Module 3.

3: Intoduction to the design of structures

Objective:
The objective is to provide an introduction to the philosophy and process of
design for welded structures.
Scope: Design goals and constraints, Safety, economy, durability and
serviceability, Proportioning of members, Analysis and evaluation, Partial safety
factors, Sources of variation in design loads and strength of structural
components, Ultimate and serviceability limit states
Expected result:
Clarify the set of design objectives that are placed on a structure.
Illustrate the design process first concept to detail design and final evaluation.
Introduce the concepts of optimization with respect to performance,
manufacturability, life cycle cost, etc.
Demonstrate the set of limit states that are placed on a structural system.
Illustrate the possible influences of manufacturing tolerances on the final design
of a structure.
Explain the basic aspects of limit state design.
Illustrate the use of partial safety factors in calculations.
Compute loading combinations required in limit state design method.
Explain sources of load variation for welded structures.
IWSD M3.3 1
 Design of welded structures

Structural design may be defined as a mixture of art and

science, combining the experienced engineer’s intuitive feeling
for the behaviour of a structure with a sound knowledge of the
principals of statics, dynamics, mechanics of materials and
structural analysis, to produce a safe economical structure that
will serve its intended purpose
Salmon and Johnson

IWSD M3.3 2
Basic loadings
Different types of loading

P
P

P
Tensile loading
Shear loading

P
P

Compressive loading Bending

P
Mv Mv

Torsional loading Multiaxial loading

IWSD M3.3 3
 Structural materials
Stress-strain relation in structural steel

Real behavior of material, e.g. S355 Idealized for design

IWSD M3.3 4
Structural materials
I-Beam subjected to bending – elastic plastic deformation

IWSD M3.3 5
Structural materials
Plate with hole – stress concentration

IWSD M3.3 6
Structural materials
Materials have properties but not shapes – when we assemble the material
into structural members with shape

IWSD M3.3 7
Structural materials
Common welded shapes

IWSD M3.3 8
Design of structures
Classification of structural members – based on function

IWSD M3.3 9
 Design of structures

Behaviour of a structure depends on how loads are

transfered between members

truss structures beam structures plate structures frame structures

IWSD M3.3 10
 Type of structural steel sections
Hot rolled sections

W S C L WT or ST
(a) Wide-flange (b) American (c) American (d) Angle (e) Structural (f) Pipe (g) Structural
Shape Standard Standard Tee Section Tubing
Beam Channel

a – Wide-flange : W 18  97
b – Standard (I) : S 12  35
c – Channel : C 9  20
(h) Bars (i) Plates
d – Angles : L 64
e – Structural Tee : WT, MT or ST e.g. ST 8  76
f & g – Hollow Structural Sections HSS : 9 or 8  8

IWSD M3.3 11
Type of structural steel sections
Cold formed sections

(a) Channels (b) Zees (c) I-shaped double channels

(d) Angles (e) Hat sections

IWSD M3.3 12
Type of structural steel sections
Build up sections

Built-up (W) shapes.

Built-up (C) Channels.

Built-up (L) Angles.

IWSD M3.3 13
 Type of structural steel sections
Tension members

(a) Round and rectangular (b) Cables composed (c) Single and double
bars, including eye bars of many small wires. angles.
and upset bars.

Perforated
plates

(d) Rolled W – and S – (e) Structural (f) Build-up box

sections. tee. sections.

IWSD M3.3 14
 Type of structural steel sections
Compression members

(a) Rolled W-and S- (b) Double (c) Structural (d) Structural (e) Pipe
sections. angles. tee. tubing section

(f) Built-up section

IWSD M3.3 15
 Type of structural steel sections
Bending members

(a) Rolled W-and (b) Build-up (c) open web joist.

other I-shaped Sections.
sections.

(d) Angle (e) Channel (f) Built-up members (g) Composite steel-Concrete

IWSD M3.3 16
The design process – simplified

Desired
System
result
Primary effect

Undesired result
Secondary effect

IWSD M3.3 17
 Structural design

It is a mixture of art and science to produce a safe and

economical structure that serves its intended purpose

• Min. Weight.
• Min. Cost.
Design is an
optimization process • Min Construction Time.
• Min. Labor Force.
• Min. Operational Cost.

IWSD M3.3 18
 Design process – Iterative cycle

1. Planning, Function Design.

2. Preliminary Structural Configuration.
3. Establish Load Cases & Load Combinations.
4. Preliminary Member Selection.
5. Structural Analysis.
6. Evaluation of all members to meet strength and
serviceability Criteria.
No
7: Redesign by going to step “3” above.
Yes
8: Final Design thus optimum design is achieved.

IWSD M3.3 19
 Design of structures
Requirements and goals
 Sufficient strength
 Sufficient shape stability
 Corrossion resistance
 Seviceability friendly
 Estetic appealing
 Sheapest manufacturing processes
 Low energy consumption
 Recycleable produkt

 Welding also requires special aspects aslo:

 Strength of joints
 Material knowledge
 Manufacturing
 Quality and Cost

IWSD M3.3 20
 Strength of materials
General for welded structures- things needed to be checked

 Static loads / Max loads – A welded joint have very good resistance
against static loads

 Fatigue / dynamic loads – Welded joints reduces the fatigue strength

considerably!

 Open thin-walled structures – Quite often used in welded structures, very

sensitive to torsion and buckling

IWSD M3.3 21
 Strength of materials
General for welded structures- things needed to be checked

 Instability (column and plate buckling) – Due to welding large compressive

residual stresses could be present in the structure

 Analysis methods
 Load conditions
 Handbook calculations
 FE Analysis
 Fracture mechanics

IWSD M3.3 22
 Design principals

Categoty of welded joints based on thier functionality

• Unloaded welded joints
• Static loaded welded joints
• Fatigue loaded welded joints

”Rule of thumb”
 If the stress range is < 25 MPa  unloaded weld
 If number of cycles < 103  static loaded weld

IWSD M3.3 23
 Quality and Cost

 What can we gain by choosing a large penetration depth instead of

a large outer throat thickness (a-measure) in a fillet weld?

 How much is it worth to design welds so that the number of weld

beads can be kept down?

 Post weld improvement (Grinding, TIG remelting, UIT, etc..) – When

does it pay of?

IWSD M3.3 24
 Quality and Cost

 When does it pay of by increasing the strength of the base

material?

 What does a higher weld quality cost ? What effect does it have on
my structure ?

 How large deformations due to welding is acceptable? Tolerances?

IWSD M3.3 25
 What is a high quality weld ?

Fatigue controlled by
•weld angle
•weld toe radius
•size of undercut/cold lap
Dshs •throat thickness
150 •penetration
140
120 a
100
Mechanical improvement
Geometry improvement
High quality welds
Standard welds

Fatigue life

IWSD M3.3 26
 Quality and Cost

Cost for a fillet weld ~ (throat

thickness)2
 Momentary increase in cost when a
weld line is not sufficient
 In manual welding, this happens when
a = 4-5 mm

IWSD M3.3 27
 Quality and Cost

Rule of thumb: 1 mm more penetration corresponds to 2 mm less

throat thickness (a-measure), for a fatigue loaded fillet welds

Lines of constant life in weldroot

of a load carrying cruciform joint
[ compare old rule 2*a worth 1*i ]

4
PENETRATION (mm)

3 t=10
t=15
t=20
2
i = 2a

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
THROAT SIZE, a (mm)

IWSD M3.3 28
 Quality and Cost

Post weld improvement techniques  increases the fatigue strength

of welded joints

IWSD M3.3 29
Quality and Cost

Post weld improvement techniques  Future investigation

Improved welded
high strength steels
Current situation for
improved joints in
design codes
As welded No effect of UTS
on fatigue strength
of as-welded joints

IWSD M3.3 30
 Quality and Cost

 New Volvo weld quality standard  for fatigue loaded and

statically loaded welded structures

3 types of quality requirements

IWSD M3.3 31
 Quality and Cost

 One step higher weld quality  2 times longer fatigue life OR

 1One step higher weld quality  25% higher allowable stress

IWSD M3.3 32
 Quality and Cost

 Methods to ensure the welding quality of STD Volvo

 Improvement techniques to ensure higher weld quality

IWSD M3.3 33
 Material selection

 What does the choice of a high strength material? Profit?

 What qualities besides strength is important for material selection?

 Impact toughness
 Elasticity modulus
 Strength at high temperatures
 Thermal expansion
 Heat capacity

 Tensile strength in the thickness direction Z-steel?

 Base material fatigue strength

IWSD M3.3 34
 Material selection
Z-steel to avoid lamellar tearing

Weight saving with high-strength materials

For cruciform, T and corner fillet welds

with full penetration of the weld

IWSD M3.3 35
 Manufacturing aspects

 Where is the product manufactured? Own production? Special

requirements? (ex Puhra)

 What equipment is available? Bending Machines, Cutting / cutting

machines, welding equipment, etc. ..

 Special requirements in robotic welding. Space requirements, seam

tracking, location, tolerances, deformation stability, etc. ..

IWSD M3.3 36
 Manufacturing aspects

 Smallest possible variation of the dimensions. Standardization.

Warehousing

 Optimizing throat thickness of fillet welds. A too large throat

thickness costs much.

 Do not confuse the material qualities of the same manufacturer. Be

aware of which material is ordered!

IWSD M3.3 37
 Basic requirements of structures (Eurocode)

 A structure shall be sized and designed to provide adequate

 Load resistance
 Serviceability

 When a fire resistance should be sufficient for the time required

IWSD M3.3 38
 Basic requirements of structures (Eurocode)

 A grid system shall be sized and designed so that it is not damaged

by accidents such as
 Explosion
 Collision
 The effect of human error

In a scope not proportional to cause

IWSD M3.3 39
 Requirements for Robustness

A robust structure or system shall be designed so that its sensitivity

to accidental actions minimized

 Avoid, eliminate and reduce the risk of accidents.

Example:

 Put up barriers to protect the impacting vehicle

 Do not explosive details (eg, fuel tanks, gas lines) inside the
bearing elements
 Set up quality measurement systems - QMS

IWSD M3.3 40
 Requirements for Robustness

Choose type of structure which is less sensitive to the current risks of

accident
Example:

 Follow the guidelines in Eurocodes EN 1992 – EN 1996

 Continuous structural members (vertically and horizontally)
 Proportion of structural detais (eg continues plate instead of
dubble fillet welds in tensile loaded crossing plates)
 Are there alternatives paths for the forces if load-bearing
structural elements are removed?

IWSD M3.3 41
 Requirements for Robustness

Choose a structural element which can sustain (redundant system)

 A collapse of a single structural detail or

 A collapse of a limited part of the structure or
 The onset of a limited local damage

If there are structural elements as if they would collapse would mean

accident consequence is excessive, these elements are termed Key
Elements

IWSD M3.3 42
 Requirements for Robustness

 Avoid load carrying parts that can collapse without previous

warning

 Attempts to design so that the structure has major visible

deformation or cracks before collapse

 Connect the structural elements to each other

 If a part collapses, adjacent parts takes the load; redundancy

IWSD M3.3 43
 Limit state (gränstillstånd)

Distinguish between:

 Ultimate limit state (brottgränstillstånd)

 Serviceability limit state (brukgränstillstånd)

Ultimate limit state considers

• Human safety
• Structural safety

Conditions just before the structure collapse is studied

IWSD M3.3 44
 Ultimate limit state

Following conditions should be verified:

 Loss of equilibrium of the structure or part of the structure

 Failure due to large deformation1), the structure becomes a

mechanism or material failure

 Failure caused by fatigue or other time-dependent effect

1) Failure due to mechanical instability

Different partial safety factors for the different conditions

IWSD M3.3 45
 Seviceability limit state

It is considered when:

 human well-being
 Structural functionality
 The structural appearance1)
1) Large deflection, visable cracks

• Distinguish between Reversible and Non Reversible Serviceability

limit states

IWSD M3.3 46
 Seviceability limit state

Deformation

Limit value
NON REVERSIBLE

Time

Deformation

Limit value
REVERSIBLE
First pass
Time

IWSD M3.3 47
 Seviceability limit state
Criteria's for verification

Deformations affecting
• The appearance
• Users' wellbeing
• Installations feature and function

Vibrations and oscillations which

• Cause discomfort to people
• Limits structural fuction and operation
• Other damage that will eventually affect
• The appearance
• The resistance
• The structures functionality

IWSD M3.3 48
 Limit state design

 Structure and load models shall be based on the two states

 Verification that no limit state is exceeded when the current design

values ​used in these models
 Loads
 Material properties
 Product features
 Geometrical quantities

 Verification shall be performed for all relevant design situations

and load cases

IWSD M3.3 49
 Limit state design

 The requirements should be met by the partial safety factor

method

 Different design situations and critical load cases are identified

 Possible deviations from the assumed loading direction and loading

modes shall be considered

 Structure and load models can be either physical or mathematical

models

IWSD M3.3 50
Limit state design

IWSD M3.3 51
 Limit state design

Partial safety factor – a factor applied to characteristic load,

strength, etc. to take into account the risk of exceeding the
characteristic value and the consequence of exceeding that
value.

Note: partial safety factors do not take in to account

normal variations in load, strength, etc.

IWSD M3.3 52
 Structural safety

Partial safety factor for the material

 Resistance factor, γm (depends on material values, tolerances, etc)
 Considers random deviations in dimensions and material properties and
uncertanities in the calculation procedure
 If tolerances variation is small and less than 6 % of the avarage value:
γm = 1,0
Otherwise: γm = 1,1
For fatigue: γm = 1,1

IWSD M3.3 53
 Structural safety

Partial safety factor for the load

 Load factor, γf ( depends on how well the load is known)
 Risk for the load to exceed the characteristic vaule
 Uncertainities in load model
γf = 1.0 – 1.5

Total load consist of several components. Since the different loads can not
be estimate with the same precsion  different γf for different load types,
example:
γf = 1.0 for permanent loads, Gk
γf = 1.3 for largest variable load, Qk
Design load; Ld = 1.0Gk + 1.3Qk

IWSD M3.3 54
 Structural safety

Partial safety factor for the consequence of failure

 Consequence of failure factor, γn (safety class)
 Used to garantue safety level in the structure
 Depends on the consequence of failure

Safety class Consequence of failure γn

1 Less serious 1.0
2 Serious 1.1
3 Very serious 1.2

Consequence of failure differs a factor 10 between each class. For many structures
within metal industries a safety class of 1-2 give sufficient safety.

IWSD M3.3 55
 Structural safety

Partial safety factors

Den totala safety factor becomes : Stot = γm *γf *γn

Calculation procedure for

static loaded structures

Requirement

IWSD M3.3 56
 Structural safety

Partial safety factors

The general design condition is: Ld ≤ Bd where Ld is design load and Rd is
design resistance

Load Partial safety

Design load
factor
Lk Ld = γf*Lk
γf

Ld ≤ Rd

Partial safety Design resistance

Resistance
factor
Rk Rd = Rk / γm*γn
γm *γn

IWSD M3.3 57
 Structural safety

Partial safety factors

Design value for load Ld is derived by multiplying the characteristic value of
the load, Lk, with a load factor, γf

Ld = γf* Lk

Design value for the resistance (material/strength) Rd is derived by dividing

characteristic vaule of the strength , Rk, with safety factor, γm and γn

Rd = Rk / γm*γn

IWSD M3.3 58
 Relative and absolute design

 Relativ design – Start from an existing design and proportioning the

parts in relation to the properties of materials

 Absolute design – A new calculation of the entire structure is made

with current load conditions and control is done with permissible
stresses or deformations

IWSD M3.3 59
 Absolute design
Benefits
• The ability to optimize the overall structure
• Better sense of the design
Disadvantages
• Demanding Job effort
• Often lacking reliable data on actual loads on the structure

Relative design
Benefits
• Easy to perform
• Experience from existing design
Disadvantages
• Chance to get stuck in habitual design thinking spirit
• Risk to misjudge the effect of e.g. a thickness change at risk of
instability, fatigue
IWSD M3.3 60
 Relative design

Rule of thumb

The plate thickness is inversely proportional to the square root of the

yield stress

Valid if the plate is subjected to bending

For pure axial load applies:

Caution at risk of instability / fatigue

IWSD M3.3 61
Relative design
Change to high-strength steel in tipper basket

ReMS = 235 MPa ReHS = 700 MPa

tMS = 5 mm tHS = ?

IWSD M3.3 62
 Relative design
Rule of thumb
ReMS
t HS  t MS 
ReMS ReHS
t HS  t MS  tMS = 5 mm
ReHS ReMS = 235 MPa
ReHS = 700 MPa
t = plate thickness
Re = yield stress
HS = High Strength steel
MS = Mild Strength steel t HS  5  235 / 700
t HS  3mm
Weight reduction by 40 % and the same resistance!
Control for buckling, fatigue and deformations is required!

IWSD M3.3 63
 Bending example: Lightweight design of a mobile crane

t Governing equations from beam theory

σmax
h
D
w L

P  L3 P
D deflection
3EI

P  L  emax
s max  bending stress
I

EI bending stiffness

 h w
I  t  h2     moment of inertia
6 2

IWSD M3.3 64
 Bending example: Lightweight design of a mobile crane
wxhxt
60x100x10

60x100x6 Lightweight Structure

40x140x5
Weight = 1
Stiffness = 1
Deflection = 1

Weight = 0.61
t Stiffness = 0.67
2 h w Deflection = 1.49
h I  t  h    
6 2
Weight = 0.61
w E  I  bending stifness Stiffness = 1.11
Deflection = 0.9
Reducing weight  Increasing stiffness  Reducing deformation
IWSD M3.3 65
 Bending example: Lightweight design of a mobile crane
What do we need to design against?
h  plate slenderness ratio
t
L

Increasing plate slenderness ratio P

Design against Failure

 Plasticity  Elastic instability

 Yield stress (σyield)  Buckilng stress (σcrit< σyield)
 Material dependent  Material independent (??)
 Plastic collapse  Buckling  Post buckling  collapse
Lightweight structure

IWSD M3.3 66
Challenges in Design of welded structures

o Structural performance
• Elastic instability – Buckling resistance
• Durability – Fatigue resistance and strength
• ....

o Material selection for design

o Manufacturing and joining processes

o LCC

o Enviromental impact, etc...

IWSD M3.3 67
Choosing different force paths

Welding of stiffener to absorb force

component P

Beam with cross section change

Deformation effects

Stiffener in the transition Cross section

IWSD M3.3 68
 Column and plate buckling

Relation between load P and deflection w for compressed column an

simple supported plate subjected to compressive load

Ideal plate
Ideal column

Column with Plate with

imperfection initial buckles

IWSD M3.3 69
Bending loads

Moving material as far away from the neutral axis as possible

Bad Good

IWSD M3.3 70
 Weakness / Stiffness in bending

Make sure that you have enough constraint to minimize the

deflection – if that is one design target
IWSD M3.3 71
Torsion loads / Torsional Stiffness

Open recangular Closed recangular

hollow section hollow section

Torsional Torsional
stiff weak

IWSD M3.3 72
Torsion loads / Torsional Stiffness

• Transition from open (torsional weak)

to closed (stiff) cross-section
a
Bad
• a) Unsuitable for torsion: Open at A
and closed at B

b • The transition between the weak and

the stiff beam cross sections is too
Better
sudden and give rise to stress
concentrations

c
Good
IWSD M3.3 73
 Load paths
Important to design load entries correctly; Se till att krafterna tas upp genom
diaphragm action (skivverkan) and avoid introducing stress concentrations
on the fatigue loaded parts.

Plate action (Plattverkan) – the forces being introduced into the head
structure with a component perpendicular to the plate  high bending
stresses and deformations!

The ability to take up loads perpendicular to the plate

IWSD M3.3 74
Load paths

Exploit disc / diaphragm effect !

disc / diaphragm effect (Skivverkan) – loads entering the plate plane.
Stresses and deformations more favorable at reduced plate thickness than
in plate action

The ability to take up loads in the plate plane

IWSD M3.3 75
Load paths

Fastening of a cantilever beam to the main beam

• The various cross-sections appears as discs.
• The bending moment caused by the force P is taken up in the form
of a force couple in the flanges, and the lateral force taken up by
shear forces in the webs

IWSD M3.3 76
Load paths

Plate action d1 < d  Disc action is Suitable is the beam is

exploited good! subjected to fatigue loads
Less local
bending

Exemple of load path with reduced local bending of the beam flange

IWSD M3.3 77
Load paths

Bad Better

Options to reduce stress concentrations

Good when the beam Good when the beam is

is statically loaded subjected to fatigue loads

IWSD M3.3 78
 Load paths – welding of a lifting lug

Plate across the beam, the flange is

deformed
Weld in line with the web section
will take a heavy load
Also the web is affected

The load is fed directly into the web,

most appropriate section to take up
forces

IWSD M3.3 79
 Load paths – welding of a lifting lug
Use disc action

Risk for Buckling

Improper placement of the lug

Bending stresses in the web
The forces should instead be
directed to the flanges Placing the lug to avoid bending
stresses in web

IWSD M3.3 80
 Load paths – welding of a lifting lug
Use disc action

Improper placement of the lug Stiffeners for leading in forces on the web section
 Prevents flanges deform
Bending stresses in the web
The forces should instead be
directed to the flanges

IWSD M3.3 81
Reduce th risk for buckling

Introduce stiffeners - easiest way to distribute the load

Sandwich structure

IWSD M3.3 82
 Reduce th risk for buckling

Example: Stiffners to reduce the risk for buckling. Laserwelded plate to main
structure within civil aircraft industry.

IWSD M3.3 83
Design to avoid corrosion

Bad Good Best

Drainage hole

IWSD M3.3 84
Design to adopt for manufacturing
Save material, details and costs
Bad Good

Reduce tolerance dependence

Bad Good

IWSD M3.3 85
Design to adopt for manufacturing
Avoid accumulation of welds in one point
Bad Good

Reduce shrinkage stress/STRAIN

Bad Good

IWSD M3.3 86
Design to adopt for manufacturing
Accessibility welding
Bad Good

Unambiguous positioning of the parts for welding

Bad Good

IWSD M3.3 87
 Design to adopt for manufacturing
Redesign to self fixturing so that they directly in assembly may
well defined positions
BEFORE AFTER

Dåligt Bra

IWSD M3.3 88
Design the welds as simple as possible
Welded joints – examples of weld joint design

Wrong! Correct!

 NOT a rivet joint (nitförband)

 Good rivet joints / bolted joints = bad welded joints

IWSD M3.3 89
Design the welds as simple as possible
Be sure of the accessibility

Welding pistol

IWSD M3.3 90
 Design the welds as simple as possible
Avoid tensile stresses perpendicular to the sheet thickness

Stress direction Stress direction

Non-load carrying weld Load carrying weld

Failure in weld toe Failure in weld toe and/or root

IWSD M3.3 91
Design the welds as simple as possible

Wrong! Correct!

 If the the joint is unymmetric turned in the right direction in relation to the
load
 weld root side  critical and often not accesable  avoid tensile stresses

IWSD M3.3 92
 Design the welded details
Place the welds right with respect to the direction of forces
• Avoid tensile stresses at weld root
• Root side in a symmetric welds is almost always the joints weakest point

IWSD M3.3 93
Welds – example of proper design

Choosing the right joint geometry

Bad Good

Butt welds are better than fillet welds in fatigue loaded structures

IWSD M3.3 94
Welds – example of proper design

Slope min 1:2

Recommended 1:4

Acceptable for Good from fatigue Better from fatigue

static loadind point of view point of view

 Transition between different sheet thicknesses leads to increased loading

 Avoid high stress concentrations at fatigue loading

IWSD M3.3 95
 Design for welding
Be careful when welding thick material
• Large temperature gradients  uneven and rapid cooling
• Large welding residual stresses  small possibilities to be reduced by
deformations

Avoid welding of thin materials to thick

• Thick material cools rapidly  cracks in the weld
• Gradually decreasing thicknesses

IWSD M3.3 96
 Design for welding
Design section transitions so that the notch effect is as small as
possible
High notch effect

Low notch effects

IWSD M3.3 97
 Design for welding
In fatigue loaded structures - avoid the stress concentrations in highly stressed
areas (welds, holes, etc.)

Bad

Examples of placement of
stress concentrations in
low stressed areas
Better

IWSD M3.3 98
Reduced weld filler material Accessability

IWSD M3.3 99
Adjust for mechanised welding

IWSD M3.3 100

Tolerance requirements for weld tourch angle

Butt weld

Fillet weld

Bevel butt weld

IWSD M3.3 101

Welded Rectangular Hollow Sections (RHS)

 Welding of fillet welds facilitates

mechanization
 Backing plate for butt-welding
 Few continuous, intermittent welds reduces
the risk of deformations
 Welds symmetrically to the neutral axis

IWSD M3.3 102

Welded RHS
Butt Welded corners with and without stiffener
Frame corners

The corner is reinforced with a

RHS

IWSD M3.3 103

Example: Weld design of a mobile crane

IWSD M3.3 104

Example: Weld design of a mobile crane
Previous design

 Only one plate

 Only one weld

 No weld preparation, groove

 Weld is not in the neutral axis of the

beam
 Give rise to high bending stresses in
the weld

Conventional
weld

IWSD M3.3 105

Example: Weld design of a mobile crane
Current design

 Laser welding where no bevel groove is

necessary

 Hybrid welding; where corner effects from

bending results in variable gap along the seam
welds

Laser-hybrid
welds

IWSD M3.3 106

 Example: Weld design of a mobile crane
Production-related reasons for new design

 Difficult to position the plate ends for

correct welding

 Difficult to guarantee full penetration

welds without penetrating through /
backing plates

IWSD M3.3 107

 Example: Weld design of a mobile crane
Mechanical-related reasons for new design

 Large global bending stresses in

the weld

Longitudinal stresses
 Great local deformations /
stresses from telescopic beams
plates

Tangential stresses at the beam ends

IWSD M3.3 108

Example: Weld design of a mobile crane
Laser hybrid welding

Welding at Luleå Technical University, Sweden

IWSD M3.3 109

 Stiffeners in the corners
The best solution is achieved if the cut out is designed as a third arc or a
prolonged arc. Both of these configurations provide two elastic tongues that
provides a favorable stress flow at welding around the cut-out corner. Grinding as
in figure e) gives soft transition

In static load and low fatigue loads

At large fatigue loads

IWSD M3.3 110

Bad design practice
Lack of access Lack of visibility

Lack of clearance

IWSD M3.3 111

Case study: Lightweight design of bogie beam structure in a Volvo CE Hauler
Study on weld quality and good design

Goal decrease weight by 20 % by

• Using High Strength Steel

Bogie beam
• Redesign

• Improvement techniques

• Validation by testing

• Reduce production cost

• Justify less environmental impact

Bogie beam

IWSD M3.3 112

Case study: Lightweight design of bogie beam structure in a Volvo CE Hauler

Old design compared with new design

Old design New design

• t = 15 / 8 mm • t = 12 / 6 mm
• 183 kg • 143 kg (- 22 %)
• Steel grade = 350 MPa • Steel grade; use High Strength Steel

IWSD M3.3 113

 Case study: Lightweight design of bogie beam structure in a Volvo CE Hauler
Max static load  Desicision of material grades

• Bearing  350 MPa grade

• Flanges  460 MPa grade Buckling strength is approx.
• Webs  600 MPa grade 4 times max load

IWSD M3.3 114

Case study: Lightweight design of bogie beam structure in a Volvo CE Hauler
Fatigue testing and life prediction

Bogie beam (fatigue life in hours)

Target > 1000
Testing 930
Prediction (Global) 120
Prediction (Local) 700

IWSD M3.3 115

Case study: Lightweight design of bogie beam structure in a Volvo CE Hauler
Study on weld quality and good / bad design
Test of bogie No. 1 – Failure after 120 hours

• Expected fatigue life > 1000 hours

• Failure after 120 hours
• Due to lack of fusion (weld penetration requirements I
= 2 mm)

IWSD M3.3 116

Case study: Lightweight design of bogie beam structure in a Volvo CE Hauler
Study on weld quality and good / bad design
Test of bogie No. 2 – Failure after 250 hours

• To verify test No. 1

• Result: Failure after 250 hours in tack weld / fixture
• Cause: lack of fusion due to production mistake in plug weld

IWSD M3.3 117

Case study: Lightweight design of bogie beam structure in a Volvo CE Hauler
Study on weld quality and good / bad design
Test of bogie No. 3 – Failure after 920 hours

• Full penetration fillet weld

• Now failure from toe side

IWSD M3.3 118

Case study: Lightweight design of bogie beam structure in a Volvo CE Hauler
Study on weld quality and good / bad design
Test of bogie No. 4 – first crack at 790 hours, test stopped at 940 hours

• Full penetration fillet weld

• TIG dressing at weld toe
• No tack weld
• Improved flange geometry
IWSD M3.3 119
Case study: Lightweight design of bogie beam structure in a Volvo CE Hauler
Cost estimation for production

Lower weight and production cost  ”Win-Win” situation

for customer and producer!

IWSD M3.3 120

Case study: Lightweight design of bogie beam structure in a Volvo CE Hauler
Environmental impact and cost saving during the life time of the vehicle
• 90 % of environmental savings are during the use phase
• Weight reduction lead to less fuel consumption, increased payload...
• Life time cost saving of 840 Euro /vehicle

Total CO2 savings due to weight reduction of the bogie beam

IWSD M3.3 121

 Design philosophy - fatigue

 Infinite-Life
Loads are well below the threshold Heavy structures
 Safe-Life
Load spectra known, part replaced at intervals

 Fail-Safe
Safety factor, multiple load paths and redundancy
Optimized structures
 Damage Tolerance
Regular inspections, fracture mechanics

IWSD M3.3 122

 Design philosophy - general

• Allowable stress design

- allowable stress method = actual loads wiyh an arbitrary factor on
strength

• Limit state design

- ultimate limit state method = (differently) factored loads and
actual strength
- serviceability limit state method = actual loads and actual behavior

IWSD M3.3 123

 Design philosophy - general

• Allowable stress design

- allowable stress method = actual loads with an arbitrary factor on
strength, used for over 100 years

• Limit state design

- ultimate limit state method = (differently) factored loads and
actual strength
- serviceability limit state method = actual loads and actual
behavior
- A limit state means “A set of conditions at which a structure
ceases to fulfill its intended function
- First introduced in 1986

IWSD M3.3 124