July | August

Feature heading: Microalgae

Feature title: Microalgae: its application and potential
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 Microalgae Microalgae

Microalgae:
of these components, particularly so in reactors in USA, Israel and
some species rich in ω-3 and ω-6 fatty India primarily for use in the
acids. salmon feed industry.
Today, commercial microalgae produc- Smaller scale commercial
tion is used to produce algal biomass for production takes place of
direct use as feed additives in the food a number of other species:
and feed industry or for the extraction of Porphyridium sp. (Arachidonic
high-valued components such as vitamins acid), Phaeodactylum tricornu-
(C & D2), ω- fatty acids, pigments and anti- tum (Eicosapentaenoic acid)

its application and potential oxidants (B carotene, astaxanthin, lutein)

and stable isotope bio-chemicals.
and Scenedesmus obliquus
(Carotenoids).
Many of these systems
Commercial production have been in operation for
In order to produce a commercial product more than 20 years and their

- a valuable resource for the 21st Century from microalgae, either as whole cells or an
extract, algal biomass must first be produced
success has been dependant
on developing a good under-
in a cost effective manner, be consistent in standing of the physiology,
by Dr Elizabeth Sweetman, Ecomarine Ltd, Livadi, 28200 Lixouri, Cephalonia, Greece Email: [email protected] batch quality and produced a biosecure, con- biochemistry and ecology of
taminant free product. Production is either the algae being cultured and
based on high volumes of low quality product the application of appropriate

M
or low volumes of high quality product. engineering principles to the
icroalgae have been discharged as a waste product according to Almost all commercial scale production design system.
studied since the late the formula: currently takes place in open outdoor The same period has seen
19th Century and significant advances made Picture1: Photobioreactors at Kefalonia
circulating raceways or ponds that typically
CO2 + H2O ------ Cn(H2O)n + O2 Fisheries, Greece - a bass and bream hatchery
approximately 40,000 range in size from 5m3 to 1000m3. in cultivation methods to
freshwater and marine algal species Photosynthesis takes place during the Open ponds are generally restricted improve produc-
have been identified. Cultured algal light phase and pigments capture light to to tropical and subtropical zones with tivity. The intro-
species account for barely 10 percent generate ATP and NADPH2. These energy high levels of natural sunlight, low rainfall duction of highly
of these. rich components are then used in the and low cloud cover. The major disad- controlled closed
Calvin cycle to convert carbon dioxide into vantage of open outdoor systems is that or nearly closed
Recently considerable effort has been organic molecules (C3 sugars) catalysed by they are susceptible to contamination by photobioreactors
made to understand more fully and exploit enzymes which combine to form molecules other microbes, zooplankton and other (PBR), where
the unique characteristics of certain species of glucose (see Figure 1). Glucose can then indigenous algal species and it is for this energy is supplied
for a variety of applications in the food, be converted to polysaccharides or fatty reason that commercial production has either by direct
feed, cosmetic, nutriceutical, chemical and acids which are important building blocks been limited to a relatively small number sunlight or by
biodiesel industries. in many cell processes. of species due to their niche environmental artificial lighting,
Microalgae are typically unicellular and Some microalgae species can use a vari- growth conditions. or fermentors
like their plant relatives grow photosyn- ety of organic carbon sources either as a The 1960s saw the development of where energy
thetically using light, carbon dioxide and supplement to photosynthesis (mixotrophs) continuous large scale methods in Japan for is supplied from
other nutrients but in an aerated liquid
culture medium.
or replace it completely in heterotrophic
production which takes place in the dark.
Dr Elizabeth Sweetman
the mass production of Chlorella producing
today approximately 2000 tonnes of dry
organic carbon
sources.
FOOD CHAIN
Microalgae normally grow photosyn- In heterotrophic growth microalgae assimi- product per year for whole-cell dietary D e s i g n
Dr Elizabeth Sweetman is an ocea-
thetically using light energy to fix carbon
dioxide into hydrocarbons with oxygen
late organic substances, usually glucose, acetate
or glycerol to cover their carbon and energy
nographic chemist with 25 years of
experience in marine larval rearing and
supplements.
Arthrospira autotrophic cultivation (for-
aspects of these
systems have
From Farm to Table
requirements. The merly known as Spirulina) takes place in been reviewed by
has been responsible for the establish-
organic substances open raceway ponds in USA, China and Ugwu et al, 2008
ment of numerous commercial micro-
Figure 1: Simple overview of the photosynthetic process are respired in
algae and live feed production units India and produces some 3000 tonnes of for photobioreac-
mitochondria with product per year again used directly for tors and by Chen
for various aquaculture species. Her
oxygen acting as an food supplements. & Chen, 2006 for
consultancy company Ecomarine Ltd
electron receptor Approximate 1200 tonnes per year are heterotrophic
can be contacted at [email protected]
similarly to respira- produced of another green alga Dunaliella microalgal pro-
or Tel: +30 6944554498.
tion in animal cells. salina from which β-carotene is extracted duction. (see The premier meeting point for the feed and food industry in 2010.
in Australia, USA, Japan, China and India. picture 1) Addressing common concerns and identifying opportunities.
Where is The amino acid profile of almost all β-carotene can constitute up to 14 percent Closed or
algae used? algae compares favourably to other food of its dry weight. About 500 tonnes per year nearly closed pro-
Join us in Cancun, Mexico!. For more information visit:

Microalgae are
rich sources of
protein sources, the carbohydrate com-
ponents are highly digestible, however,
of the green alga Haematococcus pluvialis, duction systems www.globalfeed-food.com
containing up to six percent astaxanthin is allow greater Hosted jointly by
protein, carbohy- it is the lipid content that is especially in co-operation
produced autotrophically or mixotrophi- control over ste- FAO & IFIF with Conafab
drates and lipids. interesting because of the functionality cally in raceways, ponds and photobio- rility and culture

28 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | July-august 09 July-august 09 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | 29

IFIF QP AD.indd 1 19/06/2009 15:34
Microalgae Microalgae
A variety of bag and tank culture source and therefore help to meet the astaxanthin in cells of Haematococcus pluvialis
facilities have been used in either Table 1: Oil yields of various crops increasing demand for fish oil that is (Boussiba 2000).
natural or artificial light environ- Oil Yield a critical limiting factor for the future The cost price of production is
ments. In house production enabled Crop litre/ha/ expansion of aquaculture activities. important and many new companies and
the hatcheries to control own prod- year Oil extracted from the algae can suc- research groups are developing activities
uct, its quality and biosecurity. Corn 168 cessfully replace marine fish oil in the diet in these areas. For example, Zaslavskaia
These units were essential design for Atlantic salmon parr without affecting et al, (2001) transformed Phaeodactylum
Cotton 327
components, vital to the operation their growth (Miller et al., 2007). Dried tricornutum from an obligate phototroph
Soybean 440
of the hatcheries either for feed- algae of Schizochytrium sp. has been shown to a heterotroph thriving on glucose in
ing shellfish larvae or growing and Mustard sees 570 to be a good source of DHA for sea bream the absence of light using the Glut 1 gene
enriching rotifers for feeding in the Sunflower 950 larvae (Ganuza et al., 2008). from human erythrocytes. This offers the
early fish larval stages or for using in Rapeseed / Canola 1600 potential to produce an algal species in
the larval rearing tanks for the “green Jatropha 1800
Future work either manner.
water techniquea”. (see picture 2.) The cultivation of microalgae offers
Oil Palm 6000
Significant advances were made much potential and many new opportuni- Biofuels
in the commercialisation of pho- Safflower 780 ties. There is strong interest in microalgae The technologies exist today for the
tobioreactor technology in the Castor 1400 production for products of pharmaceuti- commercial production of biofuels from
mid 1990s and the introduction of Jojoba 1800 cal interest and particularly in biofuels. food crops such as grains, sugar beet and
such systems to the Mediterranean Coconut 2700 Recent advances have been made in oil seeds, the first generation biofuels and
sea bass and sea bream industry identifying suitable species, engineering these are well developed and understood
resulted in a dramatic improvement photosynthesis and enhancing and manip- in a mature market.
Algae (20mg/m2/day at
in algal productivity with concentra- 11,200 ulation of crucial metabolic pathways. This However, many questions have been
15% TAG)
tions of microalgae of up to 10 times uses environmental factors to redirect raised about their sustainability and their
that achieved with the traditional Algae (50g/m2/day at cellular function towards the synthesis of ability to substitute for oil products as the
93,000
50% TAG)
systems and this reduced the algal preferred products and can even expand food crops required for biofuel produc-
production cost to the hatcheries. the processing
During the same period This provides an algal cell as a bio- capabilities of
Nannochloropsis sp was also being particle rich in a number of components the microalgae.
produced commercially in the not naturally available and at concentra- Chlorella
USA in open ponds for the pro- tions that enable efficient culture and protothecoides
duction of aquaculture pastes. The enrichment of zooplankton feeds, in order cultured het-
last 12 years has seen a rise in the to better match the nutritional require- erotrophically
number of companies producing ments of the marine larvae being cultured. has been shown
concentrated algal pastes and an to accumulate
increase in the variety of species Heterotrophic production as much as 55
available for use in the aquacul- Large scale conventional fermentation percent of its
ture industry. methods have been used to grow hetero- dry weight as
These algal pastes, depending on trophically the dinophycean Crypthecodinium oil compared
the species cultured, range from cohnii (>100m3) and thraustochytrids to 14 percent
preserved to live paste and from Schizochytrium and Ulkenia sp. (80m3). These in cells grown
fresh to freeze dried products. species are rich in docosahexaenoic acid photoautotropi-
However, the early concerns of (DHA) a long chain polyunsaturated fatty cally (Wu and
the industry was the biosecurity of acid and can be considered a sustainable Miao 2006). In
Photo 2: Green water larval rearing source of this essential fatty acid. DHA
such products but now processing heterotrophic
technologies have in many cases productivity is reported to reach 3gDHA / production
conditions (Light, carbon dioxide, nutrient Several species of microalgae Tetraselmis, eliminated these concerns. The cost and litre /day with Schitzochytrium. systems, a
levels and temperature). Under optimal Nannochloropsis, Isochrysis, Pavlova, Chlorella, availability of safe paste products has The dried product has been shown b i o - av a i l a b l e
culture conditions higher cell densities can Chaetoceros, Skelotonema, Thassiosira, and resulted in some recently constructed to be effective in enrichment diets for nitrogen defi-
be achieved than in open pond culture Nitzschia are grown commercially for use hatcheries, particularly in the emerg- rotifers and Artemia (Harel et al, 2002, ciency has been
systems corresponding to 5g dry weight of in the marine fish, crustacean and shellfish ing cod industry, to rely entirely on Yamasaki et al., 2007) and early larval shown to result
phototrophic biomass and 60g dry weight aquaculture industry and approximately purchased paste products and therefore weaning diets due to their high yields in a higher lipid
of heterotrophic biomass being produced one-fifth of the algal biomass produced is avoid the capital and operational costs of of DHA. They are also used to provide synthesis and
per litre (Muellar –Feuga, 2004). Behrens reported to be used in aquaculture hatcher- live algal production. DHA- rich oils for human nutrition (Kyle therefore higher
2005 reports that when just the energy ies (Mueller-Fuega 2004). In Japan freshwater Chlorella destined et al 1992). oil accumula-
costs of producing a kilo of dry algal biomass Traditionally most fish and shellfish for the aquaculture industry is produced Interest has developed further in the tion in starved
are considered heterotrophic production of hatcheries have had their own algal pro- heterotrophically as a valued added prod- production of these and other closely cells (Sheehan
algae will generally be more economic than duction facilities producing a variety of uct and manipulated to improve its fatty related species as they offer a source of et al 1998)
phototrophic growth using artificial lighting species suitable for the animals being acid profile and mineral content using long-chain PUFA’s that have the poten- and a higher
(US$2.01 versus US$11.22 respectively). cultured. proprietary osmotic technologies. tial to become an alternative sustainable accumulation of

30 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | July-august 09 July-august 09 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | 31

 Microalgae
tion appears to create undue competition fossil derived diesel fuel). The production References
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"Microalgae possess many Aquaculture

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(2001). Trophic conversion of an obligate
(TAGs) which can be used to synthesize and exciting resource of valuable photoautotrophic organism through metabolic Geelen Counterflow USA Inc. / T +1-772-559-4338
fatty acid methyl esters (a substitute for organisms in the 21st century. engineering. Science 292, 2073-2075.
Geelen Counterflow América Latina / T +54-9-2362-418899
32 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | July-august 09
E [email protected] / I www.geelencounterflow.com