TRACKING AND POSITIONING OF MOBILE SYSTEMS IN

TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORKS
Wear Debris Analysis
INTRODUCTION
Since the worlds resources of material and energy are getting progressively, by
necessity, there is growing involvement in studies of wear on a global basis. Wear of sliding
components result in reduced mechanical efficiency and an irretrievable loss of material in the
form of wear debris. Wear at the interface between moving particles is a normal characteristic of
machine operation. The kind and rate of wear depend on the machine type. Lubrication is
provided between the moving surface to minimize the wear but during operations millions
minute wear particles entering the lubricating oil. These particles are in suspension in the oil,
larger particles may be trapped by filter while others generally too small to be removed, remain
in suspension in the circulating oil.
ondition based monitoring has, in the past, been referred to as an art, when !uite
clearly it is a science, and despites the cost of machine, surprisingly little attention has been
devoted to this science from the viewpoint of understanding and modeling failure mechanisms
and the study of probability to failure. "redictive maintenance techni!ue has now become
common e#ercises as they ma#imize the machine availability time and minimize the cost of
maintenance, since the machine can be stopped $ust before as impending problem in an other
wise healthy machine
%ault detection using vibration analysis is difficult in very low speed & high load noisy
machines. 'n the case of slow speed bearing the vibration generated by damaged components
is very low, usually close to the floor noise and difficult to identify. 'n these situations, Wear
(ebris )nalysis has proven useful in providing supporting evidence on the bearing or gear
status. 't also provides information on the wear mechanism, which is involved.
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Wear Debris Analysis
WEAR MECHANISMS AND PARTICLES
Sliding adhesive wear particles are found in most lubricating oils. They are an indication
of normal wear. They are produced in large numbers when one metal surface moves across
another. The particles are seen as thin asymmetrical flakes of metals with highly polished
surfaces.
utting abrasive wear produces another particle type. These particles resemble most of
all shavings from a metal shop. *.g.+ Spiral, loops and threads.
These presences of a few of these particles are not significant, but if there are several
hundred, it is an indication of serious cutting wear. ) sudden dramatic increase in the !uantity of
cutting particles indicates that the break down is imminent.
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Wear Debris Analysis
SURFACE FATIGUE
) conse!uence of periodic stresses with very high local tension in the surface, which
occurs, with the meshing of years. These wear mechanisms give plate particles a rough surface
and an irregular perimeter. Small particles often develop in connection with roller bearings.
,efer table -.
TYPE OF COMPONENT
TYPICAL
EXAMPLE
NATURE OF WEAR DEBRIS
ASSOCOATED WITH FAILURE
Loaded, moving components in
which load is concentrated in a
non confirmed contact
,olling bearings,
gear teeth, cams
and tappets
%errous particles of various size and
shapes
Loaded, moving components in
which load is concentrated in a
small area
"iston rings and
cylinders splines,
gear couplings
%errous flakes less than -./ m across,
and fine iron or iron o#ide particles
Loaded, moving components with
the load spread over a large
area
"lain bearings,
pistons and
cylinders
0sually very small and ferrous and non1
ferrous flakes and particles, bearing
fatigue can give rise to larger flakes
WEAR METALS
Wear metals are caused by the relative motion between metallic parts. The motion is
accompanied by friction and wear on the surfaces, which are in contact with one another. The
metal particles are rubbed off due to friction and enter the lubricating oil, the degree of wear can
be evaluated as being normal or abnormal. The wear metals have the same chemical
composition as the components from which they come, and type of wear metal can provide
information on which part being worn. 'ncreased !uantities of iron are common, since many
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Wear Debris Analysis
parts are composed of iron, while an increase in content of less common metals such as silver
can often indicate precisely which component is being worn abnormally.
The size and shape of wear material will differentiate between the following wear
mechanisms.
2 ,ubbing
2 Surface %atigue
2 orrosion
2 Sliding
2 utting
The particle material will pin point to the source and therefore deteriorating component1
wearing race, rolling element or cage, rubbing scales, gear teeth etc.
Spheres
SPHERES
Spherical particles can be heat generated if there is insufficient lubrication or there is a
depletion of e#treme pressure additives in high load or high stress conditions. Spheres are also
produced by fatigue 3cavitation erosion4 of rolling element bearings. %atigue spherical particles
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Wear Debris Analysis
formed within bearing fatigue cracks range in size from - to -/ microns. ) marked increase in
spherical particles indicates possible e!uipment distress.
Dark Metallo-Oxides
These particles are also heat generated and may indicate lubricant starvation. They appear
as darkened, rough particles in varying degrees of oxidation, in contrast to rubbing wear platelets
which appear in silvergrey shades
Wear Particles
%or systems, which operate normally, wear metals are produces at constant rate. This
rate is the same for all normally operating systems of the same type.
The theoretical curve showing the concentration of wear metals as a function of time for
a close system without oil consumption is shown in figure.
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TYPES OF WEAR PARTICLES
There are si# basic particles type generated through the wear process. These include
ferrous and non1ferrous particles and comprise of+
-. 5ormal ,ubbing Wear
,ubbing wear particles are generated because of normal sliding wear in a machine and
result from e#ploitation of particles of the shear mi#ed layer. ,ubbing wear particles consists of
flat platelets, generally . microns or smaller, although they might range up to -. microns
depending upon e!uipment associations. There should be little or no visible te#turing of the
surface and thickness should be - micron or less
6. utting Wear "articles
utting wear particles are generated as result of one surface penetrating another. There
are two ways of generating this effect.
) relatively hard component can become misaligned or fractured resulting in hard, sharp edge
penetrating a soft surface. The particle generated this way is coarse and large, averaging 61.
microns wide and 6.1-// microns long.
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7ard abrasive particles in the lubrication, either as contaminants such as sand or wear debris
from another part of this system, may become embedded in soft wear surface3two body
abrasion4 such as Lead8Tin alloy bearing. The abrasive particles protrude from the soft wear
surface and penetrating the opposing wear surface. The ma#imum size of cutting wear particles
generated in this way is proportional to the size of abrasive particles in the lubricant. 9ery fine
wire1like particles can be generated with thickness as low as 6. microns.
utting wear particles are abnormal. Their presence and !uantity should be carefully monitored.
'f the ma$ority of the cutting particles in a system are a few micrometers long and a fraction of a
micrometers wide the presence of particulate contaminants should be suspected. 'f a system
shows increased !uantity of large 3./ microns long4 cutting wear particles, a component failure
is potentially imminent.
:. Spherical "articles
These particles are generated in the bearing cracks. 'f generates their presence gives an
improved warning of impending trouble as they are detectable before any spalling occurs.
,olling fatigue generates few spheres over . microns in diameter while the sphere generated by
welding, grinding and corrosion are fre!uently over -/ microns in diameter.
;. Severe Sliding
Severe sliding wear particles are identified by parallel on their surfaces. They are
generally larger than -. microns, with the length1to1width thickness ratio falling between
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Wear Debris Analysis
.1:/ microns. Severe sliding wear particles sometimes show evidence of temper colors, which
may change the appearance of the particle after heat treatment.
.. <earing Wear "articles
These distinct particle types have been associated with rolling bearing fatigues.
%atigue spall particles constitute actual removal from the metal surface with a pit or a crack is
propagated. These particles reach a ma#imum size of -// microns during the microspalling
process. %atigues spalls are generally are flat with a ma$or dimension1to1thickness ratio of -/ to
-. They have a smooth surface and a random, irregularity shape circumference.
Laminar particles are very thin free metal particles with fre!uent occurrence of holes. They
range between 6/ to ./ microns in ma$or diameter with a thickness ratio of :/+-. These particles
are formed by the passage of wear particles through a rolling contact. Laminar particles may be
generated throughout the life of a bearing.
=. >ear Wear
Two types of wear have been associated with gear wear+
"itch line fatigue particles from a gear pitch line have much in common with rolling1element
bearing fatigue particles. They generally have a smooth surface and fre!uently irregularly
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Wear Debris Analysis
shaped. (epending upon the gear design, the particles usually have a ma$or dimension1to
thickness ration between ;+- and -/+-. The chunkier particles results from tensile stresses on
the gear surfaces causing the fatigue cracks to propagate deeper into the gear tooth prior to
spalling.
Scuffing or scoring particles are caused by too high a load and 8 or speed. These particles
tend to have a rough surface and $agged circumference. *ven small particles may
be discerned from rubbing wear by there characteristics. Some of the large particles have
striations on their surface indicating a sliding contact. <ecause of the thermal nature of
scuffing, !uantities of o#ides are usually present and same of particles may show evidence of
partial o#idation that is tan or blue temper colors.
ontaminant particles are generally considered the single most significant cause of
abnormal component wear. The wear initiated by contaminants generally induces the
formation of larger particles, with the formation rate being dependent on the filteration efficiency
of the system. 'n fact, once a particle is generated and moves with the lubricant, it is technically
a contaminant.
SIGNIFICANT OIL CONTAMINENTS
Lubricating oil used in engine may possibly include concentration of such elements as
iron chromium, copper, lead, tin, antimony, borated silver, silicon. ) list of common
contaminants and their possible origins is given in table 6.
CONTAMINENT SOURCES
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-.)luminium "istons, bearings
6. <oron oolant leak
:. opper <earings, bushings, washers etc.
;. 'ron "iston rings, ball and roller bearings
.. Lead <earings, bushings
'ron concentration usually rises as a conse!uence of higher wear rate of cylinder liners
or piston rings 3or of piston where these are of ferrous materials4. ) common cause is that of
piston rings stuck in their grooves with conse!uent blow1by of combustion gases and burning of
the oil film adding to scuffing and piston seizure.
'ron and silicon together in high concentration suggests linear and ring wear from dust in
the intake air. This could be caused by inefficient or chocked air filters. )ir filter filled relatively
low in the body of a vehicle may choke and allow direct to enter.
opper and lead concentration in an engine fitted with copper & lead bearings suggests
incident failure of one or more bearings. opper and tin increased could be caused by high
wear of bronze and bushes.
)ntimony in some engines might indicate a rise or copper content from crankshaft or camshaft
bearings.
hromates are used in some engines coating water to suppress corrosion, their
presence in lubrication oils indicates that cooling water has leaked into the crankcase3this effect
can be masked in an engine fitted with chrome1plated piston rings and cylinder lines4
Solver in contaminated oil results from the wear of plating, bearings and silver soldered
fittings.
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Wear Debris Analysis
USED OIL CONTAMINATION TIME TRENDS
The !uantity of each contaminant reflects the e#tent of surface wear of the components
of a machine under normal conditions? wear rate is small and uniform so that oil contamination
collects slowly. )s large surface defects develop, abnormal wear occurs and contamination
increases. ) curve typical of the change of the iron concentration with time as shown in fig.
'nitially, when the machinery is now or recently overheated, a sharp rise in metallic
concentration occurs from ) to < as the parts wear in. @nce this phase is completed, the
concentration should remain steady, the oil shouls then be changed. Some residual wear metal
products remain from the old oil and circulate in the new oil following the oil
change at c, with normal functioning the metallic concentration would be e#pected to increase
slowly as by 1(. 'f abnormal conditions arise, the concentration may increase by (1%.
The physical analysis of the wear debris that has been generated by the deterioration of the
moving parts within the system. ) diagnosis of the wear mechanisms and e#tent of the damage
to components is made using the following parameters.
Te !es! "a#$a%e in#l&'es(
Wear inde#+ ) measurement of the amount of ferrous wear within a system.
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"article Auantifier 'nde# 3"A4+ ) measurement of the wear debris filtered from the used
oil.
Bagnetic Separation 'nde# 3Bag '4+ ) measurement of ferrous wear debris magnetically
separated from other debris.
ontamination 'nde# 3ontamin4+ ) measurement of the amount of metallic
contamination.
)verage Size+ The average size of the particle size of the wear debris.
Ba#imum Size+ The ma#imum particle size of the wear debris.
(ensity 'nde# 3(ensity4+ ) measurement of the density of the largest wear particles.
"article Type+ The wear particle classification according to the size and shape used to
determine the mechanism of wear.
WEAR PROCESS MONITORING TECHNI)UES
The method of wear process can be classified into three main types, which are shown in fig.
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Wear Debris Analysis
-. Direct detection metod+
Wear debris in the lubricant is detected in the machine by arranging for the oil flow through a
device, which is sensitive to the presence of debris.
6. De!ris collection metods+
Wear debris is collected in a device, fitted to the machine which is convenient to remove, so that
the debris can be e#tracted for e#amination.
:. L"!ricant Sam#le Anal$sis+
) sample of lubricant is e#tracted from the machine and analyzed for wear debris
contamination.
These methods are normally used to monitor the conditions of components lubricated by a
circulatory oil system.
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Wear Debris Analysis
When applying a wear debris monitoring method to any machine for the first time there is
an initial learning period re!uired, partly to gain e#perience in using the
e!uipment, but mainly to establish wear debris characteristic levels which indicate normal and
incipient failure conditions. This learning period can take up to 6 Crs. (uring this
time it will also be necessary to establish the inspection and sampling intervals for intermittent
monitoring methods such as debris collection and lubricant sampling. This time interval will
depend on the application but fortnightly or monthly is probably a reasonable choice for an
industrial application in the absence of more precise guidance.
(ebris collection and lubricant sampling can also indicate the nature of the wear problem
and engineers carrying out monitoring need to be given a regular feedback of information on the
accuracy of their diagnosis. They must therefore either see the components of thin machines
when they are stripped for overhaul, or atleast be given
precise data on their condition.
Direct De!ris Collection Metod
Wear debris is collected in a device, fitted to the machine, which is convenient to
removed so that the debris can be e#tracted.
Existin Filter s!ste"
%iltration is widely used to remove harmful particles from oil. The simplest method of
debris monitoring is to e#tend such an approach by carefully collecting and checking the
contents of machines oil filtration system at regular intervals
Spe#ial Filters
These collects all particles down to the mesh size of the filter. The complete filter unit
can usually be e#tracted from its housing without breaking any pipe connections and the
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Wear Debris Analysis
machine need not be stopped. 'f a bi1pass1 valve is fitted. To collect all particles the filter should
be fitted in the oil system immediately downstream of the components being monitored. These
are mainly used for detecting non1ferrous debris not collected by magnetic plugs often they are
used in con$unction with these.
De!ris Collection Metod
Maneti# Pl$s
)s it is an Don1lineE control method, magnetic plugs are used in oil1lubricated machines. The
monitoring e!uipment is mounted directly in the lubricating system of the machine. The
underlining principle is that the %erro1magnetic particles in the oil are attracted by the magnetic
plugs. The magnetic plugs or chip detectors are usually of the self1closing type which prevent oil
loss during removal. This method only detect ferrous material.
The !uantity of particles collected depends upon the path of the oil flow and the placement of
the plugs are therefore placed so that they provide a ma#imum amount of information about
wear3particle production4 of the critical parts. ,egular e#amination and evaluation of the coating
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Wear Debris Analysis
of the plug allows one to eliminate the !uantity and size of the particles, as it often follows a
typical Dbath1tubE curve. <y means of such a graph it is possible to identify appropriate times for
the performance of preventive maintenance.
This techni!ue supplements the two other oil monitoring methods. The magnetic plugs
captures particles from about -//mm and upwards, ie, a large number of particles are detected
which would not normally be recorded by means of ferrography.
The magnetic plug is thus in a position to capture the large flakes which are formed due
to the break down of the surfaces by fatigue. The magnetic plug is therefore, used particularly in
connection with the monitoring of the gear bo#es and bearings. )
scattering of black particle fragments 3whiskers4 is seen. )n unacceptable coating is visible.
This indicates abnormal wear. )n unacceptable coating can be characterized by the following
conditions.
Large individual fragments
"ieces which can be identified as flakes from a bearing
%lat fragments
) large number of whiskers
"articularly long whiskers
Bagnetic plugs are used in the modern aircraft engines where particle sizes are in the
order of /.61- Fm are found.
(irect debris collection methods
@ptical oil turbidity monitor
*lectrically conducting filters
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Wear Debris Analysis
'nductive detection methods
apacitive detection methods
L"!ricant Sam#le Anal$sis
) sample of lubricant is e#tracted from a machine and analyzed for wear debris
contamination. There are two most widely used methods. They are+
-. Spectrometric oil analysis program 3S@)"4
6. %errography
These methods are normally used to monitor the conditions of components lubricated
by a circulating oil system. Two main lubricating sample analysis methods are+
-. )nalysis of the sample to determine the concentration of the chemical elements it contains.
6. )nalysis of the sample to determine the amount, size and shape of contaminant particles
contained in it.
SOAP
't is a maintenance tool which is used to check the condition of the oil lubricated
mechanical systems3*#amples+ Botors, >ear bo#es, 7ydraulic systems4. The systems can be
kept under surveillance without dismantling them. )bnormally worn compounds can be localized
and replaced before a catastrophic failure occurs. The !uantity and type of wear metals in
sample of lubricating oil is determined. The !uantity can indicate something about the
magnitude of the wear and the type of wear metals can reveal which component is wearing out.
a. *mission Spectroscopy
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Wear Debris Analysis
)n emission spectrometer is an optical instrument where the sample is DburnedE is in a
spark between two electrodes. The energy is absorbed by the metal in the sample, and they
emit light with wavelengths, which are characteristic for each element in the sample. The
intensity of light is proportional to the concentration of the metal in the sample.
b. )tomic )bsorption Spectroscopy
'n this, the sample is burned in a gas flame, where the metal compounds are transferred
into atoms that can absorb light at wavelengths, which can characteristic for each metal. 'f one
wishes e.g. to determine the !uantity of fuel copper, then light with a wavelength characteristic
for copper is send through the flame, where the copper atoms absorb a part of light . The
!uantity of absorbed light is proportional with the !uantity of copper in the sample.
@nly particle under certain size can be measured, which is of the order of /1-/Fm. With
emission spectroscopy somewhat larger particles can be measured.
Limitations+1
0sers of the S@)" claim that they find that a large proportion of the defects which would
lead to the breakdown. This method provides no indication of+
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Wear Debris Analysis
Large particles 3*.g. bearings can breakdown due to few large particles4
(efects which occurs !uickly 3*.g. due to the lack of lubricating oil or due to bearings which
burn up4
(efects where no wear metals are formed.3*.g. breakdown due to metal fatigue4.
)pplications+1
-. 't is used in situation s where breakdowns are catastrophic or e#pensive.
6. 't is widely used in the military services.
:. 'n 0S, it is used by the )ir force, 5avy and the )rmy.
;. 't is used for many civil aviation companies.
Ferroraph!
't is a techni!ue which is based upon the systematic collection of oil samples from an oil1
lubricated machines. The method identifies, isolate and classify wear particles from machine
parts. ) magnetic field is used to sort the wear particles in the flowing oil. This techni!ue was
used successfully to monitor the condition of military aitcraft engines, gear bo#es and
transmissions.
Three of the ma$or type of e!uipments used in wear particle analysis are the
(irect &,eading3(,4 ferrorgraphy, the analytical ferrograph system and ferrorgram scanner.
,egistraion of the !uantity of DlargeE and DsmallE wear particles is used to monitor the
development of process between checks. )bnormal wear is revealed when there is a change in
distribution of the particles called wear inde# of the oil.
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Wear Debris Analysis
%erro>raph )nalysis )pparatus+1
7ere the particles are separated on a treated ob$ect glass where due to its displacement
in a special magnetic field3 with a very high field gradiation4 causes the particle should be sorted
according to size. The largest particles are deposited first while smaller ones travel farther with
the flowing oil. The density i.e. the concentration of particles at a single location on the
ferrogram, is measured with a optical densitometer by allowing light to pass through it.
The wear inde# S) G )L
6
1)S
6
is obtained by the comparison of the density )L of the large
particles and the density )S of the small particles.
-. (, %errography
This is a !uick method for which direct reading of the inde# S( can be achieved in about
. minutes.
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Wear Debris Analysis
'n this apparatus, a controlled flow of oil passes through a calibrated glass tube which is
mounted in a specially designed magnetic field. The separation causes the particles to be
sorted by the size of the bottom of the tube.
The apparatus uses photocells to convert the measured light intensities attained by
passing light to the tube to electric signals. The measured region of the apparatus is / 1-H/ (,
units, where ma#imum value is -H/ (, corresponding to the cases where the bottom of the
tube is completely covered with metal particles.
(ensity at two fi#ed measuring points in the tube are used corresponding to the
densities of large and small particles. (L and (S respectively.. The sum of (L and (S is termed
the total wear and the difference (L & (S is termed as abnormality wear. The wear inde# S(G(L
6
& (S
6
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Wear Debris Analysis
)reas of )pplication+1
The ferrographic (, measurement provides a warning of an incipient failure earlier than
the standardized spectrometric method.
6. The )nalytical %errograph
)dditional information about a wear sample, can be obtained with the )nalytical
%errograph system, instruments that can provide a permanent record of the sample, as well as
analytical information. The )nalytical %errograph is used to prepare a %errogram 11 a fi#ed slide
of wear particles for microscopic e#amination and photographic documentation. The %errogram
is an important predictive tool, since it provides an identification of the characteristic wear
pattern of specific pieces of e!uipment. )fter the particles have deposited on the %errogram, a
wash is used to flush away the oil or water1based lubricant. )fter the wash fluid evaporates, the
wear particles remain permanently attached to the glass substrate and are ready for
microscopic e#amination.

Ferrogram Maker Instrument
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Wear Debris Analysis
Wear%De!ris anal$sis made eas$
The *()I *agle Bicro1"robe *(I,% system provides a fast and simple method for the
component identification of wear1debris particles.
*()I has led the way in the development and supply of elemental analysis instrumentation
based on the method of energy1dispersive 3I1ray4 spectrometry 3*(S4. The *(S method
utilizes the simple spectral information produced as a result of electron transitions deep within
an atom. These I1ray spectra 3so called because of their energy8
wavelength4 obtained from a sample under investigation within a suitable analysis instrument,
provide uni!ue information about the type and !uantity of the elements present. *()I
introduced the first commercially available *(S system for electron microscopy applications
The '() techni*ue is a familiar elemental analysis attachment to a scanning electron microscope
+)',- where electrons are used as the primary energy source to excite the ./ray spectra. )',/
'() methods are used for wear/particle analysis for both their morphological and compositional
properties, and are particularly useful where the study of very small particles +approximately five
microns or less- is necessary. 0n the other hand, the radiation output from an ./ray tube may
also be employed as an energy source. The resultant benefits for systems using an ./ray energy
source include greatly simplified specimen handlingpresentation needs, less sophisticated
instrumentation, simpler and faster operation and lower cost. )uch a standalone system is called
an energy/dispersive ./ray fluorescence spectrometer +'(.12-, of which the '(3. 'agle is a
specialised example.
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Wear Debris Analysis
*ase of analysis+1
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The EDS technique is a familiar elemental analysis
attachment to a scanning electron microscope
Wear Debris Analysis
The magnetic plugs are degreased prior to the transfer of the debris on to a clear sticky tape
3the traditional method used for debris archiving and8or optical e#amination4. Without the need
for any further sample preparation, the tape8debris is presented to the spectrometer for analysis
where, in typically less than two minutes, its analysis may be obtained. )lso the measured
spectrum can be compared 3using spectral pattern1recognition methods4 to stored reference
spectra of the monitored assemblyJs component parts and hence to identify the component that
has worn or been damaged.
@5L0S'@5
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Wear Debris Analysis
The wear debris monitoring method access the nature of the particles generated when
components wear.
They can indicate e#act nature of the machine problem
The methods of wear debris analysis used as an indication of machine conditions are+
indication from the amount of debris present
indication from the size distribution of debris
indication from the physical form of debris
application of chemical analysis of debris
,*%*,)5*S+
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Wear Debris Analysis
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