Aids to Navigation 5-1

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

CHAPTER 5 “An incorrectly identified mark is a

hazard, not an aid, to navigation.”

Alton B. Moody
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Aids to Navigation

Introduction and Overview definition of an ATON, this system is not dis-

According to accepted NOAA Nautical cussed in this chapter, because GPS informa-
Chart Manual nomenclature, an Aid to Navi- tion is not provided on nautical charts. Omega
gation (ATON)… is also not discussed in this manual even
though Omega information is provided on cer-
“...is a man-made structure/device exter- tain nautical charts because small craft are not
nal to a craft designed to assist in de- generally equipped with these receivers. Fi-
termining the craft’s position or a safe nally, charted LORAN-C information is not in-
course or to warn of dangers or obstruc- cluded in this manual because this is covered
tions. When the information is transmit- at length in the USCG LORAN-C User Hand-
ted by light waves, the device is a visual book, to which the reader is referred.
aid to navigation; if by sound waves, an ATONs may be fixed (land-based or fixed
audible aid to navigation; if by radio structures in the water) or floating (e.g.,
waves, a radio aid to navigation. Any aid buoys). Landmarks are the functional equiva-
to navigation using electronic equip- lent of ATONs but, because these have not
ment, whether or not radio waves are been especially constructed for this purpose,
involved, may be considered an elec- are not formally classified as ATONs. Land-
tronic aid to navigation. The term “aid marks are treated in a separate chapter
to navigation” should not be confused (Chapter 6. Landmarks) of this manual.
with the more general term “naviga- This chapter provides information on the
tional aid” which covers any instrument, type and utility of ATONs and how these are
device, chart, method, etc., intended to depicted on nautical charts. (Because ATONs
assist in the navigation of a craft.” are so important to safe navigation and, there-
fore, charted in great detail, this chapter is long
A more complete list of ATONs and associated and detailed.) The chapter also identifies the
information normally found on nautical charts sources of additional information (e.g., the
is provided later in this chapter. Briefly, how- Chart No. 1, U.S. Coast Pilot and the Light List)
ever, ATONs include such objects as buoys, which supplement that provided on the nauti-
lights, fog signals, daybeacons, range markers, cal chart. As appropriate, practical comments
radiobeacons and LORAN-C and Omega lat- are made throughout the chapter on the correct
tices. Although the GPS certainly satisfies the use of ATONs for marine navigation. (See also
5-2 NOAA Chart User's Manual

Chapter 6 for additional perspectives applicable the channel to Newburyport, MA, on the
to ATONs as well as landmarks.) Numerous ref- Merrimack River.
erences are given at the end of this chapter for
those interested in additional detail. Names Importance of ATONs in Coastal
enclosed in parentheses (e.g., Bowditch) denote Navigation
particularly pertinent references. The Glossary As with landmarks, ATONs are charted ob-
in appendix A provides definitions of key terms jects used for determining LOP (e.g., with a
related to ATONs. hand-bearing compass or radar or by direct
plotting in the case of range markers) and
Brief Historical Asides curves of position (e.g., circles of position with
As might be expected, what are now called an optical range finder for ATONs with charted
ATONs have a long history (see, e.g., height information, such as certain lights or hy-
Bowditch, Naish). As the later history of perbolas of position with LORAN-C) so as to
ATONs may be familiar to readers of this determine a fix or estimated position for the
manual, it is interesting to provide some brief vessel. ATONs also mark hazards to navigation,
asides on the early periods. Towers (used identify the limits to safe channels, designate
originally as landmarks, and later as light- special-use areas (quarantine and anchorages),
houses) were reportedly constructed to aid and provide other relevant information. Table
passage along the Mediterranean coast as 5–1 provides both general and specific illustra-
early as 660 B.C. Between 283 and 277 B.C., tions of how information derived from ATONs
Sostratus of Cnidus built a large (500 ft) struc- can be used for marine navigation. ATONs can
ture on the island of Pharos which marked be used to fix the vessel’s position, to serve as
the harbor of Alexandria from the north. The homing or tracking aids, to ensure that the ves-
Romans established a network of fire towers sel remains clear of dangerous waters (e.g., by
along the Mediterranean. using danger bearings, danger circles, or pass-
By medieval times, beacons and range mark- ing on the “safe side” of buoys) to identify turn
ers were in use to facilitate entrance to the ports points, and for a variety of specialized purposes
of Genoa and Pisa. In the so-called Dark Ages in such as compass calibration or (less frequently
Europe, hermits and monks located on remote with ATONs) to determine whether or not the
islands and promontories displayed light signals vessel’s anchor is dragging.
in chapels and participated in salvage operations
for wrecked vessels. (Today this might be viewed Importance of Positive Identification and
as a conflict of interest!) Related Matters
The organization of the Hanseatic League not Before discussing the various types of
only provided for economic cooperation but also ATONs, charting practices, and related mat-
advanced the use of ATONs (and mechanisms ters, it is appropriate to emphasize several key
for collecting what would now be termed “user points noted throughout this manual.
fees”) for navigation. A surviving chart of the ap-
proaches to Bruge dating from about 1500 A.D. The mariner should be fully famil-
shows buoys as well as towers. (A seaman’s iar with the charting conventions
manual of 1295 A.D. refers to buoys marking the employed to depict ATONs. And im-
river channels to Seville.) In England, Trinity portant textual material (e.g., Chart
House was established in the early 1500s as a No. 1, and the appropriate USCG
pilotage authority charged with (among other Light List) should be readily avail-
things) the responsibility of constructing and able for reference.
maintaining marks on the land.
By the 1700s ATONs had become relatively Any observed ATON (or landmark)
sophisticated and widespread. The first re- should be positively identified by the
corded range marks in America were two light mariner prior to its use for naviga-
towers placed in line on Plumb Island to mark tion. Published texts (e.g., Cahill,
Aids to Navigation 5-3

Table 5-1
Utility of ATONs Shown on Nautical Chart

GENERAL:
• Used for determining range or bearing by visual means (or radar) in coastal waters so as to
determine a fix or estimated position;

SPECIFIC ILLUSTRATIONS:
• Used for determination of fix, running fix, estimated position, set and drift of current;
• Used for plotting danger bearings, danger circles, horizontal danger angles;
• Used (in conjunction with danger bearing or circle) for evaluation of vessel’s position with
respect to unobservable hazards to navigation;
• Used to determine a safe course which avoids unobservable hazards to navigation;
• Used for establishing vessel turning bearings;
• Used for homing or tracking purposes;
• Used for compass calibration; and
• (Less frequently) Used for determining whether or not an anchor is dragging.

Milligan, Maxim) and USCG acci- rections. ATONs are moved, renum-
dent files are replete with examples bered, removed, and/or characteris-
of mishaps or accidents which re- tics changed periodically. This can
sulted from the incorrect identifica- have significant consequences (see
tion of an ATON. Bowditch (see ref- Cahill) for the uninformed mariner.
erences) lists “failure to identify aids Bowditch also lists “failure to cor-
to navigation” as the second of 16 rect charts” among the common er-
common errors in navigation. The rors in navigation.
mere observation of an ATON (or
landmark) at approximately the Whenever observations are taken on
right position and at approximately any fixed ATON or landmark, this
the right time—although relevant— information should be plotted on the
is not sufficient proof that the aid ob- nautical chart by the mariner. Even
served is the same as that shown on a single LOP can be useful, and fre-
the chart. ATONs are equipped with quent fixes are typically necessary
numerous characteristics (e.g., the in coastal waters where ATONs are
flash characteristics and color of a placed. Differences between the
light, the Morse code identifier of a vessel’s dead reckoning position and
radiobeacon, the number and color the plotted fix enable currents to be
of an unlighted buoy or daybeacon) estimated and/or should alert the
to facilitate positive identification. mariner to the possibility of other
errors.
Closely related to the above point,
it is important that charts (and such Finally, all available means (e.g.,
publications as the Light List and maintenance of a dead reckoning
U.S. Coast Pilot) be amended as de- plot, use of GPS, LORAN-C, depth
scribed in the latest published cor- sounder or other means) should be
5-4 NOAA Chart User's Manual

used for navigation. Reliance on only to-day basis for navigation purposes are main-
one method is unprofessional and tained by the USCG. In 1993, there were ap-
unwise. proximately 50,500 federal ATONs in U.S. wa-
ters (Ihnat)! These aids include lights, buoys
ATONs and Related Chart Information (lighted and unlighted), daybeacons, and ap-
(General) proximately 200 marine radiobeacons. As
This chapter includes the following shown in figure 5–1, the majority (51 percent)
ATONs: lights, buoys, fog signals, daybeacons, of these ATONs are buoys—lights (25 percent)
ranges, and radiobeacons. These are discussed and daybeacons (24 percent) account for about
in order in the following sections. Brief com- equal portions of the remainder. (Fog signals
ments on “trial courses” are also included in are not included in this tabulation, as these
this chapter. The symbols used in charting are typically collocated with a buoy or light.)
these aids are illustrated in Sections P, Q, R, In addition to federally maintained ATONs,
and S of Chart No. 1, Nautical Chart Symbols, there are approximately the same number of
Abbreviations, and Terms (Ninth Ed.) to which privately maintained ATONs. Some privately
the reader is referred. (Pertinent excerpts from maintained aids are useful for navigation and
Chart No. 1 are included in this chapter for are tabulated in the Light List and shown on
ready reference.) nautical charts. Charting federal aids (let alone
ATONs are placed in appropriate locations some fraction of the private aids) and keeping
in harbors and inland waterways to facilitate charts up to date, is obviously a large under-
navigation. The placement of these ATONs fol- taking.
low a particular pattern or convention termed An ATON is charted if it is in the Light
the lateral system, in which the colors, shapes, List or is assigned a Light List number when
and numbering of lights, buoys, and published in the LNM. Thus, any ATON found
daybeacons are determined by their position
in relation to “safe water.” (In virtually all U.S.
waters the International Association of Light-
house Authorities (IALA) System B is followed.
Therefore, the IALA-B system is discussed in
this manual.) These designations are applied
to navigable channels proceeding from sea-
ward toward the head (limit) of navigation. The
colors and numbers of buoys and lights along
the coasts and along traffic routes not leading
distinctly from seaward or toward headwaters
follow the same system, but applied so that
even-numbered aids mark the starboard side
when proceeding in southerly direction along
the Atlantic coast, in a northerly and westerly
direction along the gulf coast, and in a north-
/,*+76 /,*+7('%82<6

erly direction along the Pacific coast. Table 5– 81/,*+7('%82<6 '$<%($&216

2 provides a capsule summary of the charac-

teristics of lateral aid in most U.S. waters. Ad- SOURCE: USCG
ditional information on buoyage systems can
be found in the Light List and other references
(e.g., Coast Guard Aids to Navigation, Fig. 5-1. Distribution of the more than 50,500
Chapman). Federal ATONs in U.S. waters in 1993;
Most ATONs used by mariners on a day- buoys are most numerous.
Aids to Navigation 5-5

Table 5-2
Characteristics of IALA-B Lateral System

Characteristic Port Hand Marks Starboard Hand Marks

Color Green Red
Shape (buoys) Cylindrical (can) or pillar Conical (nun) or pillar
Daymark Green square Red triangle
Light color (when fitted) Green Red
Reflector color Green Red
Numbers (if numbered) Odd Even

At a point where a channel divides, when proceeding in the “conventional direction of buoyage,” a
preferred channel in Region B may be indicated by a modified port or starboard lateral mark as follows:

Characteristic Preferred Channel to Starboard Preferred Channel to Port

Color Green with one broad red horizon- Red with one broad green
tal band horizontal band

Shape (buoys) Cylindrical (can) or pillar Conical (nun) or pillar

Daymark Green square, lower half red Red triangle, lower half green

Color Green Red

Rhythm Composite group flashing (2+1) Composite group flashing (2+1)

Reflector color Green Red

CAUTION: When proceeding toward sea, it may not always be possible to pass on either side of preferred
channel aids to navigation. The appropriate nautical chart should always be consulted.

in the Light List will also be found on the chart.1 in the Light List. As well, radar reflectors,
Additionally, some ATONs are charted which lights, and sound signals are charted for those
are not in the Light List, such as those estab- features (e.g., floats, targets, platforms, dredg-
lished by neighboring foreign countries, aids ing range markers, and data collection buoys)
having “reliable” maintenance authorities not specifically intended for use in navigation,
(such as those established by the military), and whether the feature is listed in the Light List
environmental buoys which are not included or not.

1
This assumes that the chart has been corrected based upon data in the LNM.
5-6 NOAA Chart User's Manual

ATON information provided on nautical Lights

charts includes a symbol unique to each class According to official charting definitions
of aid and a set of characteristics such as num- in the Desk Reference Guide, a light…
ber, height, color, and nominal range. These
characteristics are provided in labels. Symbols “is a luminous signal emitted by a fixed
and characteristics are placed so as to be structure 2 to aid navigation that marks
readily identified by the chart user (not ob- channels, warns of dangers or obstruc-
scured by less important information) and to tions to navigation, and assists the
avoid overlap with any charted channels. mariner in determining his position.
These standard symbols are reserved for Lights are identified by their charac-
ATONs which appear in the Light List. teristics at night and by the shape and
Charted lights and beacons not intended as color of their daymarks. Light charac-
guides for normal surface navigation are teristics include flash sequence, length
shown with a landmark symbol (see Nautical of light and dark periods, color, and
Chart Manual, Chapter 6. Landmarks) and range of visibility. Lights are catego-
identifying label. Any identifying navigational rized by function (e.g., junction light,
light or beacon that is not established by the directional light, range light, leading
USCG or equivalent authority is identified on light, sector light, passing light, and
the charts either by the label “Priv” (for pri- aeronautical light).” [Emphasis added.]
vately maintained aids) or by naming the
agency that is responsible for its maintenance. There were approximately 12,200 federally
Temporary aids are seldom charted unless maintained lights in U.S. waters in 1993.
given a Light List number. ATONs established Most lighted ATONs (including lights and
(and/or aid characteristics that are changed) lighted buoys) are equipped with controls that
for the winter navigation season are consid- automatically cause the light to operate dur-
ered temporary aids and these (changes) are ing darkness and to be extinguished during
not charted. However, specific details for im- daylight. These devices are not of equal sensi-
portant aids, such as seasonal fog signals at tivity and, in consequence, all lights do not
major aids, are charted in all areas. A seasonal come on or go off at the same time. The light-
aid note is found on all Great Lakes charts and ing apparatus is serviced at periodic intervals,
on east coast charts from Cape Henry, VA, but there is always the possibility that the light
northward. This note reads as follows: is extinguished or operating improperly.
Lights can be used for navigation during
SEASONAL AIDS the hours of daylight or darkness. During day-
light, the fixed structures associated with
“During some winter months or when these lights serve as landmarks for bearing
endangered by ice, certain aids to navi- or range determination. During daylight
gation are replaced by other types or hours, the identification of the light is based
removed. For details see the U.S. Coast upon the position of the light and its physical
Guard Light List.” appearance. (The physical appearance of a

2
Lighted buoys are classified by NOAA as buoys, rather than lights, and are discussed later in the main
text.
Aids to Navigation 5-7

light structure is not found on the chart, how-

ever, as noted below.) At night, the light is
used in much the same manner except that the
identification of the light is based primarily
upon the characteristics of the light, such as
the color, flash sequence, and position.

–Charting Practices
This section provides information on chart-
ing practices for lights and related informa-
tion. Charting conventions consist of a light
symbol, associated labels and notes, and (for
sectored lights or where lights have obscured
sectors) information on the sector(s).

–Symbol (P)
Major lights, minor lights, and lighthouses
are charted as shown in Section P of Chart No.
1. In particular, the position of the light is
shown by a black 0.75 mm dot (or open black
circle 1.0 mm in diameter in the case of an ar-
ticulated light), with a magenta “flare” (3.4 mm
in length with a rounded end of 0.6 mm ra-
dius) drawn about 1 mm from the light dot. Miah Maull shoal light in Delaware Bay
This light symbol has the visual appearance Official U.S. Coast Guard photograph
of an exclamation mark (!) in print. The flare
is generally oriented toward the label and is
drawn to avoid obscuring other relevant chart If the name of the light appears in the Light
detail. Where possible, the flare orientation List and space permits, the name of the light
is aligned with those of neighboring buoy sym- is shown in black conventional (vertical) type
bols (see below). Leading lights (i.e., those ar- above the light characteristics.3 The name may
ranged, similar to range lights—except that be omitted if it is the same as the name of the
only a single light is used—to indicate a path geographic feature in the immediate vicinity
to be followed) may be charted with the flare and space is at a premium. Thus, for example,
oriented seaward along the line. if the geographic name “Pt Judith” were
shown in the chart, the name “Pt Judith Lt”
–Labels and Notes would not be given.
The label and note(s) provide information The characteristics of the light include its
on the name of the light and the light’s char- flash characteristic, color, period, height, vis-
acteristics, including the light number (if any). ibility (nominal range), and number.
This information is very useful for identifying Flash characteristics include the sequence
the light and for determining whether it can and timing of the flashes and include fixed,
be seen from the vessel’s approximate posi- occulting (single occulting, group occulting,
tion. and composite group occulting) isophase,

3
These are shown in conventional, rather than italic type because italic type refers, among other things, to
floating structures. See also Chapter 4.
5-8 NOAA Chart User's Manual

flashing (including single flashing, group (in seconds) required to exhibit a full pattern
flashing, composite group flashing, quick, together with the interval between patterns.
very quick, and ultra quick), Morse code (e.g., Periods are shown on the nautical chart, to
Morse “A”), fixed and flashing, and alternat- the nearest tenth of a second expressed as a
ing. Illustrative flash characteristics and as- decimal, after the flash characteristic. Mari-
sociated chart labels are shown in Section P ners should “time” a light using a stopwatch.
(10.1 to 10.11) of Chart No. 1, which is repro- To increase the precision of measurement for
duced in figure 5–2. Although not particularly lights with short periods, the aggregate time
complex, this diagram requires some study. required to complete several cycles should be
Study of this illustration should be supple- measured. Thus, for example, if 60 seconds
mented with on-the-water practice in identi- were required for 10 cycles, the period would
fying the characteristics of lights. Mariners be 6 seconds.
are also cautioned that if a vessel has consid- Taken together, the flash characteristic,
erable vertical motion due to pitching in color, and period provide key information nec-
heavy seas, a light sighted on or near the ho- essary to identify the light when it is in opera-
rizon may alternately appear and disappear tion. According to both the Admiralty Manual
with the possible result that its true charac- of Navigation and Bowditch, the characteris-
teristic will not be apparent. In consequence, tics of a light must always be checked on sight-
the light could be misidentified. Under these ing. As noted by Moody, “An incorrectly iden-
conditions, the true characteristic may not be tified mark is a hazard, not an aid, to naviga-
apparent until the vessel is closer to the light. tion.”
The watch stander should be placed at the The height of the light is the vertical dis-
highest convenient station for such observa- tance between the light source (not the top of
tion. the light!) and the shoreline reference datum.
The color of lights is shown using stan- Height is shown in feet using the abbreviation
dard abbreviation (e.g., R for red, G for green, “ft” except on metric charts, where height is
W for white, etc., as shown in Sections P 11.2 shown in meters using the abbreviation “m.”
through 11.8 of Chart No. 1) following the Height information is important for distance-
flash characteristics of the light. Generally, off calculations (see Bowditch) in daytime or
white lights are not so labeled (and if no color for estimating the distance at which a light
is shown, on the chart, white can be assumed) can be seen at night (see below). Normally, the
except where a light exhibits more than one mariner should search for the highest lights
color, in which case W is shown. Amber lights first when approaching a coast—as these are
are charted as yellow and abbreviated “Y.” likely to be seen most easily. However, the
Although the color of a light is important to mariner should bear in mind that lights
its identification, mariners should be aware placed at high elevations are more frequently
that the apparent color of the light may obscured by clouds, mist, or fog than those
change with distance, because the various lights located at or near sea level.
colored lights may have different nominal The visibility of the light is expressed as
ranges (see below). Additionally, ice or snow the “nominal range,” and is charted except in
may cover the panes of unattended lights, the case of range lights or privately main-
greatly reducing the visibility of lights (see tained lights.4 The nominal range is the maxi-
below) and may cause colored lights to ap- mum distance (in nautical miles on most
pear white. charts, in statute miles on most Great Lakes
The period of a light is defined as the time charts) a light may be seen at night in clear

The nominal range is not given in the USCG Light List either, because these are very short-range
4

ATONs.
Aids to Navigation 5-9

Source: Chart No. 1.

Fig. 5-2. Illustrative Flash Characteristics

Continued on next page
5-10 NOAA Chart User's Manual

Source: Chart No. 1.

Continued
Fig. 5-2. Illustrative Flash Characteristics

weather (meteorological visibility of 10 nauti- These calculations are only approximate

cal miles) without regard for the height of the (Burch). Nonetheless, if lights are not sighted
light or the observer. For those lights with two within a reasonable time after that predicted,
or more colors (see below) either both nomi- a dangerous situation may exist and the mari-
nal ranges are shown (e.g., 15/10M) or the lesser ner should be appropriately cautious.
of the two ranges will be given. Finally, the assigned number or letter(s)
Calculation procedures for estimating the of the light structure (if any) are shown fol-
actual distance from which a light can be seen lowing the visibility, and enclosed in quota-
at night, considering the height of the light tion marks. The number or letter can be ob-
and observer, nominal range, and prevailing served (e.g., with binoculars) during daylight
visibility, are detailed in the Light List and hours.
other references (e.g., Bowditch, Dutton, On large-scale charts, the characteristics
Maxim). Common practice for the navigator of lights are shown in the following order:
is to draw circles around these lights on the flash characteristic, color, period, height, vis-
chart with radius equal to the distance at ibility, and number. For example, an 85 foot
which the light is likely to be visible (see red light (number “2”) of nominal range 10
Schlereth) and to estimate the correspond- miles which exhibits a group of three flashes
ing time when these should first be seen. within a period of 10 seconds would include
Aids to Navigation 5-11

the light symbol, light name (if appropriate) boundaries with accuracy because the edges
and the label: Fl (3) R 10s 85ft 10M “2.” of a colored sector cannot be sharply demar-
Small-scale charts show complete informa- cated.
tion regarding characteristics for major sea- Figure 5–4 presents an excerpt from NOS
coast lights expected to be used for coastal Chart No. 12304 which shows a red sector on
navigation, but may omit certain information the Brandywine Shoals Light warning of
in cases where congestion is a problem. In this shoals in this area.
event, characteristics are omitted in the fol-
lowing order: height, period, number of flashes –Directional Lights
in groups, the number or letter on the struc- Several types of directional lights are in use
ture, and the nominal visibility. (see Section P 30 of Chart No. 1 for chart con-
ventions). These lights have a very narrow sec-
–Sectors, and Related Matters tor designed to mark a direction to be fol-
In some cases, terrain masking (e.g., a lowed. The narrow sector may be flanked by
mountain or island) may limit the area over an obscured or intensified light, or by lights
which a light may be seen. Knowledge of these of a different color or characteristic. A direc-
“blind” areas is obviously useful to mariners.
(There is, after all, no point in looking for
something that cannot be seen. Moreover, a
prudent mariner might well alter the in-
tended track so as to avoid an obscured sector
of a major light.) An obscured sector (some-
times termed “dark sector”) is a portion of the
light sector of a navigational light in which the
light is not visible. Where a LNM reports its
establishment, the obscured sector (see Sec-
tion P 43 of Chart No. 1) is charted with dashed
“rays” marking the limits of the obscured sec-
tor. Additionally a dashed arc in the sector
centered on the light indicates the obscured
sector. Directional arrows are used to mark
the points where the dashed arc intersects the
dashed ray line. A label, “LT OBSC” or “DARK
SECTOR,” is added for clarity. See figure 5–3
for an illustration of a light with an observed
sector taken from NOS Chart No. 13218.
In other cases, sectors are deliberately cre-
ated by placing colored glass in the lanterns
of lights to provide additional information to
the mariner. Sector lights (see Sections P 40
and 42 of Chart No. 1 for symbology) are used
primarily to warn mariners of dangerous
shoals or other hazards to surface navigation.
The danger sectors are usually red and are
charted (in degrees true) from the perspective
of the mariner looking toward the light. Mari-
ners are cautioned not to alter course based Fourteen Ft. Bank Light in Delaware Bay.
solely on the observed sectors, but rather to Note differences in appearance with
note the correct compass bearing. This is be- Miah Maull shown earlier.
cause it is difficult to determine the sector Official U.S. Coast Guard Photograph.
5-12 NOAA Chart User's Manual

Fig. 5-3. Excerpt from NOS Chart No. 13218 (Martha’s Vineyard to Block Island). Note the
obscured sector of the Gay Head Light south of Nomans Land. The light at Gay Head is an
alternating red and white with a period of 15 seconds and a nominal range of
20 nautical miles. The height of this light is 170 ft.
Aids to Navigation 5-13

Fig. 5-4. Excerpt from NOS Chart No. 12304 (Delaware Bay). Note the red sector of
the Brandywine Shoal Light. The 60 ft. light has a nominal range of 13 nautical miles.
Reference to the Light List indicates that this is the lesser of the 17-mile range of the white
light and the 13-mile range of the red sector. The horn, according to the Light List, emits a 2-
second blast every 15 seconds. The light is a group occulting with a 12-second period. Note
also the riprap symbol at the base of the light.
5-14 NOAA Chart User's Manual

tional light normally shows three adjoining above the water surface at high tide) is kept
sectors of red, white, and green, with the cen- upright by the buoyancy of a submerged floata-
ter white beam oriented to mark the channel. tion chamber. Unlike other buoys (see below)
it has no “scope” of chain and the light is di-
–Leading Light rectly over the sinker, i.e., this structure has
A leading light (see Section P 20 of Chart no “watch circle.” It is designed primarily to
No. 1 for chart conventions) is similar to a mark narrow channels with greater precision
range light or marker (see below) except that than conventional buoys in situations where
it marks a channel with a single light (with the depth of water, up to 60 feet, is too great
ray lines) rather than with two separate lights. for a normal pile or dolphin light structure (see
It is usually a high intensity beam marking the Dutton).
safe channel which diminishes to much lower When first introduced, this type of ATON,
intensities around the remainder of the hori- which is neither a true buoy nor exactly a fixed
zon. It differs from a directional light (see light, required a new symbol for charting (see
above) in that it shows only one color of light Section P 5 of Chart No. 1). This symbol is a
instead of the three-color sectors of the direc- black open circle 1.0 mm in diameter (the “ap-
tional light. proximate position” symbol for a landmark ex-
plained in Chapter 6) centered on the pub-
–Aeronautical Lights lished position with a magenta flare. The open
Aeronautical lights (see Section P 60 of circle is chosen in lieu of a dot (used for other
Chart No. 1 for chart conventions) are white fixed lights) because the structure may be dis-
and green navigation lights associated with air- placed more than 10 feet of its “true” position.
ports and often found atop the control tower. The articulated light is labeled “Art” in New-
Because these are generally attended during ton Medium italic type. 5
their hours of operation, the lights are highly
dependable. Moreover, these are often the most –Strobe Lights
conspicuous of the nonstrobe lights and their Many charted features are marked with
nominal range may be greater than those es- very quick-flashing high-intensity lights,
tablished for marine navigation. The aeronau- called strobe lights. The light is usually a xe-
tical light is charted by a standard light dot non gas condenser-discharge flash lamp or
with magenta flare. The light symbol is accom- flash tube. Strobe lights are used on certain
panied by its characteristics and the label USCG-maintained ATONs and on aeronauti-
“AERO.” cal hazards, such as stacks, towers, and build-
ings. ATONs published in the NM and Light
–Articulated Lights List as well as landmarks with a strobe light
An articulated light is a floating light, also include the label “Strobe” as well as other la-
called a buoyant beacon. It is basically a verti- bel elements (see above). The flash period of a
cal pipe structure that oscillates around a uni- strobe light is usually (but not always) omit-
versal coupling connected to a sinker. The light ted because of its extremely short duration
structure (which is typically 10 feet to 15 feet (much less than 1 second).

5
The reason italics are used (in lieu of the vertical lettering found on other lights) is that articulated
lights—though classified as fixed structures—are floating lights. Buoys are also labeled in italic type.
Aids to Navigation 5-15

–Riprap index at the back of each volume is helpful.

Riprap are mounds of broken rock, cobbles, Much of the information on ATONs shown
boulders, or fragments that are often placed in the Light List is identical to that provided
around light structures as protection against on nautical charts. However, the Light List
ice damage and scouring by fast-moving cur- does contain information not found on charts
rents. Desirable as the use of riprap may be and, additionally, is revised more frequently
from the point of view of protecting the struc- than most nautical charts and, therefore, is
ture—and helping to ensure the reliability of more likely to contain up-to-date information.
the light—riprap also presents a hazard to (However, a properly corrected chart is also
navigation for vessels that pass too close up to date.)
aboard. Riprap is denoted on nautical charts Perhaps the most useful information con-
by a special symbol (see Section P a of Chart tained in the Light List that does not appear
No. 1). in the nautical chart is a brief description of
the structure and the accompanying remarks.
Supplemental Information Regarding The description of the structure is particularly
Lights and Other ATONs useful for identifying lights during daylight
In addition to the nautical chart, the Light conditions. For example, the route from sea-
List, the U.S. Coast Pilot, and commercial ward up the Delaware Bay is marked by sev-
cruising guides offer relevant information on eral lighthouses, including the Brandywine
ATONs. Additional information provided in Shoal Light (see figure 5–4), Fourteen Foot
these sources is briefly discussed below. Bank Light, Miah Maull Shoal Light, Elbow of
Cross Ledge Light, and Ship John Shoal Light.
–The Light List (Photographs in this chapter show two of these
The Light List is the authoritative source lights.) Mariners with local knowledge can
of information on ATONs. It is published an- readily identify these lights by their distinc-
nually by the USCG in several volumes, cov- tive physical appearance. 6 However, those
ering various geographic areas. The Light List without local knowledge would certainly ben-
is a valuable complement to the nautical chart efit from the following descriptions taken from
and provides specific information on ATONs. the Light List, Volume II, Atlantic Coast, Toms
Contrary to the implication of its title, the River, New Jersey to Little River, South Caro-
Light List offers information on unlighted as lina (1993):
well as lighted ATONs. In addition to general
information regarding ATONs the Light List “Brandywine Shoal Light-Cylindrical
includes specific information on each ATON concrete structure, adjacent to old
such as its LLNR, the name and location of the screwpile with red sector from 151 de-
ATON, the geographic coordinates (latitude grees to 338 degrees covering shoal
and longitude), characteristics, height, nomi- area southwest of Cape May. As with
nal range (for a wider variety of ATONs than several other lights in the area, this
found on the nautical chart), an identification light is equipped with an emergency
of the structure, and pertinent remarks. light of lower intensity with same char-
The organization of the Light List is actu- acteristic as main light when main light
ally quite logical, but requires some study to is extinguished.
be used effectively. When all else fails, the

6
In SAR cases on the Delaware Bay in which the distressed mariner reports a position near one of these
lights, rescue authorities often ask the mariner to describe the light. This procedure can save fruitless search
hours in cases where the distressed vessel does not have an accurate position fix and misidentifies the light.
5-16 NOAA Chart User's Manual

“Fourteen Foot Bank Light-White “The entrance to South River is be-

tower and dwelling on black cylindri- tween Saunders Point and Thomas
cal pile. Point, 1.8 miles northeastward.
Thomas Point Shoal Light (38° 53.9'
“Miah Maull Shoal Light-Red conical N, 76° 26.2' W), 43 feet above the
tower, on gray conical pier; red cylin- water, is shown from a white hex-
drical watch room and black lantern. agonal tower on piles, in depths of
5 feet near the outer end of the shoal
“Elbow of Cross Ledge Light-Red skel- 1.2 miles east-southeastward of the
eton tower with small white house on point; a fog signal is at the light. The
international orange cylindrical base. light is 1.5 miles due west of a point
on the bay ship channel 124.2 miles
“Ship John Shoal Light-Brown octago- above the Capes.” (p. 176)
nal dwelling with pyramidal roof; on
cylindrical pier. Light has red sector “Solomons Lump Light (38° 02.9' N,
from 138 degrees to 321.5 degrees cov- 76° 00.9' W), 47 feet above the wa-
ers shoals on east channel. High inten- ter, is shown from a white octago-
sity beam down Miah Maul Range.” nal dwelling, with a square tower,
on a brown cylindrical base, in
depths of 7 feet on the Smith Island
Additionally, the Light List provides spe- side of Kedges Straits.” (p. 190)
cific information on ATONs which are sea-
sonal—information not shown on the nautical “Sharps Island Light (38° 38.3' N,
chart. For example, this same volume of the 76° 22.5' W), 54 feet above the wa-
Light List notes that the Deadman Shoal ter, is shown from a leaning, brown
Lighted Buoy IDS which is normally equipped tower on a cylindrical pier, in 10 feet
with a flashing green light with a 4-second at the north end of a shoal that
period is replaced by an unlighted winter bares at the east end….” (p. 194)
marker from December 15 to April 1 of each [This description is particularly
year. valuable to those without local
knowledge. The structure actually
leans a great deal, and it is difficult
–The U.S. Coast Pilot to believe that this is an ATON
The U.S. Coast Pilot also provides infor- when approaching from certain
mation on lights and other ATONs. The scope angles in daylight!]
of the material provided in the U.S. Coast Pi-
lot is quite broad (see other chapters of this –Published Guides and Other Books
manual) and, as a result, coverage of ATONs Published cruising guides and other books
is less complete than can be found in the Light often have descriptions and photographs
List. Nonetheless, the U. S. Coast Pilot does which are useful to the mariner. Books on
contain useful information on selected ATONs. lighthouses (e.g., Caldwell, de Gast, Holland),
In particular, the U. S. Coast Pilot often pro- in particular, often contain photographs which
vides descriptions of lights that are useful for facilitate daylight identification. These books
identifying the light structure during daylight are not designed for navigational purposes,
hours. For example, here are a few descrip- however, and the appearance of the light may
tions of lights taken from the U.S. Coast Pilot have changed since the photograph was
Volume 3 (1993), Atlantic Coast: Sandy Hook taken. 7
to Cape Henry:
Aids to Navigation 5-17

Buoys A buoy marking a hazard to navigation

According to the somewhat lengthy of- may be classified according to the na-
fic ial de fi nitio n in the D e s k R e f e r e n c e ture of the hazard, as obstruction,
Guide, a buoy… wreck, telegraph, cable, fish net, dredg-
ing, or spoilground buoy. Buoys used
“is a floating object, other than a for particular purposes may be classi-
lightship, moored or anchored to the fied according to their use, as anchor,
bottom as an aid to navigation. Buoys anchorage, quarantine, mooring, warp-
may be classified according to shape, ing, swinging, marker, station, watch,
as spar, cylindrical or can, conical, nun, or position buoy. A light-weight buoy
spherical, barrel, or pillar buoy. They especially designed to withstand
may also be classified according to the strong currents is called a river buoy.
color scheme, as a red, green, or check- An ice buoy is a sturdy one used to re-
ered buoy. A buoy fitted with a charac- place a more easily damaged buoy dur-
teristic shape at the top to aid in its ing a period when heavy ice is antici-
identification is called a topmark buoy. pated.”
A sound buoy is one equipped with a
characteristic sound signal, and may be The above definition also identifies some
further classified according to the man- of the many navigational uses of buoys. Per-
ner in which the sound is produced, as haps the most significant use of a buoy is to
a bell, gong, horn, trumpet, or whistle enable the mariner to stay in safe water and
buoy. A lighted buoy is one with a light avoid unseen hazards to navigation.
having definite characteristics for de- As noted, buoys are the most common
tection and identification during dark- ATON. Approximately 25,500 federal buoys
ness. If the light is produced by gas it marked U.S. waters in 1993. Buoys may be
may be called a gas buoy. A buoy lighted and/or have fog signals (see below),
equipped with a marker radiobeacon is but most (82 percent) are unlighted can or nun
called a radiobeacon buoy. A buoy with buoys.
equipment for automatically transmit- Physically, buoys are floating ATONs that
ting a radio signal when triggered by are moored to the seabed by concrete sink-
an underwater sound signal is called a ers attached to the body of the buoy with
sonobuoy. A combination buoy has more chain or synthetic rope of various lengths.
than one means of conveying intelli- Buoy moorings vary in length, being suffi-
gence; it may be called a lighted sound ciently long to accommodate the water depth
buoy if it is a lighted buoy provided with where the buoy is located, plus an allowance
a sound signal. Buoys may be classified for variations in water depth. The mooring
according to location, as channel, mid- lengths define a “watch circle,” and buoys
channel, middle ground, turning, fair- move within this circle depending upon wind,
way, bifurcation, junction or sea buoy. current, and tidal height. The size of the
A bar buoy marks the location of a bar. watch circle is not reflected in the chart.

7
As an example of this point, an attractively illustrated book (see de Gast) reprinted in 1993, contains a
dramatic photograph of the Sharps Island Light referred to above. This light (correctly described in the USCG
Light List) is leaning as a result of ice damage in 1977. The photograph of this light, unchanged since the
original 1973 edition of this book, does not reflect this damage. No doubt the light looks better in its undamaged
state, and the author did not intend to write a navigation text.
5-18 NOAA Chart User's Manual

ner should try to avoid fixing the vessel’s posi-

tion using floating aids.8 As noted in the intro-
ductory material published in each Light List:

“Buoy positions represented on nautical

charts are approximate positions only,
due to the practical limitations of posi-
tioning and maintaining buoys and their
sinkers in precise geographical locations.
Buoy positions are normally verified
during periodic maintenance visits. Be-
tween visits, atmospheric and sea condi-
tions, seabed slope and composition, and
collisions or other accidents may cause
buoys to shift from their charted loca-
tions, or cause buoys to be sunk or cap-
sized….

…Prudent mariners will use

bearings or angles from fixed aids to navi-
gation and shore objects, soundings, and
various methods of electronic navigation
to positively fix their position.” [Empha-
sis added.]
More than 80 percent of buoys in U.S. waters
are unlighted. Unlighted nun buoy. Guidance on the use of buoys for position fix-
Official U.S. Coast Guard photograph.
ing offered in COMDTPUB P16502.8, U. S. Coast
Guard Aids to Navigation (p. 39) is even more
Buoys vary substantially in size and physi- explicit:
cal appearance. The reader is directed to any
of several references at the end of this chap- “In order for mariners to derive maxi-
ter for illustrations and photographs of vari- mum use from aids to navigation, the
ous types of buoys. different aids to navigation are shown
on nautical charts. Thus, mariners are
–A Brief Digression: Position Fixing with aware of the aids to navigation which
Buoys they may expect to pass, and may plot
It is noted above that ATONs can be used any bearings which they take for the
for fixing the vessel’s position. Although it may purpose of determining their position.
be common practice to use both fixed and float- DO NOT USE BUOYS TO PLOT A FIX.”
ing ATONs for this purpose, the prudent mari- [Emphasis in original.]

An articulated light (see main text) is a buoyant structure tethered directly to the seabed in such a
8

manner that it has no “watch circle.” Although similar to a buoy in some respects, it is regarded as a fixed
ATON for charting purposes. However, these should be treated as floating aids in terms of position fixing.
Aids to Navigation 5-19

Buoys could be off-station at any time, but quired numerous buoys to be reset in the Dela-
are more likely to be off-station after storms, ware Bay and New York harbor.
and in icy conditions. During the severe flood- It is recognized that there are circum-
ing of the Midwest in the summer of 1993, for stances where fixed ATONs may not be avail-
example, it was estimated (Professional Mari- able for position fixing yet numerous buoys
ner, Issue No. 3) that as many as 70 percent of might be present in the area. Any position
the thousands of ATONs in the area needed based solely on buoys should be regarded with
to be replaced. Severe ice and snow storms in a healthy skepticism and verified using fixed
the Northeast in the following year also re- ATONs at the first opportunity.

Buoys can be damaged and moved off station by ice, one of the reasons
that position-fixing with buoys is not recommended. Here crew from the
USCG Red Oak work on an ice-damaged buoy.
Official U.S. Coast Guard photograph.
5-20 NOAA Chart User's Manual

–Charting Practices Glossary in appendix A of this manual and the

As with other ATONs, buoys are charted Light List. Additionally, the Light List pro-
with a symbol and one or more labels provid- vides an explanation of the significance of each
ing capsule information about the buoy. As buoy to the mariner.
noted, generally only buoys listed in the Light The position of a buoy is shown with a
List are charted. In most cases this presents small circle, the “approximate position” sym-
no difficulty for the mariner. However, there bol (see Chapter 6) because of the practical
are numerous buoys that are not charted. In limitations in positioning and maintaining
particular, buoys marking channels along the buoys and their sinkers in accurate geo-
Atlantic coast and gulf coast that shift fre- graphic locations. Buoys are charted, insofar
quently are generally omitted. (Charting these as possible, in their published position on
would require excessively frequent revisions.) large-scale charts. In cases where a buoy po-
Where these buoys are not charted, a note is sition coincides with the symbol for another
added explaining that these buoys are omit- critical feature, such as a rock awash, the
ted. In this case a standard note is added to buoy may be charted slightly off position for
the chart: clarity, but always on the same azimuth as
the feature that it marks. If buoys are on op-
Entrance to Inlets posite sides of a dredged channel and plot
less than 0.5 mm apart, the aids may be sepa-
The entrance channels at the inlets not rated to 0.5 mm.
protected by jetties are subject to fre- Channel buoy symbols (e.g., the diamond
quent changes. The buoys are not shape) are generally shown at a 65° angle from
charted because they are frequently the channel lines, with the symbol pointing to-
shifted in position. Buoys are removed ward the top of the chart. Buoy symbols mark-
if shoaling makes inlets unnavigable. ing the limits of fish trap areas are oriented
so as to fall inside the area. For other buoys
Entries for such buoys in the Light List do the orientation of the buoy symbols is approxi-
not contain latitude and longitude coordinates. mately 25° from the vertical with the symbol
Note also that a given chart may omit inclined toward the label.
buoys (and other information) which are Lighted buoys, except superbuoys, are
shown on a larger scale chart of the area. charted with a magenta disk 2.5 mm in diam-
eter, centered on the circle located at the base
–Symbols (Q) of the buoy symbol. The few buoys equipped
with a RACON9 are charted with a 7.1 mm di-
There are numerous charting symbols used ameter magenta circle centered on the circle
to depict buoys of various types. Figure 5–5, located at the base of the buoy.
taken from Chart No. 1, provides a sample for Superbuoys, including single point moor-
review. Chart No. 1 should be studied in some ing buoys, oceanographic data acquisition sys-
detail to ensure familiarity with the various tems buoys (ODAS), and large automated navi-
buoy symbols. Refer to table 5–2 for guidance gation buoys (LNB or LANBY), share a unique
on the significance of lateral aids. Definitions symbol (Sections P 8 and Q 26 of Chart No. 1).
of various types of buoys can be found in the See figure 5–6 for an illustration.

9
The word RACON is derived from RAdar beaCON. A RACON produces a coded response (Morse) when
triggered by a radar signal.
Aids to Navigation 5-21

Fig. 5-5. An Excerpt From Chart No. 1: Buoys

Continued on next page
5-22 NOAA Chart User's Manual

Continued
Fig. 5-5. An Excerpt From Chart No. 1: Buoys
Aids to Navigation 5-23

LANBY silhouetted against rising sun.

Official U.S. Coast Guard photograph.

As a point of interest the present No. 1 (Sections Q 2 through Q 71, and a

LANBYs—built originally to replace through U) and the Light List. These char-
lightships—are now nearing the end of their acteristics are important to the mariner
service life and are being replaced by smaller, for identification purposes. Indeed, as with
solar-powered exposed location buoys (ELBs). lights, all mariners are cautioned to estab-
The newer ELBs are cheaper to buy and main- lish positive identification of each buoy in
tain than the older diesel-powered LNBs the vicinity of the vessel’s track. Notice-
(Walsh). ably absent from this list of characteris-
tics are the height of the buoy and the
–Charted Characteristics nominal range (if lighted). (Nominal
The characteristics of buoys include ranges for selected buoys can be found in
color and shape, and, if so equipped, the the Light List, a n d t y p i c a l l y v a r i e s f r o m
color and period of their light. Character- about 4- to 6-nautical miles for most lighted
istics are abbreviated as shown in Chart buoys.)
5-24 NOAA Chart User's Manual

spherical buoy, spar buoy, or pillar buoy) and

by any audible signal they emit (bell, whistle,
gong). Buoys (with the exception of mooring
buoys) are labeled as to their color using speci-
fied abbreviations given in Chart No. 1.11 For
example, red buoys are shown with magenta
fill, labeled “R,” and green buoys with green
fill and labeled “G.”
The identifying number (or letter(s))
painted on the buoy (not the LLNR) is shown
in quotation marks, e.g., “22.”
Light characteristics and period are also
presented in the label in much the same man-
ner as noted above for lights.
Private buoys listed in the Light List are
identified with the label “Priv” in italic print.
The service name is charted on military
ATONs, e.g., “Navy.” Privately maintained
buoys not listed in the Light List are not gen-
erally charted.
A radar-enhancing structure or reflective
material has been installed on nearly all ma-
jor buoys and many minor buoys. Therefore,
reference to this feature is not charted as part
of the buoy’s characteristics. Instead, the fol-
lowing note is included on the chart:

“Radar reflectors have been placed on

many floating aids to navigation. Indi-
vidual radar reflector identification on
these aids has been omitted from this
Fig. 5-6. Excerpt from NOS Chart No. 12214 (Cape chart.”
May to Fenwick Island). Note the LANBY in this
illustration. This buoy has a RACON with the
identifier (— —) as well as a light and a horn.
On large-scale charts, the characteristics
of buoys are shown in the following standard-
ized order; color (omit if black) shape, (if un-
Buoy characteristics are shown in italic lighted), number (or letter(s)), flash character
type. 10 These labels are placed so as not to (if lighted), light color (if lighted), light period
overlap with wreck symbols, shoals, least (if lighted), and fog signal (if so equipped). For
depths, and other critical features. Buoys are example, the complete legend would be
identified on charts by their shape (can, nun, charted as follows:

10
This is consistent with the convention that floating objects are shown in italics.
11
Black buoys are not discussed in this manual as these are being phased out.
Aids to Navigation 5-25

Lighted Buoy Unlighted Buoy characteristics of the light would be noted as

discussed above.
R “22” R Incidentally, mariners are sometimes con-
Fl R 4s BELL N “22” fused by the exact meaning of the phrase “re-
turning from seaward” in certain instances.
In congested areas and on smaller scale The nautical chart should always be consulted
charts, some of these characteristics are some- to verify the safe side for passing any buoy with
times omitted. Characteristics of lighted buoys lateral significance. Additionally it is worth
are omitted in the following order: period, noting that no buoy should be passed very
color, number, light color, and flash charac- close aboard; buoys can move throughout the
teristics. For unlighted buoys, the correspond- watch circle (endangering the vessel). More-
ing order is: color then number. over, buoys may be located outside of the chan-
Space constraints do not permit an exhaus- nel (generally noted in the Light List) in cases
tive discussion of the many types of buoys where the channel is deep. A vessel that ven-
found in U.S. waters. However, three of the tures too close to the buoy may no longer be in
most common types of buoys are briefly re- the channel.
viewed.

–Channel Buoys
These buoys mark the edges of navigable
channels. In the IALA-B system, red buoys
mark the starboard side of the channel, and
green the port side of the channel when pro-
ceeding from seaward. Unlighted red buoys
have a conical shape, called a nun, and bear
even numbers, increasing from seaward. These
would be charted using the first symbol shown
in Section Q 3 (Q 20) of Chart No. 1 and carry
the label R (for red), N (for nun), and the num-
ber of the buoy (e.g., “6”) in quotation marks.
If lighted, this buoy would have a somewhat
different physical appearance (e.g., a larger
buoy rather than the simple nun), a red light
atop the buoy, and would be charted by add-
ing the magenta disc and the characteristics
of the light would be noted as discussed above.
Unlighted green buoys have a cylindrical
shape, called a can, and bear odd numbers, in-
creasing from seaward. These would be
charted using the first of the symbols shown
in Section Q 2 (Q 21) of Chart No. 1, and carry
the label G (for green), C (for can), and the
number of the buoy (e.g., “7”) in quotation
marks. If lighted, this buoy would have a some- A Standard Lighted Radar Reflective Buoy
what different physical appearance (e.g., a (no sound).
larger buoy rather than the simple can), a Official U.S. Coast Guard Photograph.
green light atop the buoy, and would be
charted by adding the magenta disc and the
5-26 NOAA Chart User's Manual

–Junction Buoys Fog Signals (R)

Junction buoys typically mark a junction According to official charting definitions
of two channels and can be passed safely on in the Nautical Chart Manual, fog signals…
either side. As with other buoys, these can be
lighted or unlighted. “are audible aids used to warn of danger
and to provide the mariner with a means
If unlighted, the buoy would re- of determining a craft’s position when vis-
semble a green can (if the preferred ibility is obscured by fog, snow, rain,
channel were to the right when ap- smoke, or thick weather. Among the de-
proaching from seaward) or a red vices in common use as fog signals are the
nun (if the preferred channel were following:
to the left when approaching from
seaward). The nun would have hori- “Diaphones produce sound by means of
zontal red and green bands with the a slotted reciprocating piston actuated
topmost band red. It would be by compressed air. 'Two-tone' blasts
charted by the symbol shown in Sec- consist of two tones of different pitch,
tion Q 4 of Chart No. 1. The diamond beginning with a high-pitched blast and
shape would have two fills—red and ending on a low pitch.
green (topmost red)—and the let-
ters RG along with the letter(s) on “Diaphragm horns produce sound by
the buoy shown in quotation marks. means of a disc diaphragm vibrated by
compressed air or electricity. Duplex
If lighted, these would be larger or triplex horn units of differing pitch
buoys, but retain the same physical produce a chime signal.
color and lettering scheme. The
color of the light matches the color “Sirens produce sound by means of ei-
of the topmost band. These would ther a disk or a cup-shaped rotor actu-
be charted using the same symbols ated by compressed air or electricity.
as given above, except that the ma-
genta disc would be added, along “Whistles produce sound by com-
with the light characteristics as pressed air emitted through a circum-
noted above. ferential slot into a cylindrical bell
chamber.
–Midchannel Buoys
Midchannel buoys (also called fairway “Bells produce a distinctive sound by
buoys) mark safe water at or near the center the vibration of a hollow, cup-shaped
of the channel and can be passed on either metallic vessel which gives forth a ring-
side. Physically these can be lighted (with a ing sound when struck.
white light blinking the Morse “A”) or un-
lighted, with either the characteristic shape “Gongs produce a sound by the vibra-
of the lighted buoy or a spherical shape. These tion of a resonant disc.”
are vertically striped red and white. These are
charted by the first of the symbols shown in There were approximately 1,620 fog sig-
Section Q 5 of Chart No. 1, with or without nals on federally maintained ATONs in 1993,
the magenta disc depending upon whether the the majority (75 percent) of which were in-
buoy is lighted or not. The label would con- stalled on buoys.
tain the color code RW (for red and white), and These fog signals are used by the mariner
the identifying letter on the buoy, together in much the same manner as lights or buoys.
with the light characteristic Mo (A) if appro- And, indeed, these signals are often collocated
priate. with fixed or floating aids to navigation. Each
Aids to Navigation 5-27

fog signal has specific characteristics by which Particular attention should be paid
it can be distinguished. The signal character- to positive identification of buoys in
istic is the phase relationship of the recurring sequence. When a buoy in sequence
sound emissions. Here are a few pointers to is missed, consider running a
keep in mind relative to fog signals and op- search pattern to find the buoy.
eration in fog: Moreover, use all available means
of navigation, including electronic
Fog signals on fixed stations and position-finding aids, radar, and
large navigational buoys produce a depth-sounder information.
specific number of blasts and silent
periods each minute, when operat- Finally, as noted in the Light List,
ing, to facilitate positive identifica- “mariners should not rely on
tion. sound signals to determine their
position. Distance cannot be accu-
Fog signals on buoys are generally rately determined by sound inten-
activated by the motion of the sea: sity. Occasionally, sound signals
therefore, they do not emit regular may not be heard in areas close to
signal characteristics and, when their location. Signals may not
the sea is calm, may emit no sound sound in cases where fog exists
signals. close to, but not at, the location of
the sound signal.”
Fog signals can be activated by sev-
eral means (including manually, re- These important caveats aside, fog signals
motely, or with a “fog detector”). In can be very useful aids to navigation in cir-
cases where a fog detector is em- cumstances of restricted visibility.
ployed, there may be a delay in the
automatic activation of the signal. –Charting Practices
Additionally, fog detectors may not Fog signals are depicted by a symbol and
be capable of detecting patchy fog appropriate labels and notes. In most cases,
conditions. fog signals are located on fixed or floating aids
to navigation. Therefore, the fog signal is
The sound from a fog signal may not charted using the appropriate symbol for the
be sufficiently loud to be heard over light or buoy. Information on the fog signal is
the noise of an engine. Therefore, included in the labels associated with the
it may be useful to periodically re- ATON. In some cases, fog signals are included
duce the engine to idle power—or on structures not normally used for naviga-
turn it off completely—to listen for tion. In this case the landmark symbol (see
these signals. Chapter 6) is used, and the appropriate label
appended.
Remember to sound the appropri-
ate signals when operating in fog. –Labels and Notes
If visibility is so impaired to neces- Fog signals are labeled as “DIAPHONE,”
sitate reliance on fog signals, it is “HORN,” “SIREN,” “WHISTLE,” “BELL,” or
sufficiently poor to require appro- “GONG.” The appropriate designation (see
priate sound signals from all ves- Section R of Chart No. 1) is used as part of the
sels. Note also that speed should characteristic of the aid. Refer to the Light List
also be adjusted to the prevailing for a detailed presentation of the sound se-
circumstances. quence and period.
5-28 NOAA Chart User's Manual

U. S. Coast Guard ATON personnel servicing daymark and light, Miami, Florida.
Official U.S. Coast Guard Photograph

Daybeacons (Q) navigator using a searchlight to more

According to official charting definitions in readily locate them at night. The color
the Desk Reference Guide, a daybeacon… of the reflectors has the same signifi-
cance as the color of the aid.” [Empha-
“...is an unlighted fixed aid, specifically sis added.]
designated for navigation, placed on
shore or on marine sites. They are es-
tablished and maintained by the U.S. Key words in the above definition are “bea-
Coast Guard. They are identified by con” and “fixed.” Contrary to the popular sense
their color and the shape of the of the word “beacon,” daybeacons are un-
daymark. Reflective borders are placed lighted aids.12 Moreover, these are fixed struc-
on certain daybeacons to assist the tures and, therefore, admonitions against

12
According to Naish (see references), the word beacon comes from the German word bake. The meaning of
this word in Frisia and North Germany is a signal pole or construction placed in or near the water. The plural
form, baken, is the source of the English word beacon.
Aids to Navigation 5-29

using floating structures (noted in the above apart. In this case, to add clarity, the aids may
section on buoys) for position fixing do not be separated to 0.5 mm. However, daybeacons
apply. Daybeacons are used by mariners in the are not moved off ranges (see below) nor natu-
same manner as lights and landmarks—e.g., ral objects.
to identify channels and to fix the vessel’s po- There are two principal standard symbols
sition. The lack of lighting limits the utility of used to depict daybeacons; a triangle and a
these aids for night navigation but, despite this square. Triangular daybeacons (starboard
limitation, daybeacons appear surprisingly hand red marks with even numbers in the
bright in the reflected glare of the vessel’s IALA-B system) are typically represented by
searchlight. Daybeacons include lateral an equilateral triangle 2.0 mm on each side.
daybeacons (in red or green), preferred chan- (To avoid chart clutter in congested areas, a
nel daybeacons, safe water daybeacons (in red- 1.5 mm triangle may be substituted.) Red tri-
and-white), and special-purpose daybeacons angular daybeacons are shown with a magenta
(yellow quarantine area daybeacons, regula- fill, those with other colors (e.g., preferred
tory warning daybeacons). channel daybeacons) are unfilled and the col-
There were approximately 11,900 federally ors and identifying numbers or letters are in-
maintained daybeacons in U.S. waters in 1993, cluded in the label.
less than one-half the number of buoys. Square daybeacons (port hand marks with
Daybeacons are often used in shallow inland odd numbers in the IALA-B system) are typi-
waters, because these are less expensive to in- cally represented by a square 1.65 mm on each
stall and maintain than buoys. Additionally, side (or a smaller 1.3 mm square). The square
these have the advantage of being fixed, rather symbol is also used to represent rectangular,
than floating structures. Physically, these con- round, octagonal or diamond-shaped
sist of one or more piles driven into the bot- daybeacons). Green daybeacons are shown
tom, surmounted by signboards called with a green fill, those with other colors (e.g.,
daymarks. preferred channel, safe water, or special pur-
pose daybeacons) are left unfilled, and the col-
–Charting Practices ors and identifying numbers or letters are in-
This section provides information on chart- cluded in the label.
ing practices for daybeacons and related in- Figure 5–7 shows daybeacons in the vicin-
formation. Charting conventions consist of a ity of Hereford Inlet, New Jersey.
symbol and associated labels to describe the
characteristics of the daybeacon. –Daybeacon Labels
Labels include the color(s) of the daybeacon
–Daybeacon Symbols and the identifying numbers and letter(s),
The daybeacon symbols are shown in Sec- charted in black vertical type. 13 Color choices
tion Q (80 through 83) of Chart No. 1. The cen- include red (starboard hand markers), desig-
ter of the daybeacon symbol is located at its nated with an “R,” red and green (junction bea-
geographic position. Daybeacons along cons with preferred channel to port), desig-
dredged channels are also charted in their nated with an “RG,” red and white (fairway
true positions, unless they are on opposite beacons), designated with an “RW,” green
sides of a channel and plot less than 0.5 mm (port hand markers), designated with a “G,”

13
Note that these are depicted in upright letters, rather than italics, because these are fixed structures.
5-30 NOAA Chart User's Manual

Fig. 5-7. Excerpt from NOS Chart No. 12316 (Little Egg Harbor to Cape May, New Jersey). Note
that the buoys in Hereford Inlet are not charted. Note also the daymark symbols
marking the Great Flat Thoro. Cupolas and a standpipe can be seen as landmarks.
Lights, lighted, and unlighted buoys are also shown.

green and red (junction beacons with preferred pict daybeacons which do not have identify-
channel to starboard), designated with a “GR,” ing numbers or letters.
yellow (quarantine area, practice area), desig- Daybeacons that have information written
nated with a “Y,” and white (regulatory warn- on the dayboards may have that information
ing, state boundary), designated with a “W.” (e.g., “Rock”) charted as an optional part of the
Numbers and letters are charted as appro- aid characteristic. P r i v a t e d a y b e a c o n s a r e
priate. The abbreviation “Bn” is used to de- labeled “Priv.”
Aids to Navigation 5-31

Ranges (M) increases as the vessel draws closer to the

According to the Light List, ranges… markers. The range markers provide an accu-
rate and easily obtained line of position. Arti-
“are non-lateral aids to navigation sys- ficial ranges (lighted or unlighted) have been
tems employing dual beacons which, installed in line with channels in many ports.
when the structures appear to be in In cases, such as the Delaware River, where
line, assist the mariner in maintaining the river has many bends, separate ranges
a safe course. The appropriate nauti- mark each of the straight sections, and navi-
cal chart must be consulted when us- gation amounts to following a sequence of
ing ranges to determine whether the ranges throughout the voyage. Most ranges
range marks the centerline of the navi- are aligned with the center of the channel, but
gation channel and also what section in some areas more than one range is used to
of the range may be safely traversed. define the inbound and outbound ranges of the
Ranges display rectangular dayboards channel.
of various colors and are generally, but Range lights may be of any standard light
not always lighted. When lighted, color or period, the principal requirement be-
ranges may display lights of any color.” ing that these stand out from their surround-
ings. Thus, for example, green rather than red
As constructed, a range consists of two or white lights might be used to mark a range
beacons, one is called the front range marker that would be aligned with the setting sun.
and is lower in height than the other, called Most range lights show a high intensity beam
the rear range marker. The rear marker is within only a very narrow arc of visibility
usually located some distance from the front marking the channel centerline and are ob-
marker. (Often the front range marker is on scured around the remainder of the horizon.
a fixed structure in the water, and the rear These lights appear to lose brilliance rapidly
range marker is on land.) When these two as the vessel strays from the range line. Range
markers appear directly in line (one behind lights are often visible at distances consider-
the other, but both visible because the rear ably greater than the actual usable range, to
marker is higher) they are said to be “in ensure that they can be seen in adverse
range,” or “in transit” in British usage. The weather conditions.
line defined by the range is called a “range After extensive research and testing, the
line” or “leading line.” Daybeacons and other USCG is preparing to install “light pipes”
charted objects forming a range are often on many channel ranges around the country
called “leading marks.” Likewise range (Professional Mariner, 1994). These light
lights are sometimes termed “leading pipes are fiberglass tubes, approximately 15
lights.” feet long and 6 inches in diameter with a
Approaching the front range marker, if the special film on the inside and a light source
two marks are exactly in range, the vessel’s at one end. The light pipe is placed directly
position is exactly along the range line. If the in front of the boards of the range markers.
lower marker is to the left (right), the vessel The light pipes are highly conspicuous at
must alter course to the left (right) to rejoin ranges up to several miles, and—compared
the range. Because of geometric consider- to conventional lights—it is much easier to
ations, the horizontal angle between the range detect the alignment (or misalignment) of
markers seen by a vessel a fixed distance away two vertical lines of light. Light pipes will
from the channel centerline increases with be supplied with various colors and charac-
decreasing distance (Brogden). Thus, the sen- teristics in the same manner as conventional
sitivity of the angle to side-to-side excursions range lights.
5-32 NOAA Chart User's Manual

–Charting Practices –Dredging Ranges

Only ranges published in the Light List are The USACE has established ranges in some
charted. As with other ATONs charting con- areas to control channel maintenance dredg-
ventions consist of a symbol and associated ing. These ranges (often unlighted) are not in-
labels. tended for navigation and are charted only as
Range lights are separately charted as a “DREDGING RANGE.” Structures compris-
noted above in the section on lights. If the scale ing this range are charted as landmarks (see
is too small to chart a pair of range lights in- Chapter 6). If the dredging structure is listed
dividually, these are shown with one light dot in the Light List, the structure label provides
and labeled, for example, “2F.” A passing light, light and fog signal information.
if installed, is generally placed on the front
light of a range structure located in the wa- –Natural Ranges
ter. The passing light serves as an extra pre- Spires, cupolas, towers, tanks, and other
caution to alert mariners to the existence of artificial or natural features may form “natu-
the range light structure when approaching ral ranges” which chart users sometimes rec-
the light from its dark side at night. (Not all ommend for charting. These natural ranges
ranges are equipped with passing lights, how- are not charted unless recommended by the
ever.) Because the passing light is of second- USCG and published in the LNM.
ary importance to the range light, its charac-
teristic is charted on a separate line below the Radiobeacons and Related Aids (S)
range light label—in the same order as shown A brief introduction to radiobeacons pro-
in the Light List. If the visibility of the pass- vided in the Light List states,
ing light is included in the Light List, it is also
included in the chart label.
“As the first electronic navigation sys-
–Symbol (M 1) tem of navigation, radiobeacons pro-
The range symbol is shown in Section M 1 vided offshore coverage and also be-
of Chart No. 1. The usable portion of ranges is came the first all-weather electronic
shown by a solid line to the point where the aid to navigation. The Coast Guard op-
vessel should leave the range. (Defining the erates about 200 radiobeacons located
limits of the range is obviously of key impor- on the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific
tance for curving channels.) coasts, and on the Great Lakes. These
From the point where the range should be radiobeacons are located at light-
left, the range is continued with a short-dashed houses, on large buoys and along the
line to the rear navigational aid. coasts. All positions are charted.
In the event of extreme shoaling or shoal-
ing over a large area in an improved channel, “In order to use this system, the mari-
range lines may be dashed, or even omitted, ner needs a radio direction finder,
through a shoaling area that is depicted by hy- which is a specifically designed radio
drography. receiver with a directional antenna.
Figure 5–8 shows ranges used to mark a This antenna is used to determine the
section of the upper Delaware River, as shown direction of the signal being emitted by
on NOS Chart 12314 (Delaware River, Phila- the shore station, relative to the ves-
delphia, PA, to Trenton, NJ). sel.

–Range Labels “The basic value of the radiobeacon sys-

The range label shows the name of the range tem lies in its simplicity of operation and
and the bearing of the range (in degrees true its relatively low user costs, even though
along the range in the direction of the front the results obtained may be somewhat
marker) if these are published in the Light List limited. The general problems and prac-
and considered useful to the mariner. tices of navigation when using
Aids to Navigation 5-33

radiobeacons are very similar to those greater than 50 miles, a correction is

encountered when using visual bearings usually applied to the bearing before
of lighthouses or other charted objects. plotting on a Mercator chart. These cor-
rections, as well as information on ac-
“A radiobeacon is basically a short curacy of bearings, plotting, and other
range navigational aid, with ranges matters are contained in…Radio Navi-
from 10 to 175 nautical miles. Although gation Aids…[or the U.S. Coast Pilot].”
bearings can be obtained at greater
ranges, they will be of doubtful accu- An individual radiobeacon can be used to
racy and should be used with caution. determine a single LOP and for tracking or
When the distance to a radiobeacon is homing purposes. If the vessel makes a 90°
“dog leg” of known length, the approximate

Fig. 5-8. Excerpt from NOS Chart No. 12314 (Delaware River, Philadelphia, PA,
to Trenton, NJ). Three ranges are shown on this inset. The rear range marker
for the Kinkora Range is an occulting white light with a 4-second period. The
front range marker for this same range is a quick-flashing white. The boundary
between the Roebling Range and the Kinkora Range is close to the unlighted
red nun “70.” Green buoy “71” is a lighted quick-flashing buoy. The reason that
the quick characteristic is used is that two course changes are necessary over a
short distance. Landmarks shown include tanks and a spire.
5-34 NOAA Chart User's Manual

distance off (Maxim) a single radiobeacon can formation. The Light List provides
be calculated from the length of the dog leg the Morse symbols (e.g., Cape May
and the degrees of bearing change. is –.–. – –) so it is not necessary to
Radiobeacons are typically located at or near- know Morse code to use the system.
harbor entrances to maximize the utility of the
homing or tracking capability of the system. The function of the continuous tone
The LOP from a radiobeacon can be crossed is to provide the best signal for de-
with another LOP (e.g., from a nearby termining an “aural null” in rotat-
radiobeacon or visual aid) to determine a fix. ing the antenna to determine the
Mariners using radiobeacons for tracking or bearing to the station.
homing purposes are cautioned to keep track
of the vessel’s position so as to avoid running –Charting Practices
aground or into hazardous waters. Historical All marine radiobeacons transmitting sig-
examples (see Maxim) of homing without dis- nals in areas where hydrography and other
tance checks abound. Additional material on navigational information is provided are
radiobeacons can be found in the references charted. The useful range of the radiobeacon,
listed at the end of this chapter (e.g., Bowditch, along with other pertinent information for
Dutton, Hobbs). radiobeacons in U.S. waters is provided in the
For many years, this system, also called ra- Light List. On charts of scale 1:500,000 and
dio direction finder (RDF), had the largest num- smaller, radiobeacons are not shown if the
ber of users of any radionavigation system. In chart does not permit navigation within their
recent years, LORAN-C and GPS have become range. (Low power radiobeacons with a use-
systems of choice for marine navigation. How- ful range of 10 miles or less are normally omit-
ever, many radiobeacons are being modified ted from small-scale charts where larger scale
to broadcast differential GPS corrections, so charts are available.)
radiobeacons will continue in service for some This section provides information on chart-
time to come. ing practices for radiobeacons and related in-
Marine radiobeacons operate in the 200 to formation. Charting conventions consist of a
400 kilohertz region, just beneath the AM radiobeacon symbol and associated label(s).
broadcast band. These radiobeacons transmit
a Morse code identifier for 50 seconds, fol- –Symbol (S 1)
lowed by a 10-second continuous tone at the Most radiobeacons are collocated with an-
end of each operating minute: other visual aid to navigation. If so, the chart
symbol will include that for the co-located aid,
The function of the Morse code se- together with a radiobeacon symbol (see Sec-
quence is to provide positive iden- tion S 1 of Chart No. 1) consisting of a 7.1 mm
tification of the radiobeacon. Posi- diameter magenta circle centered on the po-
tive identification of radiobeacons sition of the aid. For stand-alone radiobeacons,
is as important as positive identifi- the black “position accurate” landmark sym-
cation of any ATON. Morse code bol (see Chapter 6) is placed at the center of
identifiers are often (but not al- the magenta circle.
ways) an abbreviation of the facil-
ity name. Thus, for example, the two –Labels
letter Morse code identifier for In addition to providing information about
Cape May is “CM,” and that for the “host aid” (e.g., buoy, light, etc.), if one ex-
Barnegat Inlet is “BI.” However, ists, the label provides information about the
there are exceptions (Cape Henry, radiobeacon. The label is given in black verti-
for example, carries the identifier cal type if the antenna is attached to a fixed
“CB”), so it is necessary to consult aid, and italic type if the antenna is attached
the Light List for authoritative in- to a floating aid.
Aids to Navigation 5-35

The label includes the abbreviation “R Bn,” Miscellaneous Related Information

the frequency (in kilohertz), and the Morse Nautical charts also include information on
code characteristics, regardless of the chart courses, recommended and alternate courses,
scale. routing systems, traffic schemes, and areas and
limits. These are discussed in Chapter 7. Trial
–Aeronautical Radiobeacons courses, however are included in this chapter.
Aeronautical radiobeacons (which operate
on similar frequencies to marine radiobeacons –Measured Course (Q 122)
and can be received by the same equipment) A trial course is a course at sea, the ends
are sometimes useful for marine navigation, of which are marked by ranges ashore and the
particularly if located in close proximity to the length of which has been accurately measured.
coastline or if there is no rough terrain be- Trial courses are used by vessels to calibrate
tween the beacons and the coastline that logs and other instruments that measure
might distort signal propagation. speed, as well as to prepare graphs or tables
If charted, the aeronautical radiobeacon is of engine revolutions per minute (RPM) ver-
depicted with a black “position accurate” land- sus speed through the water. (See Maxim or
mark symbol and a 7.1 mm diameter magenta other references for details.)
circle centered on the landmark symbol. A la- A standard symbol (see the excerpt noted
bel in conventional black type is placed adja- in Section Q 122 from Chart No. 1 and repro-
cent to the symbol and clear of the magenta duced here in figure 5–9) is used to mark the
circle. The label includes the abbreviation range or measured course ashore. The course
“AERO R Bn” and the frequency and charac- and length of the trial course are indicated by
teristics of the radiobeacon. a label.

Fig. 5-9. Trial course symbols shown on Chart No. 1.

5-36 NOAA Chart User's Manual

U.S. Coast Guard Buoy Tender passing by green-lighted radar-reflective buoy.

Angle of buoy suggests current is moving from right to left in this photograph.
Approximately 4,600 lighted buoys mark U.S. waters.
Official U.S. Coast Guard photograph.

Concluding Remarks to the mariner. Because the cost of establish-

As noted, this chapter is long and quite de- ment and periodic maintenance are sufficiently
tailed. Nonetheless, the information pre- high, ATONs are not casually placed. So it is
sented is very important, and bears reading certain that if an ATON has been put in a given
(preferably with a nautical chart and Chart No.
1 readily at hand) and rereading to ensure place, it is because this location has real sig-
complete familiarity with this important topic. nificance to the mariner. Therefore, it is par-
Unlike many of the other objects or features ticularly important that the mariner be famil-
depicted on the chart, ATONs are deliberately iar with the uses, significance, and chart con-
placed so as to optimize information provided ventions employed to depict this aid.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
“The consequences [of poor cartography] could
be dire. During the Napoleonic Wars, British losses
by shipwreck, caused by bad charts as well as bad
weather, were eight times as great as those inflicted
by the enemy.
Wilford
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Aids to Navigation 5-37

References
Anon. “Charthouse Chatter,” Professional Holland, F. R., Jr., America’s Lighthouses An
Mariner, Issue No. 3, October/November, Illustrated History, Dover Publications,
1993, p. 7. New York, NY, 1981.
Anon. “Charthouse Chatter,” Professional Human Technology, Inc. Desk Reference Guide:
Mariner, Issue No. 4, December/Jarnuary Specifications Unit, Chart and Map, Fea-
1994, pp. 6–7. ture: Buoy. Report developed for National
Ocean Service, Charting and Geodetic Ser-
Brogden, W., “Inside Ranges A Look at What
vices, Marine Chart Branch, Under Con-
Makes These NAVAIDS so Useful,” Ocean
tract OPM-85-77, McLean, VA, October
Navigator, Issue No. 60, March/April 1994,
1985.
pp. 74, et seq.
———: Daybeacon.
Burch, D., Emergency Navigation, Interna- ———: Light.
tional Marine Publishing Company, ———: Marker.
Camden, ME, 1986. ———: Obscured Sector.
Cahill, R. A., Strandings and Their Causes, ———: Range Line.
Fairplay Publications, London, UK, 1985. ———: Riprap.

Caldwell, B., Lighthouses of Maine, Gannett Ihnat, D. J., CDR, U.S. Coast Guard. “Quarterly
Books, Portland, ME, 1986. Report of Short Range Aids to Navigation,”
Commandant (G-NSR-1), quarter ending 31
Dahl, N., The Yacht Navigator’s Handbook, March 1993. Data updated to January 1994
Hearst Books, New York, NY, 1983. with personal communication, Lt. Mike
National Imagery and Mapping Agency. Ameri- Peterson, USCG.
can Practical Navigator, An Epitome of Navi- Maloney, E. S., Chapman Piloting, 60th Edition,
gation (Bowditch), Publication No. 9, NIMA Hearst Marine Books, New York, NY, 1991.
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Second Edition, United States Coast
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Radionavigation Aids, RAPUB 117, National Board, Inc., Washington, DC,
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de Gast, R., The Lighthouses of the Chesapeake, Mellor, J., The Art of Pilotage, Sheridan House,
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Milligan, J. E., The Amateur Pilot, Cornell Mari-
Dutton’s Navigation and Piloting, Fourteenth time Press, Centreville, MD, 1982.
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MD, 1990. 1985.
5-38 NOAA Chart User's Manual

Schlereth, H., Commonsense Coastal Navi- COMDTPUB P16502.8, Washington, DC,

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