; Roca 1994). Dur-
ing the Alpine Paleogene compressive phase, these faults moved
sinistrally with local transpression. In the course of Neogene
extension, some of these faults (Valls-Peneds and Camp faults)
were reactivated as normal faults trending ENE-WSW (Roca et
al., 1999). The Catalan Coastal Ranges are composed of a Her-
cynian basement that is unconformably overlain by a Mesozoic
cover. The basement is made up of metamorphic and granitic
Paleozoic rocks (Vaquer, 1973; Gil Ibarguchi and Julivert, 1988;
Enrique, 1990; Julivert and Durn, 1990). The Mesozoic cover is
composed of limestones, dolomites, and locally siliciclastic and
evaporitic rocks that are Triassic (Virgili, 1958; Marzo and Cal-
vet, 1985), Jurassic (Giner, 1980), and Cretaceous (Salas, 1987,
1989) in age.
There are two Neogene half-grabens in the central part of the
Catalan Coastal Ranges: the Valls-Peneds half-graben, which
is onshore, and the Barcelona half-graben, which is offshore.
These are separated by the Garraf and the Collserola-Montnegre
horsts (Fig. 1). Between the Collserola-Montnegre horst and the
Barcelona half-graben, there is the Pla de Barcelona link zone,
where the city of Barcelona is located.
The Chattian deposits of Montgat crop out close to the Mont-
negre horst in the vicinity of a fault system that separates the Mont-
negre horst from the Pla de Barcelona link zone (Gaspar-Escribano
et al., 2004). In fact, Montgat materials are located in the northern
boundary of the Pla de Barcelona link zone (Fig. 1). The Montgat
outcrops are arranged in a NW-SE fringe, which is divided in sev-
eral blocks by N-S and NW-SEtrending faults (Fig. 2). Paleozoic
(Devonian dolomites and limestones, Silurian black shales, and
Late Hercynian granitoids) and Triassic rocks (Buntsandstein, Mus-
chelkalk, and Keuper) underlie these sediments.
STRATIGRAPHY
Two different stratigraphic units separated by a reverse fault
can be distinguished in the Chattian materials of Montgat (Par-
cerisa, 2002; Parcerisa et al., 2007). In the footwall block (south-
westward) of the reverse fault, there is the Pla de la Concrdia
unit, and in the hanging-wall block (northeastward), there is the
Tur de Montgat unit (Fig. 2).
Tur de Montgat Unit
Tur de Montgat unit overlies the Paleozoic basement and
can be divided into three subunits (Fig. 3): the basal subunit, the
middle subunit, and the upper subunit.
Figure 1. Geological and structural sketch of the Pla de Barcelona link zone with the location of the Montgat area.
10 km
C
O
L
L
S
E
R
O
L
A
Montgat
block
B
a
r
c
e
l
o
n
a

f
a
u
l
t
G
A
R
R
A
F
Medi t er r anean
Sea
Pla de
Barcelona
Valls-Peneds
half-graben
B
a
r
c
e
l
o
n
a

h
a
l
f
-
g
r
a
b
e
n
Paleogene & Neogene
Mesozoic
Late Hercynian granitoids
Paleozoic
Main emerged faults
Main submerged faults
N
M
O
N
T
N
E
G
R
E
T
ib
id
a
b
o
f
a
u
lt
Quaternary
2W 0 2E
Aquitaine Basin
43N
42N
41N
La Seu
Ebro Basin
V
a
l
e
n
c
i
a

T
r
o
u
g
h
80 km
Montgat
40N
4E
Montjuc block
Hospital block
Barcelona
city
108 Parcerisa et al.
The basal subunit is made up of 4-m-thick massive breccia
deposits. The middle subunit is 25 m thick and consists of mas-
sive, poorly sorted conglomerates with some thin interbedded
sandstone layers. The upper subunit is 40 m thick and is made
up of intercalations of conglomerates, gray sandstones, and red
mudstones. Conglomerates are lithorudites, usually containing
some intraformational oncolithic fragments (Fig. 4A). Sandstone
and conglomerate grains of this unit derive from the erosion
of the Mesozoic cover and the Paleozoic basement (Parcerisa,
2002). It has been interpreted that the basal subunit was depos-
ited in a colluvial environment, the middle subunit was deposited
in a proximal alluvial fan environment, and the upper subunit
was deposited in a medium to distal alluvial fan environment
(Parcerisa et al., 2007).
Pla de la Concrdia Unit
Pla de la Concrdia unit unconformably overlies Trias-
sic (Muschelkalk) and locally Devonian limestones and can be
divided into three subunits (Fig. 4B). The basal subunit con-
sists of breccia deposits and crops out discontinuously with
a thickness always less than 2 m. The middle subunit is 5 m
thick and only appears in one of the stratigraphic sections
measured in this unit. It is made up of a 2-m-thick bed of gray
marls overlain by a 3-m-thick bed of thin laminated brown
limestones with plant debris, charophytes, and ostracodes.
The upper subunit consists mainly of gray-colored conglom-
erates with some interbedded sandstone and mudstone lay-
ers. In one stratigraphic section, there are 11.5-m-thick beds
85
53
52
60
39
35
77
51
29
70
74
58
14
56
6
100 m
Buntsandstein
Paleozoic basement
Lower Muschelkalk
Pla de la Concrdia U.
Upper Muschelkalk
Keuper
Dip
Fault
Discordant contact
Concordant contact
Thrust
60
Quaternary
Syncline fold
2
1
3
4
5
Tur de Montgat U.
Stratigraphic sections
N
Pla de la
Concrdia
Tur de
Montgat
Tur de
Ribes
Tur de les
Bateries
Tur del
Mar
C
3
2
h
ig
h
w
a
y
N
I
I

r
o
a
d
r
a
ilw
a
y
Figure 2. Geological map of the Montgat area with the locations of the stratigraphic sections shown in Figures 3 and 4.
Oligocene lacustrine limestones in NE Spain 109
of gray limestones (Fig. 4B) that comprise a micritic matrix
containing low amounts of limestone rock fragments (oat-
stones). A thin layer of micritic limestones and two conglom-
eratic beds consisting exclusively of oncolites (Fig. 4C) also
appear in this subunit; additionally, there are some mudstone
layers that contain dispersed oncolites. Conglomerates and
sandstones of this unit are lithorudites and litharenites made
up of limestone rock fragments derived exclusively from the
erosion of the Mesozoic cover (Parcerisa, 2002). Fragments
of small mammal teeth have been found in a mudstone layer
of the upper subunit of the Pla de la Concrdia unit (Fig. 5),
indicating a Chattian age for Montgat deposits (Parcerisa et
al., 2007).
From a sedimentological point of view, it is interpreted
that: (1) the basal subunit was deposited in a colluvial envi-
ronment; (2) the middle subunit was deposited in a lacustrine
environment; and (3) the upper subunit was deposited in a
medium to distal alluvial fan environment where conglomer-
ates and sandstones were deposited in channels and mudstones
were deposited on oodplains. The oatstones are interpreted
as calcretes developed on the oodplain and the thin micritic
limestone bed as a palustrine deposit.
Sedimentologic and petrographic data show that Tur de
Montgat and Pla de la Concrdia units were two contempo-
rary and attached alluvial fans with two different source areas
(Parcerisa, 2002; Parcerisa et al., 2007). The Tur de Montgat
alluvial fan was located eastward with Paleozoic and Meso-
zoic rocks in the source area, and the Pla de la Concrdia allu-
vial fan was located westward, with a source area consisting
exclusively of Mesozoic rocks (Fig. 6).
MG-19 (oncolite)
MG-20 (oncolite)
cong
Bioturbation
Oncolite
Cross-stratification
Fault
MG-13 (oncolite)
cl vfs ms vcs
1
10
B
a
s
a
l

s
.
M
i
d
d
l
e

s
u
b
u
n
i
t
10
20
cl vfs ms vcs cong
?
2
M
i
d
d
l
e

s
u
b
u
n
i
t
cl vfs ms vcs cong
10
20
30
3
BEACH QUARRY SECTION
RAIL-WAY TUNNEL SECTION
N II ROAD SECTION
M
e
t
e
r
s
U
p
p
e
r

s
u
b
u
n
i
t
Basement
Conglomerate
Breccia
Figure 3. Stratigraphic sections carried out in the Tur de Montgat unit (see Fig. 2). clclay; vfsvery ne sandstone; msmedium sandstone;
vcsvery coarse sandstone; congconglomerate.
110 Parcerisa et al.
PETROLOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF
INTRABASINAL LIMESTONES
Intrabasinal limestones appearing in the Chattian Montgat
materials include oncolites (Figs. 7A, 7B, and 7C), lacustrine and
palustrine limestones (Fig. 7D), and calcretes (Figs. 7E and 7F).
Oncolites appear in both the Tur de Montgat and the Pla de la
Concrdia units, whereas lacustrine and palustrine limestones
and calcretes only appear in the Pla de la Concrdia unit.
Oncolites and Tufa-Oncolites
Oncolites are abundant in the two units of the Chattian
Montgat, especially in the upper subunits (Figs. 3 and 5). Onco-
lites of the Montgat area are individualized in two different petro-
graphic categories: oncolites sensu strictu, which form pebbles
inside conglomerates and sandstones, and tufa-oncolites, which
are located exclusively inside mudstone layers of the Pla de la
Concrdia unit.
Oncolites
Oncolites display darkly colored tubular morphologies rang-
ing from 3 mm to 20 cm thick (Fig. 7A
1
). They have a minute core
surrounded by a thick cortex. The core consists of spar calcite
cement or detrital sediment, which probably occupied a moldic
porosity after decay of a vegetal fragment. The cortex consists
of several submillimeter-scale micritic layers with microfabrics
(Fig. 7B) similar to Phormidium or Calothrix/Dichothrix (Schfer
and Stapf, 1978; Casanova and Nury, 1989; Koban and Schwei-
gert, 1993; Zamarreo et al., 1997). We infer that the oncolites
precipitated from cyanobacteria in ponding zones in the channel
or in disconnected pools that formed during low-discharge epi-
sodes. Thus, oncolite pebbles in conglomerate beds have prob-
ably been reworked.
Geochemically, oncolites of the Tur de Montgat unit and the
Pla de la Concrdia unit are quite different. Oncolites of the Pla de
la Concrdia unit have high Fe and Sr contents (Table 1), with
18
O
values ranging between 8.0 and 9.4 and
13
C values between
5.8 and 6.3 (Table 2). Oncolites of the Tur de Montgat unit
have low trace-element contents (Table 1), with
18
O values ranging
between 4.0 and 6.8 and
13
C between 4.9 and 6.6
(Table 2).
18
O and
13
C are arranged in a covariant line (
13
C =
0.39,
18
O 3.52 with R
2
= 0.92; Fig. 8)
Tufa-Oncolites
Tufa-oncolites are white-colored and form millimeter- to
centimeter-scale tubular bodies (Fig. 7A
2
). Like oncolites, they
consist of a core and a cortex; the core is also lled by spar cal-
cite or detrital sediment, but the cortex consists of a succession
of thinner micritic and thicker pseudoradial spar calcite layers
(Fig. 7C). Micritic layers range from 100 m to 1 mm thick, and
spar calcite crystals are 13 mm long and 10100 m wide. Their
location, inside mudstone layers, and petrographic features indi-
cate a palustrine abiotic formation in oodplain uvial settings
Figure 4. Field views and details of the intrabasinal limestones of the
Montgat area. (A) Oncolite pebble inside a conglomerate layer of the
upper subunit of the Tur de Montgat unit. Larger axis pebble: 3 cm.
(B) Contact between Devonian limestones of the basement and the
basal subunit of the Pla de la Concrdia unit (white line). Above the
basal subunit appears the upper subunit made up of calcrete deposits
(black arrow). (C) Hand sample of a microconglomerate formed by
intraformational grains (oncolites). Larger axis sample: 8 cm.
MG-38 (calcrete)
MG-39 (calcrete)
MG-40 (calcrete)
MG-t, 49 i 50
oncoites)
MG-53b i 57
(palustrine)
MG-28 (lacustrine)
MG-29 (lacustrine)
MG-37
(oncolite)
RAIL-WAY TUNNEL SECTION
cl vfs ms vcs cong
10
20
4
B
a
s
a
l

s
.
U
p
p
e
r

s
u
b
u
n
i
t
cl vfs ms vcs cong
10
20
5
?
M
id
d
le

s
u
b
u
n
it
U
p
p
e
r

s
u
b
u
n
i
t
cl svf ms vcs cong
10
20
30
40
50
?
6
?
U
p
p
e
r

s
u
b
u
n
i
t
NII ROAD SECTION
PLA DE LA CONCRDIA SECTION
Basement
Karst
Vegetal debris
Ripple mark
Calcrete
Imbrication
Ostracoda
Mammal fossils
Oncolite
Fault
B
a
s
a
l

s
.
MG-46b
(tufa-
oncolite)
M
e
t
e
r
s
Figure 5. Stratigraphic sections carried out in the Pla de la Concordia unit (see Fig. 2). clclay; vfsvery ne sandstone; msmedium sand-
stone; vcsvery coarse sandstone; congconglomerate.
112 Parcerisa et al.
(Pedley, 1990; Koban and Schweigert, 1993). A similar origin
is attributed to the thin palustrine limestones, which occur strati-
graphically close to the tufa-oncolites (Fig. 5).
18
O values of
the tufa-oncolites range between 6.5 and 7.6, and
13
C
values range between 6.7 and 6.8. Palustrine limestones
have a similar composition, with
18
O values ranging between
7.2 and 8.1 and
13
C values ranging between 6.2 and
6.6.
Lacustrine Limestones
Lacustrine limestones occur exclusively in the middle sub-
unit of the Pla de la Concrdia unit (Fig. 5). In outcrop, they form
a 3-m-thick layer of brown-colored thinly laminated limestones
where every lamina measures 12 cm. The base and the top of
these laminae are full of well-preserved charophyte stems. Petro-
logically, they are packstones consisting of charophyte, ostracode,
and, rarely, quartz fragments inside a micritic matrix (Fig. 7D).
Similar lacustrine deposits have been interpreted as the result of
shallow lacustrine sedimentation (Platt, 1992; Alonso-Zarza and
Calvo, 2000). Preservation of charophyte stems points to low-
energy settings with a depth less than 10 m (Platt, 1992). Isotopic
data of lacustrine limestones are similar to those of the Pla de la
Concrdia oncolites; thus,
18
O values range between 8.2 and
9.6, and
13
C values range between 5.6 and 6.6.
Calcretes
Calcretes are present only in a section of the Pla de la Concrdia
unit (Fig. 5). They form three 11.5-m-thick beds of gray limestones
(Fig. 4B) formed by a micritic matrix that contains small amounts of
limestone rock fragments. The micritic matrix is made up of:
1. Peloids and micropeloids. These are 10100-m-thick
micritic spheres (Fig. 7E) typical of calcareous soils (Read,
1974; Harrison, 1977; Wright, 1994), which correspond to
fungo-tufas (Calvet and Juli, 1983) or fecal pellets (Este-
ban and Klappa, 1983).
2. Pisoliths. These are 13-mm-thick globular bodies with a
core and a cortex (Fig. 7F). The core consists of amalgam-
ated peloids, and the cortex shows a submillimeter lamina-
tion. Pisoliths are also abundant in calcretes (James, 1972;
Calvet and Juli, 1983; Jones, 1991; Wright, 1994).
3. Redissolution channels. These correspond to tubular
cracks developed during dry episodes (Ward, 1975; Este-
ban and Klappa, 1983); they are lled by spar-calcite
cement (Fig. 7F).
4. Detrital grains. These are relatively abundant (Fig. 7F),
so it is inferred that calcretes developed on conglomeratic
layers.
Isotopically, calcretes have
18
O values ranging from 6.9 to
7.9 and
13
C values ranging from 6.4 to 7.0.
Proximal
Medium to distal
Calcretes
Ephemeral lakes
Main channels
Montgat Oligocene alluvial fan sediments
Hydrographic boundary
Contact aureole
Silurian and/or Cambro-Ordovician
Devonian
Late Hercynian granitoids
Undifferentiated Mesozoic
Undifferentiated Oligocene
N
Tur de Montgat
alluvial fan
Pla de la Concrdia
alluvial fan
Ebro Basin
C
a
ta
la
n
C
o
a
s
ta
l R
a
n
g
e
s
Barcelona Basin
Barcelona
Present-day coast line
Figure location
Figure 6. Paleogeographical sketch of the Montgat area during Chattian times (location based on Roca et al., 1999).
Figure 7. Hand samples and micrographs of the intrabasinal limestones of the Montgat area. (A) Oncolite (1) and tufa-oncolite (2) at hand sample. Note the
core and the different layers of the cortex. Bar scale: 1 cm. Samples MG-19 (A
1
) and MG-46b (A
2
). (B) Microphotography of an oncolite with microstruc-
tures attributed to Phormidium or Calothrix/Dichothrix. Plane polarized light. Bar scale: 100 m. Sample MG-19. (C) Micrograph of micritic layers and
pseudoradial spar-calcite in a tufa-oncolite. Cross polarized light. Bar scale: 100 m. Sample MG-46b. (D) Packstone with charophyte. Plane polarized
light. Bar scale: 100 m. Sample MG-29. (E) Peloids inside a calcrete sample. Plane polarized light. Bar scale: 100 m. Sample MG-38. (F) Pisolith (white
circle) with a redissolution channel inside (white arrows) and some detrital grains outside. Plane polarized light. Bar scale: 200 m. Sample MG-38.
F
114 Parcerisa et al.
INTERPRETATION
Microprobe data show that oncolites formed in the Pla de la
Concrdia unit have higher Fe and Sr contents than those of the
Tur de Montgat unit (Table 1). The absorption of these elements
from water to calcite is controlled by the distribution coefcient
(McIntire, 1963), which is constant and characteristic for each
element. Thus, we can deduce that the water that formed onco-
lites in the Pla de la Concrdia unit was richer in Fe and Sr than
the water that formed oncolites in the Tur de Montgat unit. The
enrichment in Sr of the Pla de la Concrdia water is interpreted
as the result of the abundance of Sr in the Mesozoic limestones
(Hem, 1970) that crop out in the catchment area of this alluvial
fan. Thus, water was enriched in Sr by exchange reactions either
with Mesozoic limestones occurring in the catchment area or
with limestone pebbles during transport from the catchment area
into the sedimentary basin or with both of them. The Fe enrich-
ment of the Pla de la Concordia water can be explained via two
mechanisms: (1) exchange reactions with Mesozoic limestones
of the catchment area, and/or (2) dissolution of Fe oxides. To
explain this differential Fe-oxide dissolution in the latter case,
more reducing environments might have existed in the Pla de la
Concordia alluvial fan than in the Tur de Montgat alluvial fan.
Negative
13
C and
18
O values of intrabasinal limestones of
the Montgat area (Table 2) are in agreement with precipitation
from meteoric water (Cerling and Quade, 1993; Hoefs, 1997).
The
13
C versus
18
O data plot in three different areas (Fig. 8):
(1) oncolites and lacustrine limestones of the Pla de la Concrdia
unit are represented in area 1 (6.6 <
13
C < 5.6 and 9.6
<
18
O < 8.0; Table 2); (2) oncolites of the Tur de Montgat
unit t a positive covariant line (area 2), with
13
C values ranging
between 4.9 and 6.6 and
18
O values between 4.0 and
7.9 (Table 2); and (3) tufa-oncolites, calcretes, and palustrine
limestones of the Pla de la Concordia unit are in area 3 (7.0 <

13
C < 6.2 and 8.1 <
18
O < 6.5; Table 2).
Assuming similar climatologic conditions in the area and
excluding a possible biological fractionation process during cal-
cite precipitation, differences in
13
C can be explained by: (1)
closed conditions (Talbot, 1990) or (2) the presence of different
types of vegetation cover in the alluvial fans or in their catch-
ment areas (Cerling, 1999). However, the covariant path of area
2 (Fig. 8) indicates that closed conditions are responsible for the
observed differences. Thus, the oncolites of the Tur de Montgat
unit were formed in a closed environment where meteoric water
arrived from the catchment area and/or from direct precipitation
in the sedimentary basin and remained in ponding zones in the
channel or in disconnected pools undergoing evaporation pro-
cesses. In these conditions, evaporative processes caused an iso-
topic fractionation of
18
O toward heavier values and reequilibra-
tion with the atmosphere, and photosynthetic processes caused
an increase in
13
C values. The lowest isotopic values of the
oncolites of the Tur de Montgat unit represent the initial isoto-
pic composition in water (Talbot, 1990) and are in turn similar to

13
C values of the other intrabasinal limestones. In contrast, the
absence of covariant paths in the other intrabasinal limestones
indicates that they were formed in a relatively open or ephem-
eral environment where meteoric water did not evaporate signi-
cantly (Talbot, 1990).
We infer that the heavier
18
O values of the Tur de Montgat
oncolites are due to the evaporation effect. The area 1 lacustrine
limestones and oncolites of the Pla de la Concrdia unit have
lighter
18
O values (typically
18
O < 8) than area 3 tufa-onco-
lites, palustrine limestones, and calcretes of the Pla de la Concr-
dia unit (typically
18
O > 8). The lighter points of the area 2
oncolites of the Tur de Montgat unit (Fig. 8), which were less
affected by evaporation, plot in an intermediate zone between
areas 1 and 3. Oncolites, which are always enclosed within sand-
stones and conglomerates, and lacustrine deposits of area 1 were
formed in permanent uvial settings where water came from
the catchment areas. In contrast, tufa-oncolites dispersed within
mudstones, thin palustrine deposits, and calcretes plotted in area
3 were formed in ephemeral uvial settings and soils developed
during rain episodes in the sedimentary basin. We infer that dif-
ferences in the altitude between the catchment areas and the
sedimentary basin are responsible for the
18
O variations. Sev-
eral works have demonstrated that a rise of 1000 m in altitude
can cause a depletion of 2 or 3 in
18
O values (Poage and
Chamberlain, 2001; Bowen and Wilkinson, 2002). This altitude
dependence of
18
O also has been shown in the Catalan Coastal
Ranges (Cruz-San Julin et al., 1992; Zamarreo et al., 1997).
TABLE 1. TRACE-ELEMENT CONTENT OF ONCOLITES
OF THE TUR DE MONTGAT AND PLA DE LA CONCRDIA UNITS
Sample Mg
(ppm)
Mn
(ppm)
Fe
(ppm)
Sr
(ppm)
Na
(ppm)
Tur de Montgat Unit
MG-13 (21) Mean 3759 bd 209 bd bd
Min.-Max. 36443955 bd bd-647 bd-864 bd-247
Pla de la Concrdia Unit
MG-27 (42) Mean 2585 bd 4142 1257 bd
Min.-Max. 1728501 bd-565 24014853 bd-2060 bd-246
MG-37 (33) Mean 2718 bd 1055 516 bd
Min.-Max. 16219313 bd-766 2923073 bd-968 bd-198
Note: The number of analyses is inside parentheses; bdbelow detection limit.
Oligocene lacustrine limestones in NE Spain 115
Considering a difference of 2 between the means of the two
differentiated groups (area 1 versus area 3), a rise of ~600 m
might have existed between the alluvial fans and their catchment
areas. On the other hand, oncolites of the Tur de Montgat unit,
with intermediate
18
O values were formed in ponding zones in
the channel or in disconnected pools with water arriving from the
catchment area and from rain in the sedimentary basin.
In sum, three groups have been distinguished geochemically
in Montgat intrabasinal limestones. The rst group is composed
of the oncolites of the Tur de Montgat unit, which were formed
in a closed uvial setting. The second group is composed of the
lacustrine limestones and the oncolites of the Pla de la Concordia
unit, which were formed in an open and permanent uvial set-
ting. Finally, the third group is composed of the calcrete soils and
palustrine limestones and tufa-oncolites of the Pla de la Concor-
dia unit, which were formed in open ephemeral uvial settings.
The Fe and Sr enrichment observed in the oncolites of the Pla
de la Concrdia unit is attributed to exchange reactions between
meteoric water and Mesozoic limestones that crop out in the
catchment area.
CONCLUSIONS
Two coalescent alluvial fans formed during Chattian times
in the Montgat area. The trace-element and isotopic composi-
tions of intrabasinal limestones in these deposits are quite dif-
ferent depending on the alluvial fan in which they formed (Tur
de Montgat or Pla de la Concrdia) and depending on the kind
of limestone they formed (i.e., calcretes, lacustrine-palustrine
limestones, or oncolites). These differences are controlled pri-
marily by the provenance of meteoric water, which distinguishes
two groups of intrabasinal limestones: those formed by meteoric
water coming from the catchment areas (oncolites and lacustrine
limestones) and those formed by meteoric water coming from
rain episodes inside the sedimentary basin (calcretes, palustrine
limestones, and tufa-oncolites).
The trace-element content of oncolites is controlled by
exchange reactions with rocks that crop out in the catchment
areas.
18
O values are controlled rst by the different altitude of
the catchment areas and the sedimentary basin;
18
O and
13
C of
the oncolites of the Tur de Montgat unit are further controlled
by evaporative processes that indicate a closed hydrological set-
ting, whereas the isotopic values of the oncolites, tufa-oncolites,
palustrine and lacustrine limestones, and calcretes of the El Pla
de la Concordia unit suggest an open hydrological setting.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was performed within the framework of proj-
ects BTE2002-04453-C02-01 CGL2004-05816-C02-02 sup-
ported by Direccin General de Enseanza Superior e Investig-
acin Cientca of Spain and Grup Consolidat de Recerca Geo-
logia Sedimentria 2005/SGR/890. D. Parcerisa beneted from
a postdoctoral grant (EX-2003-1146 Ministerio de Educacin,
TABLE 2. ISOTOPIC VALUES OF THE INTRABASINAL
LIMESTONES OF THE MONTGAT AREA
Sample
18
O
(, VPDB)

13
C
(, VPDB)
Tur de Montgat Unit
Oncolites
MG-19a 4.3 5.3
MG-19b 4.5 5.4
MG-19c 4.3 4.9
MG-19d 4.8 5.3
MG-19e 4.0 5.1
MG-20a 6.8 6.2
MG-20b 7.9 6.6
MG-20c 5.5 5.7
MG-20d 6.0 5.8
MG-20e 4.8 5.6
Pla de la Concrdia Unit
Oncolites
MG-49a 9.4 5.9
MG-49b 8.0 6.0
MG-49c 9.0 5.9
MG-49d 9.1 5.9
MG-49e 8.6 5.9
MG-50a 8.7 6.2
MG-50b 8.7 6.3
MG-50c 8.7 5.8
Tufa-oncolites
MG-46b-1 6.8 6.7
MG-46b-2 7.6 6.8
MG-46b-3 6.5 6.7
MG-46b-4 6.6 6.8
Lacustrine
MG-28a 8.8 6.3
MG-28b 8.9 5.8
MG-28c 9.3 5.6
MG-28d 9.2 6.5
MG-28e 9.6 6.6
MG-29a 8.3 5.9
MG-29b 8.2 5.9
MG-29c 9.0 6.1
MG-29d 9.0 6.0
MG-29e 9.1 6.0
Palustrine
MG-53b(a) 7.5 6.4
MG-53b(b) 7.5 6.6
MG-53b(c) 7.2 6.6
MG-57a 7.8 6.2
MG-57b 8.1 6.4
MG-57c 7.7 6.5
Calcretes
MG-38a 7.1 6.8
MG-38b 7.0 7.0
MG-38c 7.3 7.0
MG-38d 7.4 7.0
MG-39a 6.8 6.5
MG-39b 6.9 6.5
MG-39c 7.3 6.6
MG-40a 7.6 6.6
MG-40b 7.0 6.6
MG-40c 7.9 6.4
116 Parcerisa et al.
Cultura y Deporte). We thank Ana M. Alonso-Zarza who encour-
aged us to write this paper. Ana Trav, Gabriel Bowen, and Law-
rence Tanner strongly contributed to the improvement of the
manuscript with their constructive and helpful comments. Eva
Coca, Miguel Angel Caja, and Joaquim Perona provided indis-
pensable technical support to realize this work. We also thank
Frances Luttikhuizen and Serdar Korkmaz for the revision of the
English version. The eld work of this paper was done together
with Francesc Calvet, who abruptly passed away; this paper is
dedicated to him.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
119
Armenteros, I., and Huerta, P., 2006, The role of clastic sediment inux in the formation of calcrete and palustrine facies: A response to paleographic and climatic
conditions in the southeastern Tertiary Duero basin (northern Spain), in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications
of Calcretes and Palustrine Carbonates: Geological Society of America Special Paper 416, p. 119132, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(08). For permission to copy, con-
tact [email protected]. 2006 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.
Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006
The role of clastic sediment inux in the formation of calcrete and
palustrine facies: A response to paleographic and climatic conditions
in the southeastern Tertiary Duero basin (northern Spain)
Ildefonso Armenteros

Pedro Huerta

Departamento de Geologa, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Salamanca, 37071 Salamanca, Spain

ABSTRACT
During the Middle and Upper Miocene, calcrete and associated palustrine depos-
its formed marginal fringes adjacent to the margins of the ArandaBurgo de Osma
corridor in the southeastern Tertiary Duero basin. These environments interngered
laterally with narrow peripheral alluvial fans toward the corridor margins, whereas
toward the center of the corridor, they graded into the uvial systems transverse to
the alluvial fans. Over time, the peripheral carbonate environments were replaced
by uvial systems. The calcretes form proles with nodular grading upward to mas-
sive horizons. These proles may be vertically stacked at the edges of the carbonate
bodies. These calcretes are the product of mixed pedogenic and phreatic processes
associated with the palustrine environments. Palustrine limestones were deposited in
a shallow carbonate-precipitating lake that had low gradient margins and was sub-
jected to periodic uctuations in level.
The sedimentologic characteristics of the carbonate facies indicate accumulation
in a semiarid climate and conditions of scarce clastic sediment supply, which favored
the development of carbonate-precipitating fringes. In contrast, their absence in parts
of the sequence may have resulted from an increase in clastic sediment supply associ-
ated with a climatic change toward more humid conditions. At these times, the uvial
channels had greater lateral mobility and spread toward the corridor anks, replac-
ing the carbonate environments. Subsidence was greater in the central corridor than
at its margins and did not change signicantly during the Miocene. Thus, changes in
climate and the clastic sediment input on the anks of the ArandaBurgo de Osma
corridor were the main controls on the development of 1020-m-thick carbonate clas-
tic sediment sequences.
Keywords: palustrine, calcrete, climate, sediment inux, Miocene, Duero basin.
RESUMEN
Durante el Mioceno medio y superior en los mrgenes del corredor de Aranda-Burgo
de Osma, sureste de la cuenca del Duero, se desarrollaron franjas de depsitos palustres,

E-mail: [email protected].

E-mail: [email protected].
120 Armenteros and Huerta
grated vision of the allocyclic control of lacustrine basins was
proposed by Carroll and Bohacs (1999), who compared the rates
of potential accommodation (controlled mainly by tectonics)
with sediment plus water supply (controlled mainly by climate).
Recently, Alonso-Zarza (2003) emphasized the interplay
between climate and tectonics and described two scenarios of
accommodation space and/or sequence stratigraphy: (1) low-
activity alluvial/uvial systems, favoring vertically stacked
palustrine carbonates; and (2) alternating alluvial-uvial and
pond systems, a situation common in stages of high-accommo-
dation space that favors the storage of oodplain sediments.
In a number of nonmarine basins, carbonate bodies made
up of calcretes and palustrine facies are interbedded with clastic
successions. Calcretes and palustrine facies are representative
of equilibrium conditions in oodplains, allowing soil develop-
ment between situations of aggradation and degradation (Kraus
and Bown, 1986). These carbonate facies are commonly associ-
ated with a low clastic input that has been attributed both to tec-
tonic and climatic inuence (e.g., semiarid conditions) (Nickel,
1985; Platt, 1989; Cecil, 1990; Drummond et al., 1996; De Wet
et al., 1998).
In the Miocene succession of the eastern Duero basin, the
formation of calcrete and palustrine deposits alternated over
time with deposition by siliciclastic uvial systems. Calcretes
and palustrine facies developed in a specic paleogeographical
setting along the margins of the ArandaBurgo de Osma corri-
dor in the southeastern Duero basin. These carbonate-producing
environments grade laterally to narrow peripheral alluvial fan
rodeados de niveles de caliche. Estos trminos carbonatados cambian lateralmente a
depsitos de abanicos aluviales enraizados en los relieves que anquean el corredor,
mientras que hacia el centro del mismo pasan a los depsitos del sistema uvial axial que
drenaba esta regin hacia el centro de la cuenca, situado ms al oeste. Temporalmente
los caliches y medios palustres eran substituidos por el sistema uvial.
Los caliches forman perles constituidos por niveles nodulares en la base que
pasan a masivos hacia el techo, los cuales pueden llegar a apilarse formando secuencias
compuestas en los mrgenes de las unidades carbonatadas. Los caliches se forman debido
a la accin combinada de procesos edcos y freticos, asociados a los medios palustres
adyacentes. Estos ltimos representan una sedimentacin carbonatada lacustre en lagos
muy someros, de baja pendiente, y afectados por exposiciones subareas frecuentes.
Las caractersticas sedimentolgicas de las facies carbonatadas indican una
acumulacin en condiciones semiridas que favorecan un escaso suministro de material
terrgeno a la cuenca y el desarrollo de facies carbonatadas en sus mrgenes. Por el
contrario, la expansin del sistema uvial axial hacia estas reas estaba propiciada
por un aumento del suministro terrgeno como respuesta a condiciones climticas ms
hmedas. En estos periodos el sistema uvial axial se extenda hasta los mrgenes del
corredor, reemplazando los medios palustres y anulando en buena medida el desarrollo
de los caliches asociados. La subsidencia era mayor en el corredor central que en sus
mrgenes y no cambi substancialmente durante el Mioceno. Los cambios en el clima
y el suministro de materiales terrgenos en los ancos del corredor fueron los controles
principales en la acumulacin de ciclos carbonatado-terrgenos.
Palabras claves: palustre, caliche, clima, aporte sedimentario, Mioceno, cuenca del Duero.
INTRODUCTION
The study of palustrine-calcrete carbonate associations in
different depositional contexts has attracted increasing attention
in recent years, mainly with regard to their sedimentological,
paleopedogenic, and diagenetic aspects (Nickel, 1982; Arribas,
1986; Platt and Wright, 1992; Alonso-Zarza et al., 1992; Sanz
et al., 1995; Armenteros and Daley, 1998; Dunagan and Driese,
1999; Tanner, 2000; Tandon and Andrews, 2001; Pimentel, 2002;
and many others). Since the 1960s, it has been suggested repeat-
edly that lacustrine successions reect changes in both climate
and tectonics (for a review, see Van Houten, 1964; Picard and
High, 1981; Talbot and Allen, 1996). In the early 1980s, after the
introduction of the concepts of sequence stratigraphy, allocyclic
processes, climate and tectonics in particular, began to be applied
to soil development (Atkinson, 1986; Kraus and Bown, 1986).
Even today, it is difcult to differentiate between the effects of
climate and tectonics in controlling the features of calcrete and
palustrine facies. Thus, recent research that has provided new
integrated interpretations of lacustrine sequences is of great use
in the analysis of basins (Platt, 1989; Cecil, 1990; Sanz et al.,
1995; Drummond et al., 1996; Armenteros et al., 1997; De Wet
et al., 1998; Carroll and Bohacs, 1999; Tanner, 2000; Dunagan
and Turner, 2004), and the authors of these works have offered
interesting proposals for integrating lacustrine sequences within
general allocyclic models. In this context, the model of Cecil
(1990) concludes that in most sedimentary systems, climate is
a primary allogenic controller of sediment supply. A more inte-
Clastic sediment inux and formation of calcretes and palustrine facies 121
systems on both borders, whereas toward the center of the cor-
ridor, they change into an axial uvial system. Cyclically, these
peripheral carbonates did not develop, but instead were replaced
by alluvial and uvial systems (Armenteros, 1986; Huerta and
Armenteros, 2003).
This study involves sedimentological analyses of the facies
associations and the whole depositional system, with special
emphasis on the characterization of the carbonate environ-
ments and on the genetic relationship between palustrine facies
and calcretes. The aim of this contribution is to underscore the
importance of sediment inux in the formation of calcrete and
palustrine facies along the basin margins in the Miocene succes-
sion of the southeastern Duero basin. A further aim is to estab-
lish the relative roles of climate and tectonics on the control of
the sediment supply in the location of formation of the carbonate
bodies and in creating the carbonate and siliciclastic cycles.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Tertiary Duero basin is the largest continental Tertiary
basin of the Iberian Peninsula and is located in the northwest of
Spain (Fig. 1). It features sedimentary deposits ranging in age
Figure 1. Map of the eastern Duero basin where the ArandaBurgo de Osma corridor is located between the paleorelief of Honrubia, to the south,
and that of Tejada, to the north. On the right: representative general succession of the Miocene, which is marked on the map with a star; symbols
are explained in Figure 4. The cross sections represented in Figure 2 are indicated by black lines (A and B).
122 Armenteros and Huerta
from Paleogene to Miocene. The present study focuses on the
Miocene deposits of the southeastern area, near the Aranda
Burgo de Osma corridor, which links the Almazn and the Duero
basins. During the Neogene, the sedimentary framework was
characterized by alluvial fan systems along the basin margins and
carbonate and gypsiferous systems toward the center (which is
located west of the study area).
The northern basin margin is formed by the Tejada anticline,
which consists mainly of Upper Cretaceous limestones, dolos-
tones, and marls. The Lower Cretaceous Utrillas Formation,
formed of sandstones, mudstones, and quartzite conglomerates,
outcrops in the core of the anticline. This anticline plunges west-
ward, and its relief decreases in the same direction. The southern
margin is composed of Mesozoic limestones, dolostones, marls,
and evaporites covering a Paleozoic basement, and it is made
up of gneisses, quartzites, and slates. It constitutes an anticline
bounded to the north by a thrust, which was overlapped by the
Middle and Upper Miocene succession (De Vicente et al., 2004).
Tectonic deformation during the Middle and Upper Miocene was
minor, and no signicant activity occurred in the source areas
for the sediments of the ArandaBurgo de Osma corridor. The
position of a uvial system at the center of the corridor and the
considerable thickness of the Tertiary deposits in this area sug-
gest active subsidence during the Miocene.
The age of the outcropping Miocene succession ranges
from middle Aragonian (MN 5, Mammal Neogene zone) to
Upper Vallesian (MN 10), with a possible presence of the latest
(Turolian) continental stage of the Miocene (Armenteros et al.,
2002). The carbonate units consist of calcretes and lacustrine/
palustrine limestones and form extensive levels (up to 20 m
thick) at the transition to the marginal alluvial systems (210
km long) (Fig. 2).
The Middle and Upper Miocene deposits of the eastern suc-
cession of the Duero basin consist of two siliciclastic-carbon-
ate sequences capped by two extensive carbonate horizons, the
Lower Pramo Limestone and the Upper Pramo Limestone,
which extend toward the center of the Duero basin (Figs. 1 and 2)
(Armenteros et al., 2002). This study examines the Upper Pramo
near the northern border of the basin, in the Tejada anticline, and
the Lower Pramo near the southern margin (Honrubia). In the
ArandaBurgo de Osma corridor, the limestones occur as fringes
near the northern and southern basin margins, separated in the
central area by the siliciclastic uvial system that has paleocur-
rent directions westward toward the basin center (Fig. 3).
SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS AND FACIES
Three environments are recognized in the ArandaBurgo de
Osma corridor: alluvial fans rooted in the northern and southern
paleoreliefs, uvial systems in the axis of the corridor, and shal-
low carbonate-precipitating lakes with associated calcretes (Figs.
2, 3A, and 3C).
Figure 2. Cross-sections A and B from Figure 1. (A) Tejada: northern border for the Upper Miocene sequence. (B) Honrubia: southern border
for the Lower Miocene sequence.
Clastic sediment inux and formation of calcretes and palustrine facies 123
Alluvial Fans
Marginal alluvial fan systems consist of the following
facies, from proximal to distal areas, respectively: reddish-
orange petromictic conglomerates (quartz and quartzite clasts
from Paleozoic and Mesozoic, carbonate Mesozoic clasts),
muddy sandstones, sandy mudstones, and calcretes (both
nodular and massive). Coarser facies are poorly to moderately
sorted and exhibit scarce or no sedimentary structures. Mud-
stone facies rarely show lamination, are intensively burrowed,
and display scattered calcite nodules and rhizoliths, occasion-
ally coalesced into nodular calcrete beds. Some levels contain
green mottling and root traces.
The poorly stratied conglomerates were deposited by
debris ows at the proximal area of the fan. Conglomerate
deposits with a sheet geometry, moderate sorting, normal grad-
ing, and horizontal stratication show characteristics of depo-
sition by sheetood, possibly associated with low-topography
gravel bars in the middle and distal fan environment (Dabrio
et al., 1989; Huerta and Armenteros, 2003). Sedimentation was
episodic, as indicated by common features of subaerial expo-
sure. Between the episodic depositional events on the fan, the
Figure 3. Paleogeography of the ArandaBurgo de Osma corridor. (A) Schematic map of the development of the calcrete and palustrine fringes.
(B) Schematic map of the expansion of the uvial system. (C) Schematic cross section (exaggerated vertical scale) perpendicular to the Aranda
Burgo de Osma corridor, between the Honrubia and Tejada paleoreliefs. Contours are in m.
124 Armenteros and Huerta
sediments were reworked by streams entrenched on the fan
surface that deposited stream channel-ll sediments (Bull,
1972), and ne oodplain facies where the ow died due to
dispersion and/or inltration. These latter deposits are com-
monly replaced partially by carbonate and locally form stacked
calcrete sequences, as explained in the following sections. The
restricted extent of the alluvial fan fringes indicates a small
catchment area (Fig. 3).
Fluvial Environments
The uvial system is best developed and most extensive in
the central corridor (Fig. 3). The uvial system is composed of
sandy channel lls, 25 m thick and 20150 m wide, that locally
include conglomeratic lenses with a preponderance of quartz and
quartzite clasts (the centile thickness is generally less than 5 cm).
Some channel lls contain oncoids, and mudstone and calcrete
clasts. In the central parts of the corridor, the channel lls are
ribbon-like in shape and have low width/thickness (w/t) ratios,
while toward the corridor margins, they are sheet-shaped bodies
with higher w/t ratios.
These channeled bodies are enclosed in massive mudstones
and sandy mudstones that display abundant bioturbation and
widespread reddening (Fig. 4). These mudstones also contain
extensive single-to-composite calcrete levels 0.53 m thick; these
are more common in the transition to carbonate units described
in the following sections. Coarse-grained channel lls and ne-
grained facies form ning-upward sequences that are bounded by
erosive surfaces and are commonly capped by calcretes. Channel
cross-bed paleocurrents display a strong westward component,
perpendicular to those of the alluvial fans.
Calcretes
Calcrete occurs in proles from 1 to 3 m thick. The carbon-
ate content in the calcrete increases upward; typical proles
Figure 4. Representative stratigraphic sections related to the southern part (Milagros) and to the northern part (Cubillas and Espinosa) of the
ArandaBurgo de Osma corridor. The former corresponds to the Lower Miocene sequence and displays an alternation of carbonate (see detailed
sequence of central unit) and uvial siliciclastic units. The Cubillas and Espinosa sections correspond to the Upper Miocene sequence; the rst
shows several superimposed palustrine sequences, whereas the Espinosa section displays a stacking of thin calcrete sequences. Sections locations
are shown in Figure 2.
Clastic sediment inux and formation of calcretes and palustrine facies 125
display basal red or reddish-brown mudstones with diffuse
calcication, grading upward to nodular calcrete facies,
capped by massive calcretes (Figs. 4, 5C, and 5D). These cal-
cretes typically represent the transition between siliciclastic
and palustrine facies (Figs. 5C and 5D). The nodular calcrete
facies are mottled and reddish brown-orange in color and are
characterized by coalescing irregular-to-vertically elongated
nodules (rhizocretions). The nodules become larger and
coalesce upward within the beds, and the relative proportion
of mudstone decreases.
Within the massive calcrete facies, the mudstones are
partially calcied. The only vestiges of the mudstones at the
top of the massive calcrete facies are iron oxides. Pseudoan-
ticline structures occur at the top of the calcrete beds, where
they grade into the overlying palustrine facies. The massive cal-
crete makes up a calcite microsparite mosaic (512 m in size),
locally stained by manganese oxides. Detrital quartz grains
range from 5% to 20% and show etched contours surrounded
by a microsparite rim (Fig. 6A). Both peloids and pedogenic
features, such as channel and alveolar porosity, are common
in the calcrete facies. These facies are interpreted as mixed
pedogenic and phreatic calcretes. The phreatic features, such
as mottling and manganese staining, together with the lateral
gradation to the palustrine facies indicate a water table close to
surface. Mapping of these facies and the correlation among dif-
ferent sections suggest that the calcrete facies formed a fringe
around the palustrine deposits (Huerta and Armenteros, 2005).
Palustrine Facies
The palustrine facies occur in tabular beds (10 cm to 1 m
thick) that are light to dark gray in color (Figs. 4, 5C, and 5D).
The fossil content includes pulmonate gastropods, ostracodes,
and charophytes. The percentage of dispersed ne-grained
sand to silt-sized quartz is generally between 1% and 3%. The
palustrine facies constitute the most abundant facies in the
carbonate bodies. The palustrine limestones are micritic and
show a wide range of exposure features, including brecciated,
clotted, and peloidal fabrics (Figs. 6B, 6C, and 6D). These are
closely associated with channel, planar, and vesicular porosi-
ties and alveolar structures related to root activity and dry-
ing-wetting cycles (Figs. 6B and 6C). The clotted-peloidal
textures are the most common of those found in the palustrine
facies and represent the most evolved status of the exposure
index (Wright and Platt, 1995; Armenteros and Daley, 1998).
The peloids commonly have no coatings, are subequant and
subrounded, and their sizes range from 60 mm to 5 mm and
display no sorting (Fig. 6D). These facies are the result of
repeated exposure of carbonate muds that accumulated in a
shallow carbonate lake with low-gradient margins (Freytet
and Plaziat, 1982; Platt and Wright, 1991). The ubiquity of
palustrine facies indicates that the whole lake was subject to
periodic lake-level uctuations and exposure of the supralit-
toral carbonate mud.
CONTROLS ON CARBONATE DEPOSITION:
CLIMATE VERSUS TECTONISM
The carbonate bodies occur as calcrete and palustrine accu-
mulations (220 m thick) near the basin margins and alternate
vertically with the siliciclastic horizons that resulted from the
expansion of the axial uvial system (Figs. 2, 5A, and 5B).
The Upper Pramo and the Lower Pramo limestones represent
expansion stages of the carbonate system toward the center of the
Duero basin, located westward. Their location and stratigraphic
distribution require some discussion.
Initially, tectonic and climatic changes might seem to have
been the main agents responsible for controlling carbonate pre-
cipitation in marginal fringes close to the basin borders. Recently,
this problem was considered in a study focused on calcrete
palustrine assemblages in the northern Tejada area (Huerta and
Armenteros, 2005). Here, we propose local subsidence as the
main factor involved in the formation of these carbonate bodies.
Nevertheless, the regional paleogeographical conguration, cycli-
cal arrangement of the carbonate and siliciclastic levels, as well
as the distribution of the facies can contribute to a broader per-
spective. Along the ArandaBurgo de Osma corridor, an almost
permanent uvial trunk system drained the basin toward the west
during most of the Miocene (Armenteros, 1986; Armenteros et
al., 2002) (Figs. 1 and 3).
Calcrete-Palustrine Sequences and Clastic Input: Climate
Control
The prole sequences of mudstonenodular calcretemas-
sive calcrete indicate a decrease in ne clastic input and low
oodplain aggradation, allowing more time for the development
of massive calcretes (Bown and Kraus, 1987; Alonso-Zarza et
al., 1992; Sanz et al., 1995; Wright and Marriot, 1996; Alonso-
Zarza et al., 1999; Huerta and Armenteros, 2005). Therefore, this
facies sequence indicates low aggradation of the oodplain.
Palustrine facies occur at the top of the calcrete sequences.
The low percentages of detrital quartz in palustrine facies, the lat-
eral gradation of a calcrete belt into palustrine environments, and
the absence of deltaic deposits suggest that the groundwater table
played an important role in calcrete-palustrine sequence develop-
ment (Huerta and Armenteros, 2003, 2005). Thus, the formation
of calcretes could have taken place by both pedogenic and phre-
atic carbonate precipitation in the plaincalcrete beltencircl-
ing the palustrine environments. Massive calcrete and palustrine
facies are separated by sharp contacts, or gradational contacts
with features of both calcrete and palustrine facies. Carbonate
precipitation may have been favored by a progressive rise of the
groundwater table and a consequent increase in the evaporation
and evapotranspiration of the pore waters. The gradual transi-
tion from brown-reddish mudstones to nodular to massive cal-
crete resulted from an upward decrease in the sedimentation rate
(Bown and Kraus, 1987; Alonso-Zarza et al., 1992, 1999; Sanz
et al., 1995, Wright and Marriot, 1996). If the clastic sediment
Figure 5. (A) Panoramic view of the lower sequence in the Riaza River valley. The lower sequence is capped by the Lower Pramo Limestone.
Arrows indicate the carbonate-siliciclastic cycles. The dashed lines mark the top of the carbonate bodies. (B) Panoramic view of the cliffs on
the right margin of the Riaza River. The lower sequence is capped by the Lower Pramo Limestone. Dashed line points to a carbonate body that
wedges out laterally into the siliciclastic uvial unit. (C) Calcrete-palustrine sequence. Note that the nodular calcrete gradually passes upward
into a massive calcrete. The palustrine facies overlies the massive calcrete, with a sharp boundary between them (white line). The dashed line
represents a bedding plane. Hammer for scale: 33 cm long (encircled). (D) Detail of a carbonate body. The lower half is composed by calcrete
facies, while the upper half is made up of palustrine facies. The boundary between the calcrete and palustrine facies is sharp (black line). Dashed
white lines depict bedding planes. Geologist for scale: 1.70 m tall.
Clastic sediment inux and formation of calcretes and palustrine facies 127
belt) to the palustrine environments, resulting in a progressive
decrease in the aggradation rate. This explains the lateral tran-
sition from the stacking of thin (1040 cm) calcrete sequences
on the distal areas of the alluvial fan into a single thick (12 m)
calcrete prole on the calcrete belt. The high-ood events might
have occurred during more humid periods in which clastic sedi-
mentation took place. Calcrete would have developed during
drier periods, as proposed for similar sequences in the Maastrich-
tian of India by Tandon et al. (1998).
Maximum Stages with Carbonate Accumulation
The carbonate bodies are close to the Honrubia and Tejada
paleoreliefs, which stood at least 400 m higher than the corri-
dor center. They occur as fringes (28 km wide) that are sepa-
rated from the basin margins by alluvial fan deposits coming
out from the paleoreliefs (Figs. 2 and 3A). Both paleoreliefs
supply was very high, a massive calcrete horizon would not have
developed because the carbonate would have been dispersed as
the oodplain underwent aggradation. Ponds were generated in
places where the water table intersected the surface. The seasonal
uctuation in the water table would have alternately exposed or
ooded the carbonate muds precipitated in such ponds. The scar-
city of clastic input together with constant subsidence could have
allowed a decrease in the plain level and a consequent relative
rise of the water table (Fig. 7).
The calcrete-palustrine sequence grades laterally into a stack
of thin calcrete proles localized in the distal alluvial fan (Huerta
and Armenteros, 2005). A similar stacking of several calcrete pro-
les has been attributed to a combination of climatic conditions,
carbonate availability, and sediment-starved conditions (Tandon
et al., 1998). In the high-ood stages, the sheetoods would have
prevented calcrete development. The sheetoods were more epi-
sodic and supplied less sediment in the transition area (calcrete
Figure 6. (A) Microtexture of a massive calcrete consisting of a micrite mosaic with dispersed silt- to sand-sized quartz (Q) grains with a rim of
sparite. Dark patches retain clayey remains, and the porosity displays circumgranular and elongate sinuous voids originated by cracking. Plane
polarized light (PPL). (B) Brecciated palustrine texture constituted by interconnected crack planes lled with sparite cement (C). Arrow indicates
allotic nodule. PPL. (C) Typical channel palustrine texture in which concertina-like voids (arrowed) and vesicles are widespread. PPL. (D) Pel-
oidal palustrine texture mainly made up of irregularly shaped and poorly sorted micrite peloids (P), with packing voids and some channels lled
with sparite cement (C). Bioclasts of gastropods (B) can also be seen. PPL.
128 Armenteros and Huerta
were relatively small and narrow and consequently had reduced
catchment areas. Horizontal beds of the Miocene (Upper Arago-
nian-Vallesian) succession described here onlap the paleoreliefs,
indicating that the relief has not been reactivated since then. The
carbonate facies of these bodies consist of calcretes (pedogenic
and phreatic) and palustrine facies in superimposed sequences,
indicating their accumulation in a semiarid climate (Platt and
Wright, 1992) and conditions of scarce clastic sediment supply
(Fig. 8A). The calcrete facies always occur in the form of a tran-
sitional facies between the clastic (alluvial, uvial) and the car-
bonate (palustrine) deposits.
Local subsidence and low clastic input were associated with
areas of calcrete and palustrine accumulation, for example, in
troughs parallel to the northern border (Huerta and Armenteros,
2005). In this case, subsidence was essential for calcrete forma-
tion and the subsequent development of palustrine environments
when the water table intersected the basin oor. However, the
subsidence at the margins was lower than that of the central corri-
dor, as manifested by the greater thickness of the Tertiary succes-
sion in this axial region where the river trunk developed (Figs. 3A
and 3B). In contrast, carbonate paleosols and palustrine depos-
its are concentrated along the margins of the basin, where the
subsidence was minor. A similar circumstance has been deduced
from studies by computer simulation (Bridge and Leeder, 1979;
Bridge and Mackey, 1993) and has been observed in eld studies
(Mack and Madoff, 2005).
Within the Miocene succession, two stages of maximum
expansion of the carbonate environments took place, represented
by the Lower Pramo Limestone and the Upper Pramo Lime-
stone. These two singular stages could have been responses to
dramatic decreases in alluvial and uvial sediment supply. The
carbonate accumulation in marginal fringes occurred in response
to the retreat of the uvial axial system toward the corridor center.
This retreat was a consequence of the decrease in clastic inux
from catchments to fans and axial rivers. Assuming that the sub-
sidence remained constant, the decrease in the terrigenous input/
subsidence ratio resulted from a fall in the base level (dened as
the lowest area in the basin). Similar relationships between base
level and clastic sediment supply for nonmarine basins have been
envisaged in many studies (e.g., Kraus and Bown 1986; Wright
and Marriot, 1993; Shanley and McCabe, 1994; and Leeder,
1999). This situation, termed an underlled basin (Carroll and
Bohacs, 1999; Bohacs et al., 2000), could have been caused by
a change to a semiarid climate, which would have caused the
uvial system to retreat to the center of the ArandaBurgo de
Osma corridor. In this case, the marginal alluvial fans became
inactive and a sediment-starved area formed between these and
the axial uvial systems, allowing calcrete and palustrine devel-
Figure 7. Stages of development of a calcrete-palustrine sequence on oodplain deposits. The progressive decrease in clastic input/subsidence
ratio favors the rise of the groundwater table and increases carbonate precipitation. See explanation in text.
Clastic sediment inux and formation of calcretes and palustrine facies 129
opment. The formation of calcrete and palustrine facies is gener-
ally associated with conditions of scarce rain (semiaridity) and
low sedimentation rate (Wright and Tucker, 1991; Wright and
Platt, 1995).
Stages Dominated by Fluvial Clastic Accumulation
Also notable is the gradual disappearance of the carbonate
deposits from the marginal fringes. They were replaced by uvial
environments, whereas the marginal alluvial fan systems rooted in
the Honrubia and Tejada borders did not undergo any signicant
changes (Armenteros, 1986; Huerta and Armenteros, 2003). This
disappearance presumably reects unfavorable conditions for the
accumulation of calcrete and palustrine deposits, and could have
been due to an increase in the clastic sediment supply (Atkinson,
1986; Kraus and Bown, 1986; Carroll and Bohacs, 1999; Alonso-
Zarza et al., 1999). This increase could have been a consequence
of: (1) a change toward more humid and seasonal climatic condi-
tions (Cecil, 1990); or (2) an increase in tectonic activity. The
alluvial fans, fed by small catchment areas of the Honrubia and
Tejada paleoreliefs, do not display evidence of tectonic defor-
mation, supporting the former hypothesis. Consequently, humid
conditions undoubtedly were the main factor in the increase in
clastic sediment in the catchment areas that nourished the uvial
system (Fig. 8B). This gave rise to a greater lateral mobility of
the uvial system, which spread toward the corridor anks where
Figure 8. Schematic model representing two contrasting and alternating periods as the climate changed from (A) a semiarid phase (palustrine and
calcrete formation) to (B) more humid conditions in which expansion of the axial uvial system took place.
130 Armenteros and Huerta
carbonate deposits had accumulated at other stages. The increase
in both clastic input and water supply raised the base level and
caused an expansion of the uvial system, thus inhibiting devel-
opment of calcrete and palustrine deposits. Similar uvial expan-
sion over well-drained soils has been proposed by McCarthy and
Plint (1998).
Siliciclastic-Carbonate Cycles
One of the most interesting features of this succession is the
cyclic repetition of carbonate bodies alternating with uvial clas-
tic sediments. At the southern border (Honrubia), four carbonate
bodies are interbedded with siliciclastic deposits (Figs. 2B and
5A) in the lower sequence, whereas at the northern border, at
least three carbonate levels alternate with siliciclastic deposits in
the upper sequence (Fig. 2A). This alternation must have been
produced by a combination of the factors already discussed that
caused variations in the clastic sediment input: a decrease pro-
moted the formation of carbonate-producing environments and
an increase favored the expansion of axial uvial systems and
the subsequent disappearance of carbonates. This cyclical pat-
tern suggests a climatic imprint rather than periodic changes in
subsidence and tectonics. The latter are usually progressive and
their changes occur over long periods and tend not to result in
sequences 1020 m thick.
Although this suggests the inuence of climate in the alter-
nation of clastic sediment and carbonate facies in these nonma-
rine successions, the importance of the paleogeographical frame-
work developed through tectonics and subsidence should not
be overlooked. The temporal extension of each 1020-m-thick
carbonate-siliciclastic sequence is difcult to establish since the
chronostratigraphic resolution supplied by the fossil sites in the
region does not permit comparisons with fourth- or fth-order
cycles (Milankovitch cycles). Nevertheless, the development
of uvial cycles can be related to variations in sediment supply
due to climate change: incision, fan retreat, and soil formation
occur during periods of low sediment supply, whereas aggrada-
tion and fan growth occur during periods of high sediment supply
(Leeder, 1999).
CONCLUSIONS
The Miocene succession in the eastern Duero basin consists
of alternating clastic-carbonate cycles in which the carbonate
increases upward. These sequences range in age from the upper-
most Middle Miocene to the Upper Miocene. The carbonate
deposits occur as fringes (28 km wide) separated from the basin
margins by alluvial fan deposits. The size of these alluvial fans
was controlled by the size of the catchment areas developed in
the Tejada and Honrubia paleoreliefs, respectively, to the north
and south of the ArandaBurgo de Osma corridor. The carbonate
deposits grade laterally to a uvial system in the center of the
corridor. The paleocurrents in this latter system display a strong
westward component, perpendicular to that of the alluvial fans.
Periodically, carbonate deposition was replaced by the expanding
uvial system.
In the distal areas of the alluvial fans, thin mudstones-cal-
crete cycles are stacked. These sequences coalesce with increas-
ing distance from the alluvial fans, where there was a reduced
input from sheetoods, suggesting that the calcretes were related
to low clastic input. The carbonate bodies consist of, from base to
top, nodular calcrete, massive calcrete, and palustrine limestone,
where the latter represents the most voluminous facies. The cal-
cretes are inferred to have formed by a combination of pedogenic
and phreatic processes. The palustrine limestones represent peri-
odic exposure of low-gradient lake margins.
The scarcity of clastic input and a fall in base level due to dry
climatic periods favored the development of carbonate bodies in
starved areas located between the alluvial fans and the central u-
vial system. By contrast, the increase in clastic input plus water
supply raised the base level, favoring the expansion of axial u-
vial system and the consequent disappearance of carbonate-pro-
ducing environments.
Tectonic uplift in the central-eastern Duero basin was minor
during the Middle and Upper Miocene. Subsidence was more
active in the center of the ArandaBurgo de Osma corridor than
at its margins, as suggested by the great thickness of the Tertiary
succession and the presence of a uvial system in this area. Thus,
we suggest that the repeated sequences of carbonates and silici-
clastic sediments in meter-scale cycles during the Miocene on
both anks of the corridor were caused by climatic rather than
tectonic controls.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work has been supported by the research project
BTE2002-04017-C02-02. The language was revised at the For-
eign Languages Services of the University of Salamanca. We are
grateful to M.A. Garca del Cura and M.R. Talbot, and to the edi-
tor, Alonso-Zarza, who contributed signicantly to improving the
original manuscript. L.H. Tanner helped to signicantly improve
the nal English version.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
133
Szulc, J., Gradzi nski, M., Lewandowska, A., and Heunisch, C., 2006, The Upper Triassic crenogenic limestones in Upper Silesia (southern Poland) and their
paleoenvironmental context, in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and Palustrine Carbonates:
Geological Society of America Special Paper 416, p. 133151, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(09). For permission to copy, contact [email protected]. 2006
Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.
Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006
The Upper Triassic crenogenic limestones in Upper Silesia
(southern Poland) and their paleoenvironmental context
Joachim Szulc

Micha Gradzi nski

Anna Lewandowska
Institute of Geological Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Cracow, Poland
Carmen Heunisch
Niederschsisches Landesamt fr Bodenforschung, Hannover, Germany
ABSTRACT
Upper Triassic (Norian) freshwater carbonates, up to 30 m in thick, occur in the
northern part of Upper Silesian basin. These sediments, called the Wo zniki Limestone,
form a SE-NWstriking elongate (90 km) and narrow (<10 km) belt. The Wo zniki
Limestone overlies (mostly discordantly) Carnian gypsiferous red beds and under-
lies the uppermost TriassicLower Jurassic continental clastic deposits. Laterally, the
carbonates are replaced by a typically red bed clastic assemblage formed under arid
and semiarid climatic conditions.
Several limestone types have been recognized within the freshwater facies,
including travertines, and uvial, palustrine and pedogenic carbonates. Palustrine
limestones form a major component. Common tepee structures, karst breccia, silici-
ed horizons, and weathering breccia indicate that the palustrine carbonates have
undergone subaerial exposition and pedogenic alteration. Palustrine carbonate sedi-
mentation has been interrupted and replaced by uvial sedimentation. The uvial
sediments mark the pluvial climate episodes that inhibited carbonate deposition.
The studied basin displays a striking scarcity of lacustrine sediments, which may
be explained in terms of hydrological and climatic controls. We infer that the carbon-
ates were deposited within shallow swampy depressions, fed by springs of deep-cir-
culating groundwater, partly of hydrothermal nature, under dry and semidry paleo-
climatic conditions in a fault-bounded basin. The travertines precipitated directly
near the springs, whereas the remnant solutions formed a broad swamp area where
palustrine carbonates formed. It seems very likely that the carbonate-bearing solu-
tions were causally related to the hydrothermal karst that occurs within the Triassic
and Paleozoic basement limestones.
Keywords: freshwater limestones, travertines, paleoenvironments, Upper Triassic, Poland.

E-mail: [email protected].
134 Szulc et al.
and occupying ~300 km
2
(Fig. 1). Its thickness reaches up to
30 m. The Wo zniki Limestone is situated between the gypsifer-
ous Upper Gipskeuper of early Norian age and the uvial facies
assemblage of the Rhaetian (Fig. 2). The lack of fossil remnants
and poorly recognized facies context has long hindered more
precise age determination of the Wo zniki Limestone. Its age has
been assumed mainly to be Rhaetian (Znosko, 1960; Grodzicka-
Szymanko and Orowska-Zwoli nska, 1972; Bilan, 1976).
According to our palynological examination, the Wo zniki
Limestone encompasses palynomorph taxa indicative of so-
called palynostratigraphic assemblage IV (Corollina meyeriana
zone) in the zonation scheme by Orowska-Zwoli nska (1983),
Fijakowska-Mader (1999), and Heunisch (1999). Based on the
palynostratigraphical and lithostratigraphical position of the
Wo zniki Limestone, we estimate its age to be Norian.
The studied area was situated during Norian times within
the subtropical convergence zone. Dry climatic conditions domi-
nated; however, several humid intervals have also been recog-
nized during this time in central Europe (Reinhardt and Ricken,
2000). The pluvial intervals were affected by other climate-form-
ing factors, such as changes in ocean-land conguration, volca-
nism, or supraregional tectonic-topographical changes (Simms
and Ruffel, 1990; Szulc, 2007).
It is important to note that the Wo zniki Limestone is closely
linked to the master fault dislocation in the region (Szulc et al.,
RESUMEN
La parte norte de la cuenca alta de Silesia incluye una unidad de carbonatos
de agua dulce, de 30 metros de potencia y edad Trisico Superior (Noriense). Estos
sedimentos, denominados Caliza Wo zniki forman un cinturn estrecho y alargado
(<10 km) en direccin SE-NW. La Caliza Wo zniki se apoya, casi siempre discordante, sobre
las capas yesferas rojas del carniense y sobre ella se sitan los depsitos continentales del
Trisico ms alto y Jursico inferior. Lateralmente estos carbonatos pasan a las capas rojas
detrticas formadas bajo condiciones climticas ridas y semiridas.
Las calizas estn formadas por distintos tipos de facies que incluyen: facies uviales,
palustres, pedognicas y de surgencias. Las calizas palustres son las ms abundantes.
Rasgos como tepees, brechas crsticas, horizontes silicicados y brechas de alteracin
indican que los carbonatos palustres sufrieron exposicin subarea y pedognesis. La
sedimentacin palustre carbontica qued interrumpida por una etapa posterior de
sedimentacin uvial, que indica climas ms hmedos.
Los depsitos lacustres ss, que normalmente son anteriores a los palustres, son muy
escasos en esta cuenca. Esto puede ser debido a los controles hidrolgicos y climticos. As,
si se tienen en cuenta las condiciones ridas y semiridas, el hecho de que los bordes de la
cuenca son fallas y la abundancia de travertinos, se puede considerar que los carbonatos
se depositaron en una depresin somera y pantanosa, abastecida por surgencias de aguas
freticas profundas (en parte hidrotermales). Los travertinos se formaron por precipitacin
directa en las zonas cercanas a las surgencias, mientras que el resto del agua se acumul en
depresiones pantanosas amplias donde se formaron los carbonatos palustres. Parece muy
probable que las soluciones ricas en carbonato tuvieran relacin con el carst hidrotermal
que se desarroll en las calizas del Trisico y Paleozoico.
Palabras clave: calizas de agua dulce, travertinos, paleoambientes, Trisico Superior.
INTRODUCTION
This paper focuses on the Upper Triassic continental sedi-
ments that occur in the northern part of the Upper Silesian basin
(Fig. 1) called the Wo zniki Limestone. In this paper, we use the
term Wo zniki Limestone (WL) as an informal lithostratigraphical
unit dominated by carbonates but which also includes subordinate
clastic intercalations. The Wo zniki Limestone includes a range of
isolated carbonate bodies surrounded by carbonate-poor, varie-
gated muddy sediments. Fossils of the Wo zniki Limestone are
very scarce and limited to ostracodes and calcied plant molds.
These carbonates have long been recognized as continental sedi-
ments (Roemer, 1867; Michael, 1912); however, their age and
exact sedimentary context are uncertain. The common consensus
is that the Wo zniki Limestone formed in a lacustrine environment
(G asiorowski and Piekarska, 1976, 1986), but no convincing evi-
dence of such an origin has been provided so far. In fact, the
sediments of the Wo zniki Limestone display very few features of
typical lacustrine deposits. The main goal of the present paper is
to reinterpret the genesis of the Wo zniki Limestone by means of
sedimentological and geochemical examinations.
GENERAL AND PALEOGEOGRAPHICAL SETTING
The Wo zniki Limestone forms a SE-NWstriking assem-
blage of carbonate bodies, stretching a distance of some 90 km
Upper Triassic freshwater limestones from Poland 135
2002) (Fig. 1), called the Cracow-Lubliniec fault (cf. Morawska,
1997). Typical carbonates of the Wo zniki Limestone occur in a
belt of some 10 km in width, adjacent to the fault zone. Clearly,
no similar facies occur outward from this belt.
The thick carbonate succession, reaching up to 30 m (Figs.
25), is a fundamental feature that distinguishes the Wo zniki
Limestone from its coeval counterparts in other regions of the
mid-European Basin (see Beutler et al., 1999).
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Outcrops of the Wo zniki Limestone are rare. Therefore, in
order to accomplish the research goals, several holes were drilled
across the entire outcrop area of the Wo zniki Limestone. Twelve
outcrop sections and six cores were studied for sedimentary fab-
rics and facies variability. The sedimentological observations
were supplemented by petrological and geochemical analyses of
mineralogical composition, stable isotopes, major and trace ele-
ments, and clay minerals.
The measurements of carbonate
13
C and
18
O were con-
ducted with a SUMY mass spectrometer at the Institute of Geo-
chemistry and Geophysics, the Academy of Sciences of Belarus
in Minsk. The isotope ratios were measured in carbon dioxide
generated by reaction of the samples with 100% orthophosphoric
acid. Carbon dioxide was subsequently trapped in liquid nitrogen
and puried in a vacuum. The analytical error for single measure-
ments was 0.2. Stable oxygen isotope ratios are expressed
relative to Peedee belemnite (PDB) standard (see Hoefs, 1997).
A
B
B
Figure 1. (A) Geological sketch map of
the Wo zniki Limestone, and (B) location
of the studied outcrops and drill holes.
136 Szulc et al.
We analyzed 41 samples from different localities (both drill
holes and outcrops) palynologically in order to establish the age
position of the studied succession by biostratigraphy. Most of the
samples contained only opaque phytoclasts and occasional plant
tissues in varying amounts, but were barren of palynomorphs.
Only eight samples contained sufcient palynomorphs to allow
a biostratigraphical classication. Preservation of the palyno-
morphs varied from poor to good.
RESULTS OF SEDIMENTOLOGICAL AND
MICROFACIES STUDIES
Four basic facies types have been recognized within the
described freshwater limestones: the travertine facies, the uvial
facies, the palustrine facies, and the pedogenic facies.
Travertines
Travertine facies have been found at three sites in the SE
part of the basin (Fig. 1) and are represented by calcite fabrics
precipitated directly in the spring orice, and by spring-mar-
gin pool sediments where carbonates were deposited at a more
moderate rate. The two subfacies differ slightly in the dominant
fabric type.
The travertines that were formed in the spring orices form
either highly porous pure limestones composed of calcitic rafts
and heavily calcied rhizomes and stalks (Fig. 6A) or are built
by pisoids reaching 1 cm in diameter (Fig. 6B). The pisoids are
in fact composed of microbial aggregates displaying faint con-
centric structure (Fig. 6C). The pisolites show common reversed
grading and are interlayered with stromatolites (Fig. 6B). The lat-
ter are composed of dendritic shrubs of bacterial origin (Chafetz
and Folk, 1983; Folk et al., 1985; Pentecost, 1990; Guo and Rid-
ing, 1994) or of lamentous fabrics (Fig. 6D). Trapped, calci-
ed detritus of vascular plants is a common component of the
spring travertines (Fig. 6E). Most of the encrustations are related
to calcication driven by epiphytic microbial colonies covering
the vascular plants.
The limestones that were formed in small pools in the mar-
ginal spring zone (Nowa Wie s

Zarecka site) are also very rich in

calcied algae and reed-like, vascular plants, but in contrast to
the spring-mouth travertines, they also include nely laminated
peloidal limestones (Fig. 6F). A rich microbial epiphytic assem-
blage (bacteria, cyanobacteria) enhanced the calcication of the
higher plants (Fig. 6G). Moreover, thin calcitic rafts that formed
at the surface of the pool water were probably related to activity
of neustonic algal colonies (Fig. 6H) (Szulc, 1997). The traver-
tines are devoid of clastic impurities, and the only noncarbon-
ate components are minute quartz grains found in the travertines
from the Por eba and Ogrodzieniec sites. In addition to the sites
examined in this study, travertines were found by Roemer (1867)
in the central part of the basin (see Fig. 1). From this travertine,
Roemer described numerous molds of ferns (Clathropteris sp.),
typical for the Upper Keuper.
Fluvial Facies
The uvial deposits are generally represented by ne-grained
clastics, mainly greenish and red mudstones with subordinate
contribution of arkosic sandy material. These deposits occur as
sheets interbedded within the carbonate packages of the Wo zniki
Limestone (Fig. 7A).
The uvial deposits are mostly plane-bedded, cross-bed-
ded, and rippled sandstones and siltstones (Figs. 7B and 7C).
The primary structures are commonly obliterated due to postde-
positional pedogenic processes; however, the dominant recog-
nizable primary sedimentary structures include parallel lamina-
tion and ripple-drift cross-lamination. These structures suggest
a sheet-like depositional system developed upon a low-relief
mudat area.
Figure 2. Lithostratigraphic log of the studied Upper Triassic interval.
Upper Triassic freshwater limestones from Poland 137
Some of the beds have an erosional lower bounding surface,
in particular the sheet-like gray, poorly sorted conglomeratic beds
reaching up to 50 cm in thickness. The conglomerates consist of
oncoids (Fig. 7D), coalied wood fragments (Fig. 7E), reworked
pedogenic carbonate nodules (Fig. 7F), vertebrate bones and
unionid bivalve debris (Fig. 7G). Such a composition indicates
that the conglomerates originated as intraformational deposits
through reworking and mixing of the material derived from pond
sediments and paleosols by ephemeral streams operating upon
the mudat after heavy runoff events. Similar Triassic conglom-
erates composed by reworked calcretes have been described also
by Gmez-Gras and Alonso-Zarza (2003) from Minorca and by
Szulc (2005) from Upper Silesia.
The alluvium also encompasses black pebbles (Fig. 7H).
The latter formed probably in small, poorly ventilated ephemeral
pans where lithoclasts underwent impregnation by organic mat-
ter and were incorporated into uvial sediments after redeposi-
tion (Strasser, 1984). Alternatively, the black pebbles might have
originated due to local wildres (Shinn and Lidz, 1987).
The main clastic mineral component is quartz, with sub-
ordinate contributions of clay minerals, K-feldspars, and car-
bonates. Among the clay minerals, illite, kaolinite, and very
subordinate, mixed-layered illite/smectite have been detected
(Lewandowska et al., 2001). The lowermost parts of the studied
succession contain chlorite also. The clastic intercalations often
show green or red color mottling, reecting postdepositional
pedogenic processes.
Palustrine Facies
The palustrine facies dominates among the freshwater sedi-
ments and comprises some 80 percent of the entire carbonate suc-
cession of the Wo zniki Limestone. This facies is particularly well
developed in the central part of the basin, i.e., between Cynkw
IVb
CHERTS
MUDCRACKS
LIMESTONES
DOLOMITES
MARLS
MUDSTONES
ONCOIDS
PEDOGENIC
CONCRETIONS
STROMATOLITES
EVAPORITES
RHIZOIDS
PELECYPODS
COALIFIED PLANTS
SANDSTONES AND
CONGLOMERATES
RESIDUAL DEBRIS
ALTERED MUDSTONES
RHIZOIDAL NODULES
WITH SPARITE CEMENT
MARLY LIMESTONES
POROUS TRAVERTINE
CALCIFIED VASCULAR
PLANTS
UPPER GIPSKEUPER - PLAYA
SEDIMENTS (NOT DISCUSSED
IN THE TEXT)
PALYNOLOGICAL ZONE
(SEE ALSO TEXT)
CALCRETE CRUST
Figure 3. Measured sections and facies
interpretation from boreholes Ogrodzie-
niec (travertine) and Niwki (transition
from gypsiferous playa sediments to
palustrine carbonates) with the
13
C pro-
les. The shadowed parts of the proles
mark the gray to greenish sediment col-
or. The nonshadowed part of the mud-
stones marks the red and brown color of
the sediments.
Figure 4. Measured sections and facies interpretation of the dominant palustrine carbonates from Wo zniki and Cynkw with the
13
C proles.
For legend, see Figure 3.
Upper Triassic freshwater limestones from Poland 139
and Psary (Fig. 1). The total thickness of the palustrine carbon-
ates reaches 30 m (Fig. 4), but the carbonate succession is divided
into two parts. This is particularly visible in the Cynkw section,
where the two palustrine carbonate packages are separated by 5
m of uvial claystones and variegated mudstones (Fig. 4).
Palustrine carbonates are massive and/or faintly stratied
white micritic limestones and rarely marls (Figs. 8A8C). The
faint stratication is accentuated by intraformational breccias,
sheet cracks, calcrete crusts, teepee structures, or paleokarst
horizons (Figs. 8A, 8C, 8D, and 8E). The larger karst cavities
are commonly lled with clayey material, and the smaller voids
are lled with internal silt and sparry cement (Figs. 8D and 8F).
Some voids, in particular those related to rhizome systems, are
lled with marcasite and pyritic encrustations (Fig. 8G).
The dominant microfacies type is homogeneous micrite with
microgranular and clotted texture, which displays microscopic
features, similar to the automicritic peloidal muds generated by
bacterial mediation (Fig. 9) (Reitner, 1993).
The characteristics of the carbonate palustrine succession
of the Wo zniki Limestone show some obvious vertical changes.
The lower part of the palustrine carbonates commonly contains
pseudomorphs after dispersed crystals and aggregates of gypsum
(Figs. 10A, 10B, and 10C). Rootlet fabrics are notably scarce in
this part of the section. Upsection, the sulfates disappear, and the
rhizoid fabrics become more common.
The palustrine lithologies are composed of low magnesian
calcite. The noncarbonate components consist of clay minerals
(up to 3 wt%) and quartz (<1 wt%). Among clay minerals, illite
Figure 5. Measured sections and facies
interpretation of the proles from Lipie

Sl askie, Por eba, and Zawiercie. For leg-

end, see Figure 3.
0.8 mm
A B
D E
G
0.8 mm
H
F
0.5 mm
C
2 mm
Figure 6. Spring facies. (A) Porous travertines with calcied stems of vascular plants and calcite rafts from the Ogrodzieniec borehole. Scale bar is 3 cm
long. (B) Pisoidal and micropisoidal travertine from the Por eba site. Calcied debris of vascular plants is visible in the middle of the sample. Note the
reversed grading of the pisolites. Scale bar is 3 cm long. (C) Microscopic view of the pisolitic limestones from B. The pisoids are composed of faintly
laminated, clotted microbial grains. (D) Pisolitic-stromatolitic travertines from the Por eba site. The stromatolitic shrubs developed partly as overgrowths
on the pisoids (arrow). Scale bar is 3 cm long. (E) Calcied cone mold embedded in the travertines from the Por eba site. Scale bar is 3 cm long. (F) Per-
pendicular section of the calcied reed-like stems from the spring-fed pools from the Nowa Wie s

Zarecka site. (G) Microscopic view of the cyanobacterial

mats building the stromatolite fabrics in the travertines from the Por eba site. (H) Calcite micritic rafts, partly broken and sunk, from the pool limestones,
Nowa Wie s

Zarecka site. (Insert) calcied, bubble-like neustonic algae (cf. Botrydium sp.) from the Nowa Wie s

Zarecka site.
Figure 7. Fluvial facies. (A) Sheetood, alluvial deposits with intraformational, conglomerates from the Wo zniki site. (B) Cross-bedded, mica-
ceous alluvial sandstones from the Lipie

Sl askie site. (C) Plane-bedded, overbank muddy alluvial sediments from the Lipie

Sl askie site. Hammer

handle is 32 cm long. (D) Reversely graded alluvial sediments composed of oncoids, coal debris, and lithoclasts from the Por eba borehole. Scale
bar is 3 cm long. (E) Coalied wood fragment and small lithoclasts. Thin section is from the sample in D. (F) Reworked pedogenic nodules,
lithoclasts, bone fragments, and Chara gyrogonite. Thin section is from the sample in D. (G) Fragment of oncoid enveloping unionid shell. Thin
section is from the sample is D. (H) Black pebble accumulation upon eroded palustrine limestones. Scale bar is 3 cm long.
5 mm
3 cm
3 cm
A
C
G H
D
B
F E
5 cm
5 mm 5 mm
20 cm
3 cm
3 cm
Figure 8. Palustrine facies. (A) Typical, faintly stratied palustrine carbonate deposits of the Wo zniki Limestone from the Ligota site. Arrow indi-
cates tepee deformation. Hammer for scale. (B) Thick- and medium-bedded palustrine limestones from the Lipie

Sl askie site. Hammer for scale.

(C) Massive palustrine limestones with karstic surfaces (white arrows) and calcrete crust at the top from the Cynkw site. Note the uneven surface
of the carbonate complex. (D) Planar cracks and microkarstic voids lled with internal silt and sparry cement from the Psary site. Scale bar is 3 cm
long. (E) Small tepee deformation within the palustrine limestones from the Cynkw borehole. Scale bar is 3 cm long. (F) Microkarstic cavities and
dilatancy ssures (marked by arrows) lled with internal silt and sparry calcite, from the Por eba borehole. See text for further explanations. Scale
bar is 3 cm long. (G) Massive palustrine limestones with root cavities encrusted by pyrite, from the Psary site. Scale bar is 3 cm long.
A
C
E
F
D
G
B
3 cm
3 cm
3 cm
3
c
m
C
30 cm
Upper Triassic freshwater limestones from Poland 143
is dominant, with secondary kaolinite and a very subordinate
amount of mixed-layered illite/smectite. The clay assemblage is
of detrital origin and does not differ from that of the adjacent
alluvial mudstones and claystones.
It is noteworthy that the palustrine limestones underlying the
clastic intervals (mostly of uvial origin) are commonly dolomi-
tized. Dolomitization may encompass a supercial layer of the
palustrine limestone several centimeters thick (Fig. 10D), but
may also extend as deep as 5 m from the top of the palustrine
complex. The dolomitization created secondary porosity in the
carbonates and produced yellow, vuggy horizons, called cellular
dolomites (Figs. 10E and 10F), where the dolomite content can
be up to 85 wt%. Microcrystalline, uniform dolomite dominates
and replaces the calcite substrate pervasively. Most probably, the
porosity was formed by replacement of limestone by the dolo-
mite, followed and/or accompanied by dissolution of the non-
replaced limestones. The pores are partly lled with ne clastic
quartz and clayey interstitial sediments, indicating inltration by
meteoric waters. From the stable isotopes analyses (see follow-
ing section), it can be concluded that the dolomite formed from
solutions not subjected to evaporation. Taking this all together,
the dolomitization was closely related to the subsoil processes
(dissolution and precipitation) proceeding in the vadose zone
(Sherman et al., 1962).
Within the palustrine facies, silicied horizons perfectly pre-
serve the primary fabrics of the host carbonate sediments, includ-
ing gypsum pseudomorphs, and encompass altered carbonates up
to 50 cm thick (Fig. 10G).
Pedogenic Facies
The pedogenic sediments may be divided into soils devel-
oped on the clastic substrate (i.e., variegated mudstones and clay-
stones) and carbonate soils (i.e., calcretes).
The rst type encompasses a variety of paleosols from
incipient, regolithic soils (Inceptisols) to more matured orders of
Aridisols (sensu Retallack, 2001). This type of paleosol forms
mainly brown, nodular and friable mudstones, reaching 1 m in
thickness and passing gradationally to the underlying parent
substrate. Some paleosols display relatively well-preserved root
traces that diffusively penetrate the underlying host rocks. Pedo-
genic slickensides in the variegated mudstones are a fabric typi-
cal of semiarid Cambisol-Vertisol types of soil (de Vos and Virgo,
1969; Fitzpatrick, 1986; Retallack, 2001). The color mottling,
typical for these paleosols, seems to reect the early diagenetic
oxidation of the hydrated Fe-oxides (gray colored) leading to
mature Fe-oxides (hematite) and reddening of the primary gray
sediments (Turner, 1980).
The carbonate soils (Calcisols), which have thicknesses
ranging between several centimeters to 1 m, are developed either
as pedogenic nodules and vadoids (coated grains of coated ori-
gin) entombed within clastic substrate (mainly weathered mud-
stones) or as various pedogenic fabrics developed upon the
palustrine carbonates (Figs. 11A11D and 11F). Both types of
Calcisols display a wide spectrum of features diagnostic for their
pedogenic origin, such as glaebules, circumgranular and septar-
ian cracks, cutans, and root canals (Freytet and Plaziat, 1982)
(see Figs. 11D and 11E). Upsection, the soils pass mostly into the
palustrine carbonates, but sometimes they are covered by alluvial
material.
Some of the palustrine limestone complexes are capped by
massive calcrete of hardpan type (between several centimeters
and 0.5 m in thickness) (Fig. 8C) or are intensively karstied.
The surface of the karstied carbonates, as visible in the plane
view, is jagged and features karst fabrics such as sinkholes up to
1 m in depth (Figs. 11F and 11G).
RESULTS OF STABLE ISOTOPES EXAMINATION
The paleoenvironmental reconstruction based on the carbon
and oxygen stable isotope signals is consistent with the results of
the sedimentological and petrographical studies. The stable iso-
tope composition of the Wo zniki Limestone generally follows the
vertical and lateral variation of the sedimentary facies. Therefore,
we discuss the diversity of stable isotope signals from various
laterally equivalent facies and the isotopic variation as a result of
the overall, secular paleoenvironmental changes in the region.
Facies-Dependent Isotope Composition (Lateral
Fractionation)
By analyzing the spatial distribution of the stable isotopes
in terms of the facies diversity, one may nd a clear relationship
between the facies type and stable isotope composition (Figs.
12A and 12B). The most positive values characterize the traver-
tines from Por eba, (Fig. 12A), where
13
C ranges between 0.3
and 3.5, and
18
O ranges from 5.5 to 6.7.
Figure 9. Palustrine facies. Microgranular, lumpy micrite probably of
microbial origin (automicrite sensu Reitner, 1993).
Figure 10. Palustrine facies. (A) Gypsum nests (pseudomorphed) within palustrine limestones from the Cynkw borehole. Scale bar is 3 cm
long. (B) Thin section from the sample in A. Note the displacive and enterolithic form of gypsum growth. (C) Secondary porosity after dissolved
gypsum crystals. The voids are geopetally lled with internal silt and sparry calcite (from the Wo zniki borehole). (D) Dolomitized palustrine
limestones. The ochre staining (dark color at the photo) comes from Fe- and Mn-oxide impregnation (from the Cynkw borehole). Scale bar is
3 cm long. (E) Thin section from the sample in D. (F) Highly porous (cellular) dolomites with MnO-concentration (black spots). Thin section
is from the sample in D. (G) Thin section of silicied, gypsum-bearing, palustrine carbonates from the Wo zniki borehole.
A
D
F
C
B
G
3 mm
2 mm
5 mm
E
Figure 11. Pedogenic fabrics. (A) Pedogenic vadoid horizon (V) developed upon exposed palustrine limestones from the Brudzowice site. Note
the planar cracks and rhizoid fabrics within the palustrine carbonates. Scale bar is 3 cm long. (B) Planar cracks and circumgranular, desiccation
cracks featuring the exposed palustrine limestone from the Cynkw borehole. Scale bar is 3 cm long. (C) Slab of the mottled pedogenic nodule
isolated from the mudat clastic sediments from the Zawiercie site. Scale bar is 3 cm long. (D) Thin section of paleosol carbonates with mottled
fabrics and initial vadoidal cortex from the Psary site. (E) Thin section of paleosol glaebules with septaria from the Lipie

Sl askie site. (F) Plane

view of paleoweathering surface developed upon exposed palustrine limestones from the Cynkw site. Lens cap is 55 mm across for scale. (G)
Plane view of deeply karstied palustrine limestones from the Cynkw site. Depth of the sinkhole reaches ~0.6 m.
F
C
B A
D E
G
3
c
m
3 cm
3
c
m
V
5 mm
25
146 Szulc et al.
The carbonates that formed in the marginal ponds of the
spring zone (Nowa Wie s

Zarecka site) are lighter in

13
C by some
23 than the travertines formed directly by the spring ori-
ce. The range of
18
O is very narrow and uctuates between
4.8 and 6.2.
The stable isotope signals from the other facies (uvial,
palustrine, pedogenic) display a much wider range of values
(Fig. 12B) since they were inuenced by a broad spectrum of
uctuating environmental controls, particularly climatic. As in
the travertines, the carbon isotope values exhibit a wider range
(
13
C values from 11 to 0.5 versus PDB) than the oxygen
isotopes (
18
O values from 8 to 0 versus PDB). Strongly
negative excursions of
18
O (to 11 versus PDB) are related to
dolomitization proceeding under the inuence of meteoric waters
(Figs. 12A and 12B). Notably, a similar variation in the isoto-
pic composition has been found in spring-related Upper Triassic
freshwater carbonates in Wales (Leslie et al., 1992).
Evolution of the Stable Isotope Composition with Time
The
13
C proles from the three longest sections of the
Wo zniki Limestone (Niwki, Wo zniki , Cynkw) display a com-
mon trend, which undoubtedly reects the longer-term environ-
mental changes in the basin area (Figs. 3 and 4).
The uvial sediments that formed during the wet, pluvial
phase that preceded the deposition of the Wo zniki Limestone car-
bonates show relatively negative
13
C values, which might have
been caused by a signicant inux of meteoric water with iso-
topically light soil CO
2
derived from decay of rich plant debris.
The subsequent abrupt positive shift toward a
13
C range of 0
to +1 (PDB) accompanied the facies change from uvial to
palustrine, carbonate and/or sulfate deposition. Such a positive
shift may be interpreted as typical for evaporitic enrichment in
heavier isotopes. This in turn implies climate aridication. The
covariant trend in
18
O composition conrms this inference.
Subsequently, the
13
C curve displays a gradual shift to more
negative values. The isotopic trend is concurrent with a lack of
sulfate minerals and the more common appearance of root sys-
tems. Therefore, we attribute it to a progressively more humid
climate and a growing inuence of the isotopically light carbon
associated with meteoric water input and/or carbon derived from
decayed organic matter.
The
18
O does not display this apparent trend (Fig. 12).
Unlike carbon isotopes, O-isotope fractionation is more sensi-
tive to incidental factors such as short-term changes in evapo-
ration and meteoric water inux. Pronounced negative shifts of

13
C and
18
O characterize the previously described dolomitized
vuggy limestones. Such a negative shift indicates a denitive
contribution of meteoric water and indicates that the dolomitiza-
tion was related to the diluted water activity.
Long-term evolution in the travertine prole of Ogrodzien-
iec can also be observed. The observed gradual decrease in
13
C
values reects changes of isotope contents in the parent solutions
and/or migration of the spring orice zone. Since the
13
C co-
varies with the negative shift of
18
O (Fig. 3), the observed trend
most likely reects the increasing contribution of the isotopically
lighter, meteoric water to the formation of carbonates.
DISCUSSION OF THE ORIGIN AND GENETIC
MODEL OF THE WO

ZNIKI LIMESTONE
Paleohydrological and Tectonic Controls of the Origin of
the Wo zniki Limestone
Sedimentation of thick carbonate complexes of the Wo zniki
Limestone seems to be in contradiction to the arid and semiarid
climatic conditions prevailing in Norian times, since deposi-
tion of such a voluminous carbonate body requires an adequate
volume of the parent solutions. The apparent contradiction may
A
B
Figure 12. Cross-plot of
13
C and
18
O values for spring carbonates (A)
and palustrine and pedogenic carbonates (B).
Upper Triassic freshwater limestones from Poland 147
be plausibly explained if one assumes a crenogenic, i.e., spring-
related, alimentation model of the Wo zniki basin as already pos-
tulated by Bogacz et al. (1970).
It is very interesting that the facies assemblage of the Wo zniki
Limestone has a paucity of lacustrine sediments, which are lim-
ited to deposits formed in small and shallow pools fed by spring
water. Presently, these more resistant carbonates form gentle
hills, whereas the ne clastics of the mudat sediment adjoining
to the limestone underwent erosion, giving a reversed pattern of
the Late Triassic paleotopography. It seems that the Wo zniki
Limestone did not form one laterally continuous carbonate body,
as suggested G asiorowski and Piekarska (1986), but rather rep-
resents a group of more or less isolated smaller patches of
limestones, deposited in local swampy depressions maintained
by a spring system. The travertines would be the spring-adja-
cent facies, while the distal facies are represented by palustrine
carbonates.
As indicated by the stable isotopic data, the isotopic com-
position of the travertines differs from those of the other facies
(Fig. 12). Lack of data on the original isotopic composition of the
parent waters makes any further inferences, e.g., on the tempera-
ture of the water, uncertain. Recently, Sowakiewicz (2003) has
claimed that all carbonates of the Wo zniki Limestone are hydro-
thermal spring deposits. This conclusion is not reliable, since, as
already discussed, the sedimentary facies context, biotic data,
petrological and stable isotope signals, and the high temperature
of the solution probably characterized only limited, spring-adja-
cent precipitated travertines. The other facies, such as the domi-
nant palustrine one, include organisms (for instance, vascular
plants and ostracodes) that do not have the ability to persist and
develop in the temperature range (up to 97 C) suggested by
S lowakiewicz (2003).
As already noted the Wo zniki Limestone is poor in fossils,
particularly the palustrine facies, where only ostracodes have
been found. Beside the ostracodes, one uncertain gastropod mold
has been mentioned by Roemer (1867), who determined it as a
possible Paludina sp.
The main reason for the paucity of biota is that the palustrine
sediments formed under very stressed environmental conditions.
The elevated alkalinity and salinity hindered colonization on one
hand, and led to rapid degradation of the organic matter on the
other hand. Also, the paucity of palynomorphs resulted from their
degradation under high alkaline conditions. Moreover, the com-
mon occurrence of sulde concretions (Fig. 8G) indicates that
dysoxic conditions dominated in some poorly drained, water-
logged sediments.
Finally, since the basin was extremely shallow, the palus-
trine carbonates were desiccated very often. The environmental
stress not only eliminated most of the organisms but also selected
a very specialized group. A good illustration of such a selection
is exemplied by the ostracodes. It is striking that most of the
disarticulated ostracode tests have been found in voids devel-
oped within the sediments, i.e., below the sediment surface (Fig.
13). The ostracode colonies dwelt in the primary voids (i.e., root
canals, sheet cracks). The subterranean, coenobiotic living strat-
egy gave more chance for survival during the drought periods,
since the wet conditions, supported by soil moisture and inter-
stitial water, persisted there longer than in the supercial zone.
On the other hand, the coenobionts may indicate contrasting
hydrologic conditions between the dry surface and the subjacent,
groundwater-soaked sediment column.
An endogenic origin of uids is conrmed by distribution of
the Wo zniki Limestone, which is tightly bound to a master fault
zone that might have provided a conduit for the ascending solu-
tions. Typical carbonates of the Wo zniki Limestone lie in a belt
adjacent to the fault (Fig. 1) and do not occur outside this zone.
Such a distribution conrms the inference about the endogenic
origin and crenogenic nature of the solutions maintained in the
basin (cf. Hancock et al., 1999).
The tectonic control of the spring distribution imposes some
further constraints about the groundwater supply mechanisms.
As a rule, fault-controlled springs are intermittently active (Sib-
son, 1987); hence, their efciency uctuates with time. In the
studied case, the periods of water pumping in a given site might
have alternated with weakening or even total vanishing of the
source(s). This oscillation might have coincided with pulsing
seismic activity. Small synsedimentary dilatancy cracks possibly
record the paleoearthquake motion in the studied deposits (Fig.
8F), conrming this inference.
Climatic Controls
From the characteristics of the sedimentary complex of the
Wo zniki Limestone, one may infer that, aside from the endogenic
factors, the sedimentary processes were also stimulated by alter-
nating climatic conditions. The estimation of the climate signi-
cance is, however, more complex, since climatic inuences may
be overshadowed by endogenic ones.
0.8 mm
Figure 13. Thin section of root tube with disarticulated tests of coeno-
biotic ostracodes from the Psary site.
148 Szulc et al.
Co-occurrence of the gypsum and limestones in the lower
part of the succession indicates evaporitic precipitation under
a negative precipitation/evaporation balance, which is typi-
cal for semidry climates (Figs. 35). The gradual withdrawal
of the gypsum and the concomitant increasing occurrence of
rhizoid fabrics observed upsection most likely reect climate
humidication.
Additionally, the previously discussed
13
C curves indicate
a similar trend, reecting general climate pluvialization dur-
ing the time under discussion. The dry facies of the Upper
Gipskeuper were gradually replaced by more wet sediments
typical for the Steinmergelkeuper facies in the entire Central
European basin. This climatic trend was driven most probably
by a drift of the mid-European block outside the subtropical dry
belt, i.e., into the higher paleolatitudes (4550) (Szulc, 2007).
The paleoclimatic conditions in the Late Triassic also uc-
tuated in rhythms of shorter frequencies (Simms and Ruffel,
1990; Reinhardt and Ricken, 2000). The shorter-term changes
are mostly attributed to the orbitally controlled uctuation in
paleomonsoonal circulation, which played an important role for
the mid-European area in Triassic times (Kutzbach, 1994; Par-
rish, 1999). These short-term climatic changes are manifested,
rst of all, by alluvial clastic intercalations enclosed within the
palustrine limestones. Also the karstication, certication, and
dolomitization phenomena intimately related to clastic intervals
mark breaks in carbonate sedimentation and subaerial weather-
ing on one hand and indicate an increasing inuence of mete-
oric waters (i.e., climate pluvialization) on the other hand.
The chert replacement of the calcite and sulfates most
likely proceeded under uctuating pH conditions, i.e., between
the alkaline and the normal conditions when the dissolved
silica was reprecipitated (Fig. 10G). This process may also be
attributed to climatic uctuations; during the dry periods, the
evaporated solutions became alkaline, while the pluvialization
led to a decrease in their alkalinity. If the subaerial exposure
events coincided with dry climatic phases, the exposed palus-
trine limestones underwent pedogenesis.
Genetic Model of the Wo zniki Limestone
As discussed already, the majority of the carbonates of the
Wo zniki Limestone is genetically related to solutions supplied by
a huge spring system controlled by the active fault. As also noted,
the fault-controlled spring activity uctuated with time, so the
history of Wo zniki Limestone may be divided into periods of car-
bonate deposition and nondeposition. The lithological succession
of the Wo zniki Limestone indicates, however, that the endogenic
cycles were also being modied by climatically controlled fac-
tors (clastic input, pedogenic alternation, karstication) superim-
posed upon the endogenic mechanism.
Lithological variation (i.e., limestones vs. clastics) within
the Wo zniki Limestone rock assemblage necessitates a changing
ratio of the endogenic versus meteoric solutions supply. We can
envision four scenarios of this interplay:
Scenario 1. Endogenic Alimentation Active, Climate Arid
During the dry periods, the carbonates (and gypsum) pre-
cipitated from the crenogenic, undiluted solutions.
Scenario 2. Endogenic Alimentation Ceased, Climate
Semiarid
Carbonate deposition stopped and calcrete formed.
Scenario 3. Endogenic Alimentation Ceased, Climate Wetter
Carbonate sedimentation stopped, and karstication became
a particularly important process affecting the limestones. Dolo-
mitization progressed.
The intimate association between detrital sedimentation and
dolomitization processes suggests that the dolomitization was
driven by an increase of the meteoric water input during humid
periods. If the pluvial period was prolonged, some silicate miner-
als (feldspars, chlorite) underwent alteration and released (among
others) Mg
2+
. This led to dolomitization of the karstied palus-
trine limestones. The inference is also supported by the stable
isotopes data. The proposed dolomitization model is contrary to
those reported from similar continental settings where calcite-to-
dolomite transformation is attributed to uids evaporated under
arid climatic conditions (Richter, 1985; Sptl and Wright, 1992;
Colson and Cojan, 1996; Warren, 1999; Sinha and Raymahashay,
2004).
Scenario 4. Endogenic Alimentation Active, Climate Wetter
In this scenario, the denudation processes prevailed. The
muddy and clayey sediments derived from outside the spring
zone were eroded and redeposited. This process led to clastic
dilution of the carbonate-bearing source waters and hindered
unconstrained precipitation of CaCO
3
.
To summarize, as the presented data suggest, the switch
between the carbonate and clastic sedimentation may be plau-
sibly explained as an effect of climatic uctuations between
the dry and pluvial periods (Fig. 14). The dry periods favored
deposition of carbonate sediments (travertines and palustrine
limestones, calcretes), while the pluvialization obstructed car-
bonate sedimentation and promoted their denudation, dolomi-
tization, and replacement by ne-grained, detrital deposition.
This model is supported by the clay mineral composition. The
clay minerals enclosed in the carbonate deposits are dominated
by illite, which is characteristic of drier conditions, whereas
the clastic, uvial intercalations display increasing contribu-
tion of kaolinite, which forms preferably under humid condi-
tions (Ruffel et al., 2002).
Palustrine facies are commonly dened as subaerially trans-
formed lake-margin deposits (see discussion in Alonso-Zarza,
2003). This denition is, however, difcult to apply for cases
where the palustrine environment is not preceded by a lacustrine
stage, as in this case. The most probable sedimentary environ-
ment of the Wo zniki Limestone would be a low-relief area with
swampy depressions lled with gradually evaporated water.
The paucity of typical lacustrine sediments and fossils indicates
Upper Triassic freshwater limestones from Poland 149
that limnic conditions were limited to very small and ephemeral
ponds. Similar palustrine basins have been interpreted either as
oodplain ponds (Huerta and Armenteros, 2005) or as ground-
water wetlands (Tandon and Andrews, 2001). In both cases,
the basins would have been maintained by meteoric and uvial
waters. The specic character of the palustrine Wo zniki Lime-
stone depends on the crenogenic recharge system maintaining
the basin. The endogenic nature of the water supply resulted in
an unconventional relationship between the climate and conti-
nental carbonate sedimentation. In contrast to the typical situ-
ation, the crenogenic palustrine carbonates developed in arid
conditions, and they vanished with climate pluvialization.
CONCLUSIONS
The Upper Triassic (Norian) Wo zniki Limestone from
Upper Silesia is composed of freshwater carbonate sediment
formed in swampy depressions, fed by a huge, fault-bound
spring system. The travertines formed adjacent to the spring
orices, while in the more distal area, the palustrine carbonates
were deposited.
The crenogenic character of the solution supply imposes a
very specic model of palustrine carbonate sedimentation. The
pure carbonates formed mainly during dry intervals, whereas the
climate pluvialization involved meteoric and clastic dilution and the
nal withdrawal of calcareous deposition. This model is opposite
to some extent to the typical model of freshwater carbonate sedi-
mentation under humid conditions, which ceases, in turn, under
dry climatic conditions. The model presented here is supported by
geochemical signals and biotic indicators. It is remarkable that the
limestones are very poor in fossils (both faunal and oral), which
are more common in the uvial (humid) intervals.
In addition to the shorter pluvialization episodes, a secular
trend in climate humidication has been identied. This trend
reects a general climate evolution forced by drift of the cen-
tral Europe block to the higher paleolatitudinal zone.
Figure 14. Genetic model of the Wo zniki
Limestone. (A) Deposition of the lime-
stone during arid periods. (B) Degrada-
tion of the limestone and alluvial sedi-
mentation during humid periods.
A
B
150 Szulc et al.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The study was nanced by the State Committee for Scien-
tic Research grant 6PO4D 023 19. The drillings were possible
due to the permission of: Czes law Kawalec, Lidia Kucharczyk,
Maria Nakie la, Stanis law Proszowski, Janusz Psonka, and the
owners of the Brickyard in Lipie

Sl askie. We thank Renata Jach

drawing the gures and Bogus law Ko lodziej for his assistance
with photographic works.
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153
Alonso-Zarza, A.M., Dorado-Valio, M., Valdeolmillos-Rodrguez, A., and Ruiz-Zapata, M.B., 2006, A recent analogue for palustrine carbonate environments:
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Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006
A recent analogue for palustrine carbonate environments:
The Quaternary deposits of Las Tablas de Daimiel wetlands,
Ciudad Real, Spain
Ana M. Alonso-Zarza
Departamento de Petrologa y Geoqumica, Fac. CC. Geolgicas, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
Miriam Dorado-Valio
Ana Valdeolmillos-Rodrguez
M. Blanca Ruiz-Zapata
Departamento de Geologa, Universidad de Alcal, Edicio de Ciencias, Campus Universitario,
28871 Alcal de Henares, Madrid, Spain
ABSTRACT
Las Tablas de Daimiel, Spain, is one of the scarce, freshwater wetlands areas still
preserved in southern Europe. The wetland is fed by surface and groundwater. We
studied the Quaternary sedimentary record of Las Tablas in a drill hole that penetrat-
ed 38.5 m of shallow-lake and uvial deposits. Differences in the dominantly micritic
muds indicate three main stages of development. In the lowest stage, unit A, (Lower?
to Middle Pleistocene) the slightly saline wetland developed under a relatively arid
climate that favored slow ow movement of the uvial system and the disconnection
of the ponded areas. In the intermediate stage, unit B, (Middle to Upper Pleistocene)
extensive peat developed during wetter conditions. Biosiliceous sediments (diatoms
and sponge spicules) also accumulated in this swampy setting. In the latter stage, unit
C, (Upper Pleistocene to Holocene) palustrine carbonates formed in a freshwater envi-
ronment with desiccation events, followed by uvial reworking of the lake margins.
Lithication of these deposits was relatively fast (<10,000 yr). The studies of the core,
including mineralogy, petrography, stables isotopes, and pollen analyses, indicate that
these sediments are similar to those of ancient palustrine sequences. Therefore, Las
Tablas can be considered as a recent analogue for freshwater palustrine systems that
have no marine inuence. These systems are very sensitive to changes in climate or
base level, and their study is needed to better understand the terrestrial sedimentary
record. Study is needed also to determine how to preserve these wetlands.
Keywords: palustrine carbonates, wetlands, Quaternary, peat, vegetation, Spain.
RESUMEN
Las Tablas de Daimiel constituyen uno de los escasos humedales de agua dulce
que an se conservan en el sur de Europa, concretamente en Espaa. El humedal
est abastecido por aguas superciales y subterrneas. El registro sedimentario
154 Alonso-Zarza et al.
as a consequence of climate, the feeding mechanism may vary
with time. Such is the case of Las Tablas de Daimiel, which
are wetlands fed by both surface and groundwater. This is also
the case of many ancient palustrine deposits (Sanz et al., 1995;
Gierlowski-Kordesch, 1998).
Las Tablas de Daimiel, in the interior of the Iberian Penin-
sula, are a good example of wetland areas totally isolated from
any marine inuence because they are at present one of the last
examples of wetlands in southern Europe and contain a unique
freshwater ecosystem (lvarez-Cobelas and Cirujano, 1996).
They contain a relatively thick sedimentary record, including
almost 40 m of freshwater uvio-lacustrine carbonates, mostly
chalky, but also indurated hard freshwater carbonates with
some peat intervals. These sediments show many of the fea-
tures as ancient palustrine deposits, such as desiccation cracks,
bioturbation, root traces, and even mottling. Moreover, the fact
that some of them are indurated, even though they are recent,
is proof that diagenetic processes operate relatively fast in these
deposits, even if their initial composition is presumed stable,
mostly low-magnesium calcite. Ancient examples also indicate
that palustrine deposits easily undergo diagenetic processes
without signicant burial (Wright et al., 1997; Anadn et al.,
2000), but there are few constraints regarding the timing of lith-
ication and induration.
In this paper, we describe the recent and ancient sedi-
mentary record of Las Tablas de Daimiel through the detailed
study of a 38.5 m core by utilizing mineralogy, petrography,
palynology, and isotope geochemistry. This multidisciplinary
approach provides a data set that allows a better understand-
ing and a clearer interpretation of the sedimentary and biologi-
Cuaternario de Las Tablas, se ha estudiado mediante un sondeo en el que se cortaron
38.5 m de depsitos lacustres someros y uviales, esencialmente carbonatos micrticos.
Las caractersticas de los sedimentos permiten diferenciar tres principales etapas de
sedimentacin. En la primera etapa, unidad A, (Pleistoceno Inferior? a Medio) el
humedal era ligeramente salino y se desarroll bajo un clima relativamente rido que
favoreci el ujo ms lento del sistema uvial, permitiendo la desconexin de las zonas
encharcadas. En la etapa intermedia, unidad B, (Pleistoceno Medio a Superior) el
amplio desarrollo de turberas indica condiciones ms hmedas, en las que dentro de
las reas pantanosas tambin se depositaron sedimentos biosilceos (diatomeas y
espculas de esponjas). En la ltima etapa, unidad C, (Pleistoceno Superior a Holoce-
no) los sedimentos caractersticos son carbonatos palustres formados en un ambiente
de agua dulce con eventos de desecacin seguidos de posterior retrabajamiento de los
mrgenes lacustres por canales uviales. La liticacin de estos depsitos fue relativa-
mente rpida (<10000 aos). El estudio llevado a cabo en el sondeo (mineraloga,
petrografa, istopos estables, anlisis polnicos) indica que estos sedimentos son simi-
lares a las secuencias palustres del registro geolgico. Por tanto, Las Tablas de Daimiel
pueden considerarse como un anlogo reciente para sistemas palustres de agua dulce
que no tengan inuencia marina. Estos sistemas son muy sensibles a cambios climti-
cos y/o del nivel de base, por lo que su estudio es necesario para conocer mejor el
registro sedimentario continental, pero tambin para preservar estos humedales.
Palabras clave: carbonatos palustres, humedales, Cuaternario, turba, vegetacin, Espaa.
INTRODUCTION
Palustrine deposits are widely recognized in the sedimen-
tary record. They are very common in Mesozoic and Cenozoic
terrestrial basins (see Gierlowski-Kordesch and Kelts, 2000),
and some of the classical examples come from southern France
(Freytet and Plaziat, 1982). They are also present in more
ancient deposits, such as the Devonian of New York (Duna-
gan and Driese, 1999). In this latter case, palustrine deposits
demonstrate evidence for the occupation of land by plants. The
Florida Everglades are commonly cited as a recent analogue
for ancient palustrine carbonate sequences (Platt and Wright,
1992); however, we suggest two additional constraints on any
proposed recent analogue for palustrine sediments. The rst is
that the analogue should include a clear sedimentary record that
allows its interpretation, and the other is that the water compo-
sition be mostly freshwater. Wetland areas of inland terrains
can easily be isolated from marine inuence, so if they have
been accumulating for a long time, they should contain a useful
sedimentary record.
The relative contribution of groundwater and surface
water to the inundated area seems important in distinguish-
ing between lakes and wetlands. Following Currey (1990), it
is considered that wetlands are fed primarily by groundwater,
when the groundwater table intersects the landscape, but that
wetlands also may receive surface water by sheet ows; con-
versely, lakes are primarily fed by surface water from rivers
and streams that enter the basin, with secondary groundwater
contributions (Dunagan and Turner, 2004). Even in modern
environments this differentiation is difcult to make, because
Recent wetland-palustrine deposits in Spain 155
cal processes, water chemistry, and diagenesis of palustrine or
wetlands environments in Las Tablas. We suggest that Las
Tablas de Daimiel wetlands are an analogue for palustrine car-
bonate deposits not inuenced by marine processes.
GEOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
Las Tablas de Daimiel are located in the central part of
Spain (Fig. 1) in the so-called Llanura Manchega (Mancha
Plain) (Prez-Gonzlez, 1982, 1996). The area is characterized
by several at surfaces, situated at different elevations. The u-
vial network is scarcely incised and shows poorly dened chan-
nels with wide ponded areas and a low degree of terrace devel-
opment (Rodrguez Garca and Prez-Gonzlez, 2002). Las
Tablas de Daimiel developed on a Pliocene erosional surface,
named the Lower Surface of Llanura Manchega, which has
abundant dissolution features, such as dolines and uvalas, that
are up to 900 m across and 1015 m deep and contain temporal
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L
A
G
U
T
R
O
P
M
E
D
IT
E
R
R
A
N
E
A
N
S
E
A
NORTH-AFRICA
FRANCE
IBERIAN
PENINSULA
Ciudad
Real
Province
0
40N
Las Tablas
de Daimiel
A
LT-199906
m k 0 1 5 0
34145W
390758N
Las Tablas de Daimiel
Guadiana River
Gigela River
B
Outline of the National Park borders
Figure 1. (A) Location of Las Tablas de Daimiel in the interior of the Iberian Peninsula. (B) Aerial view of the wetland.
156 Alonso-Zarza et al.
ponds. The Pliocene surface is incised less than 20 m by the main
rivers (Portero and Ramrez, 1988): Zncara, Gigela, Guadiana,
and Azuer.
Las Tablas comprise the largest wetland of the south-
ern Meseta of Spain. Initially, they formed by the ooding of
Guadia na and Gigela Rivers, together with the upwelling of
groundwaters through many springs referred to as eyes. The
relative feeding by surface versus groundwater discharge varied
in time and space. The total wetland area thirty years ago was
~6000 ha, but today, it has been reduced to 1675 ha, included
in the 1928 ha of Las Tablas de Daimiel National Park. All of
the multidisciplinary studies carried out recently at this national
park are recorded in the extensive monograph edited by lvarez-
Cobelas and Cirujano (1996), which provides much of the data
presented in this environmental setting. The climatic setting of
the Las Tablas is classied as cold, temperate continental with a
dry season. Isotherms range from 12 to 14 C, rainfall varies from
400 to 500 mm per year, and potential evapotranspiration aver-
ages 778 mm per year (lvarez-Cobelas and Cirujano, 1996).
At present, surface water on the Las Tablas wetlands is shal-
low, usually less that 1 m in depth (Fig. 2). The aquatic environ-
ment is highly turbid with high sedimentation rates. The wetlands
are dominated by carbonate and sulfate ions, and the waters are
hypertrophic. High levels of organic pollution come from the sur-
rounding towns; however, pollution by pesticides and heavy met-
als is negligible (lvarez-Cobelas and Cirujano, 1996; Dorado
Valio et al., 2004).
MATERIAL AND METHODS
A truck-mounted pneumatic drill was used to obtain the
10-cm-diameter Las Tablas de Daimiel (LT) core from the cen-
tral area of Las Tablas de Daimiel National Park, on the edge of
Laguna Permanente (Fig. 1). The mineralogy of the sediments
was determined using a Philips XDR system operating at 40 kV
and 30 mA with monochromated CuK radiation. We studied
only 15 stained thin sections (due to the paucity of well-indurated
carbonate beds) by transmission light microscopy. We performed
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with a JEOL 6.400 working
at 20 kV on gold-covered surfaces. Isotope measurements were
performed on powdered samples of the chalky limestones. The
analyses were performed at the Stable Isotope Laboratory of the
Estacin Experimental del Zaidn (Consejo Superior de Investi-
gationes Cienticas, Spain). Samples were ground to <200 mesh
and treated with 100% phosphoric acid. Isotopic ratios were mea-
sured by a Finnigan MAT 252 mass spectrometer. Carrara and
EEZ-1 were used as a standard previously calibrated to NBS-18
and NBS-19. Most of the analyses focused on the middle 8.6 m
section of the core (14 samples), with fewer (11) samples from
the remaining 29.9 m. Data are expressed relative to Peedee
belemnite (PDB). Pollen was extracted from the sediment by
otation on Thoulets solution (Goeury and Beaulieu, 1979)
without acetolysis; 315 pollen samples were analyzed. Radio-
carbon ages were obtained from organic sediment samples by
Beta Analytic Inc. (Miami, Florida, USA) using traditional tech-
niques (Table 1). The Th/U analyses were performed at Jaume
Almera Institute using the techniques of J.L. Bischoff (U.S. Geo-
logical Survey, Menlo Park; R. Juli, 2002, personal commun.).
Sample LT-86 (13.42 m) was dated at 180,000 yr B.P.
The amino acid racemization analyses for age estimation on
gastropods (Table 2) were carried out at North East Amino Acid
Racemization Laboratory (NEAAR, University of York, UK).
The majority of the amino acids resolvable had reached equi-
librium, allowing only a minimum age. Based on temperature
estimates for the region, the minimum age is estimated as older
than oxygen isotope stage (OIS) 7.
Figure 2. View of the wetland. Reeds are
common in the margins of the shallow-
water bodies.
Recent wetland-palustrine deposits in Spain 157
FACIES ANALYSES OF THE SEDIMENTARY RECORD
OF THE CORE
The study presented in this paper is based mostly on the anal-
yses of the sediments of Las Tablas (LT) core (Fig. 3), combined
with some observations of recent sediments outcropping in the
Las Tablas area. The Las Tablas core is 38.5 m and is composed
mainly of carbonates, with some clays and peat horizons. Dat-
ing methods indicate that the lowest dated deposits are Middle
Pleistocene, although it is difcult to know exactly the age of the
oldest sediments recorded in the core. The most recent deposits
are Holocene. By considering the types of sediments that may
indicate differences in the characteristics of the wetland environ-
ment, the overall sedimentary succession can be subdivided in
three units (Fig. 3), which are from bottom to top:
Unit A
Description
The thickness of this lower part (unit A) is 17 m, including
mostly white soft-chalky micritic carbonate layers with inter-
calated indurated limestone beds and gray to beige mudstones.
Thickness of the different beds varies from a few centimeters to
1 m. In general, the hard limestone beds are thinner than the soft
carbonates. Lamination is rare, and the beds are usually mas-
sive. Rare brown mudstones consisting of illite and smectite
with minor amounts of quartz and calcite occur in centimeter-
scale intervals.
The chalky carbonate beds are white to beige and contain gas-
tropod fragments, root traces, and occasionally oncoids. Mineral-
ogically, they consist of calcite (15%100%), clays (0%45%),
dolomite (0%70%), aragonite (0%5%), and traces of opal and
gypsum. Dolomite, opal, and gypsum traces occur mostly in the
lower 5 m of unit A. The clays are illite, sepiolite, and smectites.
The occurrence of opal is related to minor amounts of silica phy-
toliths, and gypsum occurs as lenticular crystals within the lime
mud. The mollusc shells, which show important dissolution fea-
tures, consist of aragonite. Calcite and dolomite crystals are ne
(<1 m across) with a varied subeuhedral morphology. Spherical
forms are either high-magnesium calcite (Fig. 4A) and/or dolo-
mite; some dolomite crystals also exhibit rhombohedral mor-
phologies. The more spherical forms of high-magnesium calcite
and dolomite occur on phytoliths. SEM studies have shown the
presence of calcied tubes, calcareous sponge spicules, siliceous
phytoliths, euglenophyte algae, organic lms, and fragments of
vegetal tissues.
Hard indurated limestone beds are relatively thin (510
cm), and these deposits display a variety of microfacies. In the
lowest portion of unit A, the limestones are micrites with len-
ticular gypsum molds. The micrite is undergoing recrystalliza-
tion to microspar and pseudospar (Fig. 4B); the gypsum molds
are commonly cemented by calcite. The overall fabric is a
coarse calcite crystalline mosaic with pseudomorphs of gypsum.
Oncoids occur occasionally and are composed of microsparitic
nuclei with gypsum molds enveloped by micritic laminae (Fig.
4C), which also show gypsum pseudomorphs, which in some
places display a radial arrangement. At the top of unit A, the
limestones are biomicrites with gastropods, charophytes, and
ostracodes (Fig. 4D). These lack gypsum molds and evidence
of recrystallization, but cementation by calcite spar is common
mostly in the intraparticle porosity.
Pollen analyses indicate a mean of 200020,000 grains of
pollen per gram of sample. The main taxa are: Pinus, Cupres-
saceae, Chenopodiaceae-Amaranthaceae, Poaceae, Astera-
ceae, and Caryophyllaceae. The most represented aquatic taxa
are Cyperaceae, Potamogeton, and Typha monade; these three
taxa constitute almost the total of the aquatic pollen compound.
Detailed studies of pollen have been carried out by Valdeolmillos
Rodrguez (2005).
Interpretation
These sediments were deposited in a lacustrine environ-
ment in which the water changed from slightly saline to fresh.
In the lowermost part, the presence of gypsum molds indi-
cates a slightly saline lake system, probably closed, in which
micrite precipitated, probably as high-magnesium calcite,
induced by processes related to photosynthetic organisms.
The micrite also could have formed by abiogenic processes,
such as temperature or pCO
2
changes, as in many other lake
systems (Kelts and Hs, 1978). The recognition of spherical
morphologies in both high-magnesium calcite and the traces
of dolomite indicates an organic origin of these carbonates,
TABLE 1. RADIOCARBON DATES
IN THE LAS TABLAS DE DAIMIEL CORE
Laboratory
reference
Sample Depth
(m)
Conventional
14
C age
(yr B.P.)
- 135635 LT-22 3.30 8500 50
- 135636 LT-24 3.90 19,010 60
- 135637 LT-45 6.36 21,120 60
- 135638 LT-50 6.99 30,980 170
- 135639 LT-60 8.08 25,160 100
- 135640 LT-79 12.60 25,280 140
- 132973 LT-84 13.28 >44,940 (radiocarbon dead)
- 132974 LT-124 16.57 >41,850 (radiocarbon dead)
TABLE 2. GASTROPODS OF LAS TABLAS (LT) DE DAIMIEL
SEQUENCE USED FOR AMINO ACID RACEMIZATION ANALYSES
Sample Depth
(m)
Gastropods
LT-105 15.39 Pseudotachea splendida (Draparnaud, 1801)
LT-120 16.30 Planorbarius metidjensis (Forbes, 1838)
LT-130 17.05 Planorbarius metidjensis (Forbes, 1838)
Hydrobia sp.
Stagnicola cf. fuscus (C. Peiffer, 1821)
LT-155 18.35 Planorbarius metidjensis (Forbes, 1838)
LT-188 21.18 Anisus sp.
0
8.500 50 BP
19.010 60 BP
21.120 60 BP
30.980 170 BP
25.160 100 BP
25.280 140 BP
> 44.940 BP (radiocarbon dead)
> 41.850 BP (radiocarbon dead)
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
39
m
180.000 BP (U/Th)
Lime mud
Intraclasts filled
channels
Organic-rich levels
Sepiolite-rich muds
Marls
Clays
Peat
Limestones
Silty lime mud
Carbonate nodules
Oncoliths
Stromatoliths
Rhizoliths
Intraclasts
Plant debris
Gastropods
Fragments of molluscs
Charophytes
Ostracodes
Legend
Samples for amino acid
racemization
Lower?
Middle
Pleistocene
Middle
Pleistocene
Upper
Pleistocene-
Holocene
Gypsum traces
Samples for isotopic
analyses
e
a
e
c
a
r
e
p
y
C
P
o
t
a
m
o
g
e
t
o
n
a
h
p
y
T
m
o
n
a
d
e
m
u
l
l
y
h
p
o
i
r
y
M
a
h
p
y
T
t
e
t
r
a
d
e
N
u
p
h
a
rs
i
r
u
p
p
i
H
Figure 3. Log of the Las Tablas de Daimiel core. Samples used for different dating techniques are also shown.
Recent wetland-palustrine deposits in Spain 159
probably associated with bacteria (Vasconcelos and McKen-
zie, 1997); this is conrmed by the occurrence of these spher-
ical bodies on organic remains. One of the most striking fea-
tures is the presence of gypsum molds in the oncoids, which
suggests the presence of certain cyanobacteria groups, such as
Synechococcus sp. These can play an important role in biomin-
eralization by calcite, gypsum, and even magnesite, as shown
experimentally in natural alkaline waters (Thompson and
Ferris, 1990). The occurrence of oncoids indicates some move-
ment of the lake waters, either due to agitation in the lake mar-
gin or to the entrance of uvial channels. However, in general,
the waters were quiet, as shown by the ne size of the micrite,
the lack of sedimentary structures, and the preservation of
delicate components (such as the opal phytoliths). The coarse
crystalline texture of some indurated carbonates, the fact that
the gypsum molds are lled by coarse spar cement, and the
overall spar cementation suggest that diagenesis occurred
under fresher meteoric waters, compared to the slightly saline
lake waters.
The change toward fresher waters at the top of unit A is
shown by the lack of gypsum molds. No clear subaerial expo-
sure features have been recognized, so it seems likely that the
lake system was relatively permanent, but shallow, as indi-
cated by the aquatic pollen record, the aquatic gastropods, and
the charophytes.
Unit B
Description
This middle part (unit B) includes 8.60 m of soft micritic
carbonates with intercalated dark-gray peat levels (Fig. 5). The
thickness of the beds is ~0.5 m. There is only one indurated lime-
stone level, but indurated carbonate nodules are common within
the marls and peat, particularly at the top of unit B. Mudstone
intervals are absent, but clay minerals are present in the peat and
soft carbonate beds.
The chalky carbonate beds are beige to brown due to stain-
ing by organic matter. The carbonates are composed of calcite
0.5 mm 0.5 mm
AAAA
20 m
4 m
AAAAAAA AAA
A
AAA
D
AAA
C
B
Figure 4. Lower part of the core (unit A). (A) Scanning electron microscope (SEM) view of spheroidal high-magnesium calcite crystals on the
surface of a phytolith. (B) Anhedral calcite crystals due to recrystallization-dissolution processes. (C) Microphotograph of a thin section contain-
ing oncoids; lenticular gypsum molds are present in the nucleus and coatings of the oncoid. (D) Hard limestone beds at the top of lower part are
biomicrites with ostracodes, gastropods, and charophytes.
160 Alonso-Zarza et al.
(70%100%), aragonite (0%10%), quartz (0%15%), clays
(0%20%), and opal (0%10%), with only traces of gypsum and
dolomite. Throughout the drill core, aragonite is found only in
the mollusc shells, which show dissolution features. The calcite
(low- and high-magnesium calcite) crystals are <1 m, subeuhe-
dral to rounded, and the crystals are difcult to observe under
SEM due to coatings of organic lms. The chalky carbonates
contain gastropod shells, charophytes, ostracodes, siliceous dia-
toms (Fig. 6A), siliceous sponge spicules (Fig. 6B), eugleno-
phyte algae, and other phytoliths. Gastropod opercula also have
been found.
The peat beds occur as differentiated intervals or as lenses
within any of the other deposits. They are particularly common
from 18 to 13 m. The inorganic component consists of calcite
(35%80%), clays (0%55%), quartz (0%35%), aragonite
(0%10%), and opal (0%10%). Framboids of pyrite are also
present in the peat beds (Fig. 6C). In these deposits, there is a
higher amount of biosiliceous allochems, and they are commonly
Figure 5. View of part of the core (unit B) containing a number of peat
beds (darker color).
60 m
10 m
AAA
A
AAA
D
AAA
C
B
0.5 mm
40 m
Figure 6. Middle part of the core (unit B). (A) Scanning electron microscope (SEM) view of diatoms and euglenophyte algae (rounded). (B) SEM
view of a siliceous sponge spicule. (C) Framboids of pyrite under SEM. (D) Palustrine microfacies of topmost of the middle part of the core.
Recent wetland-palustrine deposits in Spain 161
(Reed, 1998). May et al. (1999) have also found white to light-
green, massive or horizontally laminated diatomite sheets with
ostracodes, gastropods, and rootlets within palustrine systems
under uvial inuence in the Calama Basin of northern Chile.
Siliceous sponges are not common in this type of aquatic sys-
tem, although they have been described in some modern riv-
ers and lakes from Brazil (Volkmer-Ribeiro and Motta, 1995),
and their presence seems to indicate a lowering of lakes waters
in swampy systems (Wst and Bustin, 2003). In these condi-
tions, framboids of pyrite formed either by oxidation of FeS by
H
2
S (Butler and Richard, 2000) or by replacement of greigite
(Fe
3
S
4
) framboids by pyrite (Wilkin and Barnes, 1997).
Unit C
Description
The uppermost 12.9 m of the core consists exclusively
of carbonates with varied textures and hardness (Fig. 3). The
scale of bedding varies from decimeters to meters. Three dif-
ferent types of carbonates are recognized. Mineralogically,
all the facies consist of low-magnesium calcite (45%100%),
quartz (0%35%), clays (0%20%), and aragonite (0%5%).
There are no traces of high-magnesium calcite, dolomite, opal,
gypsum, or organic matter.
Massive beige to white chalky carbonates are similar to
those previously described and contain bioclasts of gastropods,
ostracodes, and charophytes. Organic lms and laments are
common. There are no diatoms present.
Hard massive limestone beds vary from 10 to 100 cm in
thickness. They are white and sufciently hard to allow prep-
aration of standard thin sections. These beds are biomicrites
with gastropods, ostracodes, and charophytes. Some intervals
display desiccation cracks, alveolar septal structures, pseu-
domicrokarst, and mottling. In some moldic porosity of mol-
luscs and in the desiccation cracks, there is coarse calcite spar
cement, mostly phreatic. The micrite crystals are up to 2 m,
particularly in the indurated beds (Fig. 7A); they are also com-
monly subhedral. Calcied and noncalcied organic laments
(Fig. 7B) and micritic fecal peloids (Fig. 7C) have been identi-
ed with SEM.
Carbonate-lled channel deposits with erosional bases are
present in the upper part of the core and are ~10 cm thick (unit
C). These deposits consist of a packstone of angular micritic
intraclasts (0.31 cm across), with up to 20% of angular quartz
grains averaging 0.2 mm, and some fragments of bioclasts. The
interparticle porosity is lled by coarse calcite spar (Fig. 7D).
The lack of organic matter in unit C is also demonstrated
by the low pollen content; the mean value is 510 grains per
gram. The main taxa are: Pinus, Betula, Corylus, Olea, ever-
green Quercus, deciduous Quercus, Cupressaceae, Ericaceae,
Poaceae, Plantago, and Asteraceae. The most common aquatic
pollen types are Cyperaceae and Typha monade. The diversity
of aquatic pollen is low but increases at the top of the core, cor-
responding to the Holocene (Valdeolmillos Rodrguez, 2005).
better preserved and less fragmented than in the chalky carbon-
ates. Fungal laments and also bacterial microrods are commonly
identied with SEM.
At the top of this unit (unit B), the peat intervals and the
chalky carbonates have hard biomicrite nodules with desiccation
features (Fig. 6D) that include cracks (vertical, circumgranular,
and horizontal), pseudomicrokarst, and root traces.
The mean total organic carbon (TOC) value of this unit is
44.5%, which is related to the very high mean pollen content,
which varies from 150,000 to 250,000 grains per gram. The main
taxa are: Pinus, evergreen Quercus, deciduous Quercus, Salix,
Cupressaceae, Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae-Amaranthaceae, Poa-
ceae, and Asteraceae. There is greater taxonomic diversity of
aquatic vegetation than in unit A, including: Cyperaceae, Pota-
mogeton, Typha monade and tetrade, Myriophyllum, Nuphar, and
Hippuris. Details on the distribution of these taxa are in Valdeol-
millos Rodrguez (2005).
Interpretation
This middle part of the Las Tablas core (unit B), of Middle
Pleistocene age, was deposited in a very shallow lacustrine
system that passed from relatively oxidizing conditions at the
base to more reduced conditions at the top. The main evidence
for this, such as the peat beds, the richness in pollen grains,
and the siliceous spicules and diatoms, indicates a swampy-
paludal system. The anoxic conditions required for the accu-
mulation and preservation of the peat beds were produced
in ponded areas that were probably disconnected. Reducing
conditions could be established throughout the whole water
body, but were probably only permanent in the lake bottom
as a result of the combined effects of the high rate of accu-
mulation of organic matter of terrestrial origin transported by
slow-owing streams and in situ growth of plants. This is the
case for the marshes of the Miocene Teruel Graben (Alonso-
Zarza and Calvo, 2000). Although very shallow, these marshes
were ooded most of the time, as indicated by the presence of
numerous aquatic plants such as Potamogeton, Myriophyllum,
Nuphar, and Hippuris.
However, evidence of subaerial exposure is present in
these deposits as suggested by root traces and desiccation fea-
tures such as circumgranular cracks. All these exposure fea-
tures characterize a shift to a more palustrine environment.
This is the rst indication of the environmental change that
occurred at the top of this unit. Variations in water depth are
also indicated by the type and diversity of aquatic vegetation.
The pollen taxa diversity is lower in stages of subaerial expo-
sure, with emergent plants, such as Cyperaceae, Typha monade
and tetrade, dominant.
Diatoms are very common in Quaternary lacustrine sys-
tems of the Iberian Peninsula (Prez et al., 2002), and their
presence together with the spicules may be related to the abun-
dance of macrophytes, including grasses (Poaceae). These
later plants have high silica content, and their high accumula-
tion rates favor the preservation of these delicate components
162 Alonso-Zarza et al.
Interpretation
The deposition of unit C took place after a sedimentary gap
of ~140,000 yr, as shown by the age data. The youngest (Upper
PleistoceneHolocene) sediments of Las Tablas de Daimiel were
deposited in a uvio-palustrine system characterized by desic-
cation events. The oxidizing nature of the environment, which
inhibited organic matter accumulation, is reected not only in
the lack of peat beds, but also in the low pollen content. All these
features, combined with the carbonate mineralogy (all low-mag-
nesium calcite), indicate freshwater conditions of deposition.
Indurated limestones show characteristics similar to the clas-
sic French palustrine limestones described by Freytet and Plaziat
(1982) and Freytet and Verrecchia (2002). In both the classic
French palustrine limestones and in the Las Tablas deposits, the
micritic mud is interpreted to have been precipitated in the lake
waters both biogenically and physico-chemically. As the water
input to the palustrine system uctuated, desiccation, bioturba-
tion, and pedogenic processes disrupted the carbonate substrate,
but also contributed to the induration of the mud (Wright et al.,
1997). Therefore, we interpret the highest degree of induration
as a consequence of the shallower recent environments of Las
Tablas, as is indicated by the low aquatic pollen diversity and the
emergent taxa recorded (Cyperaceae and Typha monade). This
caused the sediments to be affected more intensively by early
diagenetic processes that could control changes in the size and
shape of the initial calcite crystals, which are larger in this part of
the core. Phreatic and vadose cementation is also common, pro-
viding more evidence that water table uctuations can contribute
to lithication in recent sediments. Unit C was deposited in an
environment similar to many of the Tertiary palustrine deposits
of the Iberian Peninsula (Alonso-Zarza, et al., 1992), southern
France (Freytet, 1984), or even some Devonian sequences from
the United States (Dunagan and Driese, 1999).
The desiccation events probably occurred with high fre-
quency during late Pleistocene to Holocene time. These events
favored the early and incipient lithication of the carbonate beds,
which were later reworked when groundwater lled the basins
or when ephemeral uvial channels drained the previous lake
margins. The channels lled with intraclasts clearly record these
processes. The beds situated between 3.8 and 3.3 m are of special
30 m
4 m
AAA
A
AAA
D
AAA
C
B
0.5 mm
20 m
40 m
Figure 7. Upper part of the core (unit C). (A) Scanning electron microscope (SEM) view of the micrite crystals, which are larger and subeuhedral.
(B) Calcied organic laments. (C) Rounded micritic peloids. (D) Microphotograph of intraclastic packstone also containing quartz grains and
sparry calcite cement.
Recent wetland-palustrine deposits in Spain 163
interest, as this interval tentatively corresponds to the beginning
of the Holocene (10,000 yr B.P.), during which the more humid
climate could have controlled the development of the channels
that reworked the previously desiccated muds and, consequently,
were mostly lled by intraclasts (Fig. 7D). The increase of aquatic
vegetation diversity corroborates this idea. Evidently, the muds
underwent a long desiccation event, probably from ca. 19,000
yr B.P. until the end of the Younger Dryas, when arid and cold
climatic conditions prevailed (Dorado Valio et al., 2002).
STABLE ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY
Detailed petrographic examination allowed the selection of
25 samples for analysis of stable isotopes (C, O) in the carbon-
ates, using only calcite. Most of the samples selected were beige
to gray chalky carbonates. We avoided indurated limestones for
two reasons; rst, because they are relatively rare in the middle
part of the core, the results would not be comparable, and sec-
ond, to avoid the effect of mixing of the primary micrite with
the later cements recognized in these indurated limestones. Thus,
the results reect only the composition of the primary lacustrine
muds and not of the cements or recrystallized phases that have
been observed in stained thin sections and with SEM.
The isotopic composition of the carbonates studied is quite
variable (Fig. 8). Values of
13
C range from 3.47 to 7.24,
and
18
O varies from 3.67 to 8.82. These values are in the
observed range of typical freshwater lacustrine carbonates (Tan-
ner, 2000; Tandon and Andrews, 2001; Alonso-Zarza, 2003). Two
main features are observed in these data: (1) the overall covariant
trend is very poor and negative ( = 0.22); and (2) there is no
clear differentiation between samples from units A and B, lower
and middle parts, although their covariant trend is different (unit
A = 0.42; unit B = 0.52). However, samples from unit C, upper
part, are easy to differentiate, and they display relatively uniform

18
O values (between 6 and 7).
The lack of covariance has been used as an indicator of
groundwater input into ancient wetlands (Quade et al., 1995;
Dunagan and Turner, 2004) and of open lake systems (Talbot,
1990; Alonso-Zarza and Calvo, 2000). We interpret the lack of
covariance to indicate open lake systems for the Las Tablas wet-
lands because this system is within a uvial network. The nega-
tive covariance of the middle part of the core (unit B) is an indica-
tor of a system in which new water input, either surface or
groundwater, is reduced. This condition favors the formation of
isolated or disconnected swampy areas because the residence
time is longer, which favors depletion in
16
O. Similar conditions
have been interpreted in some lake deposits from the Miocene
of eastern Spain (Utrilla et al., 1998). This water input was
coeval with a higher productivity of organic matter (OM),
mostly of C
3
origin, which accounts for enrichment in
12
C.
-10.00
-9.00
-8.00
-7.00
-6.00
-5.00
-4.00
-3.00
-2.00
-1.00
0.00
-8.00 -7.00 -6.00 -5.00 -4.00 -3.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00

18
O

1
3
C
LOWER PART
MIDDLE PART
UPPER PART
Figure 8. Plot of
13
C versus
18
O of sam-
ples of Las Tablas de Daimiel core.
164 Alonso-Zarza et al.
Microbial respiration was associated with bacterial sulfate reduc-
tion near the sediment-water interface, as indicated by the gyp-
sum molds and the framboidal pyrite; this also explains the
lighter carbon values that are typical in these swampy systems
(Dunagan and Turner, 2004). The differences in
13
C are not
easy to explain because the sampled facies are very similar. In
relatively small, short-residence water bodies, variations in pri-
mary biological productivity should cause larger differences in

13
C, particularly between unit B and the others, because the
organic productivity was much higher in this unit. Similar isoto-
pic differences have been also recognized in other ancient palus-
trine open lake systems such as in the Teruel Basin (Alonso-
Zarza and Calvo, 2000).
Although there are only ve samples from unit C (Upper
Pleistocene to Holocene), they have a distinctive signature. Four
of these samples have
18
O near 6. This is a typical value
of oxidizing palustrine deposits. Anadn et al. (2000) considered
that values around 6.5 represent the isotopic composition
of the diagenetic uids derived from meteoric waters. Tandon
and Andrews (2001) examined a large set of isotope data from
palustrine carbonates and found an overall narrow range of
18
O
values and a wider range of
13
C. The narrow range of oxygen
values that we observed in unit C is characteristic of palustrine
deposits and reveals the inuence of meteoric water during the
very early subaerial exposure of each one of the beds. The sample
that has a more positive oxygen value than the rest (1) may
indicate slightly more evaporitic conditions.
DISCUSSION
Major Controls and Evolution of the System
The sedimentary record of Las Tablas de Daimiel shows that
this modern palustrine environment consisted of a variety of ter-
restrial subenvironments, including distal alluvial, uvial, and
lacustrine environments, which occupied this inland plain as far
back as early to middle Pleistocene time. These subenvironments
suggest that a variety of shallow-water conditions were present,
and the subaerial exposure features suggest that water levels in the
wetlands have uctuated since the early Pleistocene. Las Ta blas
are considered oodplain areas of the uviatile Gigela-Zncara
system, which drains an area with well-developed karstic fea-
tures, such as dolines and uvalas (Prez-Gonzlez, 1996). The
thickness of the Quaternary sequence in Las Tablas, particularly
in the study core, may indicate karstic collapse and subsidence
within Las Tablas area, which would have assisted in maintaining
very shallow water bodies. The permanency of the shallow-water
conditions was controlled mostly by the balance between water
inputs and losses within the system. Inputs are either surface or
groundwater, and in both cases are carried to the ooded areas
by the rivers that have very low slopes, such as Azuer, Gigela,
and Guadiana; the latter originates from a spring called Los Ojos.
The losses are due mostly to evaporation, inltration, and, more
recently, human uses.
Although all of the deposits show subaerial exposure fea-
tures, the characteristics of this palustrine system evolved with
time as a response to the chemistry of water and to the basin
geometry (i.e., accommodation space) for the sediments. The
latter was controlled by climate and by the maintained balance
between the degree or lack of entrenchment of the river valley,
either due to changes in the base level or karstic subsidence.
Climate was important in controlling the following: the rate of
surface water versus groundwater feeding of the systems; the
volume and chemistry of water, which varied depending on the
distance the groundwater had to ow; the lithological composi-
tion of the catchment areas; the ratio of rock-water interaction;
and evaporation rates. All these factors determined the mineral-
ogy of the primary precipitates, their possible transformation dur-
ing early diagenesis, and the possible establishment of different
ecological communities (Gierlowski-Kordesch and Park, 2004).
In Las Ta blas, the clear sedimentary and biological differences
in the core allow for its subdivision into three major units that
reect the complex interplay of all the aforementioned factors.
Although a single core is not denitive, because lateral relation-
ships cannot be analyzed, the following is suggested about evolu-
tion of this palustrine system (Fig. 9):
1. From the Lower? to Middle Pleistocene (unit A), the
water chemistry of the uvio-lacustrine system evolved
from slightly saline to fresh, as indicated by the presence
of high-magnesium calcite, dolomite, and gypsum molds.
A more arid climate caused increased rates of evaporation
of either surface or groundwater, and the systems owed
slowly, leading to the formation of more isolated and/or
disconnected areas. The input and movement of surface
waters are inferred by the presence of oncoids. Toward the
top of unit A, the hydrology of these isolated areas shifted
from closed to open as climatic conditions became wetter,
resulting in deposition of freshwater palustrine carbon-
ates that lack gypsum and dolomite. It is possible that new
accommodation space was created due to the entrench-
ment of the valley river.
2. During the Middle Pleistocene, unit B, the accommoda-
tion space was lled with palustrine carbonates that pro-
duced a relatively at oodplain characterized by discon-
nected swampy areas. These areas were favorable sites for
vegetation development and deposition of organic matter
and biosiliceous sediments.
3. In the Upper Pleistocene to Holocene, unit C, age dating
indicates a hiatus between units B and C, but this gap is
not apparent in the core. The gap cannot be explained at
this time due to the lack of additional cores or surface data.
However, the surface karstic features suggest karstic sub-
sidence/collapse, which could cause a distal entrenchment
of the uvial systems. Potentially, this could have resulted
in the erosion of previously deposited sediments, and sub-
sequently generated new accommodation space lled later
by freshwater palustrine carbonates that formed in a very
shallow and oxygenated system. Under these conditions,
Lower? -Middle Pleistocene
Middle Pleistocene
Upper Pleistocene-Holocene
Dolines
Peat
Gypsum
Clastics
Lacustrine carbonates
Palustrine carbonates
Figure 9. Sketch of the evolution of the uvio-palustrine (wetland) system of Las Tablas de Daimiel during the Quaternary.
166 Alonso-Zarza et al.
organic matter preservation was inhibited, as shown by the
low pollen content. The depositional system had an open
hydrology at this time.
Origin of the Micritic Mud and Diagenesis
Carbonate deposits that accumulate in lakes may have a vari-
ety of different origins, ranging from detrital sources, inorganic
precipitates, biochemically induced precipitates, and completely
biogenic sources (Kelts and Hs, 1978). The micrite in the core is
primarily ne-grained low-magnesium calcite and high-magne-
sium calcite, and the crystal shape of the calcite varies throughout
the core. Aragonite is found only in the gastropod shells and is
not a signicant mineral component of the micritic matrix over-
all. The micrite also includes minor siliceous bioclasts of sponge
spicules and diatoms. Dolomite has very limited occurrence in
unit A of the core, and detrital carbonates are rare.
The origin of ne micritic muds is difcult to determine
because of the probable loss of some primary textures during
diagenesis. This together with the lack of primary sedimentary
textures in the wetland deposits make it difcult to infer the
mechanisms by which micritic mud accumulated in the wetlands.
Organic activity is recognized throughout the core by the presence
of organic laments, oncoids, and algae. Moreover, the rounded
morphology of some of high-magnesium calcite and dolomite
crystals recognized in the lower parts (units A and B) of the core
may be an indicator of their precipitation under bacterial inu-
ence (Castanier et al., 1999), as in some recent lagoonal environ-
ments (Vasconcelos and McKenzie, 1997). Hence, biogenically
induced carbonate precipitation by bacteria, cyanobacteria, and
algal activity were all possible within the water body.
Inorganic processes, such as seasonal temperature variations
and changes in pCO
2
due to degassing (Platt and Wright, 1991),
also likely contributed to calcite production. In addition, the
regional groundwaters were enriched in calcium and bicarbon-
ate by the presence of Mesozoic carbonate rocks in the drainage
basin and the dissolution features observed in the nearby Tertiary
carbonate deposits (Portero and Ramrez, 1988).
Most of the sediments are soft-chalky carbonate in which
the possible effects of diagenesis include: recrystallization, dis-
solution of lenticular gypsum crystals, cementation and indura-
tion of the lime mud, and some dissolution features specially in
the aragonite shells, the mineralogy of which is still preserved.
Recrystallization and dissolution of lenticular gypsum crystals
are recognized only in the lower part of the core (unit A). Both
are probably driven by the initial, less-stable mineralogy (high-
magnesium calcite, some dolomite and gypsum), so fresh phre-
atic or vadose waters may be responsible. Cementation occurred
throughout the core and is easily seen in the indurated levels; it
is particularly present within gypsum molds and between the
intraclasts of the top of the core (unit C). The cement phases
are mostly of phreatic calcite spar that formed in different
stages when base level was rising, allowing the groundwaters
to occupy the porosity matrix of the previously deposited sedi-
ments. Throughout the core, but specically within the more
recent sediments (younger than ca. 10,000 yr B.P.), there are
beds which are very indurated. This lithication affects mostly
the shallower, less organic matterrich sediments and is prob-
ably a response to different dry-wet cycles that favor lithica-
tion, without burial. Thus, Las Tablas are one more example that
demonstrates that desiccation of very shallow lacustrine depos-
its favors rapid lithication, as in ancient palustrine deposits
(Wright et al., 1997; Anadn et al., 2000), whereas lithication
is inhibited in more permanent water bodies that have not under-
gone such continuous subaerial exposure stages.
Recent Wetlands: Analogues for Ancient Palustrine
Deposits?
Micritic freshwater limestones showing subaerial exposure
features are included in the term palustrine limestones (Freytet
and Plaziat, 1982; Alonso-Zarza, 2003), and these deposits are
common in the geological record (see Gierlowski-Kordesch
and Kelts, 2000). However, narrowing palustrine deposits to a
specic depositional setting may be difcult because they have
been recognized in a broad spectrum of depositional environ-
ments including: modern and ancient coastal plain settings,
such as the Florida Everglades (Platt and Wright, 1992) and
the Lower Cretaceous of Croatia (Dini et al., 1998); oodplain
areas, as in the Clarks Fork Basin of Wyoming (Bowen and
Bloch, 2002), and in marginal areas of larger lacustrine systems
(Freytet and Plaziat, 1982).
Wright and Platt (1995) indicated that the abundance of
palustrine limestones in the sedimentary record is a testimony to
the widespread occurrence of seasonal wetlands in the past. Their
suggestion to consider recent wetlands as a modern analogue for
palustrine deposits prompted Quade et al. (1995) and Dunagan
and Turner (2004) to reconsider ancient deposits previously
interpreted as lacustrine as possible wetland in origin. The des-
ignation wetland is complicated by the numerous ecological,
sedimentary, and hydrologic parameters used to dene such an
environment. Here we use a denition of wetlands that includes
freshwater at inundated areas, usually connected to rivers. The
more generic denition of wetland is the one that consider that
wetlands must have one or more of the following attributes: (1) at
least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydrophytes,
(2) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil, and (3)
the substrate is nonsoil and is saturated with water cover or cov-
ered by shallow water at some times during the growing season
of each year (Cowardin et al., 1979). More recently, it has been
considered that wetlands are landscape units that have a spatially
and temporally positive hydric anomaly in relation to the adja-
cent drier land without being rivers, lakes, or marine environ-
ments (DGOH, 1991).
Examples of such riverine-inuenced wetlands of interna-
tional signicance include some rivers of Greece (Skoulikidis et
al., 1998) and the Loboi Swamp in Kenya (Ashley et al., 2004).
In spite of the wide use of the term wetland to include ancient
Recent wetland-palustrine deposits in Spain 167
deposits such as Late Cretaceous to early Tertiary ephemeral car-
bonate lakes of the Andean Basin (Camoin et al., 1997), the clear
relationship between wetlands and palustrine carbonates has not
been properly established, mainly because of the lack of detailed
studies of the carbonate deposits that are forming in modern wet-
lands. Our work has conrmed that classic palustrine carbonate
features such as brecciation, root traces, nodulization, desicca-
tion, and grainication (Freytet and Verrecchia, 2002; Alonso-
Zarza, 2003) are recognizable in the Quaternary palustrine
sequence associated with the Las Tablas de Daimiel wetlands.
In our opinion, Las Tablas de Daimiel should be considered as a
modern analogue for freshwater palustrine carbonate deposits.
CONCLUSIONS
The sedimentary record of the Las Tablas core provides evi-
dence that modern wetlands have been present since the Middle
Pleistocene in this area. The core may be subdivided into three
main depositional stages based on detailed facies analysis and
age constraints. In the lower stage (Lower? to Middle Pleisto-
cene, unit A), the wetland deposits included high-magnesium
calcite, dolomite, and gypsum molds that accumulated in a
slightly saline wetland that developed under a more arid climate
in which a slow-owing uvial system allowed the formation
of disconnected wetland areas. During the Middle Pleistocene
(unit B), a shift to wetter climate conditions is indicated by the
extensive peat development that was deposited in a shallow
vegetated swampy area. From the Upper Pleistocene to Holo-
cene, an open hydrology was established in the wetlands; how-
ever, desiccation events were common, which led to the typical
hard palustrine limestones associated with the upper part (unit
C) of the Las Tablas core.
A drainage basin rich in carbonates contributed to the domi-
nance of wetland carbonate deposits during the Quaternary as
Ca
2+
- and CO
3
H

-rich groundwater and surface water fed into the

system. The prevailing semiarid climate favored the inorganic
precipitation of carbonates in the water bodies, which combined
with biochemical and biogenic deposition. Variations in the cli-
matic conditions, base-level changes, and/or karstic processes
allowed the generation of the accommodation space needed to
form this relatively thick Quaternary carbonate sequence. One of
the causes of the preservation of these wetlands in the geologi-
cal record is linked to the diagenetic processes that rapidly affect
these carbonate sediments, causing induration of the micritic
mud in less than 10,000 yr without signicant burial. The initial
stable low-magnesium calcite mineralogy, such as in the upper-
most part of the core (unit C), also contributed to preservation.
Conversely, stabilization of aragonite skeletons must be a slower
process, as the shells are still aragonitic, even in the lower part
of the core (unit A). The study of the Las Tablas core indicates
that these carbonate sediments are similar in mineralogy, biota,
texture, and isotopic composition to those of ancient palustrine
sequences. Therefore, the Las Tablas de Daimiel wetlands should
be considered as a modern analogue for freshwater palustrine
systems that have no marine inuence. These systems are very
sensitive to changes in climate or base level, and their study is
needed not only to form a better interpretation of the sedimentary
terrestrial record, but also to develop a better idea of how to pre-
serve wetlands for the future.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work is part of projects DGICYT-BTE-2000-0779 and
CGL2005-05953-C02-02. The authors thank Volkmer-Ribeiro
for help with spicules identication. Scanning electron micro-
scope (SEM) studies were carried out in Centro de Microscopa
Luis Br. B. Valero and S. Dunagan are thanked for their reviews,
which helped to improve the previous manuscript. L. Tanner is
thanked for the editorial tasks.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
169
Marty, D., and Meyer, C.A., 2006, Depositional conditions of carbonate-dominated palustrine sedimentation around the K-T boundary (Facis Rognacien, north-
eastern Pyrenean foreland, southwestern France), in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and
Palustrine Carbonates: Geological Society of America Special Paper 416, p. 169187, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(11). For permission to copy, contact editing@
geosociety.org. 2006 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.
Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006
Depositional conditions of carbonate-dominated palustrine
sedimentation around the K-T boundary (Facis Rognacien,
northeastern Pyrenean foreland, southwestern France)
Daniel Marty

Section darchologie et palontologie, Ofce de la culture OCC, Htel des Halles, P.O. Box 64, 2900 Porrentruy, Switzerland
Christian A. Meyer
Naturhistorisches Museum, Augustinergasse 2, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
ABSTRACT
The Facis Rognacien is a sequence of highly bioturbated and pedogenically
modied palustrine carbonates that were deposited under oxic conditions around the
Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary in the northeastern Pyrenean foreland basin
(SW France). The sedimentary structures and early diagenetic features identied
(mottling, nodule formation, brecciation, pseudomicrokarst, cracking, charophytes,
Microcodium) suggest deposition in a palustrine environment between the subarid
and intermediate climate type. Sedimentological and paleoecological analysis enables
us to distinguish two facies associations, the lacustrine pond facies and the freshwa-
ter marsh facies associations. The majority of the carbonates are attributed to the
freshwater marsh facies. The lacustrine pond facies occurs only in isolated paleolows,
and is identied on the basis of its paleobiological content (charophytes, ostracodes).
This suggests that the palustrine carbonates of the Facis Rognacien were deposited
in a seasonal wetland (carbonate-producing freshwater marsh), rather than in the
marginal zone of a large, shallow lake. In this wetland paleoenvironment, all carbon-
ates underwent widespread pedogenesis, and small, ephemeral ponds are of limited
distribution, most likely recording deposition in paleolows.
Keywords: palustrine carbonates, seasonal wetland, freshwater marsh, Rognacien, K-T
boundary, SW France.
RESUMEN
La Facis Rognacien es una secuencia formada por carbonatos palustres muy
bioturbados y modicados pedognicamente, que se deposit bajo condiciones xicas
en la cuenca de antepas Pirenaica (SW de Francia). Su edad est entorno al lmite
K-T. Las estructuras sedimentarias y los rasgos diagenticos tempranos (carceas,
Microcodium, moteado, formacin de ndulos, brechicacin, pseudomicrokarst,
suracin) indican que esta secuencia se deposit en un ambiente palustre de clima

E-mail: [email protected].
170 Marty and Meyer
for freshwater wetlands, as they have for other depositional
environments (Liutkus and Ashley, 2003). Consequently, there
is a limited understanding of their origin, how they are sus-
tained hydrologically, and the type of sedimentary deposit that
may be preserved in the geological record (Ashley et al., 2004).
Only recently, following the model of Wright and Platt (1995),
Flgel (2004, p. 13 and p. 742) provided a revised denition
of the palustrine facies as pedogenically modied carbonates
of nearshore deposits of extremely shallow lakes with oscillat-
ing water level and densely vegetated shorelines, as well as of
carbonate swamps surrounding these lakes.
This paper analyzes facies within the palustrine carbonates
of the Facis Rognacien (Cretaceous-Tertiary [K-T] bound-
ary) of SW France, and reconstructs the paleoenvironment in
detail. Within the research area, all carbonates of the Facis
Rognacien are pedogenically modied and can be classied as
palustrine carbonates. However, carbonates clearly exhibiting
evidence for a primary lacustrine origin are very scarce and
occur only in isolated locations. These carbonates are described
as the lacustrine pond facies association, as it is inferred that
they were formed in small and ephemeral ponds. The majority
of the carbonates of the Facis Rognacien does not show any
evidence of a primary lacustrine origin, and are thus attributed
to the freshwater marsh facies association. This observed facies
distribution pattern cannot be well explained with the marginal
lake facies model of Freytet and Plaziat (1982), or the marginal
lacustrine facies of Platt and Wright (1991), respectively. More-
over, this makes clear the assertion that the palustrine carbon-
ates of the Facis Rognacien precipitated in freshwater marshes
within a carbonate wetland environment. This paper describes
the lithofacies associations of both the freshwater marsh and the
lacustrine pond facies, proposes microfacies and paleontologi-
cal criteria for their recognition, and reconstructs the ancient
wetland environment of the Facis Rognacien in great detail.
GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The study area is situated in the folded northern Pyrenean
foreland (southwestern France, Dpartement Aude), which is
separated from the North Pyrenean zone to the south by the North
Pyrenean frontal thrust and from the North Aquitaine folded fore-
land to the north by the sub-Pyrenean frontal thrust (Bousquet,
1997; Charrire and Durand-Delga, 2004) (Fig. 1).
subrido a intermedio. Los anlisis sedimentolgicos y paleontolgicos permiten dis-
tinguir dos asociaciones de facies: charcas lacustres y zonas pantanosas de agua dulce.
Las facies de charcas aparecen aisladas en paleodepresiones y tienen un contenido
paleobiolgico caracterstico (carceas, ostrcodos). Esto sugiere que los carbonatos
palustres de esta secuencia se depositaron en humedales estacionales ms que en las
zonas marginales de grandes lagos someros. En estos humedales todos los carbonatos
sufrieron modicaciones pedognicas importantes.
Palabras clave: carbonatos palustres, humedales estacionales, pantanos de agua dulce,
Rognaciense, lmite K-T, SW de Francia.
INTRODUCTION
Freytet (1971a, 1971b, 1973, and 1984) and Freytet and
Plaziat (1982) provided good overviews of the continental
deposits of southern France, including exhaustive descriptions
of palustrine sedimentological features. More recently, other
authors have described palustrine carbonates from the Cre-
taceous and Tertiary of France and Spain (e.g., Platt, 1989a;
Cojan, 1999) or provided reviews on palustrine carbonates
(e.g., Platt and Wright, 1991; Armenteros et al., 1997; Alonso-
Zarza 2003). Palustrine facies have only been recognized and
studied during the last thirty years (Wright and Platt, 1995), and
much less is known about them than about marine carbonates
(Alonso-Zarza, 2003). Nevertheless, palustrine sequences are
now known from the Carboniferous to the Neogene (Wright
and Platt, 1995), mostly within continental successions and
intercalated with oodplain deposits.
It was Freytet (1964) who introduced the term palustrine
(Latin: paluster = swampy, marshy), and Freytet (1984,
p. 231) presented the following denition: A palustrine lime-
stone exhibits systematically characteristic features of the
primary lacustrine deposit (organisms, sedimentological fea-
tures), as well as features due to later transformations (organ-
isms, root traces, desiccation, pedologic remobilisations). The
term palustrine is commonly applied as a nonmarine equiva-
lent for peritidal. Freytet and Plaziat (1982) interpreted their
palustrine facies as marginal lake deposits of shallow, unstrati-
ed freshwater lakes with swampy surroundings. Platt and
Wright (1991, 1992) and Wright and Platt (1995) expanded on
these ideas, noting that low shoreline gradients led to the exten-
sive exposure of lake margins at times of low water level, and
that many ancient palustrine successions show a dominance
of pedogenically modied carbonates over those recording a
primary lacustrine origin. Their analogy with modern envi-
ronments of the Florida Everglades suggested that palustrine
carbonates are the products of hardwater seasonal wetlands
(sensu Tarnocai, 1979).
Wetlands, however, are intermediaries between terrestrial
and aquatic (lacustrine) ecosystems, and palustrine environ-
ments are often studied in combination with other depositional
systems, such as lakes, deltas, or oodplains, rather than being
treated as a distinct entity (Liutkus and Ashley, 2003). Hence,
no sedimentological facies models have been developed as yet
Palustrine carbonates of SW France 171
A progressive and complex regression occurred across the
Pyrenean area during the Cretaceous (Bilotte, 1978; Bilotte et
al., 1983; Babinot et al., 1983). The orogenesis of the Pyrenees
started between Late Cretaceous and Early Tertiary times (Bous-
quet, 1997). Erosion and continental sedimentation were wide-
spread throughout much of the Pyrenean foreland from the Early
Campanian until the Early Thanetian (Fig. 2). Within the research
area, the basin was tectonically bounded to the north by the Mon-
tagne Noire Massif and to the south by the rising Pyrenean Range
(Tambareau et al., 1995) (Fig. 1).
The best overviews of the regional geology and paleontol-
ogy are those by Freytet (1970, 1971a), Jaffrezo (1977), Plaziat
(1981, 1984), Bilotte et al. (1989), Bousquet (1997), and Bous-
quet and Vianey-Liaud (2001). The text booklet of the geological
map of Quillan (Bessire et al., 1989) provides a short lithologi-
cal description of the Facis Rognacien, but to date, only Peyber-
ns and Combes (1999) have examined the Facis Rognacien of
the study area in greater detail.
STRATIGRAPHY
Generally, the terms Rognacien and Vitrollien serve as local
lithostratigraphic units in southern France (Provence) for the con-
tinental units of Late Cretaceous and Early Danian age, respec-
tively (Babinot and Durand, 1980; Babinot et al., 1983). The
Rognacien was introduced in Villot (1883) using Rognac near
Aix-en-Provence (Provence) as the type locality (Babinot and
Durand, 1980). In lithofacies terms, the Rognacien is character-
ized by an intimate association of lacustrine and palustrine marls
and limestones with various types of hypercalcimorph soils
(Freytet and Plaziat, 1982; Babinot et al., 1983). The lithostrati-
graphic units Rognacien and Vitrollien have also been used in
a chronostratigraphic sense in Languedoc and the Pyrenees
(Freytet, 1970; Plaziat, 1970; Bilotte, 1978), which are located
far away, however, from the type locality. Thus, and in order to
avoid confusion, we use the terms Facis Rognacien and Facis
Vitrollien, respectively (following Bessire et al., 1989; Fig. 2).
Montagne Noire
Aude
Carcassonne
Perpignan
Espraza
Nebias
Lavelanet
Foix
Pyrenees
Massif de
Mouthoumet
Limoux
Treziers
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d
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N
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F
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France
Research Area
N
10 km
Hercynian basement + Trias
Paleocene and Illerdian Cuisian to Ludian (Srie de Palassou) Post Ludian
Faults
221'E
4310'N
Mesozoic
Figure 1. Geographical and geological setting of the research area. NPFTNorth Pyrenean frontal thrust, SPFTsub-Pyrenean frontal thrust
(after Tambareau et al. [1995, 1997] and Bousquet [1997]).
172 Marty and Meyer
Previous work has suggested that the K-T boundary has to
be placed in the upper part of the Rognacien, and not in the Vit-
rollien (e.g., Bessire et al., 1980; Galbrun, 1989; Rocchia et al.,
1989; Westphal and Durand, 1990; Galbrun et al., 1991; Cojan
et al., 1998; Bousquet and Vianey-Liaud, 2001), although no
unequivocal evidence has been provided as yet for a golden spike
of the K-T boundary.
Within the research area, the Facis Rognacien is composed
of a sequence of 1525 m of palustrine carbonates without inter-
calated clastic material. The succession can generally be subdi-
vided (from the base to the top) into four units: lower marl, lower
limestone, upper marl, and upper limestone (Figs. 3 and 4). These
correlate with the M1, C1a/b, M2, and C2 subdivisions of Pey-
berns and Combes (1999), who identied paleokarstic megafea-
tures and dened erosional and karstic paleosurfaces (disconti-
nuities) at the base and the top of the limestone units. However,
this study does not provide evidence for the existence of such
paleokarstic megafeatures.
The transition from the underlying Poudingue Fleuri to the
lower marl unit of the Facis Rognacien is not clearly marked.
In this work, the limit has been dened where the clastic content
falls to zero. The upper boundary is well dened, and the overly-
ing Facis Vitrollien rests directly upon the upper limestone unit
(Fig. 3, section 2). The base of the Facis Vitrollien consists of
clays with only minor Microcodium compared to the rest of this
unit, where Microcodium is abundant or even rock-forming.
Besides abundant Microcodium, the Facis Rognacien is
almost barren, even within the marliest layers, many of which
could be classied as hydromorphic paleosols of the freshwa-
ter marsh facies. This is consistent with the highly bioturbated
and oxygenated nature, as well as the pedogenic overprinting,
of palustrine carbonates, which are both factors that are unfa-
vorable to fossil preservation. Nevertheless, paleontological and
paleoecological data gained from screen-washed samples and
the analysis of thin sections proved critical in resolving the com-
plex history of many lithofacies, especially those of the lacus-
trine pond facies association, where gyrogonites and encrusted
stems of charophytes, oncoids, and rare ostracodes are the only
recognizable primary lacustrine features. The lower and upper
marl units contain a Maastrichtian charophyte ora, whereas the
upper limestone unit contains a Paleocene ora, attributingat
least within the research areathe entire Facis Vitrollien to the
Paleocene and indicating that no major depositional changes
occurred at the K-T boundary (Marty, 2001, 2004) (Fig. 2).
PETROLOGY AND SEDIMENTOLOGY OF THE
FACIS ROGNACIEN
Typical Palustrine Features
Sedimentological Features
At outcrop scale, the four units of the Facis Rognacien are
generally easy to distinguish. The lower and upper limestone units
are chiey gray in color and are highly indurated (Fig. 4). A high
C
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e
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Facis Rognacien
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Poudingue Fleuri
Bessire et al. (1989)
C./M.
Thantien suprieur
Fluviatile sandstones
Sandy, calcareous marls (floodplain, paleosols)
Clays and marls (floodplain, paleosols)
Fluviatile calcareous conglomerates
Palustrine calcareous marls
Palustrine limestones
Marine limestones
Figure 2. Generalized stratigraphic framework from the Campanian to
the early Danian for the research area (not to scale; after Bessire et al.,
1989). Based on charophyte biostratigraphy (Marty, 2001, 2004), the
Facis Rognacien is attributed to the Maastrichtian and early Danian.
Palustrine carbonates of SW France 173
degree of indurationdespite limited burial or cementationis
a common feature of palustrine sediments (Alonso-Zarza, 2003)
and is explained as the result of mineralogical stabilization and
aggrading neomorphism (Wright et al., 1997; Anadn et al.,
2000). The gray color indicates zones with reduced iron only,
recording rather short subaerial exposure and at least seasonal
hydromorphism (Platt and Wright, 1992). The contacts between
the marl and limestone units are often very irregular, and dom-
ing-upward structures at the top of the limestone units may be
observed. Other features of the limestone units include prismatic
structures (columnar limestone), probably due to root bioturba-
tion (Klappa, 1978a, 1978b; Esteban and Klappa, 1983; Alonso-
Zarza et al., 2000), brecciated limestone (Fig. 5A), and nodular
limestone (Fig. 5B). The two marl units generally have a gray,
beige, or white color, and they appear structureless and homo-
geneous. However, mottling can locally be pronounced, espe-
cially at the base of the Facis Rognacien. Nevertheless, lateral
variation in lithology within the Facis Rognacien is typically
pronounced. Strongly brecciated limestone may laterally pass
into nonbrecciated limestone, and the limestone units may con-
tain intercalated marly layers or marly layers that cut through
them (Fig. 3).
Apart from Microcodium, the marl units contain very sparse
microfauna, and marls bearing charophytes (gyrogonites and
encrusted stems) and ostracodes are only rarely found. Through-
out the Facis Rognacien, red, yellow, and violet mottling is com-
mon, although this may be due to later transformation rather than
prolonged exposure and pedogenic reddening (rubefaction).
Figure 3. Schematic lithological logs of the sections 2, 4, and 5. Out of 8 sections studied, these are the only sections where charophytes could
be isolated out of screen-washed samples, allowing the determination and correlation of the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) transition zone (Marty,
2001, 2004). Throughout the Facis Rognacien, a pronounced lateral variation between and even within the sections in lithology, due to different
degrees of macroscopic pedogenic modication (brecciation, nodule formation), is characteristic. Note, however, that this macroscopic lithologi-
cal appearance of pedogenic modication is not related to the described lithofacies of the freshwater marsh and lacustrine pond facies.
174 Marty and Meyer
The Facis Rognacien displays a wide range of palustrine
features (alveolar texture, brecciation, coated grains and gravels,
cracking, crystallaria, mottling, nodule formation, pseudomicro-
karst), which provide evidence of extensive subaerial exposure
and pedogenesis. Some of these features may be observed at out-
crop scale (Figs. 3 and 5). On a small microscale, several features
are commonly intimately associated within the same thin section.
Descriptions and interpretations of the most prominent palustrine
features of the Facis Rognacien are given in Table 1 and illus-
trated in Figures 5 and 6.
Further, characteristic features of palustrine carbonates
were described in Freytet (1971a, 1971b, 1984), Freytet and Pla-
ziat (1982), Platt and Wright (1992), Alonso-Zarza (2003), and
Freytet and Verrecchia (2002). Ginsburg (1975), Hardie (1977),
Hardie and Shinn (1986), and Bain and Foos (1993), described
the recognition of subaerial exposure surfaces from microfabrics
Figure 4. Section 4 (Ravin de Couleurs) showing the typical litho-
logical sequence of the Facis Rognacien within the study area. From
base to top, the four units are identied as follows: lower marl, lower
limestone (with intercalated marls), upper marl, and upper limestone.
In this section, the upper limestone unit is more massive than the
lower one.
Figure 5. (A) Outcrop photograph showing strongly brecciated lime-
stone, interpreted as monomict and autochthonous desiccation breccia
produced by repeated wetting and drying (palustrine brecciation).
Scale bar is 15 cm. (B) Base of the lower limestone unit of section 1
LEncantado: nodular limestone. Hammer is shown for scale.
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Figure 6. Typical palustrine microfabric features of the Facis Rognacien (for a more detailed description, see also Table 1): (A) Circumgranular
cracking (curved planes) in a Microcodium-bearing wackestone. Cracks are lled with sparry calcite. (B) Partly brecciated limestone (palustrine
brecciation). Residual patches of micritic material are intensely ssured, but t and connection with the adjacent parts clearly indicate that they
have not been transported. (C) Nodular limestone, here a mudstone of the freshwater marsh facies association. (D) Rhizolith exhibiting alveolar
texture: dark micritic laments outlining elongate vugs and tubiform pores lled with articulated Microcodium colonies (gray, roundish patches)
and vadose silt. The pseudomicrokarst cavity (top left) shows a geopetal lling of crystalline (vadose) silt. (E) Alveolar texture: irregular and
cylindrical fenestrae and tubiform pores outlined by micritic laments. The cavities are lled with vadose silt and blocky calcite (crystallaria).
(F) Micrite-coated rounded ferruginous intraclast. Intraclast and matrix is composed of Microcodium-bearing wackestone to packstone.
Palustrine carbonates of SW France 177
of the adjacent carbonate substrate. However, articulated colonies
are also commonly observed within mudstones lacking any other
evidence of subaerial exposure. Microcodium structures appear
to have been very fragile and readily subject to disintegration into
single prisms (Fig. 7B). These prisms are a common feature in all
reworked, bio- or pedoturbated lithofacies and are thus widespread
in their distribution. If the prisms are slightly rounded or corroded,
they become harder to identify as Microcodium (Figs. 7C and 7D).
Also common is the association of reworked Microcodium prisms
with articulated colonies, indicating repeated periods of Microco-
dium growth and reworking.
The term Microcodium was introduced by Glck (1912).
Microcodium is a problematic calcitic microfeature of many cal-
cretes and paleosols, and there is considerable controversy sur-
rounding its origin and possible relation with calcied plant roots
(Esteban, 1974; Freytet and Plaziat, 1982; Freytet, 1984; Jaillard
in peritidal carbonates, which show many textural similarities
with palustrine carbonates.
Paleoecological Features
Microcodium
Complete, articulated colonies of Microcodium, as well as
reworked, disarticulated colonies, are found in screen-washed sam-
ples and in thin sections. Microcodium always exhibits the same
morphotype (type 1 sensu Bodergat, 1974 and Plaziat, 1984). In
thin sections, Microcodium shows corn-cob colonies in longitudi-
nal (Freytet and Plaziat, 1982; Plaziat, 1984) or spheroidal rosette
structures in transverse sections (Freytet and Plaziat, 1982; Kosir,
2004) (Fig. 7A). In situ colonies are found in all sorts of cracks and
cavities resulting from desiccation and root penetration. Here, they
are commonly associated with dissolution and intense corrosion
Figure 7. Lithofacies of the freshwater marsh facies association. (A) Mudstone with Microcodium colonies (rosettes) in a micritic matrix.
Transverse sections of Microcodium colonies show the typical rosette structure, associated with corrosion of the matrix at its margins. (B)
Microcodium-bearing wackestone to packstone with partly disarticulated Microcodium colony. Reworked prisms exhibit marginal corrosion and
rounding, suggesting multiple phases of growth and reworking. (C) Microcodium-bearing packstone containing single prisms and a disarticu-
lated colony (lower right). (D) Microcodium-bearing wackestone showing nodule formation associated with circumgranular cracks, mottling,
and pseudomicrokarst cavities (pmc), which are lled with crystalline (vadose) silt and blocky calcite.
178 Marty and Meyer
et al., 1991; Wright et al., 1995; Freytet et al., 1997; Kosir, 2004).
However, despite its controversial origin, Microcodium is a clear
indicator of terrestrial conditions, provides evidence for subaerial
exposure, and may be used as a criterion for the recognition of
paleosols (Klappa, 1978b; Alonso-Zarza et al., 1998). Recently,
Kosir (2004) suggested that its formation takes place during early
stages of soil development, probably reecting nutrient-acquiring
mechanisms used by certain types of specic types of vascular
plants of a pioneer community that are able to rapidly colonize
nutrient-poor carbonate substrates during relatively short-lived
phases of subaerial exposure.
Charophytes
Charophyte remains (gyrogonites, encrusted gyrogonites
and stems) are common in the Facis Rognacien and are present
in both screen-washed samples and thin sections (Fig. 8). Cha-
rophyte remains occur in all four units of the Facis Rognacien,
but not in all sections studied. However, in sections where cha-
rophytes are present, they sometimes occur in several units (e.g.,
sections 2 and 5 in Fig. 3).
The presence of cortical cells identies fragments of
charophyte stems within oncoid nuclei and other intraclasts
(Figs. 8A and 8B). Charophyte stems may serve as nuclei for
additional inorganic or organic carbonate precipitation. Inor-
ganic encrustation of stems can be explained by photosyn-
thetic removal of CO
2
and HCO
3

, leading to the precipitation

of calcium carbonate. Some encrusted charophyte stems show
laminated stromatolite-like structures formed by epiphytic
cyanobacteria, which appear to develop after eutrophication
of nutrient-poor environments (Martn-Closas, 1999). The
diverse modes and degrees of epiphytic calcication may pro-
duce different forms of calcication and fragmentation of the
charophyte stems, as illustrated in Freytet and Plaziat (1982)
and Schneider et al. (1983).
Modern charophytes live in shallow, littoral zones of tem-
perate to warm, alkaline freshwater lakes, where they are the
characteristic oral element. They occur in the photic zone,
to a maximum depth of 1520 m, although the presence of
stems usually suggests depths of less than 10 m (Cohen and
Thouin, 1987; Garcia, 1994). Charophytes commonly occur
together with ostracodes in low-diversity assemblages (Dean
and Fouch, 1983). Encrusted stems are delicate structures, and
cannot be transported far. Preservation is therefore only pos-
sible in a low-energy environment without signicant currents
or water turbulence (Dean and Fouch, 1983).
FACIES AND FACIES ASSOCIATIONS
The entire Facis Rognacien is essentially made up of two
types of carbonate facies associations. These are the (1) fresh-
water marsh facies, and (2) lacustrine pond facies associations.
As all carbonates are pedogenically modied, the lacustrine pond
facies is primarily identied on the basis of lacustrine paleoeco-
logical evidence such as the occurrence of charophytes and, to
a lesser degree, ostracodes. The freshwater marsh facies, on the
other hand, includes all pedogenically modied carbonates that
do not contain readily identiable primary lacustrine features.
Both facies associations are characterized by the widespread
presence of fabrics and textures recording emersion and pedo-
genesis (Table 1; Fig. 6). Several different lithofacies have been
identied in each of the two facies associations, reecting a com-
plex spectrum of different degrees of emersion, pedogenesis, and
associated reworking.
Facies Association 1: Freshwater Marsh Facies Association
Calcareous Marls
Beige to yellow calcareous marls, which have thicknesses
up to 3 m and exhibit mottling on a macroscopic scale, make
up most of the lower and upper marl unit. Screen-washed sam-
ples yielded articulated Microcodium colonies and ferruginous
nodules, but never remains of a lacustrine fauna or ora.
Interpretation. The presence of abundant, generally
articulated Microcodium colonies suggests that these marls
were formed in the freshwater marsh facies. This is supported
by the complete absence of charophytes and other lacustrine
remains.
Mudstones
The lower and upper limestone units are primarily com-
posed of fairly massive layers of gray to beige homogeneous
micritic limestones that lack any fossil allochems, siliciclastic
material such as quartz, lamination, or bedding structure. Typi-
cally, the limestones are brecciated (Figs. 5A and 6B) or exhibit
nodular fabrics accentuated by circumgranular cracking (Fig.
6C). Rarely, they contain crystallaria and colonies (Fig. 7A) or
reworked prisms of Microcodium.
Interpretation. The mudstone texture suggests low-energy
sedimentation. The general absence of any bedding structure
implies bioturbation of the sediments, and the absence of silici-
clastic material suggests a closed environment. Palustrine brec-
ciation, nodular fabrics, and circumgranular cracking indicate
pedogenic modication. The degree of pedogenic modication
may be estimated, where Microcodium is present, by the ratio
of Microcodium colonies to isolated prisms. Within the Facis
Rognacien, this is the most abundant and typical lithofacies.
Microcodium-Bearing Wackestone and Packstone
These massive gray limestones are notable in thin section as
Microcodium wackestones to packstones with strong evidence
of pedogenic modication (brecciation, circumgranular crack-
ing, nodular fabric). Microcodium is present within and sup-
ported by the micritic matrix and is mostly disarticulated (Figs.
7B, 7C, and 7D). Detrital quartz is absent.
Interpretation. The occurrence of different features again
suggests a complex history. The carbonate mud was subjected
to emersion and pedogenic overprinting, apparently during peri-
ods of low water table. Microcodium colonies could then have
Figure 8. Lithofacies of the lacustrine pond facies association. (A) Intraclastic packstone (granular limestone). Subrounded to angular intraclasts include
encrusted charophyte stems (cs), a few poorly developed oncoids, Microcodium prisms, and colonies. Some grains exhibit ferruginous coatings. (B) Detail
of A, showing encrusted charophyte stem (cs), gyrogonite (cg), and laminar Microcodium colonies in longitudinal section (m). (C) Intraclastic nodule
wackestone or packstone with ferruginous intraclasts, alveolar texture (at), Microcodium colonies (m), and spar-lled vugs. Individual intraclasts are
distinguished from the matrix by abundance and state of preservation of Microcodium debris and aggregates, and by delineation of ferruginous coatings.
(D) Detail of C. The matrix (wackestone) between the intraclasts contains less Microcodium-debris and charophyte stems (cs), but clearly more articulated
Microcodium colonies (m) than the ferruginous intraclasts. Note dissolution associated with Microcodium colonies within the matrix and inhomogeneous
mottling. (E) Intraclastic rudstone: intraclasts comprise oncoids (alternating layers of thin and thicker micritic laminae around a poorly dened nucleus),
encrusted charophyte stems (cs), and other carbonate gravels. The matrix contains abundant reworked and corroded Microcodium debris (white clasts).
Note the pronounced mottling and ferruginous coatings. (F) Intraclastic oatstone: angular intraclasts include encrusted charophyte stems (cs) and other
carbonate gravels. The matrix is a Microcodium-bearing (white clasts) wackestone to packstone.
180 Marty and Meyer
formed in desiccation cracks and around rootlets penetrating
into the cracks. Through subsequent water circulation follow-
ing heavy rains, or in times of raised water level, Microcodium
colonies were disintegrated and reworked, leading to the rede-
position of single prisms. The presence of abundant Microco-
dium micro-bioclasts, in the absence of other detrital grains of
similar size suggests the reworking of Microcodium which were
proliferating in a freshwater marsh environment. Such environ-
ments would have been protected from terrigenous inux by
a lter of dense reed or other swamp vegetation (Freytet and
Plaziat, 1982).
Facies Association 2: Lacustrine Pond Facies Association
Chalky Marls
These marls are white, chalky, calcareous marls, which are
mostly intercalated with nodular limestone (see below) (Fig. 5B),
whereas the bed thickness varies laterally between several centi-
meters up to several tens of centimeters. Screen-washed samples
yielded abundant gyrogonites and encrusted stems of charo-
phytes, partially articulated to articulated Microcodium colonies,
and authigenic idiomorphic quartz.
Interpretation. The presence of charophyte remains
implies a primary lacustrine origin. Microcodium indicates
later pedogenic overprinting during lowstand of the water table
in a vadose environment. Furthermore, articulated Microco-
dium colonies suggest minor reworking. The white color, the
chalky nature, and the absence of mottling suggest at least sea-
sonal hydromorphism.
Intraclastic Packstones (Granular Limestones)
This facies is composed of nodular limestones that contain
carbonate nodules up to a diameter of ~20 cm, often interca-
lated with white calcareous marls (see above) (Fig. 5B), or mas-
sive gray limestones. Polished sections show that the carbonate
nodules consist of angular (0.51 cm) intraclasts as well as of
(sub-) rounded (0.20.5 mm) calcareous gravels (Figs. 8A and
8B). Many of the clasts are made up of encrusted gyrogonites
and charophyte stems. The charophyte gyrogonites and stems
exhibit diverse degrees of fragmentation, but are generally well
preserved and not deformed. The clasts are locally outlined
with circumgranular cracks or ferruginous coatings. The matrix
is micritic, although large spar-lled vugs and recrystallized
areas are common. Ostracodes and molluscan shell fragments
are sometimes present.
Interpretation. Charophytes and other macrophytes were
apparently encrusted due to preferential Ca-precipitation onto a
biological substrate as a result of CO
2
drawdown through pho-
tosynthetic activity. Subsequent degradation of the encrusted
macrophytes provided a range of intraclastic material. The low
degree of deformation and fragmentation of charophyte gyrogo-
nites and stems indicate that compaction and crushing was
negligible or that it predated encrustation. This also points to
a low-energy environment, probably within charophyte mead-
ows, which are commonly developed within carbonate lakes
at shallow depths of less than 10 m (Murphy and Wilkinson,
1980; Cohen and Thouin, 1987; Garcia, 1994). During a phase
of low water table, the primary lacustrine sediment was sub-
jected to emersion, resulting in minor pedogenic modication
(limited desiccation and root brecciation). A rather short time
of subaerial exposure is also indicated by the general lack of
Microcodium.
Intraclastic (Nodule) Wackestone and Packstone
This facies is composed of breccias containing (sub-)
rounded ferruginous intraclasts with diameters of several mil-
limeters to centimeters (Fig. 8C). The intraclasts are made up of
Microcodium wackestones to packstones, including reworked
Microcodium debris and rarely articulated colonies oating in
a dark ferruginous, argillaceous micritic matrix (Fig. 8D). The
intraclasts also contain rare charophyte gyrogonites and stems.
The matrix between the intraclasts is micritic and contains
Microcodium debris as well as abundant articulated colonies
(Fig. 8D), alveolar texture, and up to 1 cm big vugs, lled with
blocky calcite cement.
Interpretation. This complex lithofacies can only be
explained by several subsequent events of emersion, involving
pervasive microkarstic and desiccation brecciation of the above
described chalky marls and intraclastic packstones, followed by
reworking back into the lacustrine pond setting. Thus, differ-
ent scenarios may lead to this lithofacies. One possible means
of formation might be that Microcodium formed around ponds
during periods of low water table. A rise in water level reworked
the colonies, and single prisms settled down, with charophytes
growing during the subsequent period of high water level. Dur-
ing a second phase of emersion, the charophyte- and Microco-
dium-bearing sediment was partially indurated, and intraclasts
formed through palustrine brecciation or nodule formation. At
the same time, new Microcodium colonies were established.
During the subsequent period of high water table or as a result
of heavy rainfall, these intraclasts were reworked, slightly
rounded, and redeposited within another Microcodium-bearing
mud. During a further period of emersion, another generation of
Microcodium colonies and alveolar texture formed to give this
lithofacies its nal, complex appearance. The different size and
form of intraclasts indicates reworking during short periods of
high-energy events and suggests that they have not been trans-
ported far.
Intraclastic Floatstone and Rudstone
This lithofacies occurs seldom and only at the base of the
Facis Rognacien. It is composed of up to 30 cm of sandy,
marly limestones that exhibit a very pronounced lateral change
in the content and size of intraclasts. Thin sections reveal that
intraclasts include encrusted charophyte stems and gyrogo-
nites, structureless carbonate intraclasts, and, locally, oncoids
(Figs. 8E and 8F). The size of encrusted charophyte stems is up
to 12 cm in length, while the gyrogonite-bearing intraclasts
Palustrine carbonates of SW France 181
are mostly only a few millimeters across. The carbonate intra-
clasts are generally on the order of a few millimeters in size,
although some may reach up to one centimeter in diameter.
Oncoids have a spherical to elongate form and a diameter of
several millimeters up to 10 cm. They constitute alternating
ne-grained more or less dark micritic layers with wavy and
cauliower-like fabrics. Nuclei are poorly dened, but where
present, they comprise small lithoclasts, or, more rarely, charo-
phyte stems (Fig. 8E). These rocks have a matrix to grain-sup-
ported fabric with a wackestone-packstone matrix containing
reworked and strongly corroded Microcodium prisms.
Interpretation. As with the intraclastic packstones, intra-
clastic oatstones and rudstones are the result of brecciation
due to emersion, reworking and resedimentation of lithied
carbonate grains and gravels. They are a common facies in the
littoral realm of modern lakes (Murphy and Wilkinson, 1980;
Platt and Wright, 1991). Oncoids commonly grow in alkaline,
Ca-rich waters in river channels, marshes, lakes, and ood-
plains (Monty, 1981). Recent freshwater oncoids generally
grow in rather quiet shallow-water environments (benches or
ats of lakes) with temporary turbulence during oods (Monty,
1972). Pronounced changes in clast size and the lateral strong
variation from matrix- to grain-supported fabrics suggest
transport over short distances only. This indicates deposition
in a pond that was repeatedly subjected to emersion, result-
ing in the formation of abundant Microcodium colonies and
carbonate intraclasts, which were in turn reworked during the
next rise of the water level or by water movement (waves) due
to storms.
DISCUSSION
The palustrine environments of the Facis Rognacien devel-
oped within a continental succession in a tectonically bounded
foreland basin. The palustrine carbonates are intercalated with
oodplain deposits within a uvial-lacustrine system. This palus-
trine environment is likely to have passed into a more lacustrine
environment eastward along the river Aude (Peyberns and
Combes, 1999), uvial-alluvial environments to the south, and
marine environments progressively toward the west. Alonso-
Zarza (2003) suggested that palustrine deposits mostly form
during periods of strongly reduced subsidence with the limited
accommodation space of overlled basins, leading to the deposi-
tion of palustrine facies as highstand depositional systems. Also
Platt and Wright (1992) stated that palustrine deposits are com-
mon in relatively stable basins, typically forming during peri-
ods of tectonic quiescence when clastic supply from inowing
alluvial-uvial systems is reduced. Platt and Pujalte (1994) and
Platt (1995) noted that the formation of palustrine carbonates in
the Cretaceous of Spain was associated with the subaerial expo-
sure and peneplanation of an underlying carapace or pediment
of marine Jurassic carbonates where clastic supply was limited.
A similar subcrop conguration might also be suggested for the
Facis Rognacien.
Paleoclimate
Climate is a critical control factor in the development of
lacustrine and palustrine successions (Platt, 1989b, 1989c; Platt
and Wright, 1992; Camoin et al., 1997). Climate not only con-
trols the lacustrine and palustrine environment, but also the
surrounding, usually siliciclastic, depositional environments.
The development of palustrine carbonates is favored in climates
with seasonal aridity and environments of low clastic detrital
supply or carbonate-dominated source terrains (Alonso-Zarza
et al., 1992a; Alonso-Zarza, 2003). Nevertheless, Schullen-
berger et al. (2004) stated that the presence of a groundwater-
fed regional water table is more important than climate in the
formation of extensive palustrine deposits. Further, Dunagan
and Turner (2004) noted that primary groundwater discharge
may give the appearance of increased humidity in an otherwise
semiarid climate.
However, according to Platt and Wright (1992), palustrine
sequences may form under three different types of climate:
semiarid, intermediate, and subhumid. These three climate
regimes are tied to specic palustrine features, documented
from Carboniferous to Quaternary palustrine sequences (Platt
and Wright, 1992; Dunagan and Driese, 1999). Platt and Wright
(1992) further developed a freshwater exposure index, similar
to the marine exposure index of Ginsburg et al. (1977); it links
characteristic palustrine features to both hydroperiod and sea-
sonality. The hydroperiod is dened as the mean number of days
per year during which the ground surface at a given site is cov-
ered with water (Ginsburg et al., 1977; Platt and Wright, 1992).
Throughout the Facis Rognacien, neither evaporites and
calcretes (typical for a semiarid setting) nor blackened pebbles,
coal, and lignite horizons (typical for a subhumid setting) have
been found. However, Microcodium (typical for an intermedi-
ate setting) is abundant, and evidence of desiccation (brecciation
and nodule formation, pseudomicrokarst) is relatively common.
Thus, the Facis Rognacien may be placed between the sub-
arid and intermediate types of Platt and Wright (1992). Assum-
ing that the exposure index model of Platt and Wright (1992) is
applicable to the palustrine carbonates of the Facis Rognacien,
these carbonates may have an estimated hydroperiod somewhere
in between 100320 d (Fig. 9), indicating that pond develop-
ment and lake expansion was probably associated with a distinct
wet season. Those sections in the Facis Rognacien displaying
stronger evidence of subaerial exposure may record deposition
on paleotopographic highs or distal areas (prairies), where
ooding was rare and pedogenic modication was prolonged.
The fact that all carbonates of the lacustrine pond facies are
pedogenically modied, at least to some extent, also suggests
that the ponds dried out during the dry season. The presence
of Fe-coatings, Fe-concretions, and mottling points to a mean
annual temperature over 20 C (Pdro, 1968). Clay mineral-
ogy analyses also support deposition in a warm and seasonally
humid climate (Groebke, 2001). In summary, an intermediate,
seasonally humid, subtropic climate might be suggested.
182 Marty and Meyer
Paleoenvironment
The carbonates of the Facis Rognacien display indicators
both of emergence and of water-saturation (hydromorphism),
but clearly do not show any evidence of marine inuence. Fur-
ther, they do not include any deeper-water lacustrine facies
(such as laminites), or distal alluvial sediments. Macro- and
microfacies analysis allowed the grouping of the various litho-
facies into two distinct facies associations, namely the ubiq-
uitous freshwater marsh facies and the relatively much rarer
lacustrine pond facies.
Carbonate sedimentation of the lacustrine pond facies took
place in shallow and ephemeral ponds, and all lithofacies show
some evidence of subaerial exposure and pedogenic modi-
cation. These ephemeral ponds may have been connected by
groundwater only, a possibility which is also consistent with the
absence of any signicant clastic input (Alonso-Zarza and Calvo,
2000). The low-diversity invertebrate fauna assemblage and the
absence of any vertebrate remains (e.g., sh) suggest elevated
environmental stress (alkalinity, oligotrophy, water-level instabil-
ity) or poor faunal preservation potential (diagenetic conditions
preventing preservation); this is consistent with the development
of individually isolated, small, very shallow, and probably short-
lived ponds at paleolows.
The general absence of shell lags, the rarity of oncoid-bear-
ing facies, and the predominance of mudstone to wackestone
textures indicate that wave energies were generally low due
to the very small size of the ponds, but, in part, perhaps also
because of the bafing effect of extensive stands of aquatic veg-
etation like charophyte meadows. Nevertheless, high-energy
Topography
HWT
LWT
Highest water table HWT
Lowest water table LWT
Prairie
Ephemeral wetland
Freshwater marsh
Perennial wetland
Marginal lake
Fringing wetland + littoral
Permanent
Lake
Facies associations in the
Facis Rognacien
Freshwater marsh
facies association
(Carbonate freshwater marshes)
Lacustrine pond
facies association
(Ephemeral, shallow, small ponds)
Calcareous marls
Mudstones
Microcodium-bearing wacke/
packstones
Chalky marls
Intraclastic pack/grainstones
Intraclastic wacke/packstones
Intraclastic float/rudstones
Calcretes, black
pebbles, root
traces
Freshwater marsh: pseudo-microkarst, pronounced pedogenic
modification, articulated Microcodium colonies
Ponds: little pedogenic modification, isolated occurrence,
charophyte stems + gyrogonites, ostracodes, Microcodium debris
Lamination, no pedogenic
modification, charophyte
gyrogonites, fish
Erosional breccias,
oncoids, charo-
phytes, ostracodes,
pedogenic features
Typical
features
All year 30-90 days 100-320 days 100-320 days 100-250 days Hydroperiod
0% 70-90% 30-70% 10-70% 10-70% Exposure Ind.
Facies
Environment
Palustrine Lacustrine
Lithofacies of the
Facis Rognacien
Facis Rognacien
5 m
Swamp vegetation (horsetail, reed)
Marsh vegetation (sedge, grass)
Wooded vegetation
Water plant vegetation (charophytes)
Figure 9. Simplied block diagram showing a facies model for a palustrine-lacustrine setting. The freshwater marsh and the lacustrine pond
facies associations of the Facis Rognacien are inferred to have been deposited in a freshwater marsh within a wetland environment, where
densely vegetated carbonate marshes and swamps prevented siliciclastic input. Extensive charophyte meadows developed in small, shallow, and
ephemeral ponds. Open lacustrine facies are not developed, and lateral changes in paleotopography are on the order of a few meters only. The
table links paleoenvironment, typical sedimentological and paleoecological features, as well as the described facies associations with the fresh-
water exposure index of Platt and Wright (1992). The hydroperiod represents the number of inundation days over the year. An exposure index of
100% is equivalent to a hydroperiod of zero days per year.
Palustrine carbonates of SW France 183
storm events (sheetoods) occurring sporadically in this gen-
erally low-energy system might have been responsible for the
formation of intraclastic packstones in the lacustrine pond facies
and Microcodium wackestones to packstones in the freshwater
marsh facies, respectively.
The lack of evaporites points to low salinity. This is sup-
ported by the presence of charophytes, which are typical for envi-
ronments with low salinities of less than 1620 (Schudack,
1993; Schudack et al., 1998), even if, for example, Burne et al.
(1980) and Mojon (1990) give examples of more saline cha-
rophytes. The source of the ne-grained carbonate (typically
low-Mg calcite) in palustrine carbonates is poorly understood,
but may be polygenetic in origin, reecting biogenic production
from charophytes, ostracodes, molluscs, and cyanobacteria, as
well as inorganic and biogenically induced precipitation (Dean,
1981; Platt and Wright, 1992; Alonso-Zarza and Calvo, 2000;
Anadn et al., 2000).
The carbonates of the freshwater marsh facies were prob-
ably produced biogenically from microbial (blue-green algal) mats
(Monty, 1972; Monty and Hardie, 1976), from inorganic or bio-
genically induced precipitation around charophytes and other veg-
etation, as well as Microcodium. The presence of a fringing veg-
etation zone of shallow-water marsh and land plants would have
acted as an effective barrier to terrigenous clastic input. Tandon and
Andrews (2001) suggested that semiarid carbonate ats typically
have a low biomass, and under prolonged exposure, the dominantly
herbaceous vegetation would leave little or no evidence of the larger
root systems as expected from arboreal plants. This could explain
why well-developed rhizolites, as well as organic matter, have not
been observed in the Facis Rognacien.
The predominance of the freshwater marsh facies and the
scarcity of the lacustrine pond facies cannot easily be explained
with the marginal lake facies model of Freytet and Plaziat
(1982) or the marginal lacustrine facies of Platt and Wright
(1991). It is suggested that the Facis Rognacien in the study
area was deposited in an ancient wetland dominated by carbon-
ate-producing freshwater marshes with some intervening small
and shallow ephemeral ponds. Seasonal variations in water table
and minor topographic variations across the depositional area
could easily explain the distribution and sequence of the various
facies. Nevertheless, the depositional environment of the Facis
Rognacien as described here might have been located within a
wider lacustrine environment, since Peyberns and Combes
(1999) noted that the Facis Rognacien becomes more lacustrine
eastward along the river Aude. Further, this wetland-lacustrine
environment is likely to have passed into uvial-alluvial envi-
ronments to the south and marine environments progressively
toward the west (Plaziat, 1981).
Modern Analogues
Platt and Wright (1992) stated that difculties in identi-
fying a convincing modern analogue for palustrine carbonate
deposition had hindered the development of facies models for
palustrine carbonates. These authors went on to propose the
Florida Everglades wetland as an analogue for many aspects
of palustrine carbonate deposition. The Everglades, however,
are not a lake, nor a lake margin, but a vast, densely vegetated,
carbonate freshwater marsh complex, where lakes and ponds
make up only a small proportion of the total area (Mitsch and
Gosselink, 1993). A fall in water level of only a few meters can
cause exposure of wide areas, whereas comparable rises in lake
level are unlikely to permit development of a stratied water
column (Platt and Wright, 1992).
Today, wetlands are amongst the most important and sen-
sitive ecosystems and cover 6% of the worlds surface. They
are areas that are periodically ooded, and they are found in
every climatic zone and on every continent except Antarctica
(Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993). As modern wetlands are very
diverse, their denition and classication is extremely problem-
atical (Finlayson and van der Valk, 1995a, 1995b; Scott and
Jones, 1995). Among the most widely accepted denitions for
a palustrine wetland is the one of Cowardin et al. (1979) (see
also Cowardin and Golet, 1995, for recent advances), which
was adapted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. This deni-
tion requires an area of less than 8 ha, a lack of wave-formed
or bedrock shoreline features, water depth in the deepest part of
the basin of less than 2 m at low water, and salinity stemming
from ocean-derived salts of less than 0.5 ppt (Cowardin et al.,
1979, p. 10).
However, despite their abundance, many wetlands are
limited in areal extent and form small features relative to their
sedimentary basins (Quade et al., 1995). As such, their preser-
vational potential may be limited. Indeed, Deocampo (2002)
suggested that wetlands are likely to be difcult to recognize in
the sedimentary record, and Liutkus and Ashley (2003) noticed
that, as yet, no sedimentological facies models have been devel-
oped for (siliciclastic) freshwater wetlands.
To date, the Everglades wetland has been considered by
Armenteros and Daley (1998) as a modern analogue for the
palustrine Bembridge Limestone (Eocene, Isle of Wight), and
by Valero Garcs et al. (1994) for parts of the Upper Free-
port Formation (Pennsylvanian, Appalachian Basin). Platt and
Pujalte (1994) proposed that an ancient analogue for the Early
Cretaceous palustrine system of northern Spain might be rep-
resented by the extensive areas of shallow freshwater marshes
found in southeastern Iraq around Basra. These environments
pass laterally seaward into the marginal marine and peritidal
facies of the Persian Gulf (Baltzer and Purser, 1990) and later-
ally landward into the uvial and semidesert environments of
central Iraq. Valero Garcs et al. (1994) also proposed that the
semiarid to subarid carbonate-dominated, extensive wetland
of Bahia in northeastern Brazil (Branner, 1910) might form a
good recent analogue. Another modern analogue might be pro-
vided by Lake Balaton in Hungary (Mller and Wagner, 1978).
Recently, Dunagan and Turner (2004) reinterpreted lacustrine
sediments of the Late Jurassic Morrison Formation as depos-
its of groundwater-fed, perennial carbonate wetlands, similar
184 Marty and Meyer
to the Quaternary wetland deposits of the U.S. southern Great
Basin (Quade et al., 1995, 2003).
All of the modern analogues listed display a complete
spectrum of lake, pond, and soil environments similar to those
recorded within the Facis Rognacien. It is thus suggested that
the Facis Rognacien was deposited in a seasonal, groundwater-
fed, nontidal, carbonate-producing, palustrine (sensu Cowardin et
al., 1979) wetland, which was probably characterized by hydro-
logically closed, ephemeral ponds surrounded by vast, more or
less densely vegetated (cf. Hofmann and Zetter, 2005) carbonate
freshwater marshes and swamps (Fig. 9). This environment could
also have formed within the marginal area of a larger perennial
lake complex, or within an extensive uvial-alluvial plain. The
development of these palustrine environments within a lacus-
trine-uvial system across a tectonically active foreland basin
margin to the north of the Pyrenean foredeep is closely equiva-
lent to the modern setting of the present-day Iraq analogue.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
1. The Facis Rognacien is a very good example for palus-
trine facies. It exhibits a wide range of classical palustrine
features including well-developed palustrine brecciation,
nodule formation, horizontal, planar, and circumgranu-
lar cracking, pseudomicrokarst, alveolar texture, and
Microcodium. The abundance and distribution of these
features place the Facis Rognacien somewhere between
the subarid and the intermediate palustrine climate type
of Platt and Wright (1992), an intermediate subtropical
climate with an estimated hydroperiod between 100
and 320 d.
2. The palustrine carbonates of the Facis Rognacien show
a range of highly varied fabrics and lithofacies that reect
primary depositional setting and subsequent subaerial
exposure, brecciation, pedoturbation, and pedogenesis.
The various lithofacies recognized have been grouped
into two facies associations, the lacustrine pond facies
and the freshwater marsh facies, which allow a recon-
struction of the paleoenvironment in greater detail.
3. Fossils are extremely scarce throughout the whole Facis
Rognacien, particularly in the freshwater marsh facies,
where only Microcodium is frequently found. Neverthe-
less, paleontological and paleoecological data gained
from screen-washed samples and the analysis of thin
sections proved critical in resolving the complex history
of many lithofacies, especially those of the lacustrine
pond facies, where gyrogonites and encrusted stems of
charophytes, oncoids, and seldom ostracodes are the
only recognizable primary lacustrine features.
4. Within the research area, the pedogenically modied
mudstones of the freshwater marsh facies associa-
tion are by far the most prevalent. Hence, the Facis
Rognacien is predominantly composed of the freshwa-
ter marsh facies, where most of the carbonates formed.
Only a minor part of the depositional areaprobably
representing paleolowscan be attributed to the lacus-
trine pond facies. Thus, the Facis Rognacien may be
better characterized as an assemblage of freshwater
marsh facies laid down within a carbonate wetland set-
ting (Wright and Platt 1995) rather than pedogenically
modied carbonates of a marginal lake setting.
5. The facies associations observed are consistent with
deposition within a seasonal, possibly groundwater-fed,
palustrine (sensu Cowardin et al., 1979) wetland system
characterized by possibly hydrologically closed, ephem-
eral ponds surrounded by vast, more or less densely veg-
etated areas of carbonate-producing freshwater marshes.
This wetland environment is likely to have passed into
uvial-alluvial environments to the south and marine
environments progressively toward the west.
6. Further detailed sedimentological studies and facies
analysis of palustrine sequences are essential in any
attempts to develop more precise facies models and
to compare ancient successions with their still poorly
studied modern analogue environments, which occur
in a range of carbonate-producing wetlands distributed
worldwide.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper presents data submitted as part of a masters
thesis of the rst author at the Department of Geosciences of
the University of Basel. J. and C. Le Loeuff, L. Cavin, and D.
Viand (Muse des Dinosaures, Espraza) are warmly thanked
for accommodation and support during the eld studies. The rst
author thanks A. Wetzel (University of Basel) and L. Hottinger
(Natural History Museum, Basel) for supervision. Thin sections
were produced by W. Tschudin (University of Basel). We thank
M. Schudack (Freie Universitt Berlin) for comments on an ear-
lier draft of the manuscript, and the reviewers L. Cabrera and
N.H. Platt for numerous suggestions and comments that greatly
improved the manuscript. Finally, we thank A.M. Alonso-Zarza
for helpful comments for the interpretation of the paleoenviron-
ment and A.M. Alonso-Zarza and L.H. Tanner for editorial work
and for inviting us to contribute to this volume.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
189
Molina, J.M., Vera, J.A., and Aguado, R., 2006, Reworked Microcodium calcarenites interbedded in pelagic sedimentary rocks (Paleocene, Subbetic, southern
Spain): Paleoenvironmental reconstruction, in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and Palus-
trine Carbonates: Geological Society of America Special Paper 416, p. 189202, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(12). For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.
org. 2006 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.
Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006
Reworked Microcodium calcarenites interbedded in pelagic
sedimentary rocks (Paleocene, Subbetic, southern Spain):
Paleoenvironmental reconstruction
Jos M. Molina

Departamento de Geologa, Universidad de Jan, Facultad de Ciencias Experimentales, 23071 Jan, Spain
Juan A. Vera

Departamento de Estratigrafa y Paleontologa, Universidad de Granada, Facultad de Ciencias, 18071 Granada, Spain
Roque Aguado

Departamento de Geologa, Universidad de Jan, Escuela Politcnica Superior de Linares, 23700 Linares Jan, Spain
ABSTRACT
The Majalcorn Formation (Paleocene) is an unusual lithostratigraphic unit
mainly made up of calcarenites with reworked Microcodium. Analysis of this unit
from different localities of the Subbetic (southern Spain) shows that the formation is
interbedded in pelagic sedimentary rocks. Calcareous nannofossils in the latter con-
rm that deposition of the Majalcorn Formation began in the early Danian and n-
ished in the latest Danianearly Selandian. The reworked Microcodium calcarenites
are grainstones mainly constituting disaggregated Microcodium prisms and sparite
cement. Secondarily, they contain quartz grains, glauconite, mud clasts, benthonic
and planktonic foraminifera, coal fragments, and plant remains. In some beds, hum-
mocky cross-stratication and mound-shaped structures appear.
The reworked Microcodium calcarenites are derived from the erosion of cal-
careous paleosols in source areas located to the north. A eustatic regressive-trans-
gressive-regressive succession at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary and in the early
Paleocene is responsible for the beginning of the Microcodium paleosol development.
Sedimentation of the calcarenites took place in a shallow marine ramp after erosion
of the paleosols, and ended with the development of paleokarstic features on the
top of the formation. This interpretation of the Majalcorn Formation as a shallow-
marine deposit is important to the understanding of the paleogeography and depo-
sitional paleobathymetry of the adjacent pelagic facies during the Late Cretaceous
and Paleogene.
Keywords: calcarenites, Microcodium, sea-level changes, nannofossils, Paleocene,
Subbetic.

E-mail: [email protected]

E-mail: [email protected]

E-mail: [email protected]
190 Molina et al.
INTRODUCTION
The Paleogene of many Alpine-Mediterranean successions
is characterized by the presence of Microcodium, a typical fea-
ture of many calcretes and calcareous paleosols. Most of the
accumulations of Microcodium occur within continental depo-
sitional settings in palustrine, uvial, and, more rarely, karstic
environments. The presence of important accumulations of
reworked disaggregated Microcodium in marine deposits is rare
but very interesting, mainly as a good criterion for recognizing
subaerial exposure environments. This paper studies the Majal-
corn Formation, which is composed of Microcodium calcaren-
ites deposited in marine environments.
Microcodium is a problematic calcareous structure of cylin-
drical or spherical shape and of millimeter to submillimeter scale;
it consists of aggregates of elongated calcite crystals surrounding
a small central hole. It is common in calcretes and eolianites, and
most researchers agree that it is a product of the edaphic altera-
tion of carbonates; it originates in subaerial environments and is
formed by the calcication of symbiotic associations of fungi and
plant roots (mycorrhiza) within paleosols (Klappa, 1978, 1980;
Freytet and Plaziat, 1982; Wright and Tucker, 1991; Alonso-
Zarza, 2003; Kosir, 2004; and references therein). This creates an
interesting problem in explaining the origin and paleogeographi-
cal signicance of the huge volumes of Microcodium that make
up Paleocene formations that are interbedded among pelagic sed-
RESUMEN
Se estudia una unidad estratigrca peculiar, la Formacin Majalcorn del Paleoceno
en el Subbtico, compuesta mayoritariamente por calcarenitas con Microcodium
retrabajado. Esta unidad se encuentra intercalada entre rocas sedimentarias pelgicas
con nanoplancton calcreo que ha permitido establecer que su depsito comenz en el
Daniense inferior y naliz en el Daniense terminalSelandiense inferior. Las calcarenitas
de Microcodium resedimentado son grainstones compuestos mayoritariamente por
prismas disgregados de Microcodium y cemento espartico. Adems hay granos de
cuarzo, glauconita, intraclastos micrticos, foraminferos planctnicos y bentnicos,
y fragmentos de plantas. En algunos estratos aparece estraticacin cruzada de tipo
hummocky y estructuras en montculo.
Las calcarenitas de Microcodium proceden de la erosin de paleosuelos calcreos.
Se propone que las reas fuente que proporcionaron los importantes volmenes de
Microcodium se localizaban al norte, en el Subbtico Externo. Cambios eustticos del
nivel del mar en el lmite Cretcico-Terciario y en el Paleoceno inferior, en una sucesin
regresiva-transgresiva-regresiva fueron los principales responsables del comienzo del
desarrollo de los paleosuelos con Microcodium, de la sedimentacin de las calcarenitas
despus de la erosin de los paleosuelos y del nal de su depsito con el desarollo de
rasgos paleokrsticos en el techo de la formacin. La consideracin de la Formacin
Majalcorn como un depsito marino somero es importante para interpretar la
paleogeografa y paleobatimetra de las facies pelgicas adyacentes durante el Cretcico
Superior y Palegeno.
Palabras clave: calcarenitas, Microcodium, cambios del nivel del mar, nanofsiles,
Paleoceno, Subbtico.
imentary rocks, such as the Majalcorn Formation and equiva-
lent deposits within and outside of the Betic Cordillera.
In this paper, we study the stratigraphy of the Microcodium
calcarenites of the Subbetic (Betic Cordillera) belonging to the
Majalcorn Formation, we indicate similar facies present in other
units of the Betic Cordillera, and nally we discuss the paleogeo-
graphical signicance of this formation.
THE MAJALCORN FORMATION: SETTING AND
STRATIGRAPHY
The Betic Cordillera is an Alpine mountain belt in southern
Spain in which three areas are recognized (Fig. 1A): the Betic
external zones and the Betic internal zones, separated by the
Campo de Gibraltar units (Vera, 2004). The Betic external zones
Figure 1. (A) Geologic sketch of the Betic Cordillera with the location
of the studied outcrops of the Majalcorn Formation. (B) Geographi-
cal situation of the Majalcorn Formation outcrops with the location
of the holostratotype (Peas de Majalcorn), parastratotype (Fuente
de la Pileta), and other analyzed sections: 1northwest of Venta de
Agramaderos, 2Cazuela del Pozo, 3north of Fuente de la Pileta,
4Rosal Bajo, 5east of Cortijo de Santa Teresa, and 6Pilas de la
Fuente del Soto.
ALCAL
LA REAL
La Pedriza
Peas de
Majalcorn
Venta de
Agramaderos
Lojilla
0 1 2 km
Province of Crdoba
Province of Granada
Province of Jan
N
STRATOTYPE
Villalobos
PARASTRATOTYPE
MONTEFRO
MAJALCORN FORMATION
37 25
37 20
37 25
37 20
4 00 4 05
3 55
4 00 4 05 3 55
0 50 100 150 km
G
u
a
d
a
lq
u
iv
ir

B
a
s
in
M
E
D
I
T
E
R
R
A
N
E
A
N

S
E
A
JAN
GRANADA
1: HERCINIAN MASSIF
2: UNDEFORMED COVER
OF THE IBERIAN MASSIF
3: External Prebetic
4: Internal Prebetic
5: Intermediate Domain
7: Subbetic Median
8: Subbetic Internal
9: Unit Olistostromic
10: INTERNAL ZONES
UNITS GIBRALTAR
Volcanic Neogene r ocks
MAJALCORN Fm
STUDIED OUTCROPS
Post-orogenic basins
E
X
T
E
R
N
A
L

Z
O
N
E
S
N
?
IBERIAN PLATE
AFRICAN PLATE
1
(Emerged)
2
3-4
5
7
7
8
8
?
6
In
te
rn
a
l Z
o
n
e
s
Mediterranean Sea

A
t
l
a
n
t
i
c

O
c
e
a
n
FRICA
S
P
A
IN
ALICANTE
6: Subbetic External
M
MURCIA
A
B
M
192 Molina et al.
form a complex of thrust sheets composed of thick successions
of Triassic to Lower Miocene sedimentary rocks detached from
a Paleozoic basement that corresponds to the southern prolonga-
tion of the Iberian Variscan Massif. These rocks were deposited
on the southern Iberian continental margin. The external zones
are subdivided in two tectonic zones that are roughly based on
the two great paleogeographical domains of the southern Iberian
continental margin: a platform area to the north, the Prebetic;
and a mainly pelagic area to the south, the Subbetic. Four paleo-
geographical domains can be distinguished in the Subbetic area
(Fig. 1A); these formed well-dened troughs and swells during
Middle and Late Jurassic times. In the troughs, the Intermediate
Domain (5 in Fig. 1A) and the Median Subbetic (7 in Fig. 1A),
thick successions of pelagic sediments, were deposited. In con-
trast, reduced and/or condensed sequences were deposited in the
swells; these include the External and Internal Subbetic (6 and 8
in Fig. 1A).
The Majalcorn Formation was dened by Molina et al.
(2003) as a new lithostratigraphic unit in the Subbetic of the
Betic Cordillera (Fig. 1A). It is characterized by its lithology of
calcarenites with abundant Microcodium. This formation out-
crops mainly in the central sector of the Median Subbetic, in
the provinces of Granada and Jan (Fig. 1). In most of these out-
crops, tectonic deformation and, additionally, intense cultivation
make it difcult to measure complete detailed stratigraphic sec-
tions. Two stratigraphic sections have enabled us, however, to
measure the entire formation, bed by bed: these sections are,
respectively, the holostratotype (Peas of Majalcorn, Fig. 1B)
and the parastratotype (to the north of the Fuente de la Pileta,
Fig. 1B). We have studied other sections outcropping to the
northwest of Venta de Agramaderos, in Cazuela del Pozo, to the
north of Fuente de la Pileta, in Rosal Bajo, to the east of Cortijo
de Santa Teresa, and in Pilas de la Fuente de Soto. These loca-
tions, numbered 16 respectively, can be seen in the Figure 1B.
The Majalcorn Formation takes its name from the village
of Peas de Majalcorn in Alcal la Real (province of Jan), very
near the boundary between the provinces of Jan, Crdoba, and
Granada (Fig. 1B). This village is found at the foot of a sharp
relief (Peas of Majalcorn) that contains a magnicent outcrop
of Microcodium calcarenites, where the formation holostratotype
has been established. Its thickness here is 56 m, and its main
characteristics are represented in Figure 2. Figures 3A and 3B
show the outcrop appearance. The parastratotype of this forma-
tion is located 3 km to the north-northeast of Montefro (prov-
ince of Granada), 400 m to the north of the Fuente de la Pileta
(Fig. 1B). This section was previously studied by Martnez-Gal-
lego and Roca (1973), who dated it by its content in planktonic
foraminifera, as Late Danian (Globorotalia trinidadensis zone
of Bolli, equivalent to the Globorotalia compressa/Globigerina
daubjergensis zone of Loeblich and Tappan). The detailed strati-
graphic succession (Fig. 2) has a total thickness of 39.5 m (shown
in Fig. 3C).
The Majalcorn Formation is located on the Upper Creta-
ceous scaglia rossa-like, pinkish pelagic marly limestones of the
Capas Rojas Formation (Vera et al., 1982). Above the Majalcorn
Formation, which shows paleokarst features and neptunian dikes at
the top, there are marly limestones of the same Capas Rojas Forma-
tion or, in other sites, gray or yellowish marls with nummulite-bear-
ing turbiditic bioclastic sandstones of the Eocene. Preliminary data
on the age of this formation and on its sedimentological signicance
have been provided by Aguado et al. (2003) and Vera et al. (2003),
respectively. The maximum thickness of this formation of ~60 m is
reached in the sector of the Peas de Majalcorn and to the north-
west of the Venta de Agramaderos (Fig. 1B).
Biostratigraphy
A biostratigraphic study has been carried out by means of
nannofossils that show well-diversied associations characteris-
tic of median-low paleolatitudes. All Tertiary samples contained
a variable proportion of reworked nannoora that included Late
Cretaceous (Campanian and Maastrichtian) and some Early
Cretaceous taxa. We applied the zonal outline of Varol (1989)
to the Tertiary samples, and that of Aguado (1993) to the Creta-
ceous samples for biostratigraphic assignment. Figure 4 shows
the position and age of the samples and illustrates the most char-
acteristic nannofossil assemblages.
In the holostratotype (Peas de Majalcorn) and adjacent
areas (Pilas de la Fuente del Soto), the samples just below the
bottom of the Majalcorn Formation (FP-1 and FP-2) provided
a nannofossil assemblage typical of the NTp1B zone, of early
Danian age. The samples immediately above the calcarenitic
body (MJ-T-2 and MJ-T-3) contain a nannofossil assemblage
characteristic of the NTp8C zone of middle Selandian age
(Varol, 1989; see also Fig. 4). In the parastratotype (Fuente de
la Pileta), the samples below the Majalcorn Formation (PI-M-1
and PI-M-2) are assigned to the Micula prinsii zone (NBK24)
of latest Maastrichtian age. The nannofossil assemblages from
samples taken in marly levels located in the median part (PI-17),
and immediately above of the calcarenitic body (PI-T), belong to
the interval between the zones NTp5B and NTp7, both of a late
Danian or early Selandian age (Fig. 4).
In Venta de Agramaderos, the nannofossil assemblage
below the base of the Majalcorn Formation (sample VA-1)
corresponds to the NBK24 zone of latest Maastrichtian age. In
samples taken at the top of the calcarenitic body, the two lowest
(VA-10R and VA-11R) belong to the interval between the zones
NTp6 and NTp7 (latest Danian to early Selandian), but the high-
est sample (VA-12R), collected within a neptunian dike lling,
was assigned to zone NTp8A of early Selandian age (Fig. 4).
In Cazuela del Pozo, results for samples above the calcarenitic
body (CZ-51 and CZ- 52) are consistent with these ndings (Fig.
4). In the area located to the north of Villalobos, the Majalcorn
Formation wedges laterally out, and the Microcodium calcaren-
itic body disappears. The marls and marly limestones, which, by
lateral correlation (VL-KT sample), overlie it, contain an asso-
ciation characteristic of zone NTp10C of Varol (1989) of latest
Selandian age (Fig. 4).
PARASTRATOTYPE
Fuente de la Pileta
0 m
5 m
10 m
15 m
20 m
25 m
30 m
35 m
Bed
2
1
4
3
7
6
5
8
16
15
14
9
12
10
13
11
17
18
19
21
20
23
22
24
26
25
Calcarenites
Limestones
Marly limestones
Coal fragments
Wavy lamination
Parallel lamination
Wavy top bed
Burrows
Slump
Hummocky cross stratification
Chondrites
Zoophycos
Mud pebbles
Calcite veins and speleothems
Neptunian dikes
Iron oxides
A-1
5 m
10 m
15 m
20 m
0 m
25 m
A-2
A-6
A-5
A-4
A-3
A-8
A-7
B-1
B-2
B-3
B-7
B-6
B-5
B-4
C-1
B-7
D-3
D-2
D-1
D-4 D-4
E-2
E-1
E-3
F-1
F-2
F-3
F-4
G-1
G-2
H-1
H-2
H-3
H-4
H-6
H-5
Thickness
Bed
Q-3
Q-2
Q-1
P-5
P-4
P-3
P-2
P-1 P-1
O-2
O-3
-4
-6
O-1
-5
-3
-2
-1
N-12
N-11
N-10
N-9
L-1
L-3
M-1
L-2
K-1
N-1
N-2
N-3
N-4
N-5
N-6
N-7
N-8
J-3
J-2
J-1
I-1
55 m
25 m
30 m
35 m
40 m
45 m
50 m
HOLOSTRATOTYPE
Peas de Majalcorn
Thickness
Figure 2. Stratigraphic sections of the holostratotype (Peas de Majalcorn) and parastratotype (Fuente de la Pileta).
194 Molina et al.
FACIES
The Majalcorn Formation is formed by laterally continu-
ous, medium to thick (dm to m) parallel-bedded gray to brown
calcarenites, consisting mainly of medium- to ne-grained,
well-cemented Microcodium fragments. Locally, these alternate
with thin (mm- to cm-thick) beds of whitish to grayish, slightly
silty marls and some isolated micritic limestone beds (Figs. 2,
3B, and 3C).
The calcarenite beds are typically massive, although,
locally, they have horizontal lamination due to the orientation
of the Microcodium prisms with their long axes parallel to the
bedding, and to the preferential concentration of quartz grains.
Hummocky cross-stratication is present in some beds. Mound-
shaped structures also are present; they have a plane base and
wavy top, a wavelength between 60 and 370 cm and height from
4 to 23 cm, grading locally to wedge-shaped strata (Figs. 5A, 5B,
and 5C). Cross-beds indicate that the predominant paleocurrent
was toward the SE.
Mud intraclasts, up to 4 cm long (Fig. 5D), like those
described by Molina and Vera (2001), are abundant, as are simple
vertical (Skolithos) and horizontal dwelling burrows with micritic
lls (Fig. 5E). Water escape structures are present, mainly sand
volcanoes, burst-throughs, and ame structures (Fig. 5F). Sedi-
mentary structures change abruptly, from very well-preserved
stratication and lamination to massive forms, for example as
in the outcrops of Rosal Bajo (4 in Fig. 1), and imply important
Figure 3. (A) Panoramic view of the scarp relief from the southwest of Peas de Majalcorn. This small village appears to the right, at the foot
of the scarp. (B) View of the outcrop to the north of Peas de Majalcorn where the holostratotype was established. (C) Parastratotype outcrop
in the Pileta ravine.
Figure 4. Position of the studied samples for nannoplankton, in rela-
tion to the top and bottom of the Majalcorn Formation, in the studied
sections located in Figure 1B. Plane polarized light micrographs of
some selected calcareous nannofossils are shown according to the
calcareous nannofossil zones. All images were made under crossed
nicols and at magnication of 3000. In NBK24: 1Micula murus
(Martini) Bukry; 2Micula prinsii Perch-Nielsen; 3Cribroco-
rona gallica (Stradner) Perch-Nielsen; 4Lithraphidites quadra-
tus Bramlette and Martini. In NTp1B: 1Neobiscutum parvulum
(Romein) Varol; 2Neobiscutum romeinii (Perch-Nielsen) Varol;
3Cruciplacolithus primus Perch-Nielsen; 4Neocrepidolithus
neocrassus (Perch-Nielsen) Romein; 5Neocrepidolithus sp. cf. N.
dirimosus (Perch-Nielsen) Perch-Nielsen; 6Neocrepidolithus fos-
sus (Romein) Romein. In NTp5-NTp7: 1Prinsius martinii (Perch-
Nielsen) Haq; 2Toweius pertusus (Sullivan) Romein; 3Ericsonia
subpertusa Hay and Mohler; 4Ericsonia robusta (Bramlette and
Sullivan) Perch-Nielsen; 5Ellipsolithus macellus (Bramlette and
Sullivan) Sullivan; 6Neochiastozygus modestus Perch-Nielsen.
In NTp8: 1Fasciculithus pileatus Bukry; 2Fasciculithus janii
Perch-Nielsen; 3Fasciculithus involutus Bramlette and Sullivan;
4Ellipsolithus macellus (Bramlette and Sullivan) Sullivan; 5El-
lipsolithus distichus (Bramlette and Sullivan) Sullivan; 6Sulliva-
nia danica (Brotzen) Varol; 7Sphenolithus primus Perch-Nielsen;
8Neochiastozygus modestus Perch-Nielsen. In NTp10C: 1Chi-
asmolithus bidens (Bramlette and Sullivan) Hay and Mohler; 2 He-
liolithus kleinpellii Sullivan; 3Fasciculithus tympaniformis Hay
and Mohler; 4Fasciculithus pileatus Bukry; 5Fasciculithus ja-
nii Perch-Nielsen.
10
m
M
A
J
A
L
C
O
R

N

F
m
.
Capas
Rojas
Fm.
Capas
Rojas
Fm.
P
e

a
s

d
e
M
a
j
a
l
c
o
r

n
P
i
l
a
s

d
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l
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e

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S
o
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d
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P
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P
o
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.

V
i
l
l
a
l
o
b
o
s
FP-2
FP-1
MJ-T-3
MJ-T-2
PI-M-1
PI-17
PI-T
VA-1
VA-10R
VA-11R
VA-12R
PI-M-2
CZ-51
CZ-52
VL-KT
NTp1
NTp2
NTp3
NTp4
NTp5
NTp6
NTp7
NTp8
NTp9
NTp10
D
A
N
I
A
N
S
E
L
A
N
D
I
A
N
P


A


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E
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
C
C
C
C
C
D
V
a
r
o
l
(
1
9
8
9
)
A
G
E
NBK22
NBK21
U
.


M
A
A
S
T
R
I
C
H
T
.
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.

C
R
E
T
A
C
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S
A
A
C
B
B
NBK24
A
g
u
a
d
o
(
1
9
9
3
)
NBK23
NBK24
NTp1B
NTp5-NTp7
NTp8
NTp10C
NANNOFOSSIL
ZONES
10 m
196 Molina et al.
changes of differential cementation in the calcarenites in areas
that are bounded by approximately vertical fractures.
MICROFACIES
The microscopic analysis of more than 100 thin sections
shows that most calcarenitic beds are Microcodium grainstones,
with quartz grains, benthonic and planktonic foraminifera, bio-
clasts (mainly echinoid spines and coralline algae), peloids, car-
bonaceous fragments, glauconite, and small mica grains. The
Microcodium fragments generally comprise between 40% and
90% of the rock. They usually are disarticulated and appear as
individual prisms with maximum and minimum length from 0.3
to 0.5 mm and width from 0.03 to 0.05 mm (Fig. 6A). Some
prisms are organized in aggregates with more-or-less complete
rosette shapes like Microcodium (a) of Esteban (1972) or types
1 and 2 of Plaziat (1984). Most aggregates clearly resemble
Microcodium type 2 of Plaziat (1984), formed by prisms bunched
together around one side of the central channel or axis of growth
(Figs. 6B and 6C).
Figure 5. (A) Calcarenite bed with mound shape at the top. (B) Calcarenite beds with horizontal parallel lamination and wavy tops. (C) Typical
mound morphologies of one calcarenite bed in the holostratotype, with at horizontal bottom and oblique top, and wedge shape. On the right,
hummocky cross-stratication appears. (D) Level with micritic intraclasts in the holostratotype. (E) Simple vertical (Skolithos) and horizontal
dwelling burrows. (F) Water-escape (sand volcano) structure in the calcarenites.
Reworked Microcodium calcarenites 197
but locally are more-or-less complete aggregates. Microco-
dium calcarenites are also present in the Paleogene (mainly in
the Paleocene and early Eocene) of other geological units of
the Betic Cordillera (Vera, 2000, 2004) and in other Mediter-
ranean-Alpine domains (Klappa, 1978; Kosir, 2004).
Microcodium Calcarenites in the Betic Cordillera
Microcodium calcarenites have been described in the Pre-
betic, Subbetic, Frontal units, Malaguide Complex, and Campo
de Gibraltar units. In the Prebetic of northernmost Murcia and
Albacete provinces, the Paleocene to early Eocene begins with
white limestones with algae and Microcodium. In the Prebetic of
Alicante province, the presence of Microcodium of Oligocene age
has been determined. The existence of Microcodium limestones
has been cited in the Montecorto unit and in the Corredor del Boyar
units of the western Subbetic (Martn-Algarra, 1987). The Oliva-
res Formation (Comas, 1978) of the Paleocene Subbetic, present
mainly in the sector of the Fardes River (province of Granada), is
composed of gray calcarenites with Microcodium. De Smet (1984)
indicated the presence of Microcodium turbidites of Paleocene age
with abundant Zoophycos in the eastern Subbetic.
The quartz grains form between the 5% and 15% of the
rock. They are very angular, have a maximum diameter of 700
m, and average between 100 and 200 m. The most abundant
and characteristic bioclasts are of corallinacean algae,
up to 1.3 mm long, and echinoid spines, which are locally silici-
ed. Coal fragments and plant remains are more than
2.5 mm long, and glauconite grains are from 100 to 400 m in
size. Discontinuous centimeter-scale beds interbedded with cal-
carenite are composed of wackestone and packstone with small
planktonic foraminifera (Globigerina, Globorotalia), bioclasts,
quartz grains, parallel lamination, abundant bioturbation, and
silicied radiolarians up to 250 m in diameter (Fig. 6D). The
cements are syntaxial and poikilotopic. Signicant sparry
cement is associated with small veins of diagenetic dissolution.
OTHER MICROCODIUM CALCARENITES IN THE
BETIC CORDILLERA AND DIFFERENT ALPINE
MEDITERRANEAN DOMAINS
The fundamental characteristic of the Majalcorn Forma-
tion is the great abundance of Microcodium fragments, which
are generally disaggregated and form isolated calcite prisms,
Figure 6. (A) Typical aspect of the calcarenitic microfacies with disaggregated prismatic crystals of Microcodium. (B) Calcarenitic microfacies,
in the central lower part with a rosette aggregate of Microcodium. (C) Prismatic fragments of Microcodium, forming aggregates in some places
(crossed nicols). (D) Microfacies of the micritic beds and mud clasts: wackestone-packstone with planktonic foraminifera.
198 Molina et al.
In the external Frontal units of Argelles type (Martn-Algarra
et al., 2004), one of the most characteristic formations in the Tertiary
is formed by turbiditic limestones with Microcodium of Paleocene
age (Martn-Algarra, 1987). These calcarenites are interpreted as a
lateral facies change of the Capas Rojas Formation.
The Paleocene of the Sierra of Espua (Malguide Com-
plex) is represented by the 30-m-thick Microcoditas of Mula
Formation (Martn-Martn, 1996), constituted by calcarenites
rich in Microcodium alternating with beds of bluish sandy marls
and of calcareous conglomerates (Martn-Martn et al., 1997,
1998). In the vicinity of Mlaga, Martn-Algarra (1987) recog-
nized Microcodium in place on Cretaceous limestones; this was
interpreted as an edaphic alteration formed during the Paleocene.
In the same region, Serrano et al. (1995) identied Microcodium
facies that they attributed to the Eocene.
In the Algeciras units (Mauritanian of the Campo de Gibral-
tar), the oldest Tertiary formation is the Limestones with Microc-
odium Formation, which outcrops very locally and is less than 50
m in thickness (Martn-Algarra, 1987). This formation, attributed
to the Paleocene, is composed of decimeter-scale beds of turbid-
itic calcarenites consisting almost totally of remains of Microco-
dium, separated by marly strata. In the Aljibe units (Numidian of
the Campo de Gibraltar), the lower part of the Paleocene is also
made up of turbiditic calcarenites with Microcodium fragments
(Esteras et al., 2004).
Microcodium Calcarenites in Other Alpine-Mediterranean
Domains
There are abundant examples in the literature of calcaren-
ites and reworked Microcodium in the peri-Tethyan realm. Here
we consider only some of the most important references. In the
Spanish Pyrenees, Arribas et al. (1996) and Rossi (1997) studied
calcarenites with Microcodium in Paleocene lacustrine and uvial
facies. Freytet and Plaziat (1982) described continental Microco-
dium debris in the Paleogene of the French PyreneesProvenal
Basin. In the French-Italian Maritime Alps, the formation with
Microcodium (Faure-Mauret and Fallot, 1954; Varrone and Clari,
2003), consisting mainly of uvial facies, has an early-middle
Eocene age. In Sardinia, Mateucci and Murru (2002) studied
lacustrine Microcodium calcarenites of late Thanetianearly
Ypresian age. Kosir (2004) described abundant disaggregated
Microcodium in calcrete proles interbedded in Thanetian shal-
low-marine limestones of the Adriatic-Dinaric carbonate plat-
form (Slovenia).
PALEOGEOGRAPHICAL SIGNIFICANCE
From its lithology and sedimentology (Molina et al., 2003),
the Majalcorn Formation is interpreted as deposits on a distal
carbonate ramp in which storm waves were the principal mech-
anism responsible for resedimentation. The presence of disag-
gregated Microcodium as the main component in these shal-
low-marine deposits resulted from the erosion and reworking of
a subaerially exposed surface of calcareous paleosols during a
marine transgression.
In the Late Cretaceous, principally in the Maastrichtian,
there were high sea-level conditions, during which pelagic marly
limestones of the Capas Rojas Formation were deposited, some-
times including carbonate turbidites, in wide areas of the Sub-
betic (Fig. 7A). Microcodium was abundantly produced in the
early Paleocene, possibly as a consequence of important climatic
and ecologic changes that happened during the Cretaceous-Ter-
tiary transition. According to some authors (e.g., Hallam, 1998),
an abrupt global sea-level fall of more than 150 m took place at
this time; this would have caused the emergence of wide coastal
areas. Based on paleogeographical reconstructions (Smith et al.,
1994), the global increase in land area against marine domains
was considerable, from 109 10
6
km
2
in the Maastrichtian (70
Ma) to 138 10
6
km
2
in the Paleocene (60 Ma). In these emer-
gent areas, abundant paleosols with Microcodium were devel-
oped and subsequently were eroded and redeposited in marine
environments during transgression, thus producing Microcodium
calcarenites (Fig. 7B).
According to these reconstructions (Smith et al., 1994;
Cavazza et al., 2004), the proposed early Paleocene paleolati-
tude in the area corresponding to the Subbetic (southern Iberian
continental margin) was between 20 and 25N, near the Tropic
of Cancer, in which arid or semiarid climatic conditions would
be predominant. Paleoclimatic reconstructions for the Paleo-
cene (e.g., Bolle et al., 2000; Zachos et al., 2001; Adatte et al.,
2002) indicate that a warm period of maximum humidity with
high rainfall characterized the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary.
Subsequently, in the Danian, arid climatic conditions evolved
that persisted during the Selandian and Thanetian and reached
a maximum during the latest Paleocene (late Paleocene thermal
maximum). In this sense, the occurrence of a carbonate and a
relatively abundant quartz fraction in the Majalcorn Formation
might indicate a subaerially exposed environment with a sparse
vegetation cover, possibly similar to modern scrubland vegeta-
tion in a semiarid Mediterranean climate.
An interesting paleogeographical aspect is that the potential
locations where the abundant calcareous paleosols were formed
could not have been very far away from the site of deposition,
thus allowing the preservation of Microcodium aggregates. In the
Subbetic, outcrops of Paleocene paleosols have not been found;
the regions of the Subbetic that lack Upper Cretaceous rocks
(Capas Rojas Formation), or where their possible erosion during
the Paleogene has been detected, are potential source areas for
the studied Microcodium calcarenites of the Majalcorn Forma-
tion. Hypothetically, favorable areas would be those located in
the Subbetic where the Capas Rojas Formation does not appear
and where the development of erosive and paleokarst features on
the Jurassic deposits is evident (Vera et al., 1988; Molina et al.,
1999). We refer specically to the central sector of the Betic Cor-
dillera in the units of the northern external Subbetic (Camarena-
Lanchares and Grajales-Mentidero units) and parts of the south-
ern external Subbetic (Lobatejo-Pollos unit); in these areas, there
Reworked Microcodium calcarenites 199
is little or no representation of deposits with ages between Late
Cretaceous and early Oligocene (Molina, 1987; Molina and
Nieto, 2003).
The erosional boundary at the top of the Majalcorn Forma-
tion (Molina et al., 2003) could represent another important stage
of sea-level fall that took place in the early Selandian and pro-
duced erosion and karstication, at least in some areas, of the
formation top. Comparison with records from the North Sea
Basin, Western Pyrenees, the Nile Basin, and the eastern conti-
nental margin of North America suggests that sea-level changes
across the Danian-Selandian boundary were primarily caused by
eustatic uctuations with an associated relative sea-level drop on
the order of 50100 m (e.g., Pujalte et al., 1998; Clemmensen
and Thomsen, 2005). The general trend of sea level in the early
Sea level
Sea level
A
B
LATEST CRETACEOUS
DANIAN
S.l.
Swbl
1
Swbl
S.l.
2
S.l.
Swbl
3
Paleosols with Microcodium
Majalcorn Fm
Capas Rojas Fm
Karst
Figure 7. Sketch showing the genesis of the Majalcorn Formation before (A) and after (B) the important sea-level fall at the Cretaceous-Ter-
tiary boundary. Panels 13 show sea-level changes explaining the production of mud clasts and the reworking of Cretaceous nannoplankton and
foraminifera (see explanation in the text). S.l.sea level; Swblbase level of the storm waves.
200 Molina et al.
Paleocene, with a regressive-transgressive-regressive pattern
clearly controlling the beginning and the ending of the Majal-
corn Formation deposition, is shown in the Figure 8.
Other characteristic aspects of the Majalcorn Formation are
the presence of soft micritic intraclasts, and of reworked fora-
minifera and nannoora including, principally, Upper Cretaceous
(Campanian and Maastrichtian), but also some Lower Creta-
ceous taxa. These can be explained by small oscillations in sea
level and consequently in the storm-wave base during the deposi-
tion of the Majalcorn Formation; this is in agreement with the
model presented in the Figures 7 and 8: (1) In a rst stage, the
Microcodium calcarenites were deposited above the storm-wave
base (Swbl in the Fig. 7). (2) A rise in base level and decrease of
wave energy favored the deposition of micritic facies containing
planktonic foraminifera. (3) During the third stage, related to a
fall of storm-wave base, the reworking and resedimentation of
these micritic sediments took place, forming micritic intraclasts
that mixed with the calcarenitic sediment. In relation to the strati-
graphic units of the Late Cretaceous and Paleogene, the Maja-
lcorn Formation appears to be a unit consisting of reworked
sediments (Microcodium) of clear continental origin, deposited
on a shallow-marine ramp inserted among pelagic facies (Capas
Rojas Formation).
CONCLUSIONS
Lithologically, the Majalcorn Formation is characterized
mainly by its abundant content of Microcodium. This forma-
tion, located between pelagic sedimentary rocks (Capas Rojas
Formation), was deposited during the Lower Paleocene close to
emergent areas covered with abundant calcareous paleosols with
Microcodium. After, these paleosols were eroded and reworked,
the Microcodium calcications were disaggregated and their
prismatic crystal debris resedimented in shallow-marine envi-
ronments affected by storm waves. According to nannofossil
biostratigraphy, the deposition of the Majalcorn Formation
started in the earliest Danian, coinciding with (or immediately
after) subzone NTp1B of Varol (1989). The end of the deposi-
tion of the sediments of the Majalcorn Formation was heteroch-
ronic and occurred between the latest Danianearly Selandian (as
maximum subzone NTp8A) and middle Selandian, at the top of
subzone NTp8C.
Eustatic sea-level changes from the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary through the early Paleocene with a regressive-trans-
gressive-regressive succession controlled the generation of the
paleosols with Microcodium, the sedimentation of the calcar-
enites after erosion and reworking paleosols, and the ending of
deposition with the development of paleokarstic features on the
top of the formation.
The Majalcorn Formation has great signicance for under-
standing the paleogeographical evolution of the pelagic realms of
the Betic external zones during the Late Cretaceous and the Ter-
tiary. Its peculiar character is originally related to its deposition
close to subaerial exposure areas with abundant calcareous paleo-
sols that were redeposited on shallow carbonate ramps. These
paleosols with abundant Microcodium must have had extensive
development in the Subbetic, and probably in the External Sub-
betic, at the time of the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary. The pres-
ence of the Majalcorn Formation and its interpretation are very
important to understanding the paleogeography and the deposi-
tional paleobathymetry of the pelagic facies in the adjacent for-
mations along the southern Iberian continental margin during the
Late Cretaceous and the Paleogene.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors express their gratitude to Agustn Martn-
Algarra for the very precise, complete, and constructive revi-
sion of this article, and to Dario Varrone for many helpful sug-
gestions and useful criticism of the paper. We thank Ana M.
Figure 8. General evolution in a regressive-transgressive-regressive pattern of early Paleocene sea level mainly in relation to the beginning and
ending of the Majalcorn Formation deposition.
65.5
Ma
61.7
Ma
DANIAN
MAASTRICHTIAN
SELANDIAN
CAPAS ROJAS Fm.
and other pelagic and
turbiditic facies
CAPAS ROJAS Fm.
(Pelagic and hemipelagic
facies)
MAJALCORN Fm.
(Shallow marine platform
facies)
P
A
L
E
O
C
E
N
E
Rise Fall
SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE
Calcareous soils with
abundant Microcodium
SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE
Paleokarst
Reworking and redeposition
of Microcodium
Small sea-level
oscillations
Reworked Microcodium calcarenites 201
Alonso-Zarza and L.H. Tanner for the continual aid during all
the stages of the manuscript preparation and editorial work.
Also we extend our appreciation to Elizabeth A. Adams, who
made the English text more readable. This work has been car-
ried out as a contribution to the groups of investigation RNM-
200, RNM-208, 4064 (Junta of Andalusia) and of Investigation
Projects BTE2000-1151 and BTE2001-2852 of the Spanish
Ministry of Science and Technology.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
203
Rasbury, E.T., Gierlowski-Kordesch, E.H., Cole, J.M., Sookdeo, C., Spataro, G., and Nienstedt, J., 2006, Calcite cement stratigraphy of a nonpedogenic calcrete in
the Triassic New Haven Arkose (Newark Supergroup), in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes
and Palustrine Carbonates: Geological Society of America Special Paper 416, p. 203221 doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(13). For permission to copy, contact editing@
geosociety.org. 2006 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.
Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006
Calcite cement stratigraphy of a nonpedogenic calcrete in the Triassic
New Haven Arkose (Newark Supergroup)
E. Troy Rasbury
Department of Geosciences, State University of New York (SUNY) Stony Brook, New York 11794-2100, USA
Elizabeth H. Gierlowski-Kordesch
Department of Geological Sciences, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio 45701-2979, USA
Jennifer M. Cole

Interdepartmental Doctoral Program in Anthropological Sciences, State University of New York (SUNY) Stony Brook, New York
11794-4364, USA
Cherri Sookdeo
Glenn Spataro
Jessica Nienstedt
Department of Geosciences, State University of New York (SUNY) Stony Brook, New York 11794-2100, USA
ABSTRACT
Nonpedogenic calcrete is difcult to distinguish from pedogenic calcrete in the
fossil record; both alpha and beta textures have been observed from fossil and mod-
ern examples. However, a calcrete from the New Haven Arkose (Hartford Basin,
Connecticut) is shown here to be of a nonpedogenic origin through sedimentologic
and petrographic evidence. An accumulation of thin sheets of displacive calcite layers
found in a decimeter-thick horizon of anastomosing veins within the upper portion
of a red mudstone is correlated to calcite cement found in the overlying sandstone.
Based on petrography, we recognize six generations of calcite in the mudstone-sand-
stone hosts. The rst ve generations are associated with rhizoliths that can be related
to deep taproots and are interpreted to have formed by precipitation from shallow
groundwater. There are no vadose-type cement morphologies; the calcite has lumi-
nescent zones, indicating that Mn was soluble and thus oxygen levels were low. These
cements clearly formed several meters below what would have been the surface of the
channel sand body. We suggest that calcite cement stratigraphy combined with redox
models for the behavior of Mn (as well as Fe and U) may aid in the identication of
nonpedogenic versus pedogenic carbonates in the geologic record. Additionally, the
calcite from this carbonate layer has been dated using the U-Pb method. Our results
provide insight into the environmental and diagenetic uid conditions favorable for
providing a spread in U/Pb ratios that are suitable for precise dating of calcites in
otherwise undateable sections.
Keywords: groundwater calcrete, alveolar septal fabric, taproots, cement stratigraphy.

Present address: Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, 61 Route 9W, Palisades, New York 10964-8000, USA
204 Rasbury et al.
kar et al., 1998; Tandon and Andrews, 2001). Groundwater and
capillary fringe nonpedogenic calcite precipitate in association
with Ca-rich groundwaters in response to the common ion effect,
degassing, and evapotranspiration through root activity with
associated microbes (bacteria, fungi, and cyanobacteria) (Wright
and Tucker, 1991; Chadwick and Graham, 2000).
Differentiation between pedogenic and nonpedogenic cal-
crete is not possible through stable isotopic analysis because the
controls on calcite precipitation are similar (Purvis and Wright,
1991; Quade and Roe, 1999; Mermut et al., 2000; Mack et al.,
2000; Tandon and Andrews, 2001). Calcrete origin is assessed
through eld relationships (Nash, 1997), such as a position
immediately above a relatively impermeable layer or bedrock as
well as the presence/absence of alpha and beta fabrics. This still
is an inexact method (Wright and Tucker, 1991; Nash and Smith,
1998; Tandon and Kumar, 1999). The juxtaposition of calcite
cements with other diagenetic features in a calcrete horizon across
a mudstone-sandstone boundary is presented here as a valuable
technique in the establishment of relative timing of diagenesis in
order to assess origin. In addition, geochemical methods such as
the evaluation of redox-sensitive elements in petrographic work
can clarify the position of carbonate accumulation with respect
to the water table. Geochronologic dating of calcite cements
through U-Pb techniques can separate early and late diagenetic
cementation as well as provide an age for sedimentation (Ras-
bury et al., 1997, 1998, 2000; Wang et al., 1998). Because calcite
has a low distribution coefcient for uranium (Chung and Swart,
1990; Reeder et al., 2000), it is advantageous to understand the
RESUMEN
Las calcretas no-pedognicas son difciles de diferenciar de las pedognicas en
el registro antiguo; los dos tipos de textura alfa y beta se reconocen en depsitos
antiguos y recientes. Sin embargo, en el caso concreto de la calcreta de New Haven
Arkose (Cuenca Hartford, Connecticut), los datos sedimentolgicos y las evidencias
petrogrcas permiten demostrar su origen no-pedognico. La presencia, dentro de
lutitas rojas, de nas capas de calcita desplazativa dentro de un horizonte decimtrico
de venas anastomosadas se puede correlacionar con la formacin de cemento calctico
en las areniscas infrayacentes a dichas lutitas rojas. Petrogrcametne se recono-
cen seis generaciones de calcita en las lutitas y areniscas que constituyen el sustrato.
Las cinco primeras generaciones estn asociadas con rizolitos de sistemas radiculares
profundos y se pudieron formar por precipitacin a partir de aguas freticas someras.
No hay cementos vadosos y la calcita tiene zonas luminiscentes indicando que el Mn
era soluble y, por tanto, los niveles de oxgeno bajos. Estos cementos se formaron
claramente varios metros por debajo de lo que fue la supercie del canal de arenas.
Sugerimos que la estratigrafa de los cementos de calcita combinada con los modelos
redox de comportamiento de Mn (tambin Fe y U) pueden ayudar en la identicacin
de los carbonatos pedognicos y no-pedognicos en el registro geolgico. Adems la
calcita de esta capa carbontica se ha datado por el mtodo de U-Pb. Nuestros resul-
tados permiten una mejor caracterizacin de las condiciones ambientales y de los
tipos de uidos ms favorables para ampliar el rango de valores U/Pb necesarios para
datar calcitas en secciones que de otro modo no se podran datar.
Palabras clave: calcretas freticas, fbricas alveolares, races, estratigrafa de cementos.
INTRODUCTION
Calcite cement is one of the most important products of dia-
genesis in terrestrial sedimentary deposits. Based on assumptions
about its relationship to the atmosphere, calcite that forms in soil
proles may archive pCO
2
records (Cerling, 1984; Cerling and
Quade, 1993; Mermut et al., 2000), where pedogenic calcite is
attributed to dry conditions, at least seasonally (Semenuik and
Searle, 1985; Harden et al., 1991; Tandon and Kumar, 1999;
Lal and Kimble, 2000). Pedogenic calcrete contains both alpha
and beta fabrics, and the extent of each type is mostly depen-
dent on climate and hydrologic setting (Wright, 1990; Wright and
Tucker, 1991; Tandon and Kumar, 1999). Alpha textures include
rhombic calcite crystals, dense micritic fabric, oating sediment
grains, complex cracks and crystallaria, and displacive growth
features (cf. Watts, 1978; Rossinsky et al., 1992), and exhibit no
preserved biogenic features. Beta textures contain features indi-
cating biogenic inuence, such as alveolar septal fabric, calcied
tubules, microbial coatings, and Microcodium.
Groundwater calcretes are nonpedogenic in origin, form
in the phreatic groundwater zone, and are typically linear and
tabular limestone bodies containing mostly alpha fabrics. These
are differentiated from capillary fringe, nonpedogenic calcretes,
which form in the vadose zone above the water table and contain
beta fabrics that result from phreatophytic plants extending their
roots down toward the water table (Carlisle, 1983; Purvis and
Wright, 1991; Wright and Tucker, 1991; Williams and Krause,
1998; Tandon and Kumar, 1999; Nash and Smith, 1998; Khadki-
Nonpedogenic calcrete in the New Haven Arkose 205
conditions that promote elevated U/Pb and U/Th ratios in car-
bonate sedimentary and diagenetic processes in order to predict
which kinds of calcrete might be amenable to dating.
Here we present detailed eld and petrographic analyses of
cements from one of several similar carbonate intervals within
the Upper Triassic New Haven Arkose of the Newark Supergroup
in the Hartford Basin (Connecticut). These subhorizontal calcite
layers in red mudstone have been interpreted as pedogenic cal-
cretes in meandering uvial facies that formed in a semiarid cli-
mate (McInerney and Hubert, 2003), after the sedimentary model
of Hubert (1977, 1978). Other sedimentologic work on the upper
New Haven mudrocks and sandstones instead suggests a wetter
seasonal (perhaps monsoonal) climate during sedimentation of a
medium-energy braided oodplain or a high-energy unconned,
vertical accretion to cut-and-ll oodplain (after Krynine, 1950;
Nanson and Croke, 1992; Gierlowski-Kordesch and Gibling,
2002). A detailed examination of one of the calcrete layers present
along a sandstone-mudstone contact in the New Haven Arkose,
using evidence from sedimentologic relationships, cement stra-
tigraphy (after Meyers, 1974), and redox-sensitive elements, is
coupled with published U-Pb dating (Wang et al., 1998). This
study establishes the genesis and timing of the accumulation of
carbonate in an attempt to more easily distinguish between pedo-
genic and nonpedogenic calcrete in the geologic record.
GEOLOGIC SETTING
The Hartford Basin in Connecticut (Fig. 1) is one of the rift
basins of the Newark Supergroup, which line the eastern mar-
gin of North America (Lorenz, 1987; Olsen et al. 1989; Olsen,
1997). These basins formed in response to crustal extension and
rifting of Pangea during the early Mesozoic (Late Triassic to
Early Jurassic) (Manspeizer, 1988, 1994; Schlische, 1993, 2003;
Olsen, 1997). The sedimentary basin ll of the Hartford Basin is
composed of more than 4000 m distributed among four continen-
tal sedimentary formations and three basaltic units (Gierlowski-
Kordesch and Huber, 1995).
The New Haven Arkose is part of the Chatham Group
(Weems and Olsen, 1997; De Wet et al., 2002), the lowermost
Hartford Basin ll, and is postulated to have a maximum thick-
ness of 22502400 m or more (Olsen et al., 1989; Gierlowski-
Kordesch and Huber, 1995). The formation is lower Norian-
Rhaetian (Upper Triassic) to basal Hettangian (Lower Jurassic)
in age (Fig. 1) and is interpreted as a uvial deposit (Gier-
lowski-Kordesch and Gibling, 2002; McInerney and Hubert,
2003). The Triassic-Jurassic boundary is placed biostratigraph-
ically a few meters below its upper contact with the Talcott
Basalt (Cornet and Traverse, 1975; Olsen et al., 1982), and the
section studied here is located ~1200 m below the Talcott
Figure 1. Geologic map and general-
ized stratigraphy of the southern Hart-
ford Basin in Connecticut showing the
location of the studied outcrop, south-
west of the Hanging Hills near Mer-
iden, Connecticut. The Upper Trias-
sicLower Jurassic boundary is pres-
ently drawn a few meters below the
New HavenTalcott contact.
206 Rasbury et al.
Basalt. Age-equivalent basaltic sills and ows from other
genetically related basins give ages of around 200201 Ma
(Dunning and Hodych, 1990; Hodych and Dunning, 1992;
Hames et al., 2000), which are consistent with but not further
constraining than a U-Pb age of 212 2 Ma from early diage-
netic carbonate (calcrete) in the underlying New Haven Arkose
(Wang et al., 1998). A U-Pb age of late diagenetic cements from
within this same calcrete is 81 11 Ma (Wang et al., 1998).
Thus, there is a record of 130 million years or more of calcite
cementation history.
The studied calcrete layer of the New Haven Arkose is
exposed in a 130-m-thick roadcut along the eastbound side of
Interstate Highway 691, just east of the intersection with Inter-
state Highway 84 near Meriden, Connecticut (Fig. 1). This inter-
val is projected to be ~650 m above the base of the New Haven
Arkose (Wang et al., 1998). Here the section contains uvial
deposits that alternate between variable thicknesses of mudrocks
and sandstones, most with associated calcite layers. The stacked
nature of these deposits represents aggradation during basin sub-
sidence as high-energy streams deposited sand and mud sheets
associated with shallow channels (Gierlowski-Kordesch and
Gibling, 2002) or channel migration and climatic cycles (McIn-
erney and Hubert, 2003). In this outcrop, many of the upper
portions of mudrock units at their contact with overlying sand-
stones have quasihorizontal calcite vein-like bodies. Our focus
is a detailed study of one such interval, interpreted as a calcrete
and already dated geochronologically by Wang et al. (1998).
PREVIOUS WORK ON NEW HAVEN CALCRETE
Wang et al. (1998) describe and present U-Pb ages for the
calcite cements forming vein-like bodies in one mudstone unit in
the upper New Haven Arkose. The foundation for this work is the
fact that calcium carbonate in soils is generally low-Mg calcite,
which is stable and resistant to recrystallization. Most importantly,
soil carbonates accumulate quickly; between 10
3
and 10
5
yr (see
Machette, 1985), while the expected resolution of the U-Pb tech-
nique in low to intermediate U-Pb systems is on the order of 10
6

yr. Wang et al. (1998) identify three generations of calcite cement
in the New Haven Arkose carbonate layers exposed at Meriden,
Connecticut (Fig. 1). The rst generation cement is dull-cathodo-
luminescent micritic calcite occurring as walls in alveolar struc-
tures, such as cylindrical linings of rhizoliths, crack llings, and
dense nodules. The second calcite generation is nonluminescent
blocky calcite that lls pores of rhizoliths, alveolar features, and
cracks. Both of these two cement generations are interpreted as
beta textures diagnostic of pedogenic carbonates (Wright and
Tucker, 1991). This fabric is used as the best line of evidence
supporting a pedogenic origin (Hubert, 1977, 1978; McInerney
and Hubert, 2003). A horizontal sheet crack containing the rst
two generations of cement, variably enriched in U (114 ppm),
gives an age of 212 2 Ma. Carbon and oxygen isotopic values
as well as trace-element data support the conclusion that the cal-
cite cements formed through meteoric diagenesis.
The third generation of calcite is brightly luminescent, lls
pore spaces within the rst two cements, and in some cases,
replaces the earlier cement generations. Clearly occurring after
the deposition of crack-lling cements, this third generation
cement is interpreted as late diagenetic cement based on cross-
cutting relationships and a U-Pb age of 81 11 Ma. Carbon iso-
topic values from this late cement mostly overlap with those of
the rst two calcite generations, but oxygen isotopes are mostly
more negative, and trace-element data are distinctly different,
with much lower U and Mg and higher Mn concentrations. Thus,
carbon and oxygen isotope data of the early generation cements
reported by Wang et al. (1998) are consistent with either a non-
pedogenic or pedogenic history.
Generally, both types of calcrete form relatively soon after
sedimentation and are dateable using U-Pb techniques; thus,
they provide an age for sedimentation as well as important cli-
matic or biologic events. Additionally, U-series studies on cal-
cite cement in soils demonstrate great potential for constrain-
ing landforms and climate change in the Quaternary (Ludwig
and Paces, 2002; Sharp et al., 2003; Blisniuk and Sharp, 2003).
While some studies suggest that U-series ages may record
mixed histories of pedogenic and nonpedogenic calcite forma-
tion (Kelly et al., 2000; Candy et al., 2003), this is not likely to
have an adverse affect on U-Pb dating, simply because the time
resolution for fossil calcretes is much larger. The diagenetic his-
tory recorded in the cement stratigraphy can aid in assessing
the reliability of radiometric ages for both U-series and U-Pb
studies of calcrete layers.
The sedimentology and petrography of the entire targeted
calcrete layer in the New Haven Arkose, including the cemented
sandstone in conformable contact with and above the U-Pb dated
calcitic vein-like bodies of the mudstone, are now presented.
Petrographic analysis includes microscopic work under transmit-
ted light as well as cathodoluminescence.
FIELD AND PETROGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS
At the Meriden section containing the New Haven Arkose,
a 130-m-thick succession of red mudrock units (50 cm to 3 m in
thickness), overlain by thick, commonly massive arkose units,
up to 2.5 m thick, is exposed. The contact between the mudrock
units and their overlying sandstones is the locus of signicant
displacive calcite cementation (cf. Watts, 1978; Rossinsky et al.,
1992). The calcite cement is present in the uppermost portion
of red mudstone units as anastomosing subhorizontal vein-like
bodies that separate mudstone blocks (Fig. 2A) and as displacive
micrite that separates sand grains in the overlying sandstone. No
clasts of the calcrete are observed as lag deposits in the sand-
stone above, nor is there any other macroscopic line of evidence
that the calcites formed prior to sandstone deposition. The cal-
cite cements are particularly concentrated within the base of the
sandstone (Fig. 2B). There is extensive evidence of pedogenesis
in the mudstone, including randomly oriented slickensides in the
massive mudstones, as well as tubular features, which are inter-
Nonpedogenic calcrete in the New Haven Arkose 207
preted as rhizoliths (after Klappa, 1980). These rhizoliths range
in diameter from 6 mm to 2 cm; they branch and curve around
each other with orientations from horizontal through vertical. In
cross section, some of these rhizoliths contain a circular inner
tube lled with calcite-cemented green mudstone, which is inter-
preted as the location of the original root (Fig. 2C). On the other
hand, sandstones are commonly massive to rarely trough cross-
bedded with no obvious macroscopic pedogenic features outside
of rare, though prominent, 57-cm-diameter, vertically tapering
structures lled with ner-grained material and abundant calcite
cement; penetrating the entire thickness of the massive sandstone
units (Fig. 2D). These vertical structures are much more green
(drab) in color than the surrounding sandstone and are interpreted
to have resulted from taproots of large plants or trees that pen-
etrated the sandstone to reach the water table below.
Based on these eld relationships, rock samples were col-
lected from the dated carbonate interval of Wang et al. (1998) as
well as from the sandstone above. Samples are from: (1) the
topmost calcite-bearing interval of the mudstone; (2) the tap-
roots that penetrate the sandstone; (3) the base of the overlying
sandstone; and (4) the middle to top portion of the same sand-
stone channel unit. If the carbonate deposits in the mudstone
are indeed pedogenic calcrete, then the overlying sandstone
should not contain any of the early calcite cements found in the
mudstone. The sandstone channel would then have migrated
upon the pedogenically altered mud surface at a later time and
contained genetically different calcite cements. If the carbonate
unit in the mudstone is a nonpedogenic calcrete associated with
the water table, then the lowermost portion of the sandstone in
contact with the underlying mudstone should contain geneti-
cally related calcite cement because groundwater ow along the
sand-mud contact would have been contemporaneous.
Hand-specimen-scale examination of the cement fabrics in
the mudstone and taproots from the overlying sandstone reveals
Figure 2. Field photos from the Meriden section of the Upper Triassic New Haven Arkose. (A) Mudstone facies with horizontal layers of calcite.
Scale on left has centimeter scale on the right and inch scale on the left. (B) Mudstone-sandstone contact showing preferential cementation at the
base of the sandstone. Mallet hammer for scale is 10 cm wide. (C) Concentric features with a central cavity surrounded by calcite, interpreted
as rhizoliths. Lens cap is 6 cm in diameter. (D) Long vertical features within the sandstone. The area near these features is bleached, suggesting
that reducing uids removed Fe. These features are interpreted as taproots. Hammer for scale is 28 cm long.
208 Rasbury et al.
striking similarities. The red mudstone has a horizontal fabric
created by gleyed veins that are commonly lled with calcite
(Fig. 3A). The taproot is drab with brecciated rock fragments
separated by calcite veins at a similar scale to those in the
mudstone (Fig. 3B). Individual grains display a oating tex-
ture requiring displacive calcite growth (Watts, 1978). Using
the white and black card techniques (Folk, 1987) at low mag-
nication, one can see that the earliest generation of calcite in
the mudstone is micrite (Fig. 3C), while the earliest genera-
tion of calcite in the sandstone forms a prismatic layer that is
perpendicular to grain surfaces followed by micritic calcite
(Fig. 3D).
Figure 3. (A) Scanned image of an entire normal-sized thin section using a slide scanner. The bright white subhorizontal features are lled with
calcite. Other areas are lighter than the host red mudstone but do not have visible calcite. Bleaching is interpreted to result from reducing uids
that removed Fe. Dark spots are hematite nodules. (B) Scanned image of an entire thin section using a slide scanner. The clast at the bottom left
is shattered by displacive calcite growth. The white band through the middle of the thin section is a calcite vein with a variety of crystal sizes
ranging from microspar near the edges to over 350 microns in the center. (C) Incident light image of one of the calcite veins in the mudstone.
The white material is micritic calcite that lines roots. Sparry calcite is seen in the center of the vein. (D) Incident light image of one of the veins
that breaks up the clast in C. The rst recognizable calcite cement at this scale is a bladed calcite, followed by micritic calcite, and then by sparry
calcite in the center of the veins.
Nonpedogenic calcrete in the New Haven Arkose 209
Cement Stratigraphy in Mudstone
Based on petrography, ve generations of calcite cements
are recognized in the mudstone facies. Anastomosing micro-
scopic vein-like bodies with alternating micrite and sparry
calcite break up the host mudrock into progressively smaller
clods (Figs. 4A and 4B). We consider these the rst two cal-
cite generations (G1, G2, Table 1). These cements are evenly
isopachous on grain surfaces and are clearly followed by, but
are likely also quasisynchronous with, micrite and bladed cal-
cite (G3, Table 1), which line much larger-scale (visible in hand
specimen) veins that cut the host mudstone (Figs. 4C and 4D;
cf. 3A and 3B). This fringing calcite is followed by a void-
lling, mostly nonluminescent, blocky calcite (G4, Table 1),
with some bright orange luminescent zones (Figs. 4C and 4D).
The three generations of calcite cement identied by Wang et
al. (1998) occur in rhizoliths, which are extremely prevalent in
the top of the mudstone deposit. A dull-luminescent micritic
calcite (G3, Table 1) forms the walls of the rhizoliths (Figs. 4E
and 4F). A nonluminescent sparry calcite (G4, Table 1) lls the
holes presumably left by roots (Figs. 4E and 4F). A brightly
luminescent calcite (G6, Table 1) is observable as tiny veins
and as a replacement of the earlier calcite generations (Figs.
4E and 4F).
Cement Stratigraphy in Taproot
Petrographic investigation reveals six generations of calcite
cements in the sandstone associated with the taproot structure.
Sand grains oat in calcite cement (Fig. 5). A very thin layer of
brightly orange, luminescent micritic calcite coats some grains
and is identied as the rst generation of cement (G1, Table 1),
although it is not always seen prior to the precipitation of the
second generation, bladed calcite (Fig. 5). Bladed calcite is the
second-generation cement (G2, Table 1), which grew perpen-
dicular to grain surfaces (Figs. 5 and 6E). Although the bladed
calcite appears as a pervasive coating on sand grains, some but
not all veins of calcite exhibit this bladed calcite (Figs. 6A and
6B), suggesting that the veins record a progressive history that
is synchronous with and also postdates grain-coating cements.
The rst two generations of calcite appear to be equivalent
to the calcite generations that exploded apart the underly-
ing mudstone, based on similarity in crystal size, layer size,
and cathodoluminescence. Dull-luminescent micritic calcite
is the third generation of cement (G3, Table 1) in the taproot
sandstone (Figs. 6A and 6B). The fourth cement generation is
nonluminescent blocky calcite (G4, Table 1) that cores calcite
crystals within large veins (Figs. 6C and 6D). The fth cement
generation is zoned under cathodoluminescence (G5, Table 1),
occurs as overgrowths on G4 calcite cores (Figs. 6C and 6D),
and is the sole generation observed in 350500 micron crystals
within the large veins. The fourth and fth generations of cal-
cite clearly cut horizontal veins dened by the rst and second
cement generations, but may reect progression of the same
uid. Veins in which G4 and G5 are recognized are lined by
sparry calcite that has the granular mosaic texture described
by Purvis and Wright (1991) in capillary fringe nonpedogenic
calcretes of the Middle Triassic Otter Sandstone in England. A
sixth generation of calcite (G6) is brightly luminescent (Figs.
5E and 5F). Brightly orange, luminescent, uid inclusionrich
calcite is also present in the center of the largest oscillatory-
zoned calcite crystals (G5), which make up the center of a large
vein (see Fig. 3C). We also interpret this brightly luminescent
cement as the sixth generation (Figs. 6A and 6B). The G6 cal-
cite is seen replacing grains and as ne veins that crosscut all
other cement generations (Figs. 6E and 6F).
Cement Stratigraphy in Sandstone
Based on petrography, we recognize four generations of
calcite in the overlying sandstone unit not directly associated
with a taproot. Both the basal sandstone and middle to upper
sandstone exhibit the same cement generations and approximate
proportions (Fig. 7). The rst generation is dull-luminescent
micrite with oating sand grains, reecting a dramatic volume
increase with displacive calcite growth (Fig. 7). This micrite is
interpreted as analogous to the early micrite seen in the mud-
stone and taproot sandstone (G3, Table 1), because of its similar-
ity in cathodoluminescence, and because cylindrical linings of
rhizoliths similar in scale to those in the underlying mudstone
are common in the basal sandstone and present throughout the
sandstone (Fig. 7).
The second generation of calcite observed in the sandstone
is nonluminescent and forms very thin layers on the micrite coat-
ings (Figs. 7B and 7D), equivalent to the nonluminescent G4
cement observed in the mudstone and taproots. This nonlumi-
nescent calcite is followed by a volumetrically far more impor-
tant, brightly orange luminescent calcite that lls the remainder
of the rhizolith voids (G5). Although this calcite is unzoned, it
is likely equivalent to G4 (Table 1) based on its occurrence as
pore-lling cement in rhizoliths. Crosscutting rhizoliths show
that all the early generations of calcite reect a time progression
of the process of calcication around roots (Figs. 7E and 7F).
Although most of the sandstone exhibits the oating
grain texture with the displacive calcite, there are millimeter-
scale bands that are grain-supported, and, within these bands,
deformed grains, such as muscovite, provide evidence of com-
paction that predates calcite cementation (Fig. 8A). In these
compacted layers, only one calcite cement type is present, a
brightly luminescent calcite that replaces many of the feldspar
grains (see Saad, 1991; Hubert et al., 1992; van de Kamp and
Leake, 1996). This brightly luminescent sparry calcite is inter-
preted as the sixth generation cement, which is always brightly
luminescent and commonly replaces grains and older cement
generations (G6, Table 1). Based on thin sections examination,
these compacted bands of sandstone are not common, but our
thin section samples may not be an accurate representation of
the density of these features within the sandstone.
Nonpedogenic calcrete in the New Haven Arkose 211
Summary of Cement Stratigraphy Across Mudstone-
Sandstone Contact
Calcite generations G1G3 coexist and may have formed
synchronously, although G3 lines rhizoliths that clearly cut the
rst two generations, which break up clasts in the sandstone and
clods in the mudstone. Generations G4 and G5 ll rhizoliths
and are interpreted to be early cements. These cements (G4, G5)
are considered two distinct generations because the mudstone has
uniformly nonluminescent calcite cement (G4) forming only the
rst thin layer of sparry calcite in the sandstone rhizoliths fol-
lowed by bright and zoned luminescent sparry calcite (G5).
A cartoon relating the cement stratigraphy of the New
Haven calcrete interval reects our understanding of the inter-
relationships among the cements (Fig. 9). It is our interpretation
that taproots provide a permeable pathway for meteoric water,
and the mudstone layer is an impermeable barrier to the passage
of groundwater. Thus, the cements are concentrated at the mud-
stone-sandstone interface where roots and groundwater meet.
Similarities in color and texture of the calcite-cemented sand-
stone and the calcite deposited in subhorizontal cracks in the
underlying mudstone suggest that the same uids were respon-
sible for precipitating calcite across the mud-sand boundary
(Figs. 8, 2A, and 2B). However, all but the very latest cements
formed very early based on their association with roots. There
are no clay cutans or other features in the massive to trough
cross-bedded sandstone that might suggest this was simply a
thick soil prole, and the cements show no textures that could
be considered of vadose origin. This points toward a groundwa-
ter, not a capillary fringe, nonpedogenic origin. Also, no clasts
of the mudstone calcretes are incorporated into the bottom of
the overlying sandstone. The calcied mud-sand interval is a
groundwater calcrete with capillary fringe afnities (after
Figure 4. (A) Plane-light photomicrograph of displacive calcite that
brecciates the mudstone. An anastomosing network of micrite appears
to have formed around rootlets. There is an intimate association with
sparry calcite (G1, G2). (B) Cathodoluminescence photomicrograph
of the same area shown in A. The anastomosing network of micrite
has dull luminescence and alternates with sparry calcite that is both
brightly luminescent and nonluminescent. While crosscutting relation-
ships do not allow us to demonstrate that the micrite was the earliest
generation, based on its probable association with roots, micrite may
have formed rst. (CD) Large areas in the mudstone facies are com-
posed only of calcite. The bottom half of these photomicrographs has
a fringing interlayered micrite with bright luminescence and bladed
(vaguely) dull-luminescent calcite (G3). This is followed by largely
nonluminescent blocky calcite with zones of bright luminescence
(G4). Although not labeled, it appears that the micritic calcite near
the boundary with the fringing calcite has been replaced by brightly
luminescent calcite (G6). (E) Micrite-lined rhizolith (G3) lled with a
blocky calcite (G4). (F) Micrite lining the roots is dully luminescent
and lled by a nonluminescent calcite. Both the micrite and sparry
calcite may be replaced by brightly luminescent calcite (G6).
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212 Rasbury et al.
Semenuik and Meagher, 1981; Carlisle, 1983; Semenuik and
Searle, 1985; Purvis and Wright, 1991; Sptl and Wright, 1992;
Slate et al., 1996; Nash and Smith, 1998; Tandon and Kumar,
1999; Khadkikar et al., 2000; Mack et al., 2000; Tandon and
Andrews, 2001), resembling the penetrative calcrete of Rossin-
sky et al. (1992).
Reducing groundwater uids may be indicated because of
the leaching of Fe responsible for the drab, green colors associ-
ated with the calcite cement (Retallack, 1988, 1991; Wright,
1992; Quade and Roe, 1999). The green, drab coloration (Fig.
3A) is interpreted as the preservation of gleying features (Retal-
lack, 1991; PiPujol and Buurman, 1994). The long vertical fea-
tures in the overlying sandstone, interpreted as taproots, are
also drab green (Figs. 9, 2C, and 2D), perhaps due to the local
reducing conditions created by decaying organic matter from
plant roots. Large taproot holes may have provided a permeable
conduit for uids responsible for the early generations of calcite
cementation (Semenuik and Meagher, 1981; Purvis and Wright,
1991; Clothier and Green, 1997). These observations suggest
that the groundwater table (which could have been perched)
was within a few meters of the surface during the formation
of the calcite cements. This would explain the alpha and beta
fabrics associated with both groundwater and capillary fringe
nonpedogenic calcrete, respectively.
Figure 5. (A) Plane-light photomicrograph of displacive calcite that separates and fractures sand grains from the taproot area (Fig. 2D). (B) Cath-
odoluminescence photomicrograph of the same area as A. (C) Plane-light photomicrograph of displacive calcite that separates and fractures sand
grains from the taproot area. (D) Cathodoluminescence photomicrographs of the same area as C. Most grains have a thin brightly luminescent
layer of calcite (G1) followed by bladed dull-luminescent calcite (G2). Micrite calcite (G3) is almost always associated with this bladed calcite,
and here it can be shown to postdate the bladed calcite. Quartz grains may be fractured, but there is no evidence of replacement. Feldspar(?)
grains are replaced to variable degrees by brightly luminescent calcite (G6).
Nonpedogenic calcrete in the New Haven Arkose 213
Features that could be attributed to soils are not seen in the
later two early calcite cement generations (G4 and G5). There
is little evidence for the timing of the massive micrite cements
with oating grains that are pervasive throughout the sandstone
away from the taproots with respect to the grain-coating cement
generations (G1, G2) found only in the taproot. However, this
micrite cement in the sandstone away from the taproot is cut by
rhizoliths that are lined by similarly luminescent micrite, and thus
we interpret this as the third cement generation (G3). This texture
is analogous to the dense micrite zones recognized by Purvis and
Wright (1991).
The sixth generation of cement (G6), which cuts and
replaces former cement generations in the mudstone and sand-
stone and replaces some grains in the sandstone, is interpreted to
have formed after burial and lithication based on these crosscut-
ting relationships. This calcite was dated at 81 11 Ma (Wang
et al., 1998). The age suggests a possible relationship to the
maximum advance of the Cretaceous seas during Upper Zuni A
time (Haq et al., 1988). The Hartford Basin, at this time, is pos-
tulated to have been undergoing tectonic inversion and thermal
subsidence (Schlische, 2003). Perhaps this combination of events
established a large-scale uid ow that was responsible for the
late-formed calcite cements. However, we were not implying
these are marine uids, rather, that the rise in sea level would
necessarily cause a change in base level and drive uids through
the system. Carbon isotope values from the latest cements are
indistinguishable from those of the earlier cements (Wang et al.,
1998). However, the oxygen isotopes have a much greater range
(10.7 to 5.0 versus 6.5 to 4.6), extending to more
negative values, consistent with the higher temperatures that
would be expected with a burial history. The lower uranium con-
centrations and much higher manganese concentrations (Wang
et al., 1998) in this generation of calcite (G6) are consistent with
far more reducing uids, because uranium is insoluble and man-
ganese is soluble in reducing uids. These observations support
our contention that the uids responsible for G6 cements are not
directly surface-derived.
GENESIS OF CALCRETE
Nonpedogenic calcretes, such as capillary fringe and
groundwater calcretes (Tandon and Kumar, 1999), are carbon-
ate accumulations in soil, sediment, or bedrock associated with
the groundwater table, in vadose and phreatic conditions, respec-
tively (Nash, 1997; Alonso-Zarza, 2003). Arid to semiarid as
well as humid climate regimes may be conducive to groundwa-
ter calcrete formation (Semenuik and Searle, 1985; Tandon and
Kumar, 1999), especially related to plant root inuences from
evapotranspiration (Lucas, 2001). Also important is a high vol-
ume of discharge of Ca-rich subsurface waters where drainages
converge, ow gradient decreases, saline waters mix, or perme-
abilities are low (Wright and Tucker, 1991, p. 8). A composite
origin of groundwater precipitation and pedogenic alteration by
rooting has been suggested for nonpedogenic calcrete containing
both alpha and beta fabrics (Nash and Smith, 1998; Mack et al.,
2000), though timing for the accumulation of associated ground-
water and capillary fringe calcretes has been unclear.
The New Haven calcrete interval contains calcrete fabrics
and gley features. The presence of redox-sensitive elements such
as U, Mn, and Fe, combined with detailed study of the cement
relationships, strongly suggests a saturated-zone origin for most
of this nonpedogenic calcrete interval. Cements G1 and G2 are
interpreted as groundwater calcrete based on their isopachous
cements and lack of biogenic structures, in addition to the dis-
placive morphology. Cement G3, with its alveolar septal fab-
ric, is interpreted as having a beta texture and is interpreted as a
capillary fringe nonpedogenic calcrete that developed when the
groundwater level was lower or in contact. No clear vadose tex-
tures can be found associated with the G3 cement, but this type of
texture may not be preserved with the changing levels of ground-
water. Perched water tables can potentially oscillate with respect
to climatic stresses, such as variations in precipitation (e.g., Hunt
et al., 1988; Fetter, 2001), and can be temporary or permanent,
contingent on soil, sediment, and bedrock hydraulic conductivi-
ties (Davie, 2003). Groundwater movement can be directed along
a sand-mud interface with the impermeable mud preventing inl-
tration of meteoric water down to the regional water table (Davie,
2003; Rushton, 2003). With the presence of a perched water table
in a zone of phreatophytic plant growth during New Haven depo-
sition, both kinds of nonpedogenic calcrete must have formed
contemporaneously, producing both alpha and beta textures. The
time period between the deposition of cements G4 and G5 and
the rst three cements in the New Haven Arkose is not known,
but G4 may be related to groundwater processes owing through
both the sandstone and mudstone as burial proceeded. Cement G5
is limited to the uppermost part of the sandstone and clearly is not
related to the groundwater processes of the rst three cements.
Cement G6 is a much later diagenetic cement.
Most thick groundwater calcretes are interpreted as form-
ing in arid to semiarid conditions (see previous references).
However, the New Haven Arkose contains many indicators of
frequent ooding (higher sedimentation rate) under a humid to
subhumid seasonal (monsoonal?) setting, such as poor preser-
vation of well-dened paleosol horizons, ferruginous concre-
tions, intense rooting, multistory channels with wings, and rare
preserved primary sedimentary structures in sandstones and
mudrocks (Gierlowski-Kordesch and Gibling, 2002). The pres-
ence of deep taproots and pedogenic mud aggregates in the New
Haven Arkose (Gierlowski-Kordesch and Gibling, 2002) points
to seasonality, as would be expected in the monsoonal regime
postulated for the Middle to Upper Triassic in eastern North
America and Europe (Hay et al., 1982; Sims and Ruffell, 1990;
Parrish, 1993; Wilson et al., 1994; Olsen and Kent, 1996; Rein-
hardt and Ricken, 2000; Kent and Muttoni, 2003). One possible
paleoenvironmental interpretation for the studied New Haven
Arkose section is a subhumid monsoonal setting with a short dry
period. The projected paleolatitude of 7 to 11N (Olsen, 1997;
Kent and Olsen, 2000) is consistent with this scenario. Ca-rich
Nonpedogenic calcrete in the New Haven Arkose 215
groundwaters could have been sourced from the Paleozoic lime-
stones and marbles exposed at the basin margin to the northwest
(see Gierlowski-Kordesch, 1998; De Wet et al., 2002). Extensive
recharge of groundwaters is possible in a rift setting (see Rosen,
1994), especially in the tectonically active, incipient Hartford rift
(Smoot, 1991), where groundwater and surface water converged
into an extensive braided plain undergoing high rates of subsid-
ence. Other calcrete layers within the New Haven Arkose should
be reassessed using these new criteria for recognizing pedogenic
versus nonpedogenic origin.
Signicance for U-Pb Dating
A better understanding of the conditions that promote favor-
able U/Pb and U/Th ratios in calcretes will encourage more exact
identication of dateable calcrete zones in the geologic record.
Because Pb and Th have a low solubility in most uids (Shen and
Boyle, 1988; Langmuir and Herman, 1980), the major inuence
on these ratios is perhaps the solubility of uranium. Uranium in
the oxidized state is known to be quite soluble (Langmuir, 1978;
Carlisle, 1983), and reduction should remove it from solution,
although it is not clear how this would inuence its co-precipi-
tation in calcite. Pedogenic carbonates form in the unsaturated
vadose zone and are normally formed from oxidizing uids. On
the other hand, the groundwater table is often associated with a
redox boundary (Fig. 10) and would be a zone where uctuating
redox conditions might be expected seasonally.
The association of the New Haven calcite with gleying, the
fairly high U concentrations (114 ppm) within the calcite, and
the presence of Mn as evidenced by trace-element analyses and
luminescence (Wang et al., 1998) are all consistent with the pre-
cipitation of these calcites in a mostly reducing uid. Addition-
ally, Chung and Swart (1990) concluded that U concentration
is higher in the bulk carbonate of the phreatic zone than in the
bulk carbonate of the vadose zone and suggested that: (1) higher
pCO
2
in the phreatic zone leads to more U-rich carbonate com-
plexes; and (2) selective exclusion of U in the vadose zone leads
to increased U/Ca ratios in the phreatic zone. These two mecha-
nisms combine to force calcite precipitation from phreatic-zone
waters with higher U concentrations.
More work is required to examine the desirability of pedo-
genic calcrete for U-Pb dating. While soil calcretes archive
important information about pCO
2
as well as climatic data, their
formation in the vadose zone may limit the availability of U,
which is highly mobile in oxidized uids.
CONCLUSIONS
1. In addition to eld relationships and calcrete fabric analy-
sis, calcite cement stratigraphy, combined with redox mod-
els for the behavior of Mn, Fe, and U, is a useful technique
to distinguish between pedogenic versus nonpedogenic
calcrete, as well as between capillary fringe and ground-
water calcrete timing.
2. The carbonate accumulation associated with the bound-
ary between one of many sandstone-mudstone units in
the New Haven Arkose near Meriden, Connecticut, is
interpreted as a nonpedogenic calcrete rather than one of
pedogenic origin. The presence of rhizoliths within this
calcitized horizon highlights the fact that the presence of
rhizoliths does not by itself require a soil origin. A uctu-
ating perched paleowater table, coupled with a zone con-
taining phreatophytic vegetation with deep taproots, can
produce alpha and beta fabrics in a groundwater and cap-
illary fringe nonpedogenic calcrete. Reducing conditions
are postulated for calcite precipitation because of gleying
features, the presence of Mn and U, and an absence of
vadose cementation structures.
3. Cement stratigraphy establishes a diagenetic history of
calcite precipitation in a calcrete interval of the Triassic
New Haven Arkose. Cements G1 and G2 are interpreted
as groundwater calcrete because of displacive features
and alpha fabrics. Cement G3 is interpreted as having
formed from phreatophytic vegetation at or just above an
oscillating groundwater table of a perched aquifer. This
cement contains beta fabric features, such as alveolar sep-
tal fabric. Cement G4 and G5 are interpreted as diagenetic
Figure 6. (A) Plane-light photomicrograph of a brecciated clast at the
bottom of Figure 3C. The metamorphic rock fragment is shattered
along planes that are parallel to foliation. Fragment of the clast at the
bottom of the photomicrograph has layers of micrite and bladed calcite
(G1, G2) followed by micrite calcite. Fragment of the clast at the top of
the photomicrograph is surrounded by micrite (G3). (B) Cathodolumi-
nescence photomicrograph of the same area as A. Calcite that fringes
the clast fragment at the bottom of the photomicrograph has alternating
bright luminescent micritic calcite and dull-luminescent bladed calcite.
A millimeter-scale vein separates the fragments of the metamorphic
rock clast. This vein contains dull-luminescent micrite (G3) interpret-
ed to have lined roots and is lled by a blotchy brightly luminescent
sparry calcite. Although not labeled, the brightly luminescent calcite is
likely replacement calcite by uids responsible for G6. (CD) Plane-
light and cathodoluminescence photomicrographs of the boundary be-
tween the brecciated metamorphic rock fragment (upper right corner)
and vein that surrounds the clast. Sparry calcite of the large vein can
be followed into smaller veins that break apart the clast and appear to
be equivalent to the root-cast-lling sparry calcite (G4). Calcite in the
large veins is similar to the granular mosaic calcite described by Purvis
and Wright (1991) in that the crystals display a zoned luminescence.
Interestingly, the granular mosaic nature of this calcite is not observed
in the smaller veins, although petrography suggests that they are ver-
sions of the same cement generation. (EF) Plane-light and cathodo-
luminescence photomicrographs of a clast with alteration at the edges
that is rimmed by dull-luminescent bladed calcite followed by root-lin-
ingtype micrite cement with associated sparry calcite. Although not
obvious on the plane-light image, there are numerous small veins of
brightly luminescent calcite (G6) that cut the root-lining cement (G3)
and sparry ll (G4). Here, the micrite calcite is brightly luminescent,
suggesting alteration by the G6 uid.
Figure 7. (A) Plane-light photomicrograph of the basal sandstone showing sand grains oating in a micrite matrix. This is cut by micrite-lined
rhizoliths that are lled by sparry calcite. (B) Cathodoluminescence photomicrograph of the same area as A. Micrite that displaces the sand
grains is dull-luminescent, like that of the micrite that lines the roots. It seems clear that this dense micrite calcite predates the roots that appear
to cut it. The rst layer of sparry calcite following this micrite is nonluminescent, analogous to the sparry calcite that completely lls roots in
the mudstone (G4). However, this is followed by a volumetrically more signicant sparry calcite that is brightly luminescent (G5). Although we
have broken these into two generations, they are almost certainly variations of the same uid event. (CD) Plane-light and cathodoluminescence
photomicrographs of the upper part of the sandstone showing the same oating grains in micrite cement and crosscutting rhizoliths with non-
luminescent spar followed by brightly luminescent spar. Several clasts are replaced by brightly luminescent calcite (G6). (EF) Plane-light and
cathodoluminescence photomicrographs from the upper sandstone showing grains oating in the dull-luminescent micrite. The micrite-bearing
host is then cut by several generations of rhizoliths. A branch of the rhizolith on the left clearly cuts the rhizolith on the right. The rhizoliths ap-
pear to be largely replaced by brightly luminescent calcite, interpreted as G6.
Figure 8. Photomicrographs from one of the millimeter-scale layers of compacted sandstone. (A) Plane-light photomicrograph showing inter-
penetrating and deformed grains. (B) Cathodoluminescence image of the area shown in A, showing only one generation of brightly luminescent
calcite that replaces some of the grains. (C) Plane-light photomicrograph that shows interpenetrating and deformed grains. (D) Cathodolumines-
cence image of the area shown in C. We hypothesize that the replaced grains were originally feldspars.
218 Rasbury et al.
precipitation not associated with the calcretization. Cement
G6 is a late diagenetic cement.
4. The U-Pb age of cement G3 obtained by Wang et al. (1998)
dates the time of sedimentation within the resolution of the
dating technique. The reducing conditions of calcrete forma-
tion associated with phreatic groundwater conditions are
conducive to the accumulation and preservation of U for
geochronologic dating. This research, combined with that of
Figure 9. Cartoon summarizing the sedimentologic and petrographic relationships of calcite cement in a uvial unit of the New Haven Arkose.
At the eld scale, there is an obvious concentration of carbonate cement and gleying at the sandstone-mudstone interface. Additionally, there are
vertical features, interpreted as having originally been taproots, in which gleying is also prominent. Throughout the sequence on the millimeter
scale, veins are composed of alveolar textures (beta fabrics), which are composed of micrite (G3). This micrite cuts sandstone and mudstone
that are characterized by oating grains in calcite (alpha fabrics). In the sandstone, this displacive calcite is mostly micrite. In the mudstone, it
is mixed micrite and sparry calcite with zoned cathodoluminescence. There are also millimeter-scale zones that appear not to have experienced
early calcite cementation and show abundant evidence of physical compaction. These zones have only the last calcite cement generation (G5),
which in this case is mostly seen as a replacement of grains that were most likely feldspars. At the submillimeter scale, sand grains are often
coated by a prismatic calcite (G1). In veins, this prismatic calcite is followed by a dull-luminescent sparry calcite (G2) and micrite that forms
rhizoliths (G3). Toothpick-shaped veins in the mudstone are composed of cathodoluminescence-zoned sparry calcite (G2). Not shown in this
cartoon is the nonluminescent sparry calcite that lls the voids in rhizoliths (G4).
Wang et al. (1998) and Rasbury et al. (2000), shows great
scope for U-Pb dating of nonpedogenic calcretes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks to David Nash for his insightful reviews
that improved the manuscript greatly. We are grateful to the edi-
tors for their direction and patience. This research was funded
Nonpedogenic calcrete in the New Haven Arkose 219
through NSF grant EAR9814639 to Troy Rasbury and was
largely accomplished by undergraduate researchers funded by a
REU supplement to that grant. We also thank Bruce Ward and
Carol DeWet for ideas and valuable input.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
223
Azan, J.M., Tuccimei, P., Azor, A., Snchez-Almazo, I.M., Alonso-Zarza, A.M., Soligo, M., and Prez-Pea, J.V., 2006, Calcrete features and age estimates
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Special Paper 416, p. 223239, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(14). For permission to copy, contact [email protected]. 2006 Geological Society of America. All
rights reserved.
Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006
Calcrete features and age estimates from U/Th dating: Implications
for the analysis of Quaternary erosion rates in the northern limb of
the Sierra Nevada range (Betic Cordillera, southeast Spain)
J.M. Azan
Departamento de Geodinmica, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain, and Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la
Tierra, CSIC-Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
P. Tuccimei
Dipartimento di Scienze Geologiche, Universit Roma Tre, 00146 Roma, Italy
A. Azor
Departamento de Geodinmica, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
I.M. Snchez-Almazo
Centro Andaluz de Medio Ambiente (CEAMA), Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
A.M. Alonso-Zarza
Departamento de Petrologa y Geoqumica, Facultad de Ciencias Geolgicas, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
M. Soligo
Dipartimento di Scienze Geologiche, Universit Roma Tre, 00146 Roma, Italy
J.V. Prez-Pea
Departamento de Geodinmica, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
ABSTRACT
The Guadix topographic depression is a Neogene-Quaternary basin located in
the central sector of the Betic Cordillera at the boundary between the South Iberian
margin and the Alboran domain. This topographic depression is a plateau with an
average elevation of 1000 m in the northern limb of the Sierra Nevada range. The
continental deposits inlling the Guadix basin span time from the late Tortonian to
the Pleistocene, when a laminar calcrete developed on ne- to coarse-grained uvial
and lacustrine deposits. The drainage pattern is strongly incised (up to 200 m) below
the calcrete layer. Four coeval subsamples from the top laminae of the calcrete were
collected and dated by the U/Th method. The resulting date is 42.6 5.6 ka, which
indicates the minimum age for the cessation of active sedimentation in the Guadix
basin. Using this age, we have calculated the incision and erosion rates for the late
Pleistocene to present-day time span in the Arroyo de Gor, a highly incised canyon in
the eastern border of the Guadix basin. The minimum incision rates in this canyon
are around 4 mm/yr. We envisage the capture of the Pliocene-Pleistocene endorheic
224 Azan et al.
such as the Ebro basin (Sancho and Melndez, 1992) and the
Teruel basin (Alonso-Zarza and Arenas, 2004). In these cases,
thick laminar calcretes constitute the last material accumulated
at the top of the sedimentary sequences, which are incised by the
present-day uvial network. Further to the south and southeast,
thick calcrete proles also formed at the top of some Neogene-
Quaternary basins in the Betic Cordillera (Dumas, 1969; Kelly
et al., 2000; Candy et al., 2003; Garca et al., 2003; Nash and
Smith, 2003). Calcrete formation in the Betic Neogene-Quater-
nary basins predates the incision of the present-day uvial net-
work, thus, if dated radiometrically, its presents a potentially use-
ful geomorphic tool to establish incision rates of the main rivers.
Precise dating of pedogenic carbonates either by
14
C or U/Th
series has proved to be a useful tool to establish both the chronol-
ogy of sequences of terraces and incision rates in SE Spain (Kelly
et al., 2000; Candy et al., 2004). Moreover, the radiometric date
Guadix basin by the Guadalquivir River after 42 ka as the main factor triggering the
formation of the present-day eroded landscape. After the capture, the combination of
climatic (wet periods), lithological (soft and loose sediments), and topographic (high
average altitude) features allowed the development of the present-day entrenched
drainage pattern.
Keywords: calcretes, U/Th dating, stable isotopes, Quaternary incision rates, river
capture, Guadix basin, Betic Cordillera, SE Spain.
RESUMEN
La depresin de Guadix es una cuenca negeno-cuaternaria situada en el sector
central de la Cordillera Btica cubriendo el contacto entre el Margen Sudibrico y
el Dominio de Alborn. Esta depresin topogrca es, sin embargo, una supercie
elevada (sobre unos 1000 m) desarrollada en el anco N de Sierra Nevada. El relleno
continental de la cuenca de Guadix abarca desde el Tortoniense superior al Pleisto-
ceno, y est coronado por una calcreta laminar que se desarroll sobre materiales
detrticos lacustres y uviales. La red de drenaje est fuertemente encajada (hasta 200
m) bajo este nivel de calcretas. Se han datado, mediante el mtodo de U/Th, cuatro
sub-muestras correspondientes a las facies laminares situadas en el techo del nivel
de calcretas ms alto. El resultado de la datacin de la calcreta es 42.6 5.6 ka, que
puede interpretarse como la edad mnima para el nal de la sedimentacin activa en
la cuenca de Guadix. Usando esta edad como referencia, hemos calculado las tasas de
incisin y erosin desde el Pleistoceno superior en el Arroyo de Gor, un can fuerte-
mente encajado en el borde oriental de la cuenca de Guadix. Las tasas de incisin
en este can estn alrededor de 4 mm/ao. Consideramos que la captura Pliocena-
Pleistocena (post42 ka) de la cuenca, con carcter endorreico en ese momento, por
parte del ro Guadalquivir es el principal factor desencadenante del actual relieve
erosivo que presenta la cuenca de Guadix. Tras la captura, la combinacin de factores
climticos (periodos hmedos), litolgicos (sedimentos detrticos con escasa cohesin)
y topogrcos (alta altitud media) han favorecido el encajamiento progresivo de la
red de drenaje actual.
Palabras clave: calcretas, datacin U/Th, Istopos estables, tasas de incisin cuater-
naria, captura uvial, Cuenca de Guadix, Cordilleras Bticas, SE Espaa.
INTRODUCTION
Quaternary calcretes are widespread in many ancient ter-
restrial basins from all over the world, including Australia (Ara-
kel, 1986), southern Africa (Watts, 1980; Nash and McLaren,
2003), northwestern America (Machette, 1985), and southern
Europe, especially Spain (Alonso-Zarza et al., 1998a). In the
case of the Spanish Quaternary calcretes, they occur either in
aggradational regimes interbedded with alluvial sediments
(Jimnez-Espinosa and Jimnez-Milln, 2003), or, most com-
monly, in degradational regimes on different terrace levels (San-
cho et al., 2004). In both cases, detailed studies of the calcretes
have provided most valuable data that illuminate rates of uvial
aggradation, uvial incision, climatic regime, and even tectonic
activity. Additionally, Quaternary calcretes cap the sedimentary
inll of some of the mostly terrestrial Cenozoic basins in Spain,
Calcrete features and age estimates in southeast Spain 225
of pedogenic carbonates, together with oxygen and carbon stable
isotope studies, is of paramount importance in establishing Qua-
ternary paleoclimatic regimes.
In this paper, we use a multidisciplinary approach to study a
calcrete layer developed at the top of the sedimentary inlling of
the Guadix basin in SE Spain (Figs. 1 and 2). The calcrete consti-
tutes a at geomorphic surface in which the present-day drainage
network is entrenched. U/Th dating and stable isotope analyses of
the top laminae in this calcrete have provided us with a radiomet-
ric age and allowed us to propose a paleoclimatic setting for the
development of this surface. Moreover, a detailed petrographic
study of the calcrete reveals different vadose-phreatic phases pre-
vious to or coeval with the initial stages of river incision. Finally,
we draw on the radiometric age obtained to estimate the incision
rates of the present-day drainage network, while also addressing
the possible causes behind the relatively high values calculated.
A brief description of each technique or method used in this study
will be provided in the appropriate context.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The area of study is located in the Betic Cordillera in south-
eastern Spain (Fig. 1), which represents a tectonically active
region related to the collision between Africa and Iberia (DeMets
et al., 1994; Morales et al., 1999; Galindo-Zaldvar et al., 1999,
2003). Despite this general compressional tectonic setting, the
main tectonic and geomorphic features of the Betic Cordillera
are related to extensional tectonics (e.g., Galindo-Zaldvar et
al., 1989; Garca-Dueas et al., 1992; Crespo-Blanc et al., 1994;
Martnez-Martnez and Azan, 1997; Martnez-Martnez et al.,
2002). In this context, the present-day topography of the Betic
Cordillera can be described as a succession of mountain ranges
and basins dissected by the main rivers, which incised both the
ranges and the basins (Fig. 2A). The highest range in the Betic
Cordillera is the Sierra Nevada, which has been recently inter-
preted as an elongated dome resulting from the interference of
two orthogonal fold systems: one due to a rolling-hinge mecha-
nism in the footwall of a WSW-directed extensional detachment
and the other due to coeval N-S compression (Martnez-Martnez
et al., 2004). The Sierra Nevada (and other neighboring ranges)
emerged in middle Miocene times, progressively isolating dif-
ferent intramontane basins, such as the Granada and the Guadix-
Baza basins (Fig. 2A). Long-term uplift rates in this region are
low to moderate (0.020.3 mm/yr) according to present-day alti-
tudes of shallow-marine Miocene and Pliocene sediments (Braga
et al., 2003; Silva et al., 2003; Booth-Rea et al., 2004; Sanz de
Galdeano and Alfaro, 2004).
The Guadix-Baza basin is one of the intramontane Neogene-
Quaternary basins of the Betic Cordillera (Figs. 1 and 2), located
in the central part of the orogen between the external (South
Iberian margin) and the internal (Alboran domain) zones. The
present-day topography of this basin corresponds to a depres-
sion bounded by ranges (Fig. 2). The continental inlling of this
basin spans from the latest Tortonian to the Pleistocene (Vera,
1970; Pea, 1979; Viseras, 1991; Fernndez et al., 1996). From
a paleogeographical point of view, the Guadix-Baza basin can be
viewed in Pliocene-Pleistocene times as an endorheic depression
surrounded by mountains. The sedimentary record of Pliocene-
Pleistocene age suggests the existence at the marginal parts of the
Guadix basin of alluvial systems, which owed into a central lake
(Viseras, 1991; Viseras and Fernndez, 1992). In the eastern and
southern borders of the Guadix subbasin (Guadix basin hence-
forth), the continental inll is represented by alternating poorly
cemented conglomerates and sands of Pliocene-Pleistocene age
Figure 1. Geological setting of the Guadix-Baza basin in the Betic Cordillera (SE Spain).
Figure 2. (A) Topographic sketch of the eastern Betic Cordillera with the locations of the main basin and mountain ranges. (B) Digital elevation
model (DEM) of the Guadix basin (see location in Figures 1 and 2A), where the main geomorphic features (elevated at surface dened by the
calcrete, badland areas, and main streams) can be observed.
A
B
Calcrete features and age estimates in southeast Spain 227
(Viseras, 1991). The conglomeratic layers are dominant toward
the upper part of the sequence and are capped by a 0.51-m-thick
calcrete, which outcrops in a widespread area of the Guadix basin
(Fig. 3). Toward the center of the basin, the conglomerates and
sands grade laterally to lacustrine deposits represented by marls
and clays. These marly sediments are also capped by the cal-
crete layer. The uppermost outcropping layers of the lacustrine
deposits in the Baza subbasin have been dated by amino acid
racemization on ostracodes, yielding ages around 280 ka (Ortiz
et al., 2004). The lacustrine layers dated in the Baza subbasin
Figure 3. (A) Oblique aerial view looking north of the surface dened by the calcrete into which canyon-shaped streams incise. Note the badlands
in the upper part of the image (photograph by Javier Sanz de Galdeano). (B) Photograph of the Pliocene-Pleistocene stratigraphic sequence of
the Guadix basin capped by the calcrete layer dening the at surface.
A
B
228 Azan et al.
occupy a stratigraphic position lower than the top calcrete layer.
The calcrete and the associated geomorphic surface are less well
preserved in the Baza subbasin, outcropping only at the margins,
near the surrounding mountain ranges.
GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE GUADIX BASIN
While forming a topographic depression, the Guadix basin
has at present an external drainage to the Atlantic Ocean through
the Guadalquivir River. The main mountain ranges surrounding
the Guadix basin are the Sierra Nevada to the south, Sierra de
Baza to the east, Sierra Cazorla to the north, and Sierra Arana to
the west (Fig. 2A). The basin itself is an elevated (average alti-
tude around 1000 m) plateau capped by the calcrete layer (Fig.
3). The at geomorphic surface dened by the calcrete is strongly
dissected by canyons and a main trunk river with a well-devel-
oped oodplain, the Fardes River (Fig. 2B). At present, most of
the streams in this area have an ephemeral hydraulic regime with
no discharge most of the time punctuated by episodic ooding
events caused by heavy rains. This hydrology is controlled by
the present-day climate in this region, which is semiarid, with an
average annual rainfall between 300 and 350 mm. The only river
with permanent discharge is the Fardes River.
The at surface dened by the calcrete is mostly horizontal
(Fig. 3), except at the margins of the basin, where it inclines
slightly basinward. This surface of regional extent represents the
end of the sedimentation in the Guadix basin and was devel-
oped under a soil covering the underlying uvial and lacustrine
deposits (see next section). The calcrete layer formed prior to the
present-day external drainage pattern, when the Guadix basin
was still an endorheic catchment area. Thus, the calcrete marks
a residual surface of an old at area that lacked well-organized
streams and extended throughout the entire Guadix basin.
After the formation of the above-mentioned surface, the
former Pleistocene endorheic Guadix basin must have been
captured by the Guadalquivir River (Calvache and Viseras,
1997), thus starting the development of the present-day
strongly entrenched drainage pattern. The capture was prob-
ably caused by headward erosion of the Guadalquivir River,
favored by the topographically elevated position of the Guadix
basin. Thus, the capture can be viewed, via a base-level lower-
ing, as the triggering factor responsible for the formation of the
present-day eroded landscape. Furthermore, the erosion would
not have been a coeval process throughout the basin. Instead,
once the Guadix basin was captured by the Guadalquivir River,
an incision wave would have progressed headward along the
basin, eventually reaching its southern margin. At the margins
of the Guadix basin, the at elevated surface marked by the
calcrete appears dissected by a few narrow and rectilinear can-
yons (Fig. 3A), such as the Arroyo de Gor (Fig. 2B). Toward
the north and northwest, the landscape is much more eroded
and dominated by gullies and pipes (Vandekerckhove et al.,
2000, 2003), with some buttes being the only remains of the
at geomorphic surface.
A second and lower at surface corresponds to the pres-
ent-day cultivated oodplain of the Fardes River, the main river
draining the Guadix basin (Fig. 2B). This main axial valley
does not run in a central position along the Guadix basin, but
rather close to its western border. The Fardes River is the only
one in the Guadix basin with terrace deposits at its margins. In
one locality (Alicn de las Torres; Fig. 2B), three terrace levels
made up of travertine deposits can be recognized at one margin
of the Fardes River.
In summary, three main geomorphic domains can be distin-
guished in the Guadix basin (Figs. 2 and 3): (1) the at elevated
surface cut by canyons; (2) the intermediate steep badland area;
and (3) the lower surface of the Fardes oodplain.
THE CALCRETE
Prole and Micromorphology
The calcrete constitutes the top of the Pliocene-Pleistocene
sedimentary sequence, featuring a very continuous, but heteroge-
neous, layer along the Guadix basin. Up to three different calcrete
layers can be observed, depending on the locality. The maximal
thickness of each layer is around 1.5 m, and nonweathered clastic
deposits are intercalated between the calcrete layers, as in the
Aljibe Quebrado section (Fig. 4). This section is the most com-
pleteit is composed of three layers of laminar calcrete up to
20 cm thick (Fig. 4). The calcrete layers are developed on top of
Figure 4. Aljibe Quebrado section showing the transition from palus-
trine deposits to the studied calcretes (at the top).
Calcrete features and age estimates in southeast Spain 229
a thick gravel bed with intercalated red mudstones at the upper
part. In other sections, such as in the Arroyo de Gor, the calcrete
consists of a single layer around 1 m thick (Fig. 5), developed on
brown silts with gravel clasts. In this locality, the single calcrete
layer, in turn, includes three main horizons, which from bottom
to top are: nodular, massive, and laminar.
At the macroscale, this three-horizon pattern is observed
throughout the Guadix basin. The nodular horizon is ~30 cm
thick and occurs at the base of the calcrete proles. The host
rocks are red mudstones in which spheroidal to cylindrical car-
bonate nodules are present. The nodules consist of homogeneous
micrite with some oating sand grains, representing calcication
Figure 5. View of the top calcrete at
Arroyo de Gor. Several indurated lami-
nar horizons can be seen.
Figure 6. Hand sample of the uppermost
part of the calcrete layer at the Arroyo
de Gor. The laminae coat all the gravel
bed. The indurated gravel constitutes, in
this case, the massive horizon.
230 Azan et al.
around roots. The massive horizon is decimeter-scale and con-
sists of polygenic rock fragments (Fig. 6) incorporated in a dense
and hard red micrite matrix. This matrix shows nonbiogenic
features, such as desiccation cracks and oating etched detrital
grains. Nevertheless, biogenic features are dominant and include
root traces, calcied root cells, calcite spheres, vadose pisoliths,
and micritic peloids. Moreover, coarse calcite mosaics, either
as cement or as a result of recrystallization and displacement,
are common. The laminar horizon occurs at the uppermost part
of the proles, in some cases constituting a sort of ne-grained
detrital jacket around the uppermost part of the nodular horizon
(Figs. 6 and 7). This horizon consists of alternating of light and
dark laminae. The dark laminae contain more detrital grains and
show alveolar septal structures as well as lines of calcite crys-
tals, probably indicating calcied root structures (Alonso-Zarza
et al., 1998b). The light laminae are richer in micrite and have
fewer detrital grains, although they have more clay (sepiolite or
palygorskite) minerals. These light laminae also contain spheru-
lites, calcied root spheres, and needle ber calcite (Figs. 7 and
8). In those cases in which the laminar horizon envelops the mas-
sive one, there are also vadose-gravitational cements underlying
the lowermost laminae. This fact probably indicates the progres-
sive lowering of local-scale hanging water tables.
The macro- and microfeatures described above are indica-
tive of a pedogenic calcrete, where roots must have played an
important role, as evidenced by the occurrence of calcied root
traces and alveolar septal structures. The presence of spherulites
may be taken to indicate that cyanobacterial mats (Verrecchia et
al., 1995) developed at the top part of the proles. The alterna-
tion of laminae with different proportions of detrital grains and
biogenic features suggests successive small-scale periods of
sedimentation, erosion, and soil formation in the uppermost part
Figure 7. View of the sample drilled for stable isotope
characterization of the laminar horizon with locations
of the different points of analysis. Massive (M) and
laminar (L) horizons are easily separated. Massive
horizons are very rich in etched detrital clasts. The
different zones (IV) within the laminar horizon are
also indicated. See text for further explanations.
Calcrete features and age estimates in southeast Spain 231
and
13
C show several uctuations from the bottom to the top of the
prole, although the general trend is toward heavier values upward
(Fig. 9). Moreover, there is a strong positive correlation between

13
C and
18
O (r
2
= 0.89; Fig. 10).
The stable isotope composition of pedogenic carbonates
has proved to be a powerful tool for paleoenvironmental stud-
ies (Cerling, 1984; Cerling and Quade, 1993; Alam et al., 1997)
and has been used to reconstruct climate and vegetation changes
through time (Ding and Yang, 2000; Fox and Koch, 2003, 2004;
Alonso-Zarza and Arenas, 2004; Sanyal et al., 2004). Values of

18
O in calcretes depend on both the stable isotopic composition
of soil water (Cerling, 1984; Cerling and Quade, 1993) and tem-
perature. The
18
O of soil water, in turn, is related to the isotopic
composition of local rainfall, which also is strongly controlled by
temperature (Cerling and Quade, 1993). Additionally, evapora-
tion in the uppermost horizons of the soil can also affect
18
O
values in pedogenic carbonates and result in
18
O enrichment
(Cerling and Quade, 1993). In the samples studied, the general

18
O trend toward heavier values higher in the prole (Fig. 9)
might be taken to indicate a tendency toward aridity at the nal
stages of calcrete development.
The values of
18
O obtained enable us to estimate the iso-
topic composition of the rain water during the initial stages of
formation of the laminar calcrete. To do so, we have applied the
equation proposed by Jiamao et al. (1997), which relates
18
O
of pedogenic carbonate to
18
O of rainfall and also includes the
effect of evaporation (Zanchetta et al., 2000). The resulting
18
O
value for rain water at the time when the laminar calcrete started
to develop is 10.12, i.e., a value 2.63 lower than that of
of a relatively stable surface. These sedimentationerosionsoil-
forming periods might be related to climate-vegetation changes
(Alonso-Zarza and Silva, 2002). The overall features of the cal-
crete indicate that it was formed due to the inuence of a sparse
vegetation cover of bushes and shrubs developed under a semi-
arid climate. This is the context deduced for the formation of sim-
ilar calcretes in Spain (Alonso-Zarza et al., 1998a) and all over
the world (Mack and James, 1994; Alonso-Zarza, 2003).
Stable Isotope Geochemistry
We performed a stable isotope study of 17 samples drilled
from the uppermost centimeters of the laminar calcrete horizon
(Figs. 7 and 9). The powder samples were baked under vac-
uum at 360 C for 30 min to remove any organic matter. The
stable isotope analyses were performed at Cambridge University
(UK), using a Micromass Multicarb Sample Preparation System
attached to a VG Isotech PRIMS mass spectrometer. The isotope
data are reported according to Vienna Peedee belemnite (VPDB)
international standards. The precision of the results is better than
0.06 for
12
C/
13
C and 0.08 for
16
O/
18
O.
The values of
18
O and
13
C (Figs. 9 and 10) vary from 9.17
to 6.28 and from 11.18 to 6.36 (VPDB), respectively.
These values fall within the ranges described for calcretes by
Alonso-Zarza (2003) in a recent and detailed review of the paleon-
vironmental signicance of palustrine and pedogenic carbonates. As
a whole, our results reveal a considerable variation of
13
C, greater
than that of
18
O, which seems to be a common feature in calcretes
(Alonso-Zarza, 2003; Alonso-Zarza and Arenas, 2004). Both
18
O
Figure 8. Scanning electron microscope
(SEM) view in which needle ber cal-
cite crystals and calcied laments form
most of the laminae with alveolar septal
structure.
232 Azan et al.
present-day rain water (7.49; Caballero et al., 1996). These
lighter
18
O values in rain water could indicate that the climate
was cooler than present during the formation of the calcrete.
The
13
C of pedogenic carbonate depends on the isotopic
composition of soil CO
2
(Quade et al., 1989), which, in turn,
is related to the composition of the local vegetation (Cerling,
1984). Thus,
13
C of pedogenic carbonate is controlled mainly
by the ratio of C
4
/CAM (Crassulacean acid metabolism) to C
3

plants. C
3
plants (trees, most shrubs, and cool-season grasses)
have lighter
13
C values (about 27) than C
4
plants (about
12; Cerling and Quade, 1993). Consequently, when vegeta-
tion cover is dominated by C
3
plants,
13
C in soil CO
2
is lower
Figure 9.
18
O and
13
C in the top laminar calcrete. The isotope values
are referenced to the Pee Dee belemnite (PDB) standard. See location
of the samples in Figure 7. The different zones (IV) within the lami-
nar horizon are also indicated.
Figure 10. Relationship between
18
O and
13
C for the laminar calcrete.
Figure 11. Calcrete isochron plots (2-dimensional versions) based on
total dissolution of four coeval subsamples, with 1 error crosses. The
slopes in the (
234
U/
232
Th)-(
238
U/
232
Th) and (
230
Th/
232
Th)-(
234
U/
232
Th)
diagrams represent the (
234
U/
238
U) and (
230
Th/
234
U) activity ratios, re-
spectively, of the pure carbonate. MSWDmean square of weighted
deviates. 1d, 3b, 2b, and 3a are subsamples that have been used in the
isochron calculation.
Calcrete features and age estimates in southeast Spain 233
than when C
4
plants dominate (Cerling, 1984; Alonso-Zarza,
2003). The respective distributions and abundances of C
3
and
C
4
plants are controlled by climate. C
4
plants are adapted to
high water stress and elevated temperatures; their relative
abundance has been used as an index of past aridity (Jiamao
et al., 1997). In contrast, C
3
plants prefer cool temperatures
during the growing season and live at present at high latitudes
(Alam et al., 1997; Ding and Yang, 2000). On these grounds,
several authors have established that the
13
C values of pedo-
genic carbonate which formed at 25 C from pure C
4
and C
3

biomasses are approximately +2 and 12, respectively
(Cerling, 1984; Alam et al., 1997). After comparing these val-
ues with
13
C in the calcrete studied here (11.18 to 6.36),
we conclude that C
3
plants dominated the local ecosystem dur-
ing the calcrete formation period. Similarly, the trend to higher

13
C values higher in the prole can be interpreted as a response
to changing vegetation, with an increase in C
4
plants due to a
substantial increase in aridity. In the same way, the positive
correlation between
18
O and
13
C (Fig. 10) can be related to
increasing aridity during the nal stages of calcrete formation.
This is commonly true during the formation of pedogenic car-
bonates (Cerling, 1984).
A comparison between the petrographic features and the
stable isotope record in the laminar calcrete enables us to char-
acterize ve different zones, which are from bottom to top as
follows (Figs. 7 and 9): (I) mostly laminar calcrete with alveo-
lar structures, which have average
18
O and
13
C of 8.18
and 9.85, respectively; (II) a laminated zone characterized
by the presence of laminae very rich in quartz silt, with average

18
O of 7.87 and
13
C of 9.03, where the quartz laminae
correspond to the heaviest values in
18
O and
13
C within this
zone; (III) massive micrite, with the heaviest isotope values in
all of the prole; and (IV) and (V) two laminated zones, with
average
18
O of 6.97 for 4 and 6.85 for 5. The
13
C val-
ues are 7.82 for 4 and 6.64 for 5.
Zones I and II have the lighter values, indicating the
development of a vegetation cover, probably under the least
arid conditions in the entire prole. Quartz-rich laminae (with
the heaviest isotopic composition) may indicate an increase of
aridity and maybe an eolian dust inux. Zone III corresponds
to the most arid conditions and probably the least biogenic con-
trol on the carbonate precipitated in the soil zone. The last two
zones (IV and V) have similar
18
O values, thus pointing to a
more stable climate, although the vegetation cover could be
slightly different than in the lower part of the calcrete.
In short, both micromorphology and stable isotope fea-
tures are related to the climatic conditions prevailing during
the formation of the different calcrete laminae. Generally,
the massive micritic laminae with the heaviest isotope values
represent the most arid conditions, which, in turn, indicate
inhibited biogenic activity. Conversely, the occurrence of
alveolar septal structures in zones with the lightest isotope
values (I and II) is related to a wider vegetation cover under
less arid climate.
U/Th Dating
Four coeval subsamples of the very top laminar horizon
of the calcrete were collected and dated by the U/Th isochron
method (Bischoff and Fitzpatrick, 1991). The analytical basis
for dating calcretes is the measurement of the
230
Th formed by
the decay of authigenic
234
U and, indirectly,
238
U, the uranium
having been co-precipitated from solution with the carbonate
(Kelly et al., 2000). Calcretes are, however, impure mixtures of
calcium carbonate and incorporated detrital minerals, resulting
in the same radionuclides being present in both the authigenic
and detrital fractions. Our approach is to use an isochron method
to determine the authigenic radionuclide component and, on the
basis of this, its age (Bischoff and Fitzpatrick, 1991). The sub-
samples are assumed to be mixtures, in different proportions, of
homogeneous detrital and authigenic carbonate end members.
This method has been successfully applied to calcrete dating
from alluvial terraces in the Sorbas basin (Kelly et al., 2000;
Candy et al., 2004).
The samples were cut with a diamond saw in order to remove
the altered parts, then crushed and washed ultrasonically in deion-
ized water. The fragments were checked with a stereoscopic micro-
scope to identify and discard any recrystallized portions. About 20 g
of each subsample were dissolved in an HCl-HNO
3
-HF mixture, fol-
lowing the standard total dissolution method outlined by Bischoff
and Fitzpatrick (1991) and Luo and Ku (1991). After dissolution,
isotopic complexes of uranium and thorium were extracted accord-
ing to the procedure described by Edwards et al. (1987) and alpha-
counted using high-resolution ion implanted Ortec silicon surface
barrier detectors at the Radiochemistry Laboratory of Roma Tre
University (Italy). A standardized
232
U-
228
Th tracer was used as a
yield monitor, and a correction was made for the presence of detrital
228
Th and in-growth of
224
Ra.
228
Th/
232
Th equilibrium was checked
on an unspiked subsample. The (
230
Th/
234
U) and (
234
U/
238
U) activity
ratios of the authigenic fraction were calculated from the slope of a 3-
dimensional isochron tted to the x-y-z data (
238
U/
232
Th,
230
Th/
232
Th,
234
U/
232
Th) using the method of minimum likelihood estimation,
outlined by Ludwig and Titterington (1994), in which the analytical
data are weighed for analytical errors and error correlations. The
corresponding age was determined from these authigenic fraction
activity ratios using ISOPLOT, a plotting and regression program
for radiogenic isotope data (Ludwig, 2003). The analytical data are
given in Table 1, and the isochron diagrams are shown in Figure
11. The calculated age uncertainties are expressed as 1. The prob-
ability that the uncertainty in the age is due to the analytical errors
alone is quantied through the calculation of the mean square of
weighted deviates (MSWD). A high probability (or MSWD < 1;
Fig. 11) indicates that, in this case, the uncertainty regarding the
age is due only to analytical errors rather than to other sources of
geological origin, e.g., subsamples are not coeval or mixture end
members are not homogeneous. The resulting date is 42.6 5.6 ka
(Table 1), which indicates the age of the very top laminar part of the
calcrete and thus gives a minimum time for the cessation of active
sedimentation in the Guadix basin.
234 Azan et al.
INCISION RATES
Estimating incision rates in uvial environments is not an
easy task due to the difculties in establishing absolute ages
of reference surfaces. Typically, local-scale, but not regional-
scale, incision rates can be derived, since the processes caus-
ing entrenchment can be very variable throughout catchments
through time and space. In this respect, it must be emphasized
that river incision always progresses headward as a consequence
of increasing stream power, which, in turn, can be due to base-
level lowering and/or prole steeping. Therefore, a single river
can incise at different times along its different reaches, thus prop-
agating an incision wave headward. Moreover, rock resistance
can be quite variable along a river and can also affect local-scale
incision rates.
Taking into account the above drawbacks and using the age
obtained for the calcrete as a reference, we have calculated inci-
sion and erosion rates for the late Pleistocene to present-day time
span in the Guadix basin. These estimated rates can be consid-
ered as minimum values since the surface dened by the calcrete
predates river entrenchment (see next section) and the process
was not coeval throughout the basin, but probably progressed as
an incision wave.
We made calculations for the Arroyo de Gor, a stream with
well-known geomorphologic features. This stream is a 30-km-long
canyon highly incised (up to 200 m) into the Pliocene-Pleistocene
inll (including the capping calcrete layer) of the eastern border of
the Guadix basin (Figs. 2B and 12). This canyon is characterized by
the absence of terrace deposits and by an abundance of large-scale
rotational slides (Azan et al., 2005). The present-day morphology
of the Arroyo de Gor is the result of a combination of entrenchment,
fracturing, and landsliding. The initial deep entrenchment of the
stream is attributed to the base-level lowering related to the capture
of the former endorheic Guadix basin by the Guadalquivir river in
the late Pleistocene, i.e., after the formation of the calcrete layer at
42 ka. This river incision created a canyon with unstable subvertical
walls, which, due to gravitational instability, give way to vertical
open tension cracks at some distance from the canyon edge. The
rotational slides are thought to have occurred during heavy rains by
a combination of piping, which lengthened the tension cracks, and
inltration, thus reducing the shear strength along the subhorizontal
lithological contact between conglomerates and underlying clays
(Azan et al., 2005).
The rock volume remobilized by erosion in the Arroyo de
Gor has been calculated from a digital elevation model (DEM)
with a resolution of 1 pixel per 20 m (Fig. 12). The canyon vol-
ume was estimated with the aid of ArcGis 8.2 by counting the
number of pixels between a top level dened by the at geo-
morphic surface formed by the calcrete and the topography. The
resulting volume of rock remobilized by erosion in the Arroyo de
Gor is 7972 m
3
ha
1
. With these data, the estimation of the erosion
rate is 15.62 m
3
ha
1
yr
1
or 28 t ha
1
yr
1
(assuming an average
density of 1.8 t/m
3
for the sedimentary inlling). Thus, the aver-
age minimum vertical incision rates in this canyon are around 4
mm/yr. Realistically, these average rates probably underestimate
the actual values, since the Arroyo de Gor had almost reached its
present morphology before 6 ka, as indicated by the presence of
dolmens of that age built on the landslide bodies (Azan et al.,
2005). After the dolmens were built at around 6 ka, the canyon
was 3050 m into the landslide bodies, which yields a minimum
Holocene vertical incision rate of roughly 57 mm/yr. This more
recent rate is naturally higher than the average minimum rate
calculated for the last 42 ka (around 4 mm/yr). Moreover, the
Arroyo de Gor was developed by an initial vertical entrenchment
of ~150 m that must have occurred prior to the large-scale land-
sliding, which, in turn, enlarged the initially very narrow canyon
(Azan et al., 2005). The age of the initial vertical entrench-
ment is unknown, having occurring sometime between the cap-
ture of the former endorheic Guadix basin by the Guadalquivir
River and the large-scale landsliding, i.e., between 42 and 6 ka.
With these observations in mind, we tentatively hypothesize that
the river capture and the subsequent vertical entrenchment and
landsliding could have occurred in a period between 38 and 28
ka, when several millennial-scale episodes (Is8 to Is3) of higher
mean annual rainfall (up to 900 mm) occurred (Snchez Goi et
al., 2002). Assuming that both the vertical entrenchment of 150
m and the large-scale landsliding were completed during this 10
k.y. period, the real rates of vertical incision for that period may
have been as high as 15 mm/yr, i.e., 34 times higher than the
average minimum rates.
DISCUSSION
The continental inll in the Guadix basin ended with the
formation of a calcrete layer, which extends some hundreds of
square kilometers and denes a at elevated surface. Four coeval
carbonate subsamples from the top laminae of the calcrete have
been dated by the U/Th method, yielding an age of 42.6 5.6
ka. This datum is in accordance with other ages obtained on the
uppermost alluvial-lacustrine layers of the Guadix-Baza basin,
TABLE 1. ANALYTICAL DATA FOR CALCRETE SUBSAMPLES, GUADIX, SPAIN
Subsample (
234
U/
232
Th) (
238
U/
232
Th) (
230
Th/
232
Th) (
234
U/
238
U)carb (
230
Th/
234
U)carb. Age
(ka)
1d 10.005 0.867 8.641 0.753 4.205 0.383
2b 13.492 1.577 10.912 1.281 5.455 0.630 1.358 0.132 0.328 0.036 42.6 5.6
3a 14.647 1.161 12.144 0.971 5.684 0.407
3b 12.229 0.909 9.950 0.748 4.776 0.309
Note: Errors are quoted as 1. (
230
Th/
234
U)carb and (
234
U/
238
U)carb are referenced to the pure carbonate authigenic
fraction used in the calculation of the age.
Calcrete features and age estimates in southeast Spain 235
namely, an amino acid racemization age of 280 ka (Ortiz et al.,
2004) and an age of 100 ka estimated for archaeological activity
coeval to the most recent deposits (Botella et al., 1985, 1986,
cited in Calvache and Viseras, 1997). These dates correspond to
stratigraphic levels located below the calcrete layer investigated
here. Therefore, the age of 42.6 ka is a more accurate estima-
tion for the end of the sedimentation in the Guadix basin, since
the calcrete layer is at the very top of the stratigraphic sequence.
The regional extent of the calcrete and the lack of any observable
relationship between lateral facies variation within the calcrete
and the present-day stream distribution prove that the present-
day drainage pattern formed later than calcrete formation, i.e.,
later than nal sedimentation in the Guadix basin. Moreover, the
Pliocene-Pleistocene sedimentary facies distribution shows that
there is no spatial coincidence between present-day streams and
Pliocene-Pleistocene paleorivers.
The petrographic features and the stable isotope geochem-
istry of the calcrete indicate a pedogenic origin under a semi-
arid climate in which vegetation was sparse and dominated by
bushes and shrubs. Variations in humidity and vegetation cover
are indicated by changes in both micromorphology and isotopic
composition in the top laminar calcrete. In general, the better-
laminated zones that include more alveolar features are the iso-
topically lighter, both in carbon and oxygen, whereas the more
massive zones are the heaviest. The results of the stable isotope
study enable us to propose that during the initial stages of laminar
calcrete formation, the climate was cooler than it is today, and
aridity increased upward, when the sedimentation was ending.
Some inferences can be made by considering the age
obtained for the calcrete (42.6 5.6 ka) in conjunction with the
paleoclimatic conditions deduced from its petrographic and sta-
ble isotope geochemical features. In this regard, calcrete forma-
tion approximately coincides with the H5 and H4 Heinrich events
(Dansgaard et al., 1993), which correspond to millennial-scale
variations in atmospheric temperatures over Greenland. These
events have been identied in the recent stratigraphic record of
the Alboran Sea and have been related to sharp changes in sur-
face water temperature (Prez-Folgado et al., 2003), as well as to
rapid vegetation shifts in Southern Iberia (Snchez Goi et al.,
2002). According to these authors, H5 and H4 were characterized
by a very arid climate with an average annual rainfall of ~300
mm and average winter temperatures 10 C cooler than present
Figure 12. Digital elevation model (DEM) of the Arroyo de Gor stream. Calculations of volume eroded have been performed on this DEM with
the aid of ArcGis 8.2, using the geomorphic surface dened by the calcrete and the topography of the canyon as reference.
236 Azan et al.
day. We hypothesize that calcrete formation in the Guadix basin
occurred during these extremely dry and cold climatic periods.
Calcretes have been used as a basis for establishing relative
landform chronologies in Quaternary alluvial sequences of the
eastern Betic Cordillera (Harvey et al., 1995, 1999; Kelly et al.,
2000). These chronologies, in turn, have been used to determine
the rates of operation of geomorphic processes over the Qua-
ternary period. However, a detailed calcrete micromorphologi-
cal analysis must be carried out before using calcrete layers as
chronomorphologic gauges (Candy et al., 2003). Particularly,
Candy et al. (2003) highlighted that the pedogenic- or groundwa-
ter-linked character of the calcretes is of paramount importance
for the geomorphic analysis. In this respect, the age derived for
a typical pedogenic calcrete, such as the top layer of the Guadix
basin, marks the end of the continental inll, when the basin was
still endorheic and the present-day drainage pattern had not yet
developed. In contrast, a groundwater calcrete would be much
more ambiguous in terms of sedimentologic and geomorphic sig-
nicance, because its formation would be related either to the nal
sedimentation or to the subsequent development of the present-
day drainage pattern. Therefore, the calcrete layer studied here
constrains both the age of the capture of the former endorheic
Guadix basin by the Guadalquivir River and the minimal values
of incision rates in this area.
Using the age of the calcrete as a reference, we have calcu-
lated minimum incision and erosion rates for the late Pleistocene
to present-day time span in the Guadix basin. In fact, estimations
were performed for a canyon-shaped stream (the Arroyo de Gor)
with well-known geomorphic features. The signicance of the
resulting incision rates, particularly whether they represent local
(one single stream) or regional (the whole basin) values, must be
discussed according to the geomorphic features of the Guadix
basin. In this regard, we rst highlight the homogeneous river
incision throughout the Guadix basin, i.e., both the Fardes River
and the Arroyo de Gor canyon have been incised to approxi-
mately the same depth in the at surface dened by the calcrete.
Nevertheless, the Fardes River attests to a more complicated evo-
lution, including the formation of several terrace levels and a very
intense lateral erosion with development of a badland landscape.
Furthermore, the 30-km-long Arroyo de Gor itself, which repre-
sents half the length of the Guadix basin, is incised into a bedrock
with homogeneous resistance and lacks important gradient varia-
tions. Thus, despite the fact that river incision would progress as
a headward wave along the Arroyo the Gor, the values obtained,
always considered minimums and subject to several uncertain-
ties, can be viewed reasonably as regional-scale incision rates.
Average minimum incision rates in the Arroyo de Gor
stream are around 4 mm/yr. These values are relatively high (up
to ten times higher) compared to available Pleistocene-Holocene
incision rates, also minimum values, obtained in other Neogene-
Quaternary basins of the Betic Cordillera: 0.10.4 mm/yr in the
Sorbas basin (Mather and Harvey, 1995; Kelly et al., 2000), 0.3
0.7 mm/yr in the Alpujarra Corridor (Garca et al., 2004), and
0.10.7 mm/yr in the Granada basin (Martn-Martn et al., 2001).
A number of factors, such as lithologies, stream piracy, climate,
topography, and tectonics, can be invoked as being responsible
for the high incision rates in the Guadix basin. A closer compari-
son with the other basins reduces these factors to three, namely,
stream piracy, topography, and tectonics, since the lithologies
and the climate are quite homogeneous in all the Neogene-Qua-
ternary basins of the Betic Cordillera. Stream piracy, via the cap-
ture of a former endorheic basin by a river with a lower base
level, namely sea level, can be assumed to have occurred dur-
ing the Quaternary in all of the aforementioned basins. The tim-
ing of the capture, as well as the site where it took place, would
notably inuence the local-scale incision rates and the upstream
progression of the incision wave. Nevertheless, drawing on the
quite similar erosive state of these basins, one can reasonably
consider that the late Quaternary incision waves have progressed
headward comparably in all of them, reaching the surrounding
mountain areas. Thus, at rst glance, the high incision rates in
the Guadix basin are probably related to the high average altitude
(around 1000 m). This, in addition to the poorly indurated lithol-
ogies, would facilitate fast incision of the rivers during episodic
heavy rains. In contrast, the Sorbas basin and the Alpujarra Cor-
ridor (Fig. 2A) have an average altitude of less than 400 m, which
accounts for the low estimated incision rates. In the case of the
Granada basin (Fig. 2A), which has an average altitude around
600 m, one would expect intermediate incision rates. The reason
for the low values (quite similar to the ones of the Sorbas basin
and the Alpujarra Corridor) cannot be justied solely on the basis
of the difference in altitude between the Guadix and the Granada
basins (see following discussion).
Several issues must be discussed in regard to the possible
contribution of tectonic activity to the high incision rates. First
of all, the incision rates estimated for the Guadix basin are one
or two orders of magnitude higher than the long-term regional
uplift rates (0.020.3 mm/yr), calculated from the ages of
marine deposits (Braga et al., 2003; Silva et al., 2003; Booth-
Rea et al., 2004; Sanz de Galdeano and Alfaro, 2004). In the
case of the Guadix basin, an uplift rate of 0.15 mm/yr, corre-
sponding to the late Tortonian to present-day period, can be
estimated according to the altitude of shallow-marine deposits
of that age preserved at its southern border. The absence of
marine deposits younger than the late Tortonian precludes the
estimation of uplift rates for shorter time spans. Nevertheless,
drawing on geological and seismological evidence, the possi-
bility of very high uplift rates for the late Pleistocene to Holo-
cene period can be reasonably discarded. In this respect, two
salient aspects must be emphasized: (1) no faults with Pleisto-
cene-Holocene activity are observed to affect the inll of the
Guadix basin or its borders, and (2) both present-day and his-
torical seismicity is concentrated to the south (Granada basin,
Alpujarra Corridor) and east (Lorca basin, Fig. 1) of the Gua-
dix basin (Morales et al., 1999; Mancilla et al., 2002; Muoz et
al., 2002; Serrano et al., 2002). Therefore, it can be concluded
that the high late Pleistocene to Holocene incision rates in the
Guadix basin do not represent a response to an accelerated
Calcrete features and age estimates in southeast Spain 237
tectonic activity during the Quaternary. Nevertheless, the high
average altitude of the Guadix basin is probably related to
large-scale long-term isostatic uplift after the pre-Miocene
crustal thickening in the Betic Cordillera. Interestingly, the
only sector of the Betic Cordillera with a present-day crustal
thickness exceeding 35 km is the Guadix basin and the Sierra
Nevada (Banda et al., 1993). Therefore, we suggest that sus-
tained isostatic uplift may be responsible for maintaining the
high average altitude of the Guadix basin, while also facilitat-
ing the estimated high incision rates.
We have argued before that the differences in elevation
do not seem great enough to account for the considerably dif-
ferent Pleistocene-Holocene incision rates. At a greater scale,
some differences in the tectonic activity could be the main rea-
son for the different incision rates between the Guadix and the
Granada basin. The Granada basin is bounded to the east by
the western Sierra Nevada mountain front, which is thought to
be one of the main active areas in all of the Betic Cordillera.
This mountain front is marked by NW-SEoriented, SW-dip-
ping normal faults with Quaternary activity and present-day
seismicity (Sanz de Galdeano et al., 2003; Azan et al., 2004).
The Granada basin is located in the hanging wall of this active
normal-fault system; thus, it is undergoing Quaternary tectonic
subsidence, which would preclude high rates of river incision.
In contrast, the Guadix basin, together with the whole Sierra
Nevada, constitutes a single block located in the footwall of
this active normal-fault system, and thus it is subjected to tec-
tonic and/or isostatic uplift.
CONCLUSIONS
The Guadix basin is a very special landscape when com-
pared with other Neogene-Quaternary basins in the Betic Cor-
dillera. It represents an elevated plateau strongly incised by
the drainage pattern. Moreover, this landscape seems to be the
result of a very fast incision process of the main rivers dissect-
ing the geomorphic surface marked by the 42 ka calcrete layer.
We envisage the capture of the Pliocene-Pleistocene endorheic
Guadix basin by the Guadalquivir River during the late Pleis-
tocene as the starting point for the formation of this landscape.
This capture was probably a climatically driven process that
must have occurred under wetter (and also possibly warmer)
conditions than the present-day semiarid climate. Snchez
Goi et al. (2002) described several millennial-scale episodes
(Is8 to Is3) between 38 and 28 ka with a mean annual rain-
fall up to 900 mm during which the basin capture could have
occurred. Undoubtedly, the capture process was facilitated
by the high average altitude of the Guadix basin. Thus, the
capture can be considered as an isostatically assisted process,
since the high elevation of the Guadix basin seems to be in
part the result of long-term large-scale isostatic uplift. After
the capture, the combination of climatic, lithological, and topo-
graphic features would have facilitated the development of the
present-day entrenched drainage pattern.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research reported in this work has been nanced by the
Spanish Ministry of Education with Fondos Europeos de Desar-
rollo Regional funds of the European Union, through grants num-
bers REN2001-3378, CGL2004-03333/BTE, and CGL2004-
04342/BTE. Comments and suggestions by Pablo Silva and an
anonymous reviewer are kindly acknowledged. We thank Fran-
cisco Gonzlvez Garca for reviewing our English text.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Contents
Preface
Ancient Landscapes, Climate and Sequence Boundaries
1. Calcic pedocomplexes-Regional sequence boundary
indicators in Tertiary deposits of the Great Plains
and western United States
D.L. Hanneman and C.J. Wideman
2. A Late Triassic soil catena: Landscape and climate
controls on paleosol morphology and chemistry
across the Carnian-age /schigua/asto-Vil/a Union basin,
northwestern Argentina
N.J. Tabor, I.P. Montanez, K.A. Kelso, B. Currie, T. Shipman,
and C. Colombi
3. Investigating paleosol completeness and preservation in
mid-Paleozoic alluvial paleosols: A case study in paleosol
taphonomy from the Lower Old Red Sandstone
S.B. Marriott and V.P. Wright
4. Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group,
Four Corners region, southwestern United States:
Climatic implications
L.H. Tanner and S.G. Lucas
5. Estimates of atmospheric C0
2
levels during the
mid-Turonian derived from stable isotope composition
of paleosol calcite from Israel
A. Sandier
6. Pedogenic carbonate distribution within glacial till
in Taylor Valley, Southern Victoria Land, Antarctica
K.K. Fol ey, W.B. Lyons, J.E. Barrett, and R.A. Virginia
Sedimentary Environments and Facies
7. Calcretes, oncolites, and lacustrine limestones in
Upper Oligocene alluvial fans of the Montgat area
(Catalan Coastal Ranges, Spain)
D. Parcerisa, D. Gomez-Gras, and J.D. Martfn-Martfn
8. The role of clastic sediment influx in the formation of
calcrete and palustrine facies: A response to paleographic
and climatic conditions in the southeastern Tertiary Ouero
basin (northern Spain)
I. Armenteros and P. Huerta
~ T H GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
. OF AMERICA
3300 Penrose Pl ace P.O. Box 9140 Boulder, CO 80301 -9140, USA
9. The Upper Triassic crenogenic limestones
in Upper Si/esia (southern Poland) and their
paleoenvironmental context
J. Szulc, M. Gradzi fl ski, A. Lewandowska, and C. Heunisch
10. A recent analogue for palustrine carbonate environments:
The Quaternary deposits of Las Tab/as de Oaimie/
wetlands, Ciudad Real, Spain
A.M. Alonso-Zarza, M. Dorado-Val ifi o,
A. Valdeolmillos-Rodrfguez, and M. Blanca Ruiz-Zapata
11. Depositional conditions of carbonate-dominated palustrine
sedimentation around the K-T boundary (Facies Rognacien,
northeastern Pyrenean foreland, southwestern France)
D. Marty and C.A. Meyer
12. ReworkedMicrocodium calcarenites interbedded in
pelagic sedimentary rocks (Paleocene, Subbetic,
southern Spain): Paleoenvironmental reconstruction
J.M. Moli na, J.A. Vera, and R. Aguado
Dating of Calcretes: Applications
13. Calcite cement stratigraphy of a nonpedogenic calcrete
in the Triassic New Haven Arkose (Newark Supergroup)
E.T. Rasbury, E. H. Gierlowski-Kordesch, J. M. Cole,
C. Sookdeo, G. Spat aro, and J. Ni enst edt
14. Calcrete features and age estimates from U/Th dating:
Implications for the analysis of Quaternary erosion rates
in the northern limb ofthe Sierra Nevada range (Betic
Cordillera, southeast Spain)
J.M. Azafi6n, P. Tuccimei, A. Azor, I. M. Sanchez-Aimazo,
A.M. Alonso-Zarza, M. Soligo, and J.V. Perez- Pefia
ISBN-10 0-8137-2416-3
ISBN-13 978-0-81 37-2416-4