Radar Basic Principles

The following figure shows the operating principle of a primary radar set. The radar
antenna illuminates the target with a microwave signal, which is then reflected and
picked up by a receiving device. The electrical signal picked up by the receiving
antenna is called echo or return. The radar signal is generated by a powerful
transmitter and received by a highly sensitive receiver.


TRANSMITTING PATH
TRANSMITTER DUPLEXER ANTENNA ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE AIM

RECEIVING PATH
AIM ECHO SIGNAL ANTENNA DUPLEXER RECEIVER DISPLAY

Figure 1: Block diagram of a primary radar (interactive picture)
All targets produce a diffuse reflection i.e. it is reflected in a wide number of directions.
The reflected signal is also called scattering. Backscatter is the term given to
reflections in the opposite direction to the incident rays.
Radar signals can be displayed on the traditional plan position indicator (PPI) or other
more advanced radar display systems. A PPI has a rotating vector with the radar at
the origin, which indicates the pointing direction of the antenna and hence the bearing
of targets.
Transmitter
The radar transmitter produces the short duration high-power rf pulses of energy
that are into space by the antenna.
Duplexer
The duplexer alternately switches the antenna between the transmitter and
receiver so that only one antenna need be used. This switching is necessary
because the high-power pulses of the transmitter would destroy the receiver if
energy were allowed to enter the receiver.
Receiver
The receivers amplify and demodulate the received RF-signals. The receiver
provides video signals on the output.
Radar Antenna
The Antenna transfers the transmitter energy to signals in space with the
required distribution and efficiency. This process is applied in an identical way on
reception.
Indicator
The indicator should present to the observer a continuous, easily
understandable, graphic picture of the relative position of radar targets.
The radar screen (in this case a PPI-scope) displays the produced from the echo
signals bright blibs. The longer the pulses were delayed by the runtime, the
further away from the center of this radar scope they are displayed. The direction
of the deflection on this screen is that in which the antenna is currently pointing.


Chapter: Secondary Radar Technology

Figure 1: Large Vertical Aperture Antenna
Radar was born in the due to the pressure of war. The need to detect hostile aircraft
led to a vast investment in intellect and money to develop RADAR. Classical Radar
(now called Primary Radar) by definition is a non co-operative technology, that is it
needs no co-operation from the Target being detected. Why do we need a different
system then?
As well as seeing hostile aircraft it soon became apparent that Radar was a good
tool to see friendly aircraft and hence control and direct them. If the friendly aircraft
is fitted with a transponder (transmitting responder), then it sends a strong signal
back as an echo. An active also encoded response signal which is returned to the
radar set then is generated in the transponder. This proved very useful for the military
in seeing their own aircraft clearly. In this response can be contained much more
information, as a primary radar unit is able to acquire (E.g. an Altitude, an identification
code or also any technical problems on board such as a radiocontact loss ...).
The objectives of this chapter of the homepage Radar Basics are to indicate the
principles of the operation of Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR). Firstly, the
functional block diagram of the SSR (Mode A/C) system will be described, including
both the Up Link formats and the Reply Messages. Secondly, the main aspects of the
forthcoming Mode S system will be described.


The following Air Traffic Control (ATC) surveillance, approach and landing radars are
commonly used in Air Traffic Management (ATM):
en-route radar systems,
Air Surveillance Radar (ASR) systems,
Precision Approach Radar (PAR) systems,
surface movement radars, and
special weather radars.

SRE-M7, a typically en-route radar made by the GermanDASA company
En-Route Radars
En-route radar systems operate in L-Band usually. These radar sets initially detect and
determine the position, course, and speed of air targets in a relatively large area up to
250 nm.



The Air Surveillance Radar ASR-12
Air Surveillance Radar (ASR)
Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) is an approach control radar used to detect and
display an aircraft's position in the terminal area. These radar sets operate usually
in E-Band, and are capable of reliably detecting and tracking aircraft at altitudes below
25,000 feet (7,620 meters) and within 40 to 60 nautical miles (75 to 110 km) of their
airport.



Precision Approach Radar PAR-80 made by ITT
Precision Approach Radar (PAR)
The ground-controlled approach is a control mode in which an aircraft is able to land in
bad weather. The pilot is guided by ground control using precision approach radar.
The guidance information is obtained by the radar operator and passed to the aircraft
by either voice radio or a computer link to the aircraft.



Surface Movement Radar ASDE
Surface Movement Radar (SMR)
The Surface Movement Radar (SMR) scans the airport surface to locate the positions
of aircraft and ground vehicles and displays them for air traffic controllers in bad
weather. Surface movement radars operate in J- to X- Band and use an extremely
short pulse-width to provide an acceptable range-resolution.



Microburst radar MBR
Specially weather-radar applications
Weather radar is very important for the air traffic management. There are weather-
radars specially designed for the air traffic safety.


Basic Principle of Operation

transmitted energy
backscatter

Figure 1: Radar principle: The measuring of a round trip time of a microwave pulse
The basic principle of operation of primary radar is simple to understand. However, the
theory can be quite complex. An understanding of the theory is essential in order to be
able to specify and operate primary radar systems correctly. The implementation and
operation of primary radars systems involve a wide range of disciplines such as
building works, heavy mechanical and electrical engineering, high power microwave
engineering, and advanced high speed signal and data processing techniques. Some
laws of nature have a greater importance here.
Radar measurement of range, or distance, is made possible because of the properties
of radiated electromagnetic energy.
1. Reflection of electromagnetic waves
The electromagnetic waves are reflected if they meet an electrically leading surface. If
these reflected waves are received again at the place of their origin, then that means
an obstacle is in the propagation direction.

2. Electromagnetic energy travels through air at a constant speed, at approximately the
speed of light,
300,000 kilometers per second or
186,000 statute miles per second or
162,000 nautical miles per second.
This constant speed allows the determination of the distance between the reflecting
objects (airplanes, ships or cars) and the radar site by measuring the running time of
the transmitted pulses.

3. This energy normally travels through space in a straight line, and will vary only
slightly because of atmospheric and weather conditions. By using of special radar
antennas this energy can be focused into a desired direction. Thus the direction
(in azimuth and elevation of the reflecting objects can be measured.

These principles can basically be implemented in a radar system, and allow the
determination of the distance, the direction and the height of the reflecting object.
(The effects atmosphere and weather have on the transmitted energy will be
discussed later; however, for this discussion on determining range and direction, these
effects will be temporarily ignored.)

Direction-determination

Figure 1: Direction-determination (bearing)
The angular determination of the target is determined by the directivity of the antenna.
Directivity, sometimes known as the directive gain, is the ability of the antenna to
concentrate the transmitted energy in a particular direction. An antenna with high
directivity is also called a directive antenna. By measuring the direction in which the
antenna is pointing when the echo is received, both the azimuth and elevation angles
from the radar to the object or target can be determined. The accuracy of angular
measurement is determined by the directivity, which is a function of the size of the
antenna.
Radar units usually work with very high frequencies. Reasons for this are:
quasi-optically propagation of these waves.
High resolution (the smaller the wavelength, the smaller the objects the radar is able to
detect).
Higher the frequency, smaller the antenna size at the same gain.
The True Bearing (referenced to true north) of a radar target is the angle between true
north and a line pointed directly at the target. This angle is measured in the horizontal
plane and in a clockwise direction from true north. (The bearing angle to the radar target may
also be measured in a clockwise direction from the centerline of your own ship or aircraft and is referred
to as therelative bearing.)

Figure 2: Variation of echo signal strength
The antennas of most radar systems are designed to radiate energy in a one-
directional lobe or beam that can be moved in bearing simply by moving the antenna.
As you can see in the Figure 2, the shape of the beam is such that the echo signal
strength varies in amplitude as the antenna beam moves across the target. In actual
practice, search radar antennas move continuously; the point of maximum echo,
determined by the detection circuitry or visually by the operator, is when the beam
points direct at the target. Weapons-control and guidance radar systems are
positioned to the point of maximum signal return and maintained at that position either
manually or by automatic tracking circuits.
In order to have an exact determination of the bearing angle, a survey of the north
direction is necessary. Therefore, older radar sets must expensively be surveyed
either with a compass or with help of known trigonometrically points. More modern
radar sets take on this task and with help of the GPS satellites determine the
northdirection independently.
Transfer of Bearing Information
The rapid and accurate transmission of the bearing information between the turntable
with the mounted antenna and the scopes can be carried out for
servo systems and
counting of azimuth change pulses.
Servo systems are used in older radar antennas and missile launchers and works with
help of devices like synchro torque transmitters and synchro torque receivers. In
newer radar units we find a system of Azimuth-Change-Pulses (ACP). In every rotation
of the antenna a coder sends many pulses, these are then counted in the scopes.
Newer radar units work completely without or with a partial mechanical motion. These
radars employ electronic phase scanning in bearing and/or in elevation (phased-array-
antenna).



Minimal Measuring Range

R
min

Figure 1: The Radars blind range
Monostatic pulse radar sets use the same antenna for transmitting and receiving.
During the transmitting time the radar cannot receive: the radar receiver is switched off
using anelectronic switch, called duplexer. The minimal measuring range R
min
(blind
range) is the minimum distance which the target must have to be detect. Therein, it is
necessary that the transmitting pulse leaves the antenna completely and the radar unit
must switch on the receiver. The transmitting time and the recovery
time t
recovery
should are as short as possible, if targets shall be detected in the local
area.
R
min
=
c
0
( + t
recovery
)
in [m]
2
Targets at a range equivalent to the pulse width from the radar are not detected. A
typical value of 1 s pulse width of a short range radar corresponds to a minimum
range of about 150 m, which is generally acceptable. However, radars with longer
pulse width suffer a relatively large minimum range, notably pulse compression radars,
which can use pulse lengths of the order of tens or even hundreds of microseconds.
Targets at ranges closer than this minimum are said to be eclipsed.

Pulse Compression
Pulse compression is a generic term that is used to describe a waveshaping process
that is produced as a propagating waveform is modified by the electrical network
properties of the transmission line. The pulse is frequency modulated, which provides
a method to further resolve targets which may have overlapping returns. Pulse
compression originated with the desire to amplify the transmitted impulse (peak) power
by temporal compression. It is a method which combines the high energy of a long
pulse width with the high resolution of a short pulse width. The pulse structure is
shown in the figure 1.

U
in

U
out

Figure 1: separation of frequency modulated pulses
Since each part of the pulse has unique frequency, the returns can be completely
separated.
This modulation or coding can be either
FM (frequency modulation)
linear (chirp radar) or
non-linear,
time-frequency-coded waveform (e.g. Costas code) or
PM (phase modulation).
Now the receiver is able to separate targets with overlapping of noise. The received
echo is processed in the receiver by the compression filter. The compression filter
readjusts the relative phases of the frequency components so that a narrow or
compressed pulse is again produced. The radar therefore obtains a better maximum
range than it is expected because of the conventional radar equation.


Figure 2: short pulse (blue) and a long pulse with intrapulsemodulation (green)
The ability of the receiver to improve the range resolution over that of the conventional
system is called the pulse compression ratio (PCR). For example a pulse compression
ratio of 50:1 means that the system range resolution is reduced by 1/50 of the
conventional system. The pulse compression ratio can be expressed as the ratio of the
range resolution of an unmodulated pulse of length to that of the modulated pulse of
the same length and bandwidth B.
PCR =
(c
0
/2)
= B
(1)

(c
0
/ 2B)
This term is described as Time-Bandwidth-product of the modulated pulse and is equal
to the Pulse Compression Gain,PCG, as the gain in SNR relative to an unmodulated
pulse. Alternatively, the factor of improvement is given the symbolPCR, which can be
used as a number in the range resolution equation, which now achieves:
R
res
= c
0
( / 2) = PCR c
0
/2 B
(2)
The compression ratio is equal to the number of sub pulses in the waveform, i.e., the
number of elements in the code. The range resolution is therefore proportional to the
time duration of one element of the code. The radar maximum range is increased by
the fourth root of PCR.
The minimum range is not improved by the process. The full pulse width still applies to
the transmission, which requires the duplexer to remained aligned to the transmitter
throughout the pulse. Therefore R
min
is unaffected.
Advantages Disadvantages
lower pulse-power
therefore suitable for Solid-State-amplifier high wiring effort
higher maximum range
bad minimum range
good range resolution
time-sidelobes
better jamming immunity
difficulter reconnaissance
Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of the pulse compression
Pulse compression with linear FM waveform
At this pulse compression method the transmitting pulse has a linear FM waveform.
This has the advantage that the wiring still can relatively be kept simple. However, the
linear frequency modulation has the disadvantage that jamming signals can be
produced relatively easily by so-called Sweeper.
The block diagram on the picture illustrates, in more detail, the principles of a pulse
compression filter.

filters for frequency components
delay lines for the time duration
summary devices
U
in

U
in

U
out

U
out

time duration of
a frequency component
Figure 3: Block diagram (an animation as explanation of the mode of operation)
The compression filter are simply dispersive delay lines with a delay, which is a linear
function of the frequency. The compression filter allows the end of the pulse to catch
up to the beginning, and produces a narrower output pulse with a higher amplitude.
As an example of an application of the pulse compression with linear FM waveform
the RRP-117 can be mentioned.
Filters for linear FM pulse compression radars are now based on two main types.
Digital processing (following of the A/D- conversion).
Surface acoustic wave devices.

U
out

t
side lobe of antenna
(angularly)
aim
time (range) side lobes

Figure 4: View of the time side lobes at an oscilloscope (upper figure) and at B-scope
Time-Side-Lobes
The output of the compression filter consists of the compressed pulse accompanied by
responses at other times (i.e., at other ranges), called time or range sidelobes. The
figure shows a view of the compressed pulse of a chirp radar at an oscilloscope and at
a ppi-scope sector.
Amplitude weighting of the output signals may be used to reduce the time sidelobes to
an acceptable level. Weighting on reception only results a filter mismatch and some
loss of signal to noise ratio.
The sidelobe levels are an important parameter when specifying a pulse compression
radar. The application of weighting functions can reduce time sidelobes to the order of
30 db's.

Pulse compression with non-linear FM waveform
The non-linear FM waveform has several distinct advantages. The non-linear FM
waveform requires no amplitude weighting for time-sidelobe suppression since the FM
modulation of the waveform is designed to provide the desired amplitude spectrum,
i.e., low sidelobe levels of the compressed pulse can be achieved without using
amplitude weighting.
Matched-filter reception and low sidelobes
become compatible in this design. Thus the loss
in signal-to-noise ratio associated with weighting
by the usual mismatching techniques is
eliminated.
A symmetrical waveform has a frequency that
increases (or decreases) with time during the
first half of the pulse and decreases (or
increases) during the last half of the pulse. A
non symmetrical waveform is obtained by using
one half of a symmetrical waveform.
The disadvantages of the non-linear FM
waveform are
Greater system complexity
The necessity for a separate FM modulation design
for each type of pulse to achieve the required
sidelobe level.


Figure 6: A non-symmetrical waveform (Output of
the Waveform-Generator

pulse width
linear FM
non-linear
symetrically

Figure 5: symetrically waveform

pulse width

Figure 7: non-symetrically waveform
Phase-Coded Pulse Compression

Figure 8: diagram of a phase-coded pulse compression
Phase-coded waveforms differ from FM waveforms in that the long pulse is sub-
divided into a number of shorter sub pulses. Generally, each sub pulse corresponds
with a range bin. The sub pulses are of equal time duration; each is transmitted with a
particular phase. The phase of each sub-pulse is selected in accordance with a phase
code. The most widely used type of phase coding is binary coding.
The binary code consists of a sequence of either +1 and -1. The phase of the
transmitted signal alternates between 0 and 180 in accordance with the sequence of
elements, in the phase code, as shown on the figure. Since the transmitted frequency
is usually not a multiple of the reciprocal of the sub pulsewidth, the coded signal is
generally discontinuous at the phase-reversal points.
Length of
code n
Code elements
Peak-sidelobe
ratio, dB
2 +- -6.0
3 ++- -9.5
4 ++-+ , +++- -12.0
5 +++-+ -14.0
7 +++--+- -16.9
11 +++---++--+- -20.8
13
+++++--++-+-+
-22.3
Table: Barker Codes


Elevation Angle

N (0)
E
S
W
R
horizon

Figure 1: Definition of elevation angle
Altitude- or height-finding search radars use a very narrow beam in the vertical plane.
The beam is mechanically or electronically scanned in elevation to pinpoint targets.
Height-finding radar systems that also determine bearing must have a narrow beam in
the horizontal plane in addition to the one in the vertical plane.
The elevation angle is the angle between the horizontal plane and the line of sight,
measured in the vertical plane. The Greek letter Epsilon () describes the elevation
angle. The elevation angle is positive above the horizon (0 elevation angle), but
negative below the horizon.


Range Resolution


Figure 1: range resolution
The target resolution of a radar is its ability to distinguish between targets that are very
close in either range or bearing. Weapons-control radar, which requires great
precision, should be able to distinguish between targets that are only yards apart.
Search radar is usually less precise and only distinguishes between targets that are
hundreds of yards or even miles apart. Resolution is usually divided into two
categories; range resolution and bearing resolution.
Range resolution is the ability of a radar system to distinguish between two or more
targets on the same bearing but at different ranges. The degree of range resolution
depends on the width of the transmitted pulse, the types and sizes of targets, and the
efficiency of the receiver and indicator. Pulse width is the primary factor in range
resolution. A well-designed radar system, with all other factors at maximum efficiency,
should be able to distinguish targets separated by one-half the pulse width time .
Therefore, the theoretical range resolution cell of a radar system can be calculated
from the following equation:
S
r

c
0

(1)

2

Figure 2: Animation: One target includes two aims
The following figures show the range resolution for a pulse with of one microsecond. If
the spacing between two aircrafts is to small, then the radar see only one target as
shown in Figure 2.
And now the other example when the spacing is large enough:

Figure 3: Animation: two aims and two targets
Radar using Intrapulse-Modulation


Figure 4: Range resolution as a function of transmitters bandwidth
In a pulse compression system, the range-resolution of the radar is given by the length
of the pulse at the output-jack of the pulse compressing stage. The ability to compress
the pulse depends on the bandwidth of the transmitted pulse (BW
tx
) not by its pulse
width. As a matter of course the receiver needs at least the same bandwidth to
process the full spectrum of the echo signals.
S
r

c
0

(2)
2 BW
tx

This allows very high resolution (and a small radar range resolution cell) to be
obtained with long pulses, thus with a higher average power. Figure 4 shows the
variation of slant range resolution with bandwidth. An 1.5 m resolution will be achieved
with a -3 dB bandwidth of 100 MHz theoretically.


Radars Accuracy
Accuracy is the degree of conformance between the estimated or measured position
and/or the velocity of a platform at a given time and its true position or velocity.Radio
navigation performance accuracy is usually presented as a statistical measure of
system error and is specified as:
1. Predictable: The accuracy of a position in relation to the geographic or geodetic
co-ordinates of the earth.
2. Repeatable: The accuracy in which a user can return to a position whose co-
ordinates have been measured at a previous time with the same navigation
system.
3. Relative: The accuracy which a user can determine one position relative to
another (by neglegting all possible errors).
Some results of radar units are indicated in the following table as example:
radar unit accuracyin bearing accuracyin range accuracyin height
BORA 550 < 0.3 < 20 m
LANZA < 0.14 < 50 m 340 m 1150 feet (at 100 NM)
GM 400 < 0,3 < 50 m 600 m 2000 feet (at 100 NM)
RRP117 < 0,18 < 463 m 1000 m 3000 feet (at 100 NM)
MSSR-2000 < 0.049 < 44.4 m
STAR-2000 < 0.16 < 60 m
Variant < 0.25 < 25 m
Table 1: Examples

En Route Separation Standard
Spezified Azimuth Accuracy:
Sliding Window ATCRBS (and ARSR)
Monopulse ATCRBS/Mode S
Distance from Radar (NM)
Figure 1: Dependence of the accuracy of the range
(Source: MIT Lincoln Laboratory)
The stated value of required accuracy represents the uncertainty of the reported value
with respect to the true value and indicates the interval in which the true value lies with
a stated probability. The recommended probability level is 95 per cent, which
corresponds to 2 standard deviations of the mean for a normal (Gaussian) distribution
of the variable. The assumption that all known correction are taken into account
implies that the errors in the reported values will have a mean value (or bias) close to
zero.
Any residual bias should be small compared with the stated accuracy requirement.
The true value is that value which, under operational conditions, characterizes
perfectly the variable to be measured/observed over the representative time, area
and/or volume interval required, taking into account siting and exposure.
Accuracy should not be confused with resolution.



Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)

Pulse width
Pulse Repetition Time (PRT)

Figure 1: Radar pulse relationships
The Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) of the radar system is the number of pulses
that are transmitted per second.
Radar systems radiate each pulse at the carrier frequency during transmit time (or
Pulse Width PW), wait for returning echoes during listening or rest time, and then
radiate the next pulse, as shown in the figure. The time between the beginning of one
pulse and the start of the next pulse is called pulse-repetition time (prt) and is equal to
the reciprocal of prf as follows:
PRT =
1
(1)

PRF
The radar system pulse repetition frequency determines its ability to unambiguously
measure target range and range rate in a single coherent processing interval as well
as determining the inherent clutter rejection capabilities of the radar system. In order to
obtain an unambiguous measurement of target range, the interval between radar
pulses must be greater than the time required for a single pulse to propagate to a
target at a given range and back. The maximum unambiguous range is then given by
R
unamb.
=
c
0

=
c
0
PRT
(2)

2 PRF 2
where c
0
is the velocity of electromagnetic propagation.
Peak- and Average Power

Duty Cycle
average power
pulse power
pulse width
pulse repetition time
Figure 1: Duty cycle, peak- and average power
The energy content of a continuous-wave radar transmission may be easily figured
because the transmitter operates continuously. However, pulsed radar transmitters are
switched on and off to provide range timing information with each pulse. The amount
of energy in this waveform is important because maximum range is directly related to
transmitter output power. The more energy the radar system transmits, the greater the
target detection range will be. The energy content of the pulse is equal to
the peak (maximum) power level of the pulse multiplied by the pulse width. However,
meters used to measure power in a radar system do so over a period of time that is
longer than the pulse width. For this reason, pulse-repetition time is included in the
power calculations for transmitters. Power measured over such a period of time is
referred to as average power.
P
=
P
average

=
Pulse Width ()
=Duty Cycle
(1)

P
i
P
peak

PRT ()
Peak power must be calculated more often than average power. This is because most
measurement instruments measure average power directly. Transposing the upper
equation gives us a common way for calculating peak power/average power.
Since the storage of the energy in the modulator, the power supply must make plant
for the transmitter available a little more than the average power only.
Duty cycle
The product of pulse width (pw) and pulse-repetition frequency (prf) in the above
formula is called the duty cycle of a radar system. Duty cycle is the fraction of time
that a system is in an active state. In particular, it is used in the following contexts:
Duty cycle is the proportion of time during which a component, device, or system is
operated. Suppose a transmitter operates for 1 microsecond, and is shut off for 99
microseconds, then is run for 1 microsecond again, and so on. The transmitter runs for
one out of 100 microseconds, or 1/100 of the time, and its duty cycle is therefore
1/100, or 1 percent. The duty cycle is used to calculate both the peak power and
average power of a radar system.



Dwell Time and Hits per Scan
Most processes in pulsed radar are time dependent. Thus, some terms have been
established to describe this time-dependence.

Figure 1: the target on the screen is a result of hits
Dwell Time
The time that an antenna beam spends on a target is called dwell time T
D
. The dwell
time of a 2Dsearch radar depends predominantly on
the antennas horizontally beam width
AZ
and
the turn speed n of the antenna (rotations per minute).
The dwell time can be calculated using the following equation:
T
D
=

AZ
60
; in [seconds]
(1)

360 n
Hits per Scan
The value of hits per scan m says how many echo signals per single target during
every antenna swing are received. The hit number stands e.g. for a search radar with
a rotating antenna for the number of the received echo pulses of a single target per
antenna turn. The dwell time T
D
and the pulse repetition time PRT determine the value
of hits per scan.
m =
T
D

=

AZ
60
(2)

PRT 360 n PRT
So that radar equipment can evaluate the target informations with sufficient precision,
hit numbers are between 1 and 20 as necessary, which depends on the radar set
operating mode.

Time-dependences in Radar
Radar parameters such as antenna rotations per minute, dwell time, maximum
unambiguous range, pulse repetition frequency (PRF), maximum number of hits per
target are strongly interdependent. Finally also all other radar characteristics such as
range and azimuth resolution, blind speed etc could be derived from this basic timing
considerations. A classic radar (i.e. radar, not using monopulse technology) operating
as an ATC-Radar needs a data renewal time of less than 5 seconds. This requirement
limits the receiving time and the maximum unambiguous range as following:

antenna revolution time
dwell time
hits per scan
pulse period
maximum possible
receiving time


Figure 1: Time-dependences in Radar
Since the radar processing in this surveillance radar is still in real time (with relatively
low, but constant delay), the data renewal time depends on the antenna revolution
time. To direct in the same azimuth angle after 5 seconds, so that the radar can
measure the co-ordinates again, the antenna must turn with 12 revolutions per minute
at least.
The dwell time, the time that an antenna beam spends on a target, depends
predominantly on the antennas horizontally beam width and the turn speed of the
antenna. If we assume, that a well designed parabolic antenna got a beam width of
1.6 degrees, the full circle of 360 degrees is divided by 360/1.6 = 225 different
directions. 5 seconds divided by the number of 225 gives a dwell time of 5 s / 225 =
22.22 milliseconds.
These radar sets need a given number of hits per scan. This is necessary, to integrate
the signals (see pulse integration) of different pulse periods for a better distinction of
wanted signals from unwanted noise, as well as to measure a correct angular
direction. Assumed a necessary number of 20 hits per scan, the maximum pulse
period take a time of 1 millisecond therefore. Assuming a receiving time less than 1
millisecond, the maximum unambiguous range of the ATC-radar is smaller than
150 kilometers. If the radar uses a staggered pulse repetition frequency to avoid blind
speeds in radar signal processing, then the smallest period gives the base to the
range calculation. So we must calculate with a period of about 0.8 ms instead of 1 ms.
The maximum unambiguous range of this given ATC-radar is 120 kilometers or
65 nautical miles therefore.
So we can see, that the time scheduling of radar is very important. Most of parameters
are fixed and the maximum range of given radar set is time dependent
predeterminated. Additional measuring of an elevation angle is not possible often. To
promise a higher range, demands fundamental changes in the radar signal processing
as like as monopulse technology and/or digital beamforming. Even small changes in
the needed number of hits per scan (as a possible alternative to increase the receiving
time to achieve a better unambiguous range) have negative influence on the
radars probability of detection.

Functional Block Diagram of Secondary Radar

Transponder
Receiver
Decoder
Transmitter
Coder
Interrogator
Coder
Transmitter
Decoder
Receiver
PPI-screen
Synchronizer of
Primary Radar
Interrogation Path
(Uplink)
Replay Path
(Downlink)
Figure 1: Block diagram of a secondary radar
In the interrogator on the ground:
The secondary radar set needs a synchronous impulse of the (analogous) primary
radar set to the synchronization of the indication.
The chosen mode is encoded in the Coder. (By the different modes different questions can be
defined to the airplane.)
The transmitter modulates these impulses with the RF frequency. Because another frequency
than on the replay path is used on the interrogation path, an expensive duplexer can be
renounced.
The antenna is usually mounted on the antenna of the primary radar set and turns
synchronously to the deflection on the monitor therefore.
In the aircrafts transponder:
A receiving antenna and a transponder are in the airplane.
The receiver amplifies and demodulates the interrogation impulses.
The decoder decodes the question according to the desired information and induces the
coder to prepare the suitable answer.
The coder encodes the answer.
The transmitter amplifies the replay impulses and modulates these with the RF reply-
frequency.
Again in the interrogator on the ground:
The receiver amplifies and demodulates the replay impulses. Jamming or interfering
signals are filtered out as well as possible at this.
From the informations Mode and Code the decoder decodes the answer.
The monitor of the primary radar represents the additional interrogator information. Perhaps
additional numbers must be shown on an extra display.

Uplink-Formats
The SSR interrogation format (sometimes called uplink format) in Mark X standard is
very simple, consisting of two pulses (P1 and P3) of 0.8 s width which are separated
by a certain time - this determines the mode of interrogation. The table shows the time
spacing of the different military and civil modes and indicates their use.
Mode
Distance
between
P1 - P3
mode description
military civil
1

3 (0.2)
s
Military Identification
Military mode 1 is used to support 32 military identification codes
(although 4096 mode 1 codes could also be used). Normally, the 32
codes could be used to indicate role / mission / type. However, this
mode itself is not in common use in a normal peacetime environment.
2

5 (0.2)
s
Military Identification
Military mode 2 provides 4096 ID codes for military use (as for mode A).
Normally used to identify an individual aircraft airframe.
3 A
8 (0.2)
s
Civil / Military Identification
Provides 4096 ID codes for civil / military use. The commonly used
mode

B
17 (0.2)
s
not used

C
21 (0.2)
s
Civil, Pressure Altitude Extraction
mode C is used to extract the pressure altitude mode C value (or true
altitude if below the transition altitude).

D
25 (0.2)
s
not (never) used
Table 1: uplink-formats in Mark X Standard
Military mode 1 is usually used to indicate role, mission or type of aircraft (hence
several aircraft may give the same mode 1 reply value). Mode 2 is usually used to
indicate an individual aircraft airframe (which is a number set in the aircraft, usually
before it takes off).
Military mode 3 and civil mode A are the same interrogation mode (hence often
referred to as 3/A). It requests an identity used for air traffic control purposes. Since
this identity is only 12 bits (constrained by the down link reply format - see later), there
are only 4096 possible values. Values of mode 3/A codes to use in various regions are
allocated by air traffic control authorities. The identity code value is set (as 4 octal
digits) by the pilot, as directed by air traffic control instructions. The value may
sometimes be changed during flight.
The other essential information required by air traffic control is obtained from the
mode C interrogation, requesting the aircraft flight level. This is derived from the
aircraft pressure altimeter or the radar altimeter.
Civil mode B and D, although originally defined, have never been used for civil ATC
purposes. Hence, the present civil SSR system is usually referred to as SSR
mode A/C. Not all aircraft transponders are able to reply to all modes of interrogation.
Military aircraft transponders will reply to modes 1,2,3/A and many also have mode C
capability. Civil transponders will not recognise Modes 1 and 2, but must recognise
mode 3/A. Most will also have mode C capability.
The ground interrogator will change the interrogation modes made in a regular way
this is usually referred to as the interlace pattern. Usually civil SSR interrogators
alternate mode A and C each interrogation i.e. an AC interlace. Military interrogators
may include mode 1 or 2 e.g. a 1AC2AC interlace. (Some military interrogators may
interchange mode 1 and 2 each scan.)
Some military IFF systems (IFF Mk XII) also include mode 4. However, mode 4 uses
very different formats. In particular, the uplink format consists of a sequence of many
pulses that contain encryption data so that only aircraft carrying the correct decipher
key can be recognised.
The P2 pulse, shown darkgreen colored in the pictures of the mode-table, is used for
side lobe suppression purposes, as will be described later.


The Reply Message
The SSR down link format consists of a number of pulses, nominally 0.45 s
(0.1 s). F
1
and F
2
are always present and separated by 20.3 s (0.1 s) they are
often referred to as a bracket or framing pair. Other pulse positions within this framing
pair are spaced by 1.45 s and are used to convey the required reply information in
answer to the specific interrogation (e.g Mode A identity or Mode C flight level values).
The pulses are identified to give the bits of an octal code (ABCD). The X pulse at the
centre of the reply is not used. The three blank positions may not be occupied by
pulses, otherwise some decoders may reject the entire answer as interference.
Note that the reply information itself does not contain any information to indicate which mode it is a reply
to. The interrogator will assume that the replies received are in answer to it latest mode of interrogation.

Figure 1: SSR down link format
In the case of Mode A, the octal code (ABCD) is set by a control panel in the cockpit.
In the case of mode C, the flight level is encoded in a special way (by a special form of
Gray code known as Gillham code - this has the characteristic of only one bit changing
for each change in flight level).
The SPI (Special Purpose Identification) pulse is used by air traffic controllers to
confirm the identity of certain aircraft. The controller will ask the pilot to squawk ident
the pilot pressing a button on the control panel which adds the SPI pulse to SSR
replies for a certain period (181 s). The display system will then highlight aircraft with
SPI. (The SPI pulse may have been appropriate to distinguish aircraft on older display
systems before fully plot extracted displays became available). The out of frame
position of the SPI pulse is somewhat strange and, as will be seen later, the SPI pulse
position chosen introduces rather unfortunate complications for automatic decoding
purposes. According to ICAO the SPI-pulse will be added to Mode A reply only.
By international standards it is possible to assign defined questions and answers to
certain standard situations:
Code Modus Meaning
7700 3/A, B General air emergency
7600 3/A, B Loss of radio
4 frame 1, 2, 3/A, B Military emergency call
7500 3/A Hijacking
Table 1: examples of different Codes
Each answer receives its meaning only in connection with the respective question. For
example:
7700 in Mode 3/A: general air emergency
7700 in Mode C: 20,000 ft height

Side Lobe Suppression
In secondary surveillance radar technology the side lobes of the antennae affect
particularly unfavourably. Transponders also can be interrogated over the side lobes
and then answer about these, too and a response telegram can be received also over
the side lobes. This circumstance results from the fundamentally bettertransmitting-
and reception conditions for secondary radar units.
Such answers cannot be assigned obviously on the radar screen. They rather appear
as several targets in the same range but in different directions. In the extreme case an
airplane can be interrogated permanently during a turn of the antenna. Such an reply
then appears on the PPI-scope as a ring around.
There are two principles of Side Lobe Suppression (SLS)
Interrogation Path Side Lobe Suppression (ISLS), and
Reply Path Side Lobe Suppression (RSLS)
The techniques for ISLS are very similar to those for RSLS.
A supplementary so called
Improved Interrogation Path Side Lobe Suppression (IISLS)
method uses the techniques of ISLS to reduce the influence of false replays caused by
reflection.

Fruit

Figure 1: SSR-video with a disabled defruiter
All secondary surveillance radar transmissions are worldwide on the two frequencies
only:
1030 MHz (the uplink frequency) and
1090 MHz (the downlink frequency)
This is necessary since an aircraft passes through several radar control areas on
its flight path.
One describes all asynchronous
interferences as a Fruit, which
arises from replies, these were
triggered not by the own
interrogator.
The term Fruit is an acronym. There are a few definitions for the acronym Fruit in
common usage today, e.g:
False Replies Un-synchronised In Time or
False Replies Unsynchronised to Interrogator Transmission.
Fruit should only happen when at least one of the targets involved is in the main beam
of at least two interrogators. Similar to synchronous garbling, Fruit is in fact
asynchronous interference where replies overlapping in time at the receiver antenna
may be lost. The key difference is that one or more of these replies is not expected
and is intended for another user of the frequency.
As the population and activity of transponders (and ground stations) increases in
response to increases in traffic level, the levels of Fruit increase, causing increased
loss of replies and false targets.
Defruiter
If the SSR- antenna sweeps once over the targets position, the aircrafts transponder
has to transmit about 10 till 30 replies. These replies are stored in the defruiter and
compared with each other in the next PRT now.

delay line
subtraction circuit
video and FRUIT
delayed video
video without FRUIT
one pulse period
Figure 2: Principle of a Defruiter (Criterion: needed 2 replies from 2 PRTs)
Depending on size of the Fruit such a comparison can be carried out for two or more
replies (PRTs). Problems appear at this method by different circumstances, though:
The more Fruit, one should adjust the Defruiters criterion the more sharply,
the more Fruit, however, the probability of a reply is the smaller,
the smaller the probability of a reply, one should adjust the Defruiters criterion the more
weakly.
Only a compromise can consequently represent the solution of the problem, by
choosing a criterion which as many as possible suppresses Fruit, but still has much
use information passed sufficiently.


Garbling/Degarbling
Garbling is a fundamental problem in the design of the classical SSR system and the
situation is made worse by increased traffic. Aircraft are often closely spaced in range
and azimuth but at different heights. Replies from two aircraft will overlap if their range
separation is within the equivalent of the 20.3 s reply length. This is approximately
1.7 Nm. The most serious garbling situations occur when the azimuth separation is
very small such that replies from both aircraft are received from all interrogations
across the beam. With advanced reply processing techniques and algorithms, it may
sometimes be possible to extract all some or all of the replies from the received signal.

Figure 1: synchronous garbling
At this, in principle, one distinguishes two manners of the overlapping:
Non-synchronous Garbling;
Synchronous Garbling
Two replies overlaps in time such that its time grids are not congruent, so one speaks
about Non-synchronous Garbling. Such answers can separated and one by one be
decoded correctly!
But if two or more replies overlaps in time such that its time grids are congruent, so
one speaks about Synchronous Garbling.
It cannot to state in the decoding any more, whether this a single impulse belongs to
one or the other ones response telegrams. Through this it would come to the decoding
of completely new and wrong replies and difficult from the original replies. These
replies must therefore be disabled!
F
1
C
2
F
2
SPI

Figure 2: C
2
-SPI phantom bracket
Wirings which reduce the effects of the Garbling are called Degarbling Wirings.
Bracket detection is usually implemented by a digital delay line in which the presence
of the F1-F2 bracket pair is detected by tapping points 20.3 s apart with some
additional tolerance. Unfortunately the position of the SPI-pulse is spaced 20.3 s after
the C
2
pulse and if both pulses are present in a reply then C
2
-SPI phantombracket will
occur:
But in this case this reply may be decoded and displayed! The airplane with which you
have a radio link is of special interest. It would be a pity, if it disappears of the screen
as long as the operator talks with the pilot.
Replies which are Closly Spaced represent a further special case shown in the
bottom one example in the following table.
Garbling Pulses
to
displa
y
non-
synchronuousGar
bling


synchronuousGar
bling


C
2
-SPI
phantombracket


Closly spaced


Table 1: kinds of garbling

Degarble Wiring
To recognize and be able to process the described garbling cases, special degarble
wirings are used.

delay line DL 1: 20,3 s
DL 2: 20,3 s
DL 3: 20,3 s
video
to the decoder
H=enable
C
2
-SPI phantom bracket
H=bracket detect
L=garbling
Figure 3: Principle of a degarble wiring
The needed delay lines with the taps of 1,45 s (pulse grid!) can be created also as a
digital shift register.
The complete process also can be carried out by a processor controlled wiring.
Sequences of operation during a correct replay
1. Bracket detect
2. delay of the recognized brackets
3. check whether there brackets overlaps in time

Animation
4. if no overlapping, then the decoder is enabled.
Sequence of operation during a garbling reconnaissance
4. overlapping detect, then the decoder is not enabled.

Animation
Sequences of operation during C
2
-SPI Phantoms
4. the phantom-bracket from the pulse pair of C
2
and SPI is ignored!
5. the decoder is enabled in this case.

Animation


Mode S Uplink Formats
A conventional SSR interrogator may have a typical sequence of Mode A
interrogation, followed by Mode C interrogation or other modes. This would be
repeated continually at a high rate to ensure that a position/identity plot can be
produced for all targets in line-of-sight range of the interrogator during each antenna
revolution.
The Mode S ground station produces a larger variety of interrogation types. These
types can be roughly classified into two types:
All-call interrogations
Roll-call interrogations
All-call interrogations obtain replays from all aircraft in the beam dwell, although, under
certain circumstances, Mode S aircraft can be locked out to all interrogations so that
they do not reply.
Roll-call interrogations are selectively addressed to acquired Mode S equipped aircraft
using the unique 24-bit address assigned to each aircraft. Only the addressed aircraft
produce replies.
The first problem for the Mode S system is to find the addresses of aircraft that are in
radar cover so that selective addressed interactions can be made with them. This is
achieved by Mode S all-call interrogator witch are made periodically from the radar.
pulse width of P4
Mode S inter mode
0.8 s
no
replay
When the short P
4
is used by Mode S radar, an aircraft fitted
with a Mode S transponder will be detected solely by the
Mode S formats - i.e. aircraft will be first detected by the
Mode S formats all-call and subsequently followed by
Mode S selective address interrogations.
1.6 s
all-call
reply
Although the long p
4
may be used to obtain Mode S all-call
replies, its use is expected to be rather limited, in particular
because the interrogator identity (ii) code and associated all-
call lock features of Mode S are not relevant for this
interrogation.
no P
4

Mode A
reply
This is the downwards compatible modus providing the
Mode S transponder to reply on early interrogators.
no P
4

but full P
2

Mode S
reply
The interrogator sends a P
2
with full amplitude as for the
P
1
pulse. This activates a Mode S transponder to then look
for a following P
6
pulse containing the Mode S specific
information. An older Mode A/C transponder seems this as
an ISLS- condition and don't reply.
Table 1: Mode S Uplink Formats

Mode S Individual Interrogation


Figure 1: Mode S - short interrogation (56 bits - 16.25 s)
The Mode S up link interrogation format starts with two pulses, P
1
and P
2
, which are
solely for the purpose of suppressing existing Mode A/C only transponders so that
they are not aware of the main Mode S information. The Mode S interrogation data
contained in the P
6
data block is phase modulated. The first phase reversal is the
timing point for the subsequent bits (chips) of information. The Mode S interrogation
may be of short (56 bits) or long (112 bits) format.


Figure 2: Mode S - long interrogation (112 bits - 30.25 s)
The Mode S side lobe suppression pulse P
5
is transmitted from the control beam like
the P
2
ISLSin the Mode A/C system. If P
5
is of more power than P
6
it has the effect of
overwhelming the sync phase reversal of P
6
so that the Mode S transponder cannot
read the subsequent information.


Mode S - Differential Phase shift Keying (DPSK)


Figure: Mode S - differential phase shift keying (DPSK)
Mode S Uplink interrogations use into the P
6
pulse Differential Phase Shift Keying
(DPSK) to modulate the data in the uplink format. It is a type of phase modulation that
conveys data by changing the phase of the carrier wave. All subsequent information in
the P
6
pulse is coded as 180 phase reversals of the carrier frequency. DPSK is a kind
of phase shift keying which avoids the need for a coherent reference signal at the
receiver. Each reversal must have a duration of 0.08 s. Each received phase section
has a duration of 0.25 s and is known as a chip The DPSK decoder compares the
phase between two consecutive chips and verify what the data must have been.
In ICAO Annex 10 Volume 4 is the interrogation data format described as follows: The
interrogation data block shall consist of the sequence of 56 or 112 data chips
positioned after the data phase reversals within P
6
. A 180-degree carrier phase
reversal preceding a chip shall characterize that chip as a binary ONE. The absence of
a preceding phase reversal shall denote a binary ZERO.
After the sync phase reversal all subsequent phase reversals indicate the 56 or 112 bit
P
6
information. All subsequent timing is taken from the point of the first phase reversal.
The series of chips starts 0.5 s after the sync reversal. At the end of P
6
pulse there is
a guard interval of 0.5 s to ensure that distinct transmissions do not interfere with one
another.


Figure 2: Block diagram of DPSK receiver
Whether the interrogation is short or a long pulse, the total duration of the P
6
pulse is
either 16.25 s (56 data chips) or 30.25 s (112 data chips). The P
6
begins with an
initial phase reversal at the start of the P
6
pulse with a length of 1.25 s. This is known
as the sync phase reversal. To supress antenna sidelobes the pulse P
5
is transmitted
by an omnidirectional antenna. This pulse overlays the sync phase reversal and the
transponder cannot decode the interrogation.
Figure 2 shows an evident option method of demodulation. At this DPSK decoder, the
original sequence is recovered from the demodulated differentially encoded signal
through a complementary process. The whole received signal is delayed for exact 0.25
microseconds. The origin and the delayed part will be compared. If the signals are in
phase to each other, there is a lower output than if the phases (and the maximum
amplitudes) have a contrary magnitude. From this output signal, the original serial bit
pattern can be restored, which is indicated only by a low pass filter with the following
threshold device.


Figure 3: Decoder wave analysis

Mode S Reply Encoding

8 s
56 s (or 112 s) = 56 or 112 bit
preamble
data block
clock
Figure 1: Mode S - pulse position modulation (PPM)
Mode S replies consists of a certain number of pulses at a 1 s spacing. (The bit
update rate allows a 1 s per data bittransfer rate that can be translated to a one
megabit per second data rate.) The Mode S reply consists of two distinct parts:
1. a preamble and
2. a data block.
Pulse position modulation is a form of signal modulation in which the data
information is encoded in the time delay between pulses in a sequence of signal
pulses.

5
27 bits
24 bits
format
number
surv. & comm.
control
address
(parity)
Figure 2: Content of the short messages data block
Preamble
Every Mode S reply starts with a preamble with a length of 8 microseconds. The
pattern of the preamble consists of four pulses with a length of 0.5 microseconds per
pulse. The interspaces (to the first pulse) are 1; 3.5 and 4.5 microseconds.
Data block
The data block consists of either 56 or 112 bits with a length of either 56 or 112
microseconds. The short data block format is divided in a format identifier of 5 bits, a
surveillance and control word of 27 bits and the 24 bits for the individual airplane code
including a parity information.
Downlink format message format Content
DF0 Fig. 2 Short Air to Air ACAS
DF4 Bild 2 Surveillance (roll call) Altitude
DF5 Bild 2 Surveillance (roll call) IDENT Reply
DF11 Fig. 2 Mode S Only All-Call Reply (Acq. Squitter if II=0)
DF16 Fig. 3 Long Air to Air ACAS
DF17 Fig. 3 1090 Extended Squitter
DF19 Military Extended Squitter
DF20
DF21
Fig. 3 Comm. B Altitude, IDENT Reply
DF22 Military use only
DF24 Fig. 4 Comm. D Extended Length Message (ELM)
Table 1: Mode S Downlink format numbers
The longer downlink formats using 112 bit length of data block can exhibit an
additional message field of 56 bits, or an extended length message field of 80 bits. All
messages content the airplanes identification number including a parity information in
co-operation with the surveillance and communication control word.
The format number defines 25 coding formats. Each Mode S downlink format has a
particular purpose. The formats DF0, DF4, DF5, DF11, DF16, DF20, DF21 and DF24
are used in civil aviation at present. The format DF0 provides informations for ACAS.
The DF17 format is used for the ADS-B system.
Replies with the DF0 format are responses to ACAS or TCAS interrogations. Downlink
format 16s are transmissions which are used by ACAS or TCAS units to communicate
between aircraft. The responses for ground based interrogations have the DF4 format.
DF11 and DF17 are squittered by Mode S transponders at a nominal rate of 1 Hz.

5
27 bits
56 bits
24 bits
format
number
surv. & comm.
control
message field
addresss
(parity)
Figure 3: Content of the long messages data block (communication reply)

2
6
80 bits
24 bits
format
number
comm.
control
message field
addresss
(parity)
Figure 4: Content of an extended length message data block (communication reply)
The downlink format DF24 is the one and only format number beginning with two High-
bits and contains an extended length message data block. The decoder need to
examinate these two bits only for reading this format number. The amount of bits can
be shorten in the format number block therefore, as shown in Figure 4.
Publisher: Christian Wolff




Downlink Broadcast
The downlink broadcast frame is resent at regular intervals by the aircraft for a specific
period time, at a nominal rate of 1 Hz. It includes the transmission ofExtended
Squitter - the unsolicited downlink broadcast of positional reports. The system
depends on other aircraft systems, like a barometric encoder and GPSequipment for
the position data.
The preamble of the Mode S downlink allows a synchronisation to a clock for decoding
the Data Block which is coded with the Pulse-Posistion-Modulation (PPM). The Data
format of an ADS-B message is the format number DF17. The content of the datafield
DF is here the decimal number 17, in binary code 10001
b
.

Preamble
Data Block
5
3
24 bits
56 bits
24 bits
DF
CA
AA
ADS-B data
PI
clock
Figure 1: Data Block of an ADS-B message
The three following bits (called Capability, or CA) ist the number of sub-type of the
ADSB- message. The length 3 bit gives eight different kinds of reports. The next 24
bits are the individual Aircraft (ICAO) Address. The next Data field of 56 bits is the
carrier of the ADS-B report, depending on the content of the CA field.
This report can include:
aircraft type and aircraft ID
altitude,
encoded latitude,
encoded longitude (both coarse), and
airborne velocity.
The last 24 bits are the error detection code (Parity Information, PI).

Figure 2: preview of a flyer for a real example of a virtual radar
SBS-1
The squitter information can be received and shown as a Real Time Radar display on
your PC screen of Mode-S/ADS-B equipped aircraft the airspace immediately around
your home. Such a receiver is described at www.javiation.co.uk. A lot of users of this
ADS-B receiver are associated with www.virtual-radar.de.
The traffic around Zurich is represented in internet at radar.zhaw.ch, based on a
diploma thesis from the suiss school of engineering in Zurich. The shown radar
informations are originated on ADS-B squitter reports.



Transponder

Figure 1: Control paneel of an older transponder
Secondary radar depends on a transponder (short-for Transmitter-responder) in the
airplane to respond to interrogations from the ground station to make the aircraft
visible and to report additional information like the aircraft's altitude.
Figure 1 shows an older one transponder. The replays code for Mode 1 and 3/A can
be choosen with the black hand wheels. The yellow painted edges mark this device as
reference unit of a repair shop.
Newer one transponders operate with two antennae and two receivers in diversity
mode. One antenna is mounted on top and the other one at the bottom of the
airplanes fuselage. Additional informations are derived from the onboard avionics
navigation systems.

Altitude Reporting
(basically enabling
Mode C)
Enables TCAS (when
selected, TAs and
RAs are provided
Transponder
Failure
Indicator
Enter
Mode A
Code
Enter
Flight ID
Self Test
(press)
Traffic
(Auto or
Manual)
TCAS
Range
Source of
Altitude (not
selected Alt)
Select
(Enter)
SPI
Clear
Figure 2: Possible view of a main display of a Mode-s transponder
The Transponder maintains avionics data in 256 different 56 bit wide Binary Data
Store (BDS) Registers that can be loaded with information and read-out by the ground
system. Each register contains the data payload of a particular Mode S reply or
extended squitter. These BDS registers are also referred to
as GroundInitiated Comm B (GICB) registers. They are specified in the ICAO
document Manual on Mode S Specific Services (Doc 9688). Registers not updated
within a fixed period are cleared by the transponder. Registers are identified by a two
digit hex number for example BDS 05h (in some publications written as BDS 0,5) is
the position squitter. Commonly used registers are shown in Table 1.
Register Content
BDS 01h Data Link Capability Report
BDS 02h Aircraft Identity
BDS 03h ACAS Resolution Advisory
BDS 04h Selected Vertical Intent parameters (Bit 2840: Barometric Pressure Setting)
BDS 05h Extended Squitter Airborne Position
BDS 06h Extended Squitter Surface Position
BDS 07h Extended Squitter Status (transmitted only in reply to interrogation)
BDS 08h Extended Squitter A/C Id & Category
BDS 09h Extended Squitter Airborne Velocity
BDS 0Ah Extended Squitter Event Report
BDS 61h Extended Squitter Emergency/Priority Status (transmitted once per second during an emergency)
BDS 65h Aircraft Operational Status
Tabelle 1: Content of some binary data store registers

down
converter
A/D-
converter
monitor
single-chip-processor
power
amplifier
waveform-
generator
keyboard
external sensors
local
oscillator
Figure 3: Functional Block Diagram of a modern transponder
Publisher: Christian Wolff