How Initial Forest Plantation Density Affects Future Stand Growth

NEST TN-008...1
How Initial Forest Plantation Density
Affects Future Stand Growth
NEST Technical Note TN-008
March 1995
by A. Willcocks
and W. Bell
Once a forest stand is harvested, forest managers
want a new crop on the site as quickly as possible.
Most establishments density targets or regeneration
standards are based on traditional practices with the
emphasis on getting the site to the free-to-grow stage
as quickly as possible. Less attention has been
directed on what the establishment density should be
or even whether the site needs a treatment at all. For
example Dunsworth (1979) found that in MacMillan
Bloedels British Columbia coastal operations, more
than 57 percent of their nine-year-old plantation were
overstocked. This resulted in a significant waste of
money and probably resulted in inaccurate growth
predictions for the forest.
Foresters in the past have had little knowledge of
early stand development patterns, particularly the
amount of natural recruitment or ingress (Bowling
et al. in prep.). Their work show that many trees were
planted in northwestern Ontario, where natural
regeneration alone would have resulted in overstocked
new forests. They found that on average 70 percent
stocking was achieved in 12 to 17 year cutovers, after
tree-length harvesting, by natural ingress alone.
The dilemma faced by foresters can be reflected
in Figure 1. The regeneration objective is a function of
predicting the trees artificially established plus
natural ingress minus mortality.
Even if the components in Figure 1 can be
accurately predicted, what is the affect on the future
forest growth when the regeneration objective is
achieved? Regeneration objective is usually
expressed in well-spaced trees per ha or a spacing
regime. For example 1,600 well-spaced trees per ha,
means that average distance between trees is 2.5 m.
This is sometimes called a 2.5 m spacing regime.
Regeneration objectives reflected in tree density
are critical as the growth of the stands that achieve
these objectives can be simulated using variable
density yield curves. Ultimately, the overall forest
growth can be simulated for a multitude of sites with
various growth patterns.
Often foresters have been unaware of general
trends in the literature pertaining to plantation
density. The purpose of the following review is to
outline the general trends in the literature and the
effects this may have on choosing establishment
objectives for new stands.
Parts of this publication were first published as
Appendix B in A Crop Planning Process for
Northern Ontario Forest (Willcocks, et al. 1990).
How Initial Forest Plantation Density Affects Future Stand Growth
2...NEST TN-008
Trees established at
Free-to-Grow*
Trees Artificially
Established
Ingrowth
Plantation
Mortality
=
+
-
* Well-spaced trees/ha at a pre-
determined spacing regime
Figure 1 Determination of regeneration
density. If the number of trees
per hectare at free-to-grow
deviates from the regeneration
objective, additional
silviculture treatment is
needed.
Effect of Volume and Diameter Growth
Based on Mar:Moller (1947), Smith (1962) made
the following generalization: The total production of
cubic volume by a stand on a given site is, for all
practical purposes, constant and optimum for a wide
range of density or stocking. It can be decreased, but
not increased, by altering the amount of growing stock
to levels outside this range. This hypothesis refers to
a given species and given site productivity. The same
idea was expressed graphically by Langsaeter from
Smith (1962) (Figure 2).
A logical corollary of this theory is that mean
diameter achieved at any given age varies directly
with spacing regime (Sjolte-Jorgensen 1967). A
manager can only grow one maximum level of gross
total volume on a site, but his volume can consist of a
lot of little trees, a few big ones, or any number of
variations between (Figure 3). In summarizing a
number of spacing trials of various species in Europe
(Figure 4), Sjolte-Jorgensen (1967) showed that,
almost invariably, wider spacings yield significantly
higher average tree diameters.
Baskerville (1962) hypothesized that annual
production increases with increasing density up to the
point where the stand achieves full occupancy of the
site...At densities greater than full occupancy, the
utilization is still maximum.... In simple terms, this
means that stands established with a wide variety of
spacing regimes will have similar volumes once they
all have attained full site utilization. This concept is
supported by a large amount of literature, e.g.
Baskerville (1962), Smith (1962), and Nawatika
Resource Consultants Ltd. (1987).
Figure 2 shows that this hypothesis has its limits.
In density type 1, the stand densities never fully
occupy the site and the maximum net growth potential
of the site is never reached. For douglas-fir, Mitchell
and Cameron (1985) estimate this density to be 300
trees/ha at maturity. For Nova Scotia conifers,
maximum site productivies for 1.5 m and 4 m
spacings are roughly equivalent (in total volume/ha/
yr) (Anon. 1988). The minimum tree density for full
occupancy has not been determined for boreal species.
How Initial Forest Plantation Density Affects Future Stand Growth
NEST TN-008...3
Figure 2 Relationship between growing-stock volume and volume increment. In Density Type I, the trees
are so far apart that they do not influence each other and growth is directly proportional to the
volume of growing stock. The effect of slight competition in Density Type II is indicated by a
declining rate of increase in increment with respect to stand volume. In the broad range of
stocking indicated by Density Type III, increment of cubic volume is virtually independent of
variations in stocking; the usual objective of thinning is to keep the growing stock somewhere
within this optimum range. In Density Types IV and V, the effects of extreme competition are
reflected in a decline in growth with increasing density. (Smith 1962).
Stand Age
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

S
t
a
n
d

D
B
H
Figure 3 Development of average
stand diameter at breast
height in plantations over
time at various densities
(Clutter et al. 1983)
I II
III IV V
0
V
o
l
u
m
e

i
n
c
r
e
m
e
n
t

p
e
r
u
n
i
t

a
r
e
a
Growing-stock volume per unit area
Wide spacing
Intermediate spacing
Close spacing
How Initial Forest Plantation Density Affects Future Stand Growth
4...NEST TN-008
D
i
a
m
e
t
e
r
,

c
m
Spacing, m
Figure 4 The relationship between mean diameter and spacing for coniferous tree species
(Sjolte-Jorgensen 1967). Each line represents a spacing trial and the asssociated
diameter-versus-spacing relationship.
1 2 3 4 5 6
10
15
5
0
20
25
30
35
How Initial Forest Plantation Density Affects Future Stand Growth
NEST TN-008...5
As for upper level densities, no one has
determined the density at which growth of boreal
species is impeded. However, very dense, fire-origin
lodgepole pine stands (more that 20,000 trees/ha) in
British Columbia are commonly referred to as growth-
impeded.
As stated previously, once a stand has fully
occupied its site, total standing volume is generally
the same over a wide variety of density regimes.
Density regime does, however, influence where this
volume is found. In a denser natural stand the
merchantable volume is usually lower than in a less
dense managed stand (Figure 5).
In the denser natural stands, the intense
competition has caused a higher component of
unmerchantable smaller material. Consider total stand
production as an additive function of merchantable
tree volume, unmerchantable tree volume, volume of
tree mortality and weeds (Figure 6). Although
standing total volume may be the same, total stand
volume production may be slightly higher than in
wider spaced stands. Stand production includes
mortality.
Smith (1962) described early beliefs that very
dense stands would tend to maximize the
merchantable volume and wider spacing through
thinning would actually tend to increase the
merchantable volume. Smith (1962) stated that these
beliefs could have been based on various imprecisions
of measurement as far as total growth is concerned.
Does this mean that yield (merchantable volume) from
natural stands will be equivalent to managed stands?
Figure 5 shows instead that the merchantable volume
of natural stands is significantly lower than managed
stands given equal ages.
The gross total volume (merchantable and
unmerchantable tree volume, Figure 6) in natural
stands is roughly equivalent to that of managed
stands, but the merchantable volume is lower because
the intense competition in natural stands due to the
thousands of stems initially established produces
many small-diameter trees that are unmerchantable.
Although standing volume (gross total volume)
may be the same, total stand production over time in
the closer-spaced plantations and natural stands may
be slightly higher than in wider-spaced stands,
because full site occupancy occurs quicker (Assman
1970). Unfortunately, most of this fibre is lost to
mortality, especially in the case of the natural
stands. This loss can be partially offset if the stands
are spaced to leave some growing space temporarily
unoccupied. In Europe, much of the fibre in dense
stands is utilized by multiple thinning thus resulting
in higher merchantable stand productivity (Assman
1970).
Timing of Harvest and the
Relationship to Stand Density
For forest management units with upcoming
wood shortfalls, timing of harvest can be critical.
Regeneration objectives that stipulate precommercial
thinning can potentially reduce the time it takes for
plantations to reach merchantable size.
Density effects stand growth in that narrower
plantations achieve full site utilization sooner than
wider spaced plantations (Figure 7). The total growth
m
3
/ha/yr. in the closer-spaced plantations first exceeds
and then falls below that of the wider spaced stands
(Figure 8). This has been shown by 38 year
measurements at the Thunder Bay Spacing Trial
(Anon 1989), and also in coniferous plantations in
Nova Scotia (Anon 1988).
Closer spaced plantations produce biomas in less
time but wider-spaced plantations can produce
economically operable stands in less time. Stand
operability is an economic determination (not
biological) that depends on both minimum size of
trees that can be harvested economically and
minimum merchantable volume per ha required.
These flexible merchantability limits determine
minimum stand age of harvestability. Figure 9 shows a
merchantable growth curve for both a close and wide-
spaced plantation. As in the total growth curves shown
How Initial Forest Plantation Density Affects Future Stand Growth
6...NEST TN-008
Gross Total Volume
(standing volume)
Merchantable
Volume Managed
Merchantable Volume
- unmanaged
Stump Age (yr)
V
o
l
u
m
e

c
u
b
i
c

m
e
t
r
e
/
h
a
Figure 5 Conceptual comparison of gross merchantable volume of managed stands versus
unmanaged stands.
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 100 200
How Initial Forest Plantation Density Affects Future Stand Growth
NEST TN-008...7
Total
Stand
Production
=
Merchantable
Tree
Volume
+
Unmerchantable
Tree
Volume
+
Volume
Lost Through
Mortality
+
Shrubs,
herbaceous
plants
Figure 6 Total stand production equation to a point in
time.
Figure 7 An illustration of stand
density effects on total
volume as observed in
spacing experiments in even-
aged stands (Clutter et al,
1983).
Closing spacing
Wide spacing
Age
T
o
t
a
l

V
o
l
u
m
e
How Initial Forest Plantation Density Affects Future Stand Growth
8...NEST TN-008
in Figure 7, the closer-spaced plantation initially
achieves volume at a greater rate than the wider-
spaced plantation. However, if the minimum operable
volume per hectare has been set at 50 and the tree size
must represent at most, 15 stems per m
3
, then the
wider-spaced stand would be operable sooner (i.e. 35
years versus 46 for the closer-spaced stands). Causing
this, is the biological reality that trees in wider-spaced
plantations have faster diameter growth than closer-
spaced plantations and achieve operable piece size
sooner.
Alternatively, if forest stands could be
economically harvested somewhat like corn, and the
only criterion was minimum merchantable volume of
50 m
3
/ha, the closer-spaced plantation would be
operable at 25 years versus 35 years for the wider-
spaced plantation.
In comparison, dense natural stands (i.e. 10,000
to 100,00 stems/ha) achieve operability much later
(and with much reduced merchantable volume) than
the less dense plantation (i.e. 1,000-3,000 stems/ha). It
is common for most trees in dense natural stands to
Close spacing
Age
Wide spacing
N
e
t

G
r
o
w
t
h

R
a
t
e
Figure 8 An illustration of stand density
effects on net growth rate of total
volume as observed in spacing
experiments in even-aged stands
(Clutter et al. 1983).
die before they reach merchantability. In dense natural
stands, much longer rotations are necessary in order to
grow operable stands or even stands with minimum
merchantable volumes. Baskerville (1962) stated that
when spacing control is implemented, the stand
volume and average tree size characteristics of a
natural stand can be reached in perhaps one half the
time of natural development.
Density Management Diagrams - A Forest
Managers Tool
The previous sections outlined many factors that
a forester should consider when developing the most
effective silvicultural ground rules. Very important is
the relationship of average tree size (piece size) and
density of the stand. The relationship of piece size and
density is critical, especially when determining timing
of harvest. Several authors (e.g. Drew and Flewelling
1979; Archibald and Bowling 1994) have developed
density-management diagrams that conceptualize the
density-driven stand dynamics that have been
How Initial Forest Plantation Density Affects Future Stand Growth
NEST TN-008...9
250
200
150
100
50
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
INOPERABLE
OPERABLE INOPERABLE
AGE
Close Spaced
Plantation
Wide Speced
Plantation
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
AGE
30
20
10
T
r
e
e
s

P
e
r
C
u
b
i
c

M
e
t
e
r
B
V
O
L
U
M
E
(
M
e
r
c
h
.

m
3
.
h
a
)
A
Figure 9 The influence of spacing, volume, and tree size on forest stand operability.
V
o
l
u
m
e
(
M
e
r
c
h
.

m
3
/
h
a
)
C
a
p
i
t
a
l
How Initial Forest Plantation Density Affects Future Stand Growth
10...NEST TN-008
discussed earlier. For example, Smith and Brand
(1988) developed a red pine density diagram (Figure
10). It has mean tree volume on the vertical axis and
number of trees/ha on the horizontal axis. The basic
idea is that a stand can either have a lot of little trees
or a few big ones but the same stand volume. Also
plotted are diameter and height isolines which make
this diagram (Figure 10) a four-dimensional model.
The slope of the line (-3/2 self-thinning line -
applicable for all species) designates the largest
number of trees of a given size that can occupy a
hectare at any one time. The x intercept is said to be
independent of site and age but dependent on the
competitive physiology of each species. The diagram
and line are based on work by Yoda et al. 1963 who
found that mortality from intraspecific competition
(i.e. self-thinning) had the following relationship:
In w = a - 1.5 In N
where
In w = natural log of mean weight of
survivors
In N = natural log of number of survivors
a - regression of co-efficient
Simply stated, in pure, even-aged stands of
plants, the maximum production is the same at full
stocking, regardless of initial density. However, full
occupancy occurs at different ages depending on
initial density. This concept is yet another statement of
Mar:Mollers hypothesis.
25
20
15
10
A
B
C
8
10
15
20
25
Crown Closure
A,B,C, Stand Growth Cuver
Dominant Heights (m)
Quadratic Mean Diameter (cm)
Yield Curves
CAI Maximum
-3/2 Self Thinning Line
MAI Maximum
1.0
0.001
0.1
1000 10000
Dominant
Height (m)
Quadratic Mean
Diameter (cm)
Stems per Hectaire
M
e
a
n

T
o
t
a
l

S
t
e
m

V
o
l
u
m
e

(
m
*
*
3
/
t
r
e
e
)
Figure 10 Stand-density diagram for
red pine (adapted from
Smith and Brand 1988)
Curve
Hectare
How Initial Forest Plantation Density Affects Future Stand Growth
NEST TN-008...11
In Figure 10, the three diagonal lines parallel to
the -3/2 line show the Relative Density Index (RDI)
defined as the actual number of stems of a given mean
volume over the maximum number of stems of the
same given mean volume. These three RDI lines have
been labelled crown closure, and Maximum Current
Annual Increment (CAI) and Mean Annual Increment
(MAI). Each represents stand-development phases
which can be expressed in RDI values. For instance,
the RDI value for crown closure for Douglas-fir is
0.15 while maximum MAI is 0.55 (the point where
significant mortality is caused by competition).
On Figure 10, three growth curves (A,B,C) are
plotted. Note the faster site utilization of the denser
natural stand A (initial density 6,000 stems/ha),
achieving maximum MAI at height 13 m, whereas
stand C at 2,000 tree/ha reaches this same point at 20
m. However, for the dense stand, the average diameter
at full site utilization is only 12 cm while Stand C is
almost 20 cm.
Consider the height isoline as a function of time
(age). If the site quality (class) of the plotted yield
curves are known, then age can be determined. This
type of relationship can allow the forester to predict
the age at which operable tree size will occur for
various densities. For example, consider an operable
size of 15 cm for red pine. This size is reached at 11 m
height for plantation C (initial stocking 2,000 stems/
ha) and 18 m height for stand B (3,800 stems/ha). If
both yield curves are sites index 18, then these heights
correspond to 30 years for plantation C and 55 years
for stand B. The key here is that for a given
operability limit, the harvest window is strongly
influenced by density.
Although the relationship between mean tree
volume and stand density is solid, and it is effective to
Dense stands
(e.g. natural stands)
Less dense stands
(e.g. managed plantation)
Stand Age
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
t
r
e
e
s
/
h
a
)
Figure 11 Changes in stand density over time
for two stands established at
different spacing regimes (adapted
from Clutter et al. 1983)
How Initial Forest Plantation Density Affects Future Stand Growth
12...NEST TN-008
determine change in tree size versus stand density
over time, it can be dangerous if the results are used
literally rather than conceptually. Cameron (1988)
noted that stand volumes obtained by multiplying
number of stems mean tree volume along a growths
curve for Douglas-fir are grossly overestimated.
Baskerville (1989) suggested that the diagrams
four dimensional relationships (density, average tree
volume, average height and diameter) are not linear
and plotting them gives questionable relationships.
Also, the major assumption that height is independent
of stand density is unrealistic, especially for very
dense natural stands. The result of these two problems
is that assigning ages to a plotted stand trajectory
(yield curve) can be very inaccurate unless specific
knowledge of the stand trajectory is known. Thus, the
volume per hectare calculated from the tree of mean
DBH and height is not the same as the stand volume
obtained from multiplying the number of stems by
mean tree volume. This relationship on the density
diagram makes its use very dangerous for estimation
of stand volumes.
Silvicultural Costs
Once again referring to the regeneration
objective equation (Figure 1), one of the foresters
objectives is to minimize the amount of funds spent
on establishing the artificially regeneration portion of
new stands. Also important is that a closer-spaced
plantation loses trees over time at a much quicker rate
than a wider-spaced plantation (Clutter et al. 1983)
(Figure 11). In fact, theoretically, over time, the same
number and size of trees will occupy the site in the
end (Clutter et al, 1983), although this theory is
disputed by some authors (e.g. Cameron 1988).
Consider Berrys (1987) white spruce spacing
trials (Figure 12) and the plantations established at
1,500 and 2,500 trees per hectare. The cost for
establishing a plantation at 2,500 trees/ha is
Stems
Per
Hectare
Merchantable Volume (m
3
/ha)
Figure 12 The relationship between stand density and merchantable volume of
white-spruce spantations by five-year increments for site index 18
(Berry 1987).
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
100 200 300 400 500 600
60 years
20 years
How Initial Forest Plantation Density Affects Future Stand Growth
NEST TN-008...13
$1,174/ha, and would produce 315 m
3
/ha at 60 years,
or $3.72/m
3
. At 1,500 trees/ha, the establishment cost
is $978/ha and would produce 290 m
3
/ha at 60 years
or $3.40/m
3
. Thus, 20 percent of the cost of plantation
establishment at 2,500 trees/ha produces only nine
percent of the merchantable volume. If there is a wood
shortage and no piece-size operability limits, then the
extra wood produced with the denser plantations at the
higher cost may be favoured.
A common fear of many Ontario foresters is that
wider-spaced plantations will mean more weed
control. There is little information in the literature
relating spacing or density to amount of weed control.
With one basic plantation-spacing regime, there is
little experience in Ontario in comparing various
spacing regimes. Bulter-Fasteland (1989) stated that
when Minnesota changed from a five foot (1.5 m)
spacing regime to an average of eight foot (2.4 m)
spacing, there was no significant difference in number
of herbicide applications.
Consider black spruce plantations established at
spacing regimes of 2 m and 2.5 m respectively. For
the first ten or 15 years, the light and soil conditions
for both plantations are the same. It follows that both
sites have the same potential for interspecific
competition. The issue here, on brushy sites, is the
need to properly release these young crops from
competition as quickly as possible. The requirement
for more than one herbicide application is dependent
upon the amount of initial weed ingrowth and the
efficiency of spray, not on the spacing regime
objective.
The key effect of wider spacing is a later crown
closure. For example, Site Class 1A black spruce may
have a crown closure at age 20 when established at
2.5 m instead of age 15 when established at 2 m
spacing. If proper weed control were applied within
the first five to ten years of establishment, then any
weeds initiated at age 15 should be little problem and
will not require more herbicide treatments.
How Initial Forest Plantation Density Affects Future Stand Growth
14...NEST TN-008
References
Anon. 1984. Forestry field handbook. Forest Research
Section, Nova Scotia Depart. of Lands and Forests.
15p.
Anon. 1988. Fifteen year assessment of thirty year old
red spruce stands cleaned at various intensities in
Nova Scotia. Nova Scotia Dept. of Lands and
Forests. For. Res. Rep. No. 2. 8p.
Anon. 1989. Forest management research area
Thunder Bay spacing trial. Queens Printer,
Toronto. 9p.
Archibald, D.J.; Bowling, C. 1994. Jack pine density
management diagram for boreal Ontario. OMNR,
Northeast Science & Technology. TN-005. 12p.
Assman, E. 1970. The principles of forest yield study.
Pergamon Press Ltd., New York, N.Y. 506p.
Baskerville, G.L. 1962. Production in forests. Can.
Dep. For, For. Res. Br., Fredericton. N.B. 83p.
Baskerville, G.L. 1989. Personal Communication.
Dean, Univ. of N.B.
Berry, A.B. 1987. Plantation white spruce variable
density volume and biomass yield tables to age 60
at the Petawawa Nat. For. Inst. Govn. Can., Can.
For. Ser., Inf. Rept. PI-X-71. 21p.
Bowling, C. et al. (in prep) Natural ingress after tree
length harvesting in northwestern Ontario.
Butler-Fasteland, M.C. 1989. A Minnesota scenario in
tools for site specific silvilculture in northwestern
Ontario. Northwestern Ontario Technology
Development Unit. Tech Workshop. Dept. No. 3
283p.
Cameron. I.R. 1988. An evaluation of the density
management diagram for coastal Douglas-fir. Can.
For. Serv. and the B.C. Min. of For. and Lands. 17p.
Clutter, J.L.; Fortson, J.C.; Pienaar, L.V.; Brister,
G.H.; Bailey, R.L. 1983. Timber management: a
quantitative approach. John Wiley & Sons, New
York, N.Y. 333p.
Drew, J.T; Flewelling, J.W. 1979. Stand density
management; and alternative approach and its
application to Douglas-fir plantations. Forest Sci.
25:518-532.
Dunsworth, B.G. 1979. Project 301-2. Plantation
appraisal. Unpublished report. MacMillan Bloedel
Ltd. Woodlands Services Division. 20p.
Mar:Moller, C.M. 1947. The effect of thinning, age,
and site on foliage, increment and loss of dry
matter. J. For. 45: p 393-404.
Mitchell, K.J.; Cameron, I.R. 1985. Managed stand
yield tables for coastal Douglas-fir; initial density
and precommercial thinning. B.C. For. Serv., Land
Mgmt. Rept. No. 31.
Nawitka Resource Consultants Ltd. 1987. Impact of
intensive forestry practices on net stand valuess in
British Columbia. Canada/B.C. Economic and
Regional Development Agreement, FRDA Report
014. 82p.
Sjolte-Jorgensen, J. 1967. The influence of spacing on
the growth and development of coniferous
plantations. Int. Rev. For. Res. 2: P 43-94.
Smith, M.J. 1962. The practice of silviculture. 7th ed.
J. Wiley and Sons. New York, N.Y. 578p.
Smith, N.J.; Brand, D.G. 1988. Compatible growth
models and stand density diagrams. Pp. 636-643. In
Ek, A.R., S.R. Shifley and T.E. Burk (eds,) Forest
growth modelling and prediction. Vol. 2. Proc.
IUFRO Conf. Aug. 23-27, 1987. Minneapolis,
Minnesota.
Willcocks, A.J.; Bell, F.W.; Williams, J.; Duinker, P.N.
1990. A crop planning process for northern Ontario
Forests. Ont. Min. Nat. Resour., Northwestern
Ontario Forests Technology Development Unit
Tech. Rep #30. 159 p.
Yoda. T. Kira; Ogawa, H.; Hozumi, K. 1963. Self-
thinning in over crowded pure stands under
cultivated and natural conditions (Intra specific
competition among higher plants XI). J. Inst.
Polytech., Oskaka City Univ., Series D. 14:107-
129.
How Initial Forest Plantation Density Affects Future Stand Growth
NEST TN-008...15
Summary
This note summarized stand growth trends that can be used in developing
silviculture ground rules. Optimum spacing regime or well spaced trees per ha is
dependent on the forest and/or product objectives. Once the optimum density
standard is known, the implications to management of producing a stand under or
over the density targets are summarized below (in relative terms).
Below Optimum Too
Density Density Dense
Gross total volume lowest medium highest
Merchantable volume lowest highest lowest
Mean diameter largest medium smallest
Biological rotation largest middle shortest
Operable rotation shortest middle longest
Costs (plantation) lowest middle highest
How Initial Forest Plantation Density Affects Future Stand Growth
16...NEST TN-008
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This Technical Note should be cited as:
WIllcocks, A.J.; Bell, W. 1994. How initial forest plantation density affects future forest growth. OMNR, Northeast Science
& Technology. TN-08 16p.
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ISSN 1192-2133