Blast furnace

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Blast furnace in Sestao, Spain. The actual furnace itself is inside the centre girderwork.
blast furnace is a type of metallurgical furnace used for smelting to produce metals,
generally iron.
!n a "last furnace, fuel and ore are continuously supplied through the top of the furnace,
while air #sometimes with o$ygen enrichment% is "lown into the "ottom of the cham"er,
so that the chemical reactions take place throughout the furnace as the material moves
downward. The end products are usually molten metal and slag phases tapped from the
"ottom, and flue gases e$iting from the top of the furnace.
Blast furnaces are to "e contrasted with air furnaces #such as rever"eratory furnaces%,
which were naturally aspirated, usually "y the convection of hot gases in a chimney flue.
ccording to this "road definition, "loomeries for iron, "lowing houses for tin, and smelt
mills for lead, would "e classified as "last furnaces. &owever, the term has usually "een
limited to those used for smelting iron ore to produce pig iron, an intermediate material
used in the production of commercial iron and steel.
Contents
'hide(
) &istory
o ).) *hina
o ).+ ncient World elsewhere
o )., -edieval .urope
o )./ .arly modern "last furnaces: origin and spread
o ).0 *oke "last furnaces
o ).1 -odern furnaces
+ -odern process
, *hemistry
/ See also
0 2eferences
o 0.) 3otes
o 0.+ Bi"liography
1 .$ternal links
[edit] History
Blast furnaces e$isted in *hina from a"out the 0th century B*, and in the West from the
&igh -iddle ges. They spread from the region around 3amur in Wallonia #Belgium% in
the late )0th century, "eing introduced to .ngland in )/4). The fuel used in these was
invaria"ly charcoal. The successful su"stitution of coke for charcoal is widely attri"uted
to "raham 5ar"y in )674. The efficiency of the process was further enhanced "y the
practice of preheating the "last, patented "y James Beaumont 3eilson in )8+8.
The "last furnace is distinguished from the "loomery in that the o"9ect of the "last
furnace is to produce molten metal that can "e tapped from the furnace, whereas the
intention in the "loomery is to avoid it melting so that car"on does not "ecome dissolved
in the iron. Bloomeries were also artificially "lown using "ellows, "ut the term :"last
furnace: is normally reserved for furnaces where iron #or other metals% are refined from
ore.
[edit] China
n illustration of furnace "ellows operated "y waterwheels, from the Nong Shu, "y Wang
;hen, ),), 5, during the <uan 5ynasty of *hina.
The oldest e$tant "last furnaces were "uilt during the &an 5ynasty of *hina in the )st
century B*. &owever, cast iron farm tools and weapons were widespread in *hina "y the
0th century B*,
')(
while ,rd century B* iron smelters employed an average workforce of
over two hundred men.
')(
These early furnaces had clay walls and used phosphorus=
containing minerals as a flu$.
'+(
The effectiveness of the *hinese "last furnace was
enhanced during this period "y the engineer 5u Shi #c. ,) 5%, who applied the power of
waterwheels to piston="ellows in forging cast iron.
',(
The left picture illustrates the fining process to make wrought iron from pig iron, with the
right illustration displaying men working a "last furnace, of smelting iron ore producing
pig iron, from the Tiangong Kaiwu encyclopedia, )1,6.
While it was long thought that the *hinese had developed the "last furnace and cast iron
as their first method of iron production, 5onald Wagner #the author of the a"ove
referenced study% has pu"lished a more recent paper
'/(
that supersedes some of the
statements in the earlier work> the newer paper still places the date of the first cast iron
artifacts at the /th and 0th century B*, "ut also provides evidence of earlier "loomery
furnace use, which migrated in from the west during the "eginning of the *hinese Bron?e
ge of the late @ongshan culture #+777 B*%. &e suggests that early "last furnace and cast
iron production evolved from furnaces used to melt "ron?e. *ertainly, though, iron was
essential to military success "y the time the State of Ain had unified *hina #++) B*%. By
the ))th century, the Song 5ynasty *hinese iron industry made a remarka"le switch of
resources from charcoal to "ituminous coal in casting iron and steel, sparing thousands of
acres of woodland from felling. This may have happened as early as the /th century 5.
'0('1(
[edit] Ancient World elsewhere
Bther than in *hina, there is no evidence of the use of the "last furnace #proper%. !nstead
iron was made "y direct reduction in "loomeries. These are not correctly descri"ed as
"last furnaces, though the term is occasionally misused in referring to them.
!n .urope, the Creeks, *elts, 2omans, and *arthaginians all used this process. Several
e$amples have "een found in France, and materials found in Tunisia suggest they were
used there as well as in ntioch during the &ellenistic Deriod. Though little is known of it
during the 5ark ges, the process pro"a"ly continued in use.
'citation needed(
Similarly,
smelting in "loomery=type furnaces in Eush and West frica goes a similar distance
"ack.
'6(
[edit] Medieval Europe
n improved "loomery, named the *atalan forge, was invented in *atalonia, Spain
during the 8th century. !nstead of using natural draught air was pumped in "y "ellows,
resulting in "etter Fuality iron and an increased capacity. This pumping of airstream in
with "ellows is known as cold blast, and it increases the fuel efficiency of the "loomery
and improves yield. The *atalan forges can also "e "uilt "igger than natural draught
"loomeries.
-odern e$perimental archaeology and history re=enactment has shown there is only a
very short step from *atalan forge to the true "last furnace, where the iron is gained as
pig iron in liFuid phase. Gsually o"taining the iron in liFuid phase is actually undesired
and the temperature is intentionally kept "elow the melting point of iron, since while
removing the solid "loom mechanically is tedious and means "atch process instead of
continuous process, it is almost pure iron and can "e worked immediately. Bn the other
hand, pig iron is the eutectic mi$ture of car"on and iron, and needs to "e decar"uri?ed to
produce steel or wrought iron, which was e$tremely tedious in the -iddle ges.
The oldest known "last furnaces in the West were "uilt in 5Hrstel in Swit?erland, the
-Irkische Sauerland in Cermany, and at @apphyttan in Sweden where the comple$ was
active "etween ))07 and ),07.
'8(
t 3oraskog in the Swedish county of JIrn"oJs there
have also "een found traces of "last furnaces dated even earlier, possi"ly to around ))77.
'4(
These early "last furnaces, like the *hinese e$amples, were very inefficient compared
to those used today. The iron from the @apphyttan comple$ was used to produce "alls of
wrought iron known as osmonds, and these were traded internationally K a possi"le
reference occurs in a treaty with 3ovgorod from )+7, and several certain references in
accounts of .nglish customs from the )+07s and ),+7s. Bther furnaces of the ),th to
)0th centuries have "een identified in Westphalia.
')7(
Enowledge of certain technological advances was transmitted as a result of the Ceneral
*hapter of the *istercian monks. This may have included the "last furnace, as the
*istercians are known to have "een skilled metallurgists.
'))(
ccording to Jean Cimpel,
their high level of industrial technology facilitated the diffusion of new techniFues:
:.very monastery had a model factory, often as large as the church and only several feet
away, and waterpower drove the machinery of the various industries located on its floor.:
!ron ore deposits were often donated to the monks along with forges to e$tract the iron,
and within time surpluses were "eing offered for sale. The *istercians "ecame the leading
iron producers in *hampagne, France, from the mid=),th century to the )6th century,
')+(

also using the phosphate=rich slag from their furnaces as an agricultural fertili?er.
'),(
rchaeologists are still discovering the e$tent of *istercian technology.
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t @askill, an
outstation of 2ievaul$ ""ey and the only medieval "last furnace so far identified in
Britain, the slag produced was low in iron content.
')0(
Slag from other furnaces of the time
contained a su"stantial concentration of iron, whereas @askill is "elieved to have
produced cast iron Fuite efficiently.
')0(')1(')6(
!ts date is not yet clear, "ut it pro"a"ly did not
survive until &enry L!!!Ms 5issolution of the -onasteries in the late )0,7s, as an
agreement #immediately after that% concerning the :smythes: with the .arl of 2utland in
)0/) refers to "looms.
')8(
3evertheless, the means "y which the "last furnace spread in
medieval .urope has not finally "een determined.
[edit] Early modern blast furnaces: oriin and spread
Luisenhuette at Balve
The direct ancestor of these used in France and .ngland was in the 3amur region in what
is now Wallonia #Belgium%. From there, they spread first to the Days de Bray on the
eastern "oundary of 3ormandy and from there to the Weald of Susse$, where the first
furnace #called Aueenstock% in Bu$ted was "uilt in a"out )/4), followed "y one at
3ew"ridge in shdown Forest in )/41. They remained few in num"er until a"out )0,7
"ut many were "uilt in the following decades in the Weald, where the iron industry
perhaps reached its peak a"out )047. -ost of the pig iron from these furnaces was taken
to finery forges for the production of "ar iron.
')4(
The first British furnaces outside the Weald appeared during the )007s, and many were
"uilt in the remainder of that century and the following ones. The output of the industry
pro"a"ly peaked a"out )1+7, and was followed "y a slow decline until the early )8th
century. This was apparently "ecause it was more economic to import iron from Sweden
and elsewhere than to make it in some more remote British locations. *harcoal that was
economically availa"le to the industry was pro"a"ly "eing consumed as fast as the wood
to make it grew.
'+7(
The first "last furnace in 2ussia opened in )1,6 near Tula and was called the
Corodishche Works. The "last furnace spread from here to the central 2ussia and then
finally to the Grals.
'+)(
Blast furnaces have also "een discovered and recorded to have "een created in medieval
West frica with some of the metalworking Bantu civili?ations such as the Bunyoro
.mpire and the 3yoro people.
'++(
2epresentation of "last furnaces and other ironmaking processes from the )4th century
[edit] Co!e blast furnaces
!n )674, at *oal"rookdale in Shropshire, .ngland, "raham 5ar"y "egan to fuel a "last
furnace with coke instead of charcoal. *oke iron was initially only used for foundry
work, making pots and other cast iron goods. Foundry work was a minor "ranch of the
industry, "ut 5ar"yMs son "uilt a new furnace at near"y &orsehay, and "egan to supply the
owners of finery forges with coke pig iron for the production of "ar iron. *oke pig iron
was "y this time cheaper to produce than charcoal pig iron. The use of a coal=derived fuel
in the iron industry was a key factor in the British !ndustrial 2evolution.
'+,('+/('+0(
5ar"yMs
old "last furnace has "een archaeologically e$cavated and can "e seen in situ at
*oal"rookdale, part of the !ron"ridge Corge -useums.
further important development was the change to hot "last, patented "y James
Beaumont 3eilson at Wilsontown !ronworks in Scotland in )8+8. This further reduced
production costs. Within a few decades, the practice was to have a :stove: as large as the
furnace ne$t to it into which the waste gas #containing *B% from the furnace was directed
and "urnt. The resultant heat was used to preheat the air "lown into the furnace.
'+1(
further significant development was the application of raw anthracite coal to the "last
furnace, first tried successfully "y Ceorge *rane at <niscedwyn ironworks in south
Wales in )8,6.
'+6(
!t was taken up in merica "y the @ehigh *rane !ron *ompany at
*atasauFua, Dennsylvania in )8,4.
[edit] Modern furnaces
The "last furnace remains an important part of modern iron production. -odern furnaces
are highly efficient, including *owper stoves to pre=heat the "last air and employ
recovery systems to e$tract the heat from the hot gases e$iting the furnace. *ompetition
in industry drives higher production rates. The largest "last furnaces have a volume
around 0087 m
,
#)47,777 cu ft%
'+8(
and can produce around 87,777 tonnes
#88,777 short tons% of iron per week.
This is a great increase from the typical )8th=century furnaces, which averaged a"out
,17 tonnes #/77 short tons% per year. Lariations of the "last furnace, such as the Swedish
electric "last furnace, have "een developed in countries which have no native coal
resources.
[edit] Modern process
Blast furnace diaram
). &ot "last from *owper stoves
+. -elting ?one #bosh%
,. 2eduction ?one of ferrous o$ide #barrel%
/. 2eduction ?one of ferric o$ide #stack%
0. Dre=heating ?one #throat%
1. Feed of ore, limestone, and coke
6. .$haust gases
8. *olumn of ore, coke and limestone
4. 2emoval of slag
)7. Tapping of molten pig iron
)). *ollection of waste gases
-odern furnaces are eFuipped with an array of supporting facilities to increase
efficiency, such as ore storage yards where "arges are unloaded. The raw materials are
transferred to the stockhouse comple$ "y ore "ridges, or rail hoppers and ore transfer
cars. 2ail=mounted scale cars or computer controlled weight hoppers weigh out the
various raw materials to yield the desired hot metal and slag chemistry. The raw materials
are "rought to the top of the "last furnace via a skip car powered "y winches or conveyor
"elts.
'+4(
There are different ways in which the raw materials are charged into the "last furnace.
Some "last furnaces use a :dou"le "ell: system where two :"ells: are used to control the
entry of the raw material into the "last furnace. The purpose of the two "ells is to
minimi?e the loss of hot gases in the "last furnace. First the raw materials are emptied
into the upper or small "ell. The "ell is then rotated a predetermined amount in order to
distri"ute the charge more accurately. The small "ell then opens to empty the charge into
the large "ell. The small "ell then closes, to seal the "last furnace, while the large "ell
dispenses the charge into the "last furnace.
',7(',)(
more recent design is to use a :"ell=
less: system. These systems use multiple hoppers to contain each raw material, which is
then discharged into the "last furnace through valves.
',7(
These valves are more accurate
at controlling how much of each constituent is added, as compared to the skip or
conveyor system, there"y increasing the efficiency of the furnace. Some of these "ell=less
systems also implement a chute in order to precisely control where the charge is placed.
',+(
The iron making "last furnace itself is "uilt in the form of a tall chimney=like structure
lined with refractory "rick. *oke, limestone flu$, and iron ore #iron o$ide% are charged
into the top of the furnace in a precise filling order which helps control gas flow and the
chemical reactions inside the furnace. Four :uptakes: allow the hot, dirty gas to e$it the
furnace dome, while :"leeder valves: protect the top of the furnace from sudden gas
pressure surges. When plugged "leeder valves need cleaned with a "leeder cleaner. The
coarse particles in the gas settle in the :dust catcher: and are dumped into a railroad car
or truck for disposal, while the gas itself flows through a venturi scru""er and a gas
cooler to reduce the temperature of the cleaned gas.
'+4(
The :casthouse: at the "ottom half of the furnace contains the "ustle pipe, tuyeres and the
eFuipment for casting the liFuid iron and slag. Bnce a :taphole: is drilled through the
refractory clay plug, liFuid iron and slag flow down a trough through a :skimmer:
opening, separating the iron and slag. -odern, larger "last furnaces may have as many as
four tapholes and two casthouses.
'+4(
Bnce the pig iron and slag has "een tapped, the
taphole is again plugged with refractory clay.
The tuyeres are used to implement a hot "last, which is used to increase the efficiency of
the "last furnace. The hot "last is directed into the furnace through water=cooled copper
no??les called tuyeres near the "ase. The hot "last temperature can "e from 477 N* to
),77 N* #)177 NF to +,77 NF% depending on the stove design and condition. The
temperatures they deal with may "e +777 N* to +,77 N* #,177 NF to /+77 NF%. Bil, tar,
natural gas, powdered coal and o$ygen can also "e in9ected into the furnace at tuyere
level to com"ine with the coke to release additional energy which is necessary to increase
productivity.
'+4(
[edit] Chemistry
Blast furnaces of TOinec !ron and Steel Works
The main chemical reaction producing the molten iron is:
Fe
+
B
,
P ,*B Q +Fe P ,*B
+
',,(

Dreheated "last air "lown into the furnace reacts with the car"on in the form of coke to
produce car"on mono$ide and heat. The car"on mono$ide then reacts with the iron o$ide
to produce molten iron and car"on dio$ide. &ot car"on dio$ide, unreacted car"on
mono$ide, and nitrogen from the air pass up through the furnace as fresh feed material
travels down into the reaction ?one. s the material travels downward, the counter=
current gases "oth preheat the feed charge, decompose the limestone to calcium o$ide
and car"on dio$ide, and "egin to reduce the iron o$ides in the solid state. The main
reaction controlling the gas atmosphere in the furnace is called the Boudouard reaction:
* P B+ Q *B+
',,(

*B+ P * Q +*B
',,(

The decomposition of limestone in the middle ?ones of the furnace proceeds according to
the following reaction:
*a*B, Q *aB P *B+
'+4(

The calcium o$ide formed "y decomposition reacts with various acidic impurities in the
iron #nota"ly silica%, to form a fayalitic slag which is essentially calcium silicate, *a Si B
,
:
',,(
SiB+ P *aB Q *aSiB,
',/(

The :pig iron: produced "y the "last furnace has a relatively high car"on content of
around /K0R, making it very "rittle, and of limited immediate commercial use. Some pig
iron is used to make cast iron. The ma9ority of pig iron produced "y "last furnaces
undergoes further processing to reduce the car"on content and produce various grades of
steel used for tools and construction materials.
lthough the efficiency of "last furnaces is constantly evolving, the chemical process
inside the "last furnace remains the same. ccording to the merican !ron and Steel
!nstitute: :Blast furnaces will survive into the ne$t millennium "ecause the larger,
efficient furnaces can produce hot metal at costs competitive with other iron making
technologies.:
'+4(
Bne of the "iggest draw"acks of the "last furnaces is the inevita"le
car"on dio$ide production as iron is reduced from iron o$ides "y car"on and there is no
economical su"stitute K steelmaking is one of the unavoida"le industrial contri"utors of
the *B
+
emissions in the world #see greenhouse gases%.